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Keywords with Examples
Boo Keywords Index
#abstract #and #as #AST #break #callable #cast #char #class #constructor #continue #def #destructor #do #elif #else #ensure #enum #event #except #failure #final #from #for #false #get #given #goto #if #import #in #interface #internal #is #isa #not #null #of #or #otherwise #override #namespace #partial #pass #public #protected #private #raise #ref #retry #return #self #set #super #static #struct #success #transient #true #try #typeof #unless #virtual #when #while #yield Keywords abstract
"abstract" is used to designate a class as a base class. A derivative of the abstract class must implement all of its abstract methods and properties. Examples
abstract class base: pass class foo(base): pass
and
"and" is a logical operator that is applied to test if two boolean expressions are true. Examples
a as bool = true b as bool = true
if a and b: print "c"
as
The "as" keyword declares a variables type. Examples
intVar as int boolVar as bool words as string
intVar = 6 boolVar = true words = "End of this example"
AST
"AST" is used to create AST objects for use with the Boo compiler. Examples
/* Usage: result = ast: /* code block */ */
break
"break" is a keyword used to escape program execution. Typically break is used inside a loop and may be coupled with the "if" or "unless" keywords. Examples
//The break command causes the program to cease the while loop. x = 1
while x < 10: print x x += 1 //short-hand for x = x + 1 break
callable
"callable" allows function or type to be called by another. Examples
callable Sample(param as double) as double
def Test(input as Sample): for i in range(0,3): print input(i)
Test(System.Math.Sin)
cast
"cast" is a keyword used to explicitly transform a variable from one data type to another. Examples
list = List(range(5)) print list for item in list: print ((item cast decimal) / 3) print '---' for item as int in list: print item * item
char
"char" is a data type representing a single character. The char data type is distinct from a string containing a single character. char('t') refers to a System.Char type, whereas "t" or 't' is a System.String. Examples
a1 = char('a') print a1
class
"class" is a definition of an object including its properties and methods. Examples
class Foo(): pass
class Dog(): [Property (Name)] _name as string
def constructor(name as string): Name = name
def Bark(): print (Name + " says woof")
fido = Dog ("Fido") fido.Bark()
constructor
"constructor" is a method belonging to a class that is used to define how an instance of the class should be created. The constructor may include input parameters and may be overloaded. Examples
see the examples for the keyword "class" continue
"continue" is a keyword used to resume program execution at the end of the current loop.
The continue keyword is used when looping. It will cause the position of the code to return to the start of the loop (as long as the condition still holds). Examples
for i in range(10): continue if i % 2 == 0 print i
def
"def" is used to define a new function or method. Examples
def intReflect(a as int): intValue as int intValue = a return intValue
def printFoo(): print "Foo"
destructor
"destructor" is used to destroy objects. Destructors are necessary to release memory used by non-managed resources in the .NET CLI. Desctructors should never be called explicitly. They can be invoked by implementing the IDisposable() interface. Examples
class Dog: [Property (Name)] _name as string
def constructor():
Name = 'Fido'
def destructor():
print "$Name is no more"
do
"do" is synonymous with 'def' for closures. However, "do" reads as an imperative and therefore should be used in an active sense. Examples Example 1
list.forEach() do(item): print item
###and def for use in definition like: output = def(str as string): print str
Example 2
c = do(x as int): pass
c = def(x as int): pass
elif
"elif" is similar the same as the "if" conditional statement in form, except that it needs to be preceded by an if statement or another elif statement and that it is only evaluated (checked) if the if/elif statement preceding it evaulates to false.
If one of the preceding if/elifs statements evaluates to true, the rest of the elifs will not be evaluated, thus sparing extra CPU power from a pointless task. Examples
x = 3
if x == 1: print "One." elif x == 2: print "Two." elif x == 3: print "Three."
else
"else" is defines a statement that will be executed should a preceding "if" condition fail. Examples
x = 666 //Block form. if x > 0: //Evaluates to true print "x is greater than 0; specifically, x is $x" else: //Executes when the "if" above evaluates to false print "x is not greater than than 0; specifically, x is $x"
ensure
"ensure" is used with the "try" and "except" keywords to guarantee a certain block of code runs whether the try/except block is successful or not. "ensure" is often used to add some post executions to an exception event. Examples
import System
class Dog: [Property (Name)] _name as string def constructor(): Name = 'Fido' def Bark(): print "woof woof"
The name will match so we will bark once. The ensure keyword reminds us to place the dog in the pen and wait for keyboard input to continue.
try: fido = Dog() if fido.Name == 'Fido': fido.Bark() else: fido.Bark() fido.Bark() raise "throw an exception" except e: print("The dog barks too much. error: " + e) ensure: print("Always put the dog back in the pen.") Console.ReadLine()
The name does not match we bark twice and report an exception. Again, the ensure statement executes and reminds us to place the dog back into the pen.
try: fido = Dog() if fido.Name == 'fluffy': fido.Bark() else: fido.Bark() fido.Bark() raise "throw an exception" except e: print("The dog barks too much. error: " + e) ensure: print("Always put the dog back in the pen.") Console.ReadLine()
enum
"enum" is used to create a list of static values. Internally the names are assigned to an Int32 value. Examples
enum WeekDays: Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri
print join(WeekDays.GetNames(WeekDays)) print WeekDays.GetName(WeekDays,2) print WeekDays.Tue.GetHashCode() print WeekDays.Mon.GetType()
event
"event" is (insert text here) except
"except" is keyword use to identify a block of code that is to be executed if the "try" block fails. Examples
See examples under the "ensure" keyword. failure
"failure" is not yet implemented in boo. final
"final" is a keyword used to identify a class that cannot have subclasses. final may also be used to declare a field as a constant. Examples Example 1
final class Rectangle(): pass
class Square(Rectangle): pass
Example 2
class C: final A = 2 final B as string //may be declared once in the constructor
static final zed = 3 //same as C# const keyword
from
"from" is used with the "import" keyword to identify the assembly being imported from. Form usage is "import TARGET (from ASSEMBLY). The "from" keyword is optional. Examples
import Gtk from "gtk-sharp" import System.Drawing
Application.Init()
for
"for" is used to loop through items in a series. "for" loops are frequently used with a range or a listarray. Examples
flock = ['cardinal', 'flamingo', 'hummingbird'] for bird in flock: print bird
for i in range(3): print i
false
"false" represents a negative boolean outcome. Examples
j as bool = false if j == false: print "j is false."
get
"get" is used to identify a field that is exposed for external access. Use "get" to make a field available as read-only. Use "set" to add write access. "get" is suffixed by a colon when implemented and includes a return statement. It is possible to modify the value of the field being returned. See example 1.
"get" is also used when defining an interface to define which fields should be implemented as accessible. When "get" is used to define an interface the colon and return statements are excluded. See example 2. Examples Example 1
import System
class Person: _fname as string FirstName as string: get: return "Master " + _fname
def constructor(fname, lname):
raise ArgumentNullException("fname") if fname is null
_fname = fname
jax = Person("jax", "lax") print jax.FirstName #print jax._fname #Inaccessible due to its protection level
Example 2
interface IAnimal: Name as string: get
class Dog(IAnimal): Name: get: return "charlie"
chuck = Dog() print chuck.Name
given
"given" is used as the entry to a "given ... when" loop. "given" identifies a state. A series of "when" statements may be executed based on the identified state. _ The "given" keyword is currently not implemented. _ Examples Example 1
lista = ['uno', 2, 'tres', 4, false] for i in lista: given i: when string: print i when int: print i*2 otherwise: print "no condition met"
Example 2
given c: when isa Car: c.Drive() when isa Plane: c.Fly() when isa string: given c: when ~= "some text": print "nested given on a string" otherwise: print "otherwise is similar to else" otherwise: print "I can't operate this $c"
goto
"goto" exits a line of code and moves to a named line in the code. The named line must be prefixed wtih a colon. Good programming practice eschews the use of "goto"
The example below names two lines ":start" and "test". They are referenced in the code by separate goto statements. This example produces an endless loop. The "ensure" statement includes a Console.Readline() that prevents the loop from continuing without user input. Examples
i as int = 0
:start print "ding" i += 1 goto start if (i<3) :test print "a test"
try: print "stuff" goto test except e: print "The dog barks too much. error: " + e ensure: print "Always put the dog back in the pen." System.Console.ReadLine()
if
"if" is a conditional statement, followed by a statement that either evaluates to true or false. In block form, the code within the block is executed only if the expression following the if evaluates to true.
The if statement can be used to selectively execute a line of code by placing "if " at the very end of the statement. This form of the if conditional is useful in circumstances when you are only going to perform one operation based entirely on an expression: this makes the code cleaner to read than an unnecessary if block. Examples
x = 666 //Block form. if x > 0: //Evaluates to true print "x is greater than 0; specifically, x is $x"
//Selectively execute a line of code. print "x is greater than 0; specifically, x is $x" if x > 0 //Equivalent of the above.
import
"import" is used to include a namespace from other assemblies within your program. If the assembly is not automatically included, the "from" keyword must be included to identify the respective assembly. Example Example 1
import System import Gtk from "gtk-sharp"
###prints 3.1415926535879 print Math.PI
###prints an Error print PI
Example 2
import System.Math
print PI
in
"in" is used in conjunction with "for" to iterate through items in a list. "in" may also be used to test items in a set. Examples Example 1
See examples for the keyword "for". Example 2
aList = [1,2,3] if 1 in aList: print "there is a one in there"
interface
"inteface" is used to define the fields and methods that may be implemented by a class. The implementation is never performed by the interface. Interfaces allow you to establish an API that is the basis for other classes. Examples
interface IAnimal: Name as string: get
class Dog(IAnimal): Name: get: return "charlie"
chuck = Dog() print chuck.Name
internal
"internal" is a keyword that precedes a class definition to limit the class to the assembly in which it is found. Examples
internal class Cat: pass
is
"is" is an equvalence operator keyword that is used to test a value. "is" may not be used with ints, doubles, or boolean types. "is" is commonly used to test for null. Examples Example 1
lol = null print lol is null print lol is not null
Example 2
class a(): pass
b = a() c = a()
print b is c //false print b is a //false
d = a print d is a //true
isa
"isa" determines if one element is an instance of a specific type. Examples Example 1
class A: pass class B(A): pass class C(B): pass print C() isa A #true print C() isa B #true print B() isa C #false
Example 2
class Cat: pass
dale = Cat()
if dale isa Cat: print "dale really isa cat"
j as string = "the jig is up" if j isa string: print "j really isa string"
not
"not" is used with "is" to perform a negative comparison. "not" can also be used in logical expressions. Examples Example 1
class Cat: pass class Dog: pass
dale = Cat() if not dale isa Dog: print "dale must be a cat"
Example 2
i = 0 if not i == 1: print "i is not one"
null
"null" is a keyword used to specify a value is absent. Examples
j as string = null
if j is null: print "j is null. Assign a value"
of
"of" is used to specify type arguments to a generic type or method. Examples
myList = Listof int myList.Add(1) # success! myList.Add('f') # failure, oh horrible, horrible failure.
import System names = ("Betty", "Charlie", "Allison") Array.Sortof string
or
"or" is a logical operator that is applied to test if either of two boolean expressions are true. Examples
a as bool = true b as bool = false
if a or b: print "c"
otherwise
"otherwise" is part of the conditional phrase "given ... when ... otherwise". The otherwise block is executed for a given state if none of the when conditions match. _ The otherwise keyword is not yet implemented _ Examples
See examples for "given". override
"override" is used in a derived class to declare that a method is to be used instead of the inherited method. "override" may only be used on methods that are defined as "virtual" or "abstract" in the parent class. Examples
class Base: virtual def Execute(): print 'From Base'
class Derived(Base): override def Execute(): print 'From Derived'
b = Base() d = Derived() b.Execute() d.Execute() (d cast Base).Execute()
namespace
"namespace" is a name that uniquely identifies a set of objects so there is no ambiguity when objects from different sources are used together. To declare a namespace place the namespace followed by the name you choose at the top of the file. Examples
need an example added here
partial
"partial" is (insert text here) pass
"pass" is a keyword used when you do not want to do anything in a block of code. Examples Example 1
def Cat(): pass
Example 2
if x is true: pass
public
"public" is used to define a class, method, or field as available to all. "public class" is never required because a defined class defaults to public. Example Example 1
public class Cat: pass
Example 2
public def simpleFunction(): return 1
protected
"protected" is a keyword used to declare a class, method, or field as visible only within its containing class. Fields are by default protected. Prefixing a field name with an underscore is recommended practice. Examples Example 1
class Cat: _name as string
Example 2
class Dog: protected def digest(): pass
private
"private" is keyword used to declare a class, method, or field visible within only its containing class and inherited classes.. Examples Example 1
private class Dog: pass
Example 2
class Human: private def DigestFood(): pass
Example 3
class Human: private heart as string
raise
"raise" is (insert text here) ref
"ref" makes a parameter be passed by reference instead of by value. This allows you to change a variable's value outside of the context where it is being used Examples
def dobyref(ref x as int): x = 4
x = 1 print x //-->1 dobyref(x) print x //-->4
retry
"retry" is not yet implemented. return
"return" is a keyword use to state the value to be returned from a function definition Examples Example 1
def printOne(): return "One"
Example 2
def Add(intA as int, intB as int): return (intA + intB)
self
"self" is used to reference the current class. "self" is not required for boo but may be used to add clarity to the code. "self" is synonymous with the c# keyword "this". Examples
class Point(): [property(Xcoordinate)] _xcoordinate as double [property(Ycoordinate)] _ycoordinate as double def constructor(): pass def constructor(one as double, two as double): self.Xcoordinate = one self.Ycoordinate = two
set
"set" is a keyword used to define a field as writeable. Examples
class Cat: _name as string Name as string: get: return _name set: _name = value
fluffy = Cat() fluffy.Name = 'Fluffy'
static
"static" is (insert text here) struct
"struct" is short for structure. A structure is similar to a class except it defines value types rather than reference types.
Refer to the Boo Primer for more information on structures. Examples
struct Coordinate: X as int Y as int def constructor(x as int, y as int): X = x Y = y
c as Coordinate print c.X, c.Y c = Coordinate(3, 5) print c.X, c.Y
success
"success" is not yet implemented. super
"super" is used to reference a base class from a child class when one wants to execute the base behavior. Examples
class SuperClass: def printMethod(): print "Printed in SuperClass"
class SubClass(SuperClass): def printMethod(): super.printMethod() print "Printed in SubClass"
s = SubClass() s.printMethod()
transient
"transient" transient marks a member as not to be serialized. By default, all members in Boo are serializable. Examples
please insert example
true
"true" is keyword used to represent a positive boolean outcome. Examples
a as bool = true
if a is true: print "as true as true can be"
try
"try" is used with the "ensure" and "except" keywords to test whether a block of code executes without error. Examples
see keyword ensure for examples
typeof
typeof returns a Type instance. Unnecessary, in Boo since you can pass by type directly. Examples
anInteger = typeof(int) #or, the boo way: anotherInteger = int
unless
"unless" is similar to the "if" statement, except that it executes the block of code unless the expression is true. Examples
x = 0 unless x >= 54: print "x is less than 54."
virtual
"virtual" is a keyword that may precede the 'def' keyword when the developer wishes to provide the ability to override a defined method in a child class. The 'virtual' keyword is used in the parent class. Examples
class Mammal: virtual def MakeSound(): print "Roar"
class Dog(Mammal): override def MakeSound(): print "Bark"
when
"when" is used with the "given" keyword to identify the condition in a which the "given" value may be executed. _b "when" is currently not implemented. Examples
see examples for the "given" keyword. while
"while" will execute a block of code as long as the expression it evaluates is true.
It is useful in cases where a variable must constantly be evalulated (in another thread, perhaps) , such as checking to make sure a socket still has a connection before emptying a buffer (filled by another thread, perhaps). Examples
i = 0
while i > 3: print i
yield
"yield" is similar to "return" only it can be called multiple times within a single method. Examples
def TestGenerator(): i = 1 yield i for x in range(10): i *= 2 yield i
print List(TestGenerator())