From 2e0a48b568b0e0cc1f302437082cfc0c86f2ce5e Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Lynn Date: Fri, 5 Jul 2024 01:16:08 +0200 Subject: [PATCH] Use Jekyll --- _config.yml | 1 + _layouts/delta-refgram.html | 56 ++++++ index.html | 24 +-- refgram/introduction/index.html | 66 +------ refgram/morphology/index.html | 69 +------ refgram/orthography/index.html | 75 +------- refgram/phonology/index.html | 88 ++------- refgram/semantics/index.html | 324 ++++++++++++++------------------ refgram/syntax/index.html | 179 ++++++------------ 9 files changed, 304 insertions(+), 578 deletions(-) create mode 100644 _config.yml create mode 100644 _layouts/delta-refgram.html diff --git a/_config.yml b/_config.yml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f33cbc2 --- /dev/null +++ b/_config.yml @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +name: Toaq diff --git a/_layouts/delta-refgram.html b/_layouts/delta-refgram.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..14bf8cc --- /dev/null +++ b/_layouts/delta-refgram.html @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ + + + + + Toaq - {{ page.title }} + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +{% assign chapters = site.pages | where: "layout", "delta-refgram" | sort: "order" %} + +
+{% for chapter in chapters %} + {{ chapter.title }} +{% endfor %} +
+ + + + +{{ content }} + +{% if page.order < chapters.size %} +{% assign next = page.order %} +▶ Proceed to the next chapter +{% endif %} + + + + + + +
+ {% for chapter in chapters %} + {{ chapter.title }} + {% endfor %} +
+ + + + + diff --git a/index.html b/index.html index 1639c90..63eeae8 100644 --- a/index.html +++ b/index.html @@ -7,14 +7,14 @@ Toaq - + -
+
@@ -23,13 +23,13 @@

Toaq

A monoparsing artlang-engelang.

-
+
+ +
- +
@@ -63,14 +63,14 @@

Welcome to Toaq!

A light introductory course is available here:

Toaq with Ease -

For a complete description of the language, read:

+

For a complete description of the language, read:

Reference Grammar of Toaq
- + + -
diff --git a/refgram/introduction/index.html b/refgram/introduction/index.html index 5dbe0ea..f29a59d 100644 --- a/refgram/introduction/index.html +++ b/refgram/introduction/index.html @@ -1,38 +1,8 @@ - - - - - Toaq - Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- Introduction - Phonology - Orthography - Morphology - Syntax - Semantics -
- - - - +--- +title: Introduction +order: 1 +layout: delta-refgram +---

Introduction

@@ -40,7 +10,7 @@

Introduction

-🛈 The glossed example sentences require Javascript to align correctly, and the site uses embedded fonts, so please enable both. +🛈 The glossed example sentences require Javascript to align correctly, and the site uses embedded fonts, so please enable both.

Earlier versions of the language

@@ -74,27 +44,3 @@

What is a loglang?By the end of this text, you will know how.

- - ▶ Proceed to the next chapter - - - - - - - - - -
- Introduction - Phonology - Orthography - Morphology - Syntax - Semantics -
- - - - - diff --git a/refgram/morphology/index.html b/refgram/morphology/index.html index 71fc124..edfc9cb 100644 --- a/refgram/morphology/index.html +++ b/refgram/morphology/index.html @@ -1,39 +1,8 @@ - - - - - Toaq - Morphology - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- Introduction - Phonology - Orthography - Morphology - Syntax - Semantics -
- - - - +--- +title: Morphology +order: 4 +layout: delta-refgram +---

Morphology

Toaq can be described as having opaque lexical morphology and transparent derivational morphology. Toaq is highly analytic, while featuring a productive system of derivational prefixes.

@@ -54,7 +23,7 @@

SSM pattern

- words <- (stressed_syllable unstressed_syllable*)+ + words <- (stressed_syllable unstressed_syllable*)+
morphemes <- (prefix+ infix)? stem @@ -507,29 +476,3 @@

Tonal morphemes

The determiner morpheme has the conditional allomorph 󱚼󱛃 lo which only occurs when cannot be used (see also object incorporation).

Since tones are syntactic, their exact functions will be covered in the chapter on syntax.

- - -▶ Proceed to the next chapter - - - - - - - - - - -
- Introduction - Phonology - Orthography - Morphology - Syntax - Semantics -
- - - - - diff --git a/refgram/orthography/index.html b/refgram/orthography/index.html index 72df1dc..725c1ba 100644 --- a/refgram/orthography/index.html +++ b/refgram/orthography/index.html @@ -1,38 +1,8 @@ - - - - - Toaq - Orthography - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- Introduction - Phonology - Orthography - Morphology - Syntax - Semantics -
- - - - +--- +title: Orthography +order: 3 +layout: delta-refgram +---

Orthography

@@ -242,10 +212,10 @@

The Derani vowels

-

• A hiatus mark is placed under non-falling VV sequences: ◌󱛍◌

- +

• A hiatus mark is placed under non-falling VV sequences: ◌󱛍◌

+

For example:

- + @@ -254,7 +224,7 @@

The Derani vowels

- +

Diphthong marking and hiatus marking also help increase readability.

• An explicit glottal stop 󱛅 is prepended to vowel-initial syllables whose second letter is one which has both a consonant and a vowel value:

@@ -450,30 +420,3 @@

Sample text

Below is a short sample text:

󱚾󱚺󱚶󱚹 󱛕 󱚵󱚺󱛎󱚹 󱚿󱚲󱚱 󱚵󱛃󱛍󱚺󱛂 󱚺󱛊󱚲󱛂 󱚵󱛊󱚹 󱛘󱛄󱚺󱛎󱚹󱚺󱚴󱛙 󱛕 󱛁󱚺 󱚰󱚹 󱛓󱛆󱛃󱛍󱚴󱚰󱚺󱛎󱚹󱛓 󱚾󱛊󱚹 󱚶󱚺 󱛕 󱚰󱚹󱛍󱚲 󱚾󱛊󱚹 󱛔 󱛁󱚺󱛋 󱚻󱚴󱛂 󱚶󱚴 󱚺󱛊󱚲󱛂 󱛕 󱛘󱚾󱛊󱚹󱛍󱚺󱛂󱛙 󱚵󱛋󱚺 󱚻󱚹󱛍󱚺󱛂 󱛆󱚺󱛒󱛃󱚹 󱛆󱛊󱛃󱚺 󱚲󱚺 󱛖

- - - -▶ Proceed to the next chapter - - - - - - - - - - -
- Introduction - Phonology - Orthography - Morphology - Syntax - Semantics -
- - - - - diff --git a/refgram/phonology/index.html b/refgram/phonology/index.html index 57049ec..b66220e 100644 --- a/refgram/phonology/index.html +++ b/refgram/phonology/index.html @@ -1,38 +1,8 @@ - - - - - Toaq - Phonology - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- Introduction - Phonology - Orthography - Morphology - Syntax - Semantics -
- - - - +--- +title: Phonology +order: 2 +layout: delta-refgram +---

Phonology

Toaq has 22 consonant phonemes and five vowel phonemes. Syllables have the form CV(Q). There are no consonant clusters in syllable onsets, but a coda consonant may end up adjacent to the initial consonant of the following syllable.

@@ -210,7 +180,7 @@

Phonotactic

/a/ may not be followed by any vowel with which it does not form a falling dipthong.

/o/ may not be followed by /u/.

- +

When two /m/ meet at a syllable boundary, a schwa must be inserted between them.

/w~j/ cannot precede /i/ or /u/.

@@ -223,18 +193,18 @@

Syllables

Syllable pattern

- +

All Toaq syllables have the shape
(C)V(Q) or (C)F

- +

C = onset consonant
V = vowel
F = falling diphthong
Q = {/ŋ/, /m/} - +

- +

Word-initial syllables must contain an onset, while word-internal syllables may lack an onset.

@@ -254,9 +224,9 @@

raku pattern

- +

A raku consists of a mandatory onset, followed by a rime, which consists of a mandatory nucleus followed by an optional coda. The coda consists of two optional components: the secondary nucleus and the final.

- +

The onset is an initial consonant (C), which is any consonant that isn't /ŋ/.

The nucleus is any vowel (V) or any falling dipthong (F).

The secondary nucleus is any vowel (V) or any falling dipthong (F).

@@ -313,7 +283,7 @@

raku pattern

- +

For reference, the following grid contains every possible raku rime (in slightly abstracted form for reasons of space). Any missing cells are due to more general phonotactic constraints, rather than being raku-specific exceptions.

@@ -490,7 +460,7 @@

Allotones / Sandhi

- +

Whenever two consecutive words carry the rising tone , the second rising tone may optionally be pronounced as a low tone.

RR → RL
RRR → RLR @@ -499,14 +469,14 @@

Allotones / Sandhi

- +

The rising-falling tone can optionally be pronounced as a falling-rising tone, or really any contour which contains a hiatus. Because of this, the tone is also known as the hiatus tone, after its defining characteristic.

When this allotone is used on a raku containing multiple vowels, the hiatus is inserted between the first and second vowel, and no additional hiatus needs to be inserted, because the first vowel already carries a stressed downward tone contour.

- +

After a pause, such as when pausing briefly between sentences, the falling tone can optionally be pronounced as an unstressed low tone.

@@ -541,29 +511,3 @@

Word boundary • vowel length
• tonal contour break

- -▶ Proceed to the next chapter - - - - - - - - - - - -
- Introduction - Phonology - Orthography - Morphology - Syntax - Semantics -
- - - - - diff --git a/refgram/semantics/index.html b/refgram/semantics/index.html index a57e91b..bf4a4cf 100644 --- a/refgram/semantics/index.html +++ b/refgram/semantics/index.html @@ -1,39 +1,8 @@ - - - - - Toaq - Semantics - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- Introduction - Phonology - Orthography - Morphology - Syntax - Semantics -
- - - - +--- +title: Semantics +order: 6 +layout: delta-refgram +---

Semantics

Disclaimer: The information presented in this chapter is by no means necessary for learners of the language.

@@ -86,7 +55,7 @@

Basic ty

- +

Complex types (selection)

@@ -138,8 +107,8 @@

Complex type

- - + +
@@ -148,12 +117,12 @@

Tree not

Tree notation

- +

gold = node labels and types

:: separates label from type, e.g. DP :: e

- +

Semantic denotations are colored red, e.g. λx. hao(x).

- +

Toaq words and phrases are light blue like everywhere else.

@@ -168,10 +137,10 @@

Composition rules

Functional Application (FA)

-

If β is a head and γ its complement, then
- +

If β is a head and γ its complement, then
+ ⟦α⟧ = ⟦β⟧(⟦γ⟧)

- +

Functional Application is the most common composition rule. It applies to the following head classes:

V, D, Asp, T, Modal(P), Σ, &, SA, Q, C @@ -184,7 +153,7 @@

Predicat

If β or γ is an adjunct, then
⟦α⟧ = λx. ⟦β⟧(x) ∧ ⟦γ⟧(x)

- +

Predicate Modification applies to:

CPrel, AdjunctP, aP @@ -197,9 +166,9 @@

Predicate

If β is a QP or FocusAdvP with the index i, then
⟦βi γ⟧g = ⟦β⟧(λx. ⟦γ⟧g[x/i])

- +

g[x/i] is that variable assignment which is identical to g except that every constituent with the index i is replaced by x.

- +

Predicate Abstraction applies to:

QP, FocusAdvP @@ -212,7 +181,7 @@

Event Identi

If β is a non-vacuous v head and γ is a VP, then
⟦α⟧ = λx.λe. ⟦β⟧(x)(e) ∧ ⟦γ⟧(e)

- +

Event Identification applies to:

v @@ -247,7 +216,7 @@

Pe
... -

+

@@ -255,7 +224,7 @@

α is an anaphoric pronoun or a bound variable, g is a variable assignment, and i is the DP's index, then
⟦αi⟧g = g(i)

- +

For example:
@@ -273,9 +242,9 @@

Verb phrases

VP denotation

The verb composes with its internal argument to form a VP.

The internal argument satisfies the object place, leaving the VP with one open event place.

- + - +

⟦V⟧ = λx.λe. V(x)(e) @@ -298,7 +267,7 @@

VP denotation


= λe. gaı(súq)(e)
- = λe. e is an event of perceiving the listener + = λe. e is an event of perceiving the listener

@@ -307,23 +276,23 @@

VP denotation

Intransitive verbs

- +

The subject of an unaccusative verb merges as the complement of the verb, where it receives theme or experiencer.

- + - +

⟦V⟧(⟦DP⟧)
= [λx.λe. shua(x)(e)](g(9))
= λe. shua(g(9))(e)
= λe. e is an event of g(9) falling, defined only if g(9) is rain - +

- +

The subject of an unergative verbs originates in Spec,vP, where it receives its agent role (via Event Identification):

- + - +

⟦v⟧(⟦VP⟧)
= [λx.λe. agent(e) = x](λx.λe. shua(x)(e))
@@ -332,9 +301,9 @@

Intransitive verbs [λx.λe. saqsu(e) ∧ agent(e) = x](jí)
= λe. saqsu(e) ∧ agent(e) = jí
= λe. e is an event of the speaker whispering - +

- +

@@ -342,27 +311,27 @@

Intransitive verbs

Transitive and ditransitive verbs

Transitives and ditransitives have an external agent argument which originates in Spec,vP. It receives its role from the v head. v combines with its sister via Event Identification:

- + - +

λe. buja(g(1))(e) ∧ agent(e) = súq
= λe. e is an event of kissing g(1) ∧ the listener is the agent of e,
defined only if g(1) is an equine

- +

With ditransitive verbs, the indirect object precedes the direct object:

- + - +

λe. do(súq, g(6))(e) ∧ agent(e) = jí
= λe. e is an event of giving g(6) to the listener ∧ the speaker is the agent of e,
defined only if g(6) is a book

- +

@@ -372,13 +341,13 @@

Cleft verb

Cleft verb denotation

- + - +

The cleft verb nä allows a single argument to be fronted. This argument must appear in the complement of nä.

- +

nä is used purely for manipulating word order. It does not add any semantic content.

- +
@@ -386,10 +355,10 @@

Event accessor verb<

Event accessor denotation

- +

The event accessor ë turns the event argument of a vP into a surface argument in order to make it accessible for surface arguments or to serve as the complement of a determiner.

- +

márao "the one who dances"
é marao "the event of dancing"

@@ -417,27 +386,27 @@

Determiner phrases

Determiner phrase denotation

- +

Determiner phrases are complex structures of type e. They are composed of a determiner (D) followed by an nP. The nP consists of an unprounced n head, which contains a phi feature (animacy) and an index. Both are passed up the tree to give the projected DP an index and a phi feature.

- +

The phi feature is presuppositional:

- +

⟦ni⟧ = λP: φ(g(i)). P, i.e., the function returns P if g(i) has the feature φ, and is undefined otherwise.

- +

There is only one denotation for every determiner, or put another way, there is only one determiner in Toaq: bound-the.

- +

⟦D nPi⟧ = λP: P(g(i)). g(i)

- +

This again contains a presupposition: if g(i) satisfies the predicate P, then the function returns g(i), otherwise it is undefined. This ensures that the main semantic content (in CPrel) makes a contribution, while the denotation of the DP is just a variable.

- +

For example, the DP tú poq

- + - +

has the denotation g(3), is presupposed to satisfy λx.poq(x), and is animate.

- +

The nP also moves and merges with a higher Q head, which is where the DP variable actually gets bound (see below).

- +
@@ -460,15 +429,15 @@

QP pattern

A quantifier phrase (QP) is a quantifier followed by an nP.

The nP originates in a DP, from where it moves to the complement of Q to restricts the quantifier. The nP carries an index, which is passed to the QP.

Every QP binds a DP with the same index.

- + - +

Here, the nP ruq moves out of the DP and into the complement of Q to restrict the quantifier ∃, and to provide the QP with an index.

- +

Quantifiers are of type <<e,t>,<<e,t>,t>>, meaning they take two one-place predicates as arguments. The first predicate (the nP) acts as a restriction on the domain of the quantifier. The second predicate is the scope of the quantifier.

- +

A QP combines with its sister via Predicate Abstraction.

- +

⟦QP7 TP⟧g,c
= @@ -492,7 +461,7 @@

Inte

⟦nuo⟧g,c,w = λx.λe.λw. nuow(x)(e)
- which has the type <e,<v,<s,t>>>

+ which has the type <e,<v,<s,t>>>

For better readability and to separate it from all the other variables, the world variable appears as a subscript. When evaluating an expression, a superscript w indicates that the expression is evaluated relative to a (possible) world:

@@ -507,23 +476,23 @@

Inte

Propositional verbs

- +

The denotation of the CP ꝡä nuo kúne "that the dog is asleep" is
λw. ∃e'. nuow(kúne)(e'), i.e.,
- a function which returns True if there is an event of the dog being asleep in w (at time t, ...). + a function which returns True if there is an event of the dog being asleep in w (at time t, ...). This CP combines with the verb via Intensional Functional Application:

- + -

If β is an intension-taking function, and γ is an intensional complement, then, for any possible world w:
- +

If β is an intension-taking function, and γ is an intensional complement, then, for any possible world w:
+ ⟦α⟧w = ⟦β⟧w(λw'. ⟦γ⟧w')

- +

What the verb does with the proposition depends on the definition of the verb. For chı, we can say that

- +

chı(jí, {λw. ∃e'. nuow(kúne)(e')}) expresses that

- +

"Every possible world w which is compatible with the beliefs of the speaker is one in which the dog is asleep at time t", or in short, "The speaker believes that the dog is asleep."

@@ -540,7 +509,7 @@

Adjunct phrases

Adverbial adjunct denotation

- +

Adverbials are adjuncts to vPs. They combine with their sister via Predicate Modification. They act as restrictions on the event variable of the vP.

@@ -549,9 +518,9 @@

Ad = λx. ⟦nuokuaı súq⟧(x) ∧ ⟦bîe jóafao⟧(x)
= λx. [λe. nuokuaı(súq)(e)](x) ∧ [λx. bıe(x, jóafao)](x)
= λe. nuokuaı(súq)(e) ∧ bıe(e, jóafao)
- + = λe. e is an event of the listener being tired ∧ e is after the weekend - +

@@ -561,7 +530,7 @@

Relative clauses

Relative clause denotation

- +

Relative clauses are adjuncts to nPs. They combine with their sister via Predicate Modification:

@@ -570,9 +539,9 @@

Relati = λx. ⟦poq⟧(x) ∧ ⟦ꝡë kaqgaı jí hóa⟧(x)
= λx. [λx. poq(x)](x) ∧ [λx. kaqgaı(jí, x)](x)
= λx. poq(x) ∧ kaqgaı(jí, x)
- - = λx. x is a person ∧ the speaker sees x - + + = λx. x is a person ∧ the speaker sees x +

@@ -585,17 +554,17 @@

Polarity phrases

Negation

- +

Polarity (Σ) is a flexible category which can attach to many kinds of phrases. The type-agnostic definitions are:

- +

bu = λP. ¬P

- +

jeo = λP. †P

- +

- - + +

@@ -605,14 +574,14 @@

Aspect and Tense

Aspect and Tense

- +

Tense and aspect work together. Aspect acts on the vP first, and deals with the vP's event variable by relating it to a time interval. This interval is then supplied by a tense.

- +

Aspect denotations

- + @@ -662,21 +631,21 @@

Aspect denotations

- +

Symbols:
< : the "before" relation: a time inverval t is before a time interval t' if every moment in t temporally precedes every moment in t'.
> : the "after" relation
⊆ : the "subinterval" relation: interval t is included in interval t'
τ() : the temporal trace function, which maps an event to its temporal trace / its runtime
- IW(w,t) : the set of inertia worlds for world w at time t, where an inertia world w' is a world which, up to t, is exactly like w, but then it continues at t in a way that is normal or natural for the given verb. This modal treatment of chum makes it possible to use this aspect even if the event never ends up getting completed. Chum baı jí báq anıjıo "I was building a sand castle... when I remembered I had somewhere else to be". The event never fully takes place in w, but it does in w'. + IW(w,t) : the set of inertia worlds for world w at time t, where an inertia world w' is a world which, up to t, is exactly like w, but then it continues at t in a way that is normal or natural for the given verb. This modal treatment of chum makes it possible to use this aspect even if the event never ends up getting completed. Chum baı jí báq anıjıo "I was building a sand castle... when I remembered I had somewhere else to be". The event never fully takes place in w, but it does in w'.

Tense denotations

- +

The tenses pu, naı, jıa are pronominal: they refer to a (salient) time interval, and the temporal position of this interval is presupposed to be before, including, or after, the utterance time.

- + @@ -717,9 +686,9 @@

Tense denotations

Naı luı tısha tíqra jáqgala.
"The tiger has arrived in the jungle."

- +

The tenses sula, mala, jela are existential and non-presuppositional:

- +

@@ -740,7 +709,7 @@

Tense denotations

- +
@@ -748,19 +717,19 @@

Focusing adverbs

Focus adverb denotation

- +

Focusing adverbs (see also the syntax section on them) have a structure that is similar to that of QPs, but with rather different denotations.

An interesting property of Focus particles is that they contain presuppositions. For example, mao “also” does not add meaning to the claim itself, but contains the presupposition that other contextually relevant things satisfy the predicate, too.

- +

The following example shows the general structure:

- + - +

f stands for the focus-marked constituent, and Af is the set of contextually available alternatives to the focus-marked constituent.

- +

In the above example, [only] has the denotation
λf. λP. ∀x : (x ∈ Af ∧ x ≠ f). ¬P(x),
but it also contains a presupposition, namely that the f-marked constituent satisfies the predicate. Below is a table containing each focusing adverbs along with presupposition and claim (the presupposition being the part between colon and period):

- + @@ -792,34 +761,34 @@

Modals and c

ModalP denotation

- + - +

Toaq's modals are, in essence, quantifiers over possible worlds. Because of this, we can use the same structure that QPs use:

- +

Q : [restriction]. [scope]

- +

The restriction restricts the possible worlds to those in which the modal complement is true.

- +

The scope specifies what the worlds in that restricted set are like.

- +

The ModalP combines with its sister via Functional Application.

- +

ao is a function which creates the "ao-worlds" of a world w. It returns the set of minimally different worlds supplied by context c in which the complement is true, and it is only defined if the complement is false in w0 (or whatever reference world we're currently in). This last part is what makes ao a "subjunctive" conditional.

- +

The above example arrives at
∀w ∈ ao(w) : ∃e. tıw(súq, ní)(e).
∃e'. bujaw(súq)(e') ∧ agent(e') = jí

- +

"Every ao-world in which you are here
is a world in which I kiss you." (Presupposition: "You are not here")

"If you were here, I would kiss you."

- +

The following table lists the four basic modal denotations:

- +

@@ -844,7 +813,7 @@

ModalP denotation

- +

she-worlds are "indicative", i.e. factual, while ao-worlds are "subjunctive", i.e. counterfactual.

@@ -871,7 +840,7 @@

jí rú súq is a plural-coordinated structure with a universal quantifier over its referents:

-

jí rú súq → +

jí rú súq → tú mea jí róı súq

In contrast, all other coordination involves the familiar connectives (e.g. ∧ and ∨) and clausal or verbal conjuncts.

@@ -880,15 +849,15 @@

DP conjuncts

- +

The basic, uninflected, plural coordinate structure looks as follows:

- + - +

róı can be inflected to indicate the presence of a higher QP which quantifies over the referents of the conjuncts:

- + - +

In other words, the change from róı to rú has resulted in a change from

∃e. nuo([súq & jí])(e)
= ∃e. e is an event of [the listener & the speaker] being asleep

to

@@ -896,7 +865,7 @@

DP conjuncts

= ∀x : x is among [the listener & the speaker]). ∃e. e is an event of x being asleep

I.e., every individual among the referents of the coordinate DP súq róı jí is claimed to satisfy the predicate.

Likewise for rá:

- +

The remaining cases are straightforward:

@@ -904,40 +873,40 @@

DP conjuncts

Adverbial conjuncts

- + - +

-
+

Preposition conjuncts

- +

These are identical to full adverbial conjuncts, except that the conjuncts share the same complement:

- + - +

⟦nîe rú gûq tíaı⟧g,c
- = λx. x is in the box ∧ x is under the box - + = λx. x is in the box ∧ x is under the box +

Relative clause conjuncts

- + - +

⟦[&P CPrel [&' & CPrel]]⟧g,c
- - - = λx. x likes flowers ∧ x is wearing no clothes - + + + = λx. x likes flowers ∧ x is wearing no clothes +

@@ -945,40 +914,19 @@

Relative

Tense phrase conjuncts

- + - +

⟦[&P TP [&' & TP]]⟧g,c
- = ⟦[&P [TP joaı súq báq rua] [&' [& rú] [TP sea jí]]]⟧g,c
- = (gen r : rua(r). ∃e. joaı(súq, r)(e)) ∧ (∃e'. sea(jí)(e'))
+ = ⟦[&P [TP joaı súq báq rua] [&' [& rú] [TP sea jí]]]⟧g,c
+ = (gen r : rua(r). ∃e. joaı(súq, r)(e)) ∧ (∃e'. sea(jí)(e'))
= (∃e. e an event of looking for flowers and the agent of e is the listener in c) ∧ (∃e'. e' is an event of the speaker in c relaxing) - +

(tense and aspect omitted)

- - -

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- Introduction - Phonology - Orthography - Morphology - Syntax - Semantics -
- - - - - diff --git a/refgram/syntax/index.html b/refgram/syntax/index.html index d2124ef..2324d49 100644 --- a/refgram/syntax/index.html +++ b/refgram/syntax/index.html @@ -1,41 +1,8 @@ - - - - - Toaq - Syntax - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- Introduction - Phonology - Orthography - Morphology - Syntax - Semantics -
- - - - - - +--- +title: Syntax +order: 5 +layout: delta-refgram +---

Syntax

@@ -307,7 +274,7 @@

Cleft verb pattern ! 'This shirt is such that I hate it.'

-

(󱛆󱛊󱛃󱛍󱚺 hóa is a resumptive pronoun. See the section on relative clauses for more information on how to refer back to the antecedent.)

+

(󱛆󱛊󱛃󱛍󱚺 hóa is a resumptive pronoun. See the section on relative clauses for more information on how to refer back to the antecedent.)

If the subject of a clause is a heavy constituent, such as a content clause or a DP containing a relative clause, fronting the subject avoids center-embedding and thus makes the sentence easier to understand.

@@ -369,7 +336,7 @@

Name verbs

Name verb pattern

-

Name verbs are formed by the word 󱚰󱚹 mı followed by an arbitrary word.

+

Name verbs are formed by the word 󱚰󱚹 mı followed by an arbitrary word.

The resulting expression is a verb with the meaning

"to be named <word>"

Gloss: name

@@ -398,7 +365,7 @@

Sing

Quote verb pattern

-

Quote verbs are formed by the word 󱛀󱚲 shu followed by an arbitrary word.

+

Quote verbs are formed by the word 󱛀󱚲 shu followed by an arbitrary word.

The resulting expression is a verb with the meaning

"to be the word <word>"

Gloss: word

@@ -427,7 +394,7 @@

Full-text quotes

Direct speech pattern

-

A text of arbitrary length can be quoted by enclosing it in spoken parentheses:

+

A text of arbitrary length can be quoted by enclosing it in spoken parentheses:

󱚰󱛃 mo <quoted text> 󱚷󱚴󱛍󱛃 teo

Gloss: quote unquote

@@ -482,22 +449,22 @@

Serial verb pattern<

Below follows a syntactic analysis of both sentences:

-
+

Without serial verb

This example uses the familiar structure of 2-place verbs covered previously. The object of 󱚷󱚲󱛍󱚺 tua "to cause" is a content clause (CP), which contains the statement 󱚾󱚺󱛎󱚹 󱚽󱛊󱚺󱛎󱛃 jaı nháo "she is happy".

- [TP - [T+ tua] - [vP - [DP súq] - [v' - [v Ø] - [VP - [V tua] - [CP - [C ꝡä] + [TP + [T+ tua] + [vP + [DP súq] + [v' + [v Ø] + [VP + [V tua] + [CP + [C ꝡä] [TP jaı nháo] ] ] @@ -511,23 +478,23 @@

Without serial verb<

The corresponding serial verb looks like this:

-
+

With serial verb

The verbs (labeled V1 and V2) move up the tree and form a cluster above the subject.

The tree also reveals how 󱚽󱛊󱚺󱛎󱛃 nháo ends up in the correct place, as an argument of 󱚾󱚺󱛎󱚹 jaı.

- [TP - [T+ tua jaı] - [vP - [DP súq] - [v' - [v Ø] - [VP - [V tua] - [VP - [V jaı] + [TP + [T+ tua jaı] + [vP + [DP súq] + [v' + [v Ø] + [VP + [V tua] + [VP + [V jaı] [DP nháo] ] ] @@ -611,9 +578,9 @@

Object incorporati

Object incorporation pattern

Object incorporation is a process by which a verb forms a tight unit with its object such that the two can no longer be separated. The consequence is that when the verb moves to the front of the clause, the object moves along with it.

- +

Object incorporation results in VOS word order.

- +

It is marked via inflection on the object, such that the usual tone carried by the head of the object (D for DPs, C for CPs) is replaced by .

@@ -652,7 +619,7 @@

Ob grateful *1s* love *1s*
! 'I am grateful to the ones who love me.'

- +

The next examples show an object incorporating verb used as the complement of other determiners:

@@ -677,7 +644,7 @@

Ob whether familiar *2s* some believe *comp* flat the-planet
! 'Do you know someone who believes that the planet is flat?'

- +

When incorporating a DP headed by the determiner , its allomorph 󱚼󱛃 lo must be used. This is because replacing the raw tonal morpheme with the tonal morpheme would result in forming an adverbial adjunct.

@@ -710,13 +677,13 @@

The

Adjective pattern

Adjectives follow the phrase they modify.

- +

They are separated from the preceding verb by the (usually covert) adjectival prefix 󱛄󱚹󱛒 kı-

- +

The prefix is only required when the preceding verb has an object place that would otherwise trigger serialization.

- +

The adjective itself is structurally identical to a reduced relative clause, which means that it can contain tense and aspect, but no arguments or adverbial adjuncts.

- +

Gloss: adj

@@ -1429,7 +1396,7 @@

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns

- + @@ -1847,14 +1814,14 @@

Sentence pattern

CP pattern

A complementizer phrase (CP) is a clause.

- +

It can either be the argument of a verb or the complement of a speech act particle.

Depending on which of the two it is, the complementizer carries the following tones:

• main clause:
• subordinate clause:

- +
@@ -2132,7 +2099,7 @@

Property clauses

λx. req(x)
- + "the property of being human" @@ -2153,7 +2120,7 @@

Property clauses

λx. want(x, {courageous(x)})
- + "the property of wishing oneself to be courageous" @@ -2169,7 +2136,7 @@

Property clauses

leo = - + "X tries to satisfy property Y"
(or, more naturally: "X tries to be/do Y") @@ -2269,7 +2236,7 @@

Relative cla

A relative clause (CPrel) is a CP which attaches as an adjunct to an nP.

Restrictive relative clauses are headed by the complementizer 󱛁󱚴󱛋 ꝡë.

-

Incidental relative clauses are headed by the complementizer Incidental relative clauses are headed by the complementizer 󱚾󱛋󱚲 jü.

Relative clauses follow the head noun.

@@ -2463,12 +2430,12 @@

Tense

Tense pattern

- +

Tense (T) expresses when something happens relative to the time of utterance. Tense precedes aspect (Asp).

- +

There are three basic tenses:

• past
• present
• future

- +

Tense need never be overtly marked.

@@ -2671,8 +2638,8 @@

Aspect

Aspect pattern

- - + +

Aspect follows tense (if present).

@@ -2903,11 +2870,11 @@

Modals and c

Modals and conditionals pattern

- +

Modals are used to make statement about necessity and possibility. They also function as conditionals (if-clauses).

- +

Each modality comes in two forms: indicative and subjunctive.

- +

@@ -2941,7 +2908,7 @@

Focus

Focus pattern

- +

The focus particle 󱛄󱛊󱚲 kú marks a constituent as conveying new information.

- - + +

Focus is the part of a sentence that contains new or contrasting information. When you know that someone ate your last remaining banana, but not who did it, and I say to you "I ate the banana" (or "It was me who ate the banana"), the fact that someone ate the banana is known information, and the fact that it was me as opposed to someone else who did the eating is new information and carries what is called the focus of the sentence.

@@ -3510,7 +3477,7 @@

Coordination

Coordination pattern

Conjunctions are placed between two matching conjuncts of the same syntactic type.

- +

The first type of conjunction is the plural coordinator:

@@ -4184,9 +4151,9 @@

Parentheticals

Parenthetical pattern

- +

A parenthetical is a piece of text inserted within another text. The inserted text is surrounded by spoken parentheses:

- +

kïo <inserted text> kı

@@ -4205,7 +4172,7 @@

Vocative

Vocative pattern

- +

The vocative particle 󱛆󱛊󱛃󱛎󱚹 hóı marks a DP as the addressee of the current utterance.

Vocative phrases can stand freely in the clause and do not function as arguments.

Gloss: voc

@@ -4654,25 +4621,3 @@

Phatic interjectio

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