Hask is a pure-Python, zero-dependencies library that mimics most of the core language tools from Haskell, including:
- Full Hindley-Milner type system (with typeclasses) that will typecheck any function decorated with a Hask type signature
- Easy creation of new algebraic data types and new typeclasses, with Haskell-like syntax
- Pattern matching with
case
expressions - Automagical function currying/partial application and function composition
- Efficient, immutable, lazily evaluated
List
type with Haskell-style list comprehensions - All your favorite syntax and control flow tools, including operator sections, monadic error handling, guards, and more
- Python port of (some of) the standard libraries from Haskell's
base
, including:- Algebraic datatypes from the Haskell
Prelude
, includingMaybe
andEither
- Typeclasses from the Haskell
base
libraries, includingFunctor
,Applicative
,Monad
,Enum
,Num
, and all the rest - Standard library functions from
base
, including all functions fromPrelude
,Data.List
,Data.Maybe
, and more
- Algebraic datatypes from the Haskell
Features not yet implemented, but coming soon:
- Python 3 compatibility
- Better support for polymorphic return values/type defaulting
- Better support for lazy evaluation (beyond just the
List
type and pattern matching) - More of the Haskell standard library (
Control.*
libraries, QuickCheck, and more) - Monadic, lazy I/O
Note that all of this is still very much pre-alpha, and some things may be buggy!
-
git clone https://github.com/billpmurphy/hask
-
python setup.py install
To run the tests: python tests.py
.
I wanted to cram as much of Haskell into Python as possible while still being 100% compatible with the rest of Python, just to see if any useful ideas came out of the result. Also, it was fun!
Contributions, forks, and extensions to this experiment are always welcome! Feel free to submit a pull request, open an issue, or email me. In the spirit of this project, abusing the Python language as much as possible is encouraged.
Hask is a grab-bag of features that add up to one big pseudo-Haskell functional programming library. The rest of this README lays out the basics.
I recommend playing around in the REPL while going through the examples. You
To import all the language features: from hask import *
To import the Prelude: from hask import Prelude
To import a base
library, e.g. Data.List
: from hask import Data.List
Hask provides the List
type, a lazy and statically-typed list, similar to
Haskell's standard list type.
To create a new List
, just put the elements inside L[
and ]
brackets, or
wrap an existing iterable inside L[ ]
.
>>> L[1, 2, 3]
L[1, 2, 3]
>>> my_list = ["a", "b", "c"]
>>> L[my_list]
L['a', 'b', 'c']
>>> L[(x**2 for x in range(1, 11))]
L[1 ... ]
To add elements to the front of a List, use ^
, the cons operator. To combine
two lists, use +
, the concatenation operator.
>>> 1 ^ L[2, 3]
L[1, 2, 3]
>>> "goodnight" ^ ("sweet" ^ ("prince" ^ L[[]]))
L["goodnight", "sweet", "prince"]
>>> "a" ^ L[1.0, 10.3] # type error
>>> L[1, 2] + L[3, 4]
L[1, 2, 3, 4]
Lists are always evaluated lazily, and will only evaluate list elements as
needed, so you can use infinite Lists or put never-ending generators inside of
a List
. (Of course, you can still blow up the interpreter if you try to
evaluate the entirety of an infinite List, e.g. by trying to find the length of
the List with len
.)
One way to create infinite lists is via list comprehensions. As in Haskell, there are four basic type of list comprehensions:
# list from 1 to infinity, counting by ones
L[1, ...]
# list from 1 to infinity, counting by twos
L[1, 3, ...]
# list from 1 to 20 (inclusive), counting by ones
L[1, ..., 20]
# list from 1 to 20 (inclusive), counting by fours
L[1, 5, ..., 20]
List comprehensions can be used on ints, longs, floats, one-character strings,
or any other instance of the Enum
typeclass (more on this later).
Hask provides all of the Haskell functions for List manipulation (take
,
drop
, takeWhile
, etc.), or you can also use Python-style indexing.
>>> L[1, ...]
L[1 ...]
>>> from hask.Data.List import take
>>> take(5, L["a", "b", ...])
L['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']
>>> L[1,...][5:10]
L[6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
>>> from hask.Data.List import map
>>> from hask.Data.Char import chr
>>> letters = map(chr, L[97, ...])
>>> letters[:9]
L['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g', 'h', 'i']
>>> len(L[1, 3, ...]) # uh oh
Otherwise, you can use List
just like you would use a regular Python list.
for i in L[0, ...]:
print i
>>> 55 in L[1, 3, ...]
True
Hask allows you to define algebraic datatypes, which are immutable objects with a fixed number of typed, unnamed fields.
Here is the definition for the infamous Maybe
type:
from hask import data, d, deriving
from hask import Read, Show, Eq, Ord
Maybe, Nothing, Just =\
data.Maybe("a") == d.Nothing | d.Just("a") & deriving(Read, Show, Eq, Ord)
Let's break this down a bit. The syntax for defining a new type constructor is:
data.TypeName("type param", "type param 2" ... "type param n")
This defines a new algebraic datatype with type parameters.
To define data
constructors for this
type, use d.
The name of the data constructor goes first, followed by its
fields. Multiple data constructors should be separted by |
. If your data
constructor has no fields, you can omit the parens. For example:
FooBar, Foo, Bar =\
data.FooBar("a", "b") == d.Foo("a", "b", str) | d.Bar
To automagically derive typeclass instances for the type, add & deriving(...typeclasses...)
after the data constructor declarations.
Currently, the only typeclasses that can be derived are Eq
, Show
, Read
,
Ord
, and Bounded
.
Putting it all together, here are the definitions of Either
and Ordering
:
Either, Left, Right =\
data.Either("a", "b") == d.Left("a") | d.Right("b") & deriving(Read, Show, Eq)
Ordering, LT, EQ, GT =\
data.Ordering == d.LT | d.EQ | d.GT & deriving(Read, Show, Eq, Ord, Bounded)
You can now use the data constructors defined in a data
statement to create
instances of these new types. If the data constructor takes no arguments, you
can use it just like a variable.
>>> Just(10)
Just(10)
>>> Nothing
Nothing
>>> Just(Just(10))
Just(Just(10))
>>> Left(1)
Left(1)
>>> Foo(1, 2, "hello")
Foo(1, 2, 'hello')
You can view the type of an object with _t
(equivalent to :t
in ghci).
>>> from hask import _t
>>> _t(1)
int
>>> _t(Just("soylent green"))
(Maybe str)
>>> _t(Right(("a", 1)))
(Either a (str, int))
>>> _t(Just)
(a -> Maybe a)
>>> _t(L[1, 2, 3, 4])
[int]
So what's up with those types? Hask operates its own shadow Hindley-Milner
type system
on top of Python's type system; _t
shows the Hask type of a particular
object.
In Hask, typed functions take the form of TypedFunc
objects, which are typed
wrappers around Python functions. There are two ways to create TypedFunc
objects:
- Use the
sig
decorator to decorate the function with the type signature
@sig(H/ "a" >> "b" >> "a")
def const(x, y):
return x
- Use the
**
operator (similar to::
in Haskell) to provide the type. Useful for turning functions or lambdas intoTypedFunc
objects in the REPL, or wrapping already-defined Python functions.
def const(x, y):
return x
const = const ** (H/ "a" >> "b" >> "a")
TypedFunc
objects have several special properties. First, they are type
checked--when arguments are supplied, the type inference engine will check
whether their types match the type signature, and raise a TypeError
if there
is a discrepancy.
>>> f = (lambda x, y: x + y) ** (H/ int >> int >> int)
>>> f(2, 3)
5
>>> f(9, 1.0) # type error
Second, TypedFunc
objects can be partially
applied:
>>> g = (lambda a, b, c: a / (b + c)) ** (H/ int >> int >> int >> int)
>>> g(10, 2, 3)
2
>>> part_g = g(12)
>>> part_g(2, 2)
3
>>> g(20, 1)(4)
4
TypedFunc
objects also have two special infix operators, the *
and %
operators. *
is the compose operator (equivalent to (.)
in Haskell), so
f * g
is equivalent to lambda x: f(g(x))
. %
is just the apply operator,
which applies a TypedFunc
to one argument (equivalent to ($)
in Haskell).
The convinience of this notation (when combined with partial application)
cannot be overstated--you can get rid of a ton of nested parenthesis this way.
>>> from hask.Prelude import flip
>>> h = (lambda x, y: x / y) ** (H/ float >> float >> float)
>>> h(3.0) * h(6.0) * flip(h, 2.0) % 36.0
9.0
The compose operation is also typed-checked, which makes it appealing to write programs in pointfree style, i.e, chaining together lots of functions with composition and relying on the type system to catch programming errors.
As you would expect, data constructors are also just TypedFunc
objects:
>>> Just * Just * Just * Just % 77
Just(Just(Just(Just(77))))
The type signature syntax is very simple, and consists of a few basic primitives that can be combined to build any type signature:
Primitive | Syntax/examples |
---|---|
Type literal for Python builtin type or user-defined class | int , float , set , list |
Type variable | "a" , "b" , "zz" |
List of some type |
[int] , ["a"] , [["a"]] |
Tuple type | (int, int) , ("a", "b", "c") , (int, ("a", "b")) |
ADT with type parameters | t(Maybe, "a") , t(Either, "a", str) |
Unit type (None ) |
None |
Untyped Python function | func |
Typeclass constraint | H[(Eq, "a"), (Show, "b")]/ , H[(Functor, "f"), (Show, "f")]/ |
Some examples:
# add two ints together
@sig(H/ int >> int >> int)
def add(x, y):
return x + y
# reverse order of arguments to a function
@sig(H/ (H/ "a" >> "b" >> "c") >> "b" >> "a" >> "c")
def flip(f, b, a):
return f(a, b)
# map a Python (untyped) function over a Python (untyped) set
@sig(H/ func >> set >> set)
def set_map(fn, lst):
return set((fn(x) for x in lst))
# map a typed function over a List
@sig(H/ (H/ "a" >> "b") >> ["a"] >> ["b"])
def map(f, xs):
return L[(f(x) for x in xs)]
# type signature with an Eq constraint
@sig(H[(Eq, "a")]/ "a" >> ["a"] >> bool)
def not_in(y, xs):
return not any((x == y for x in xs))
# type signature with a type constructor (Maybe) that has type arguments
@sig(H/ int >> int >> t(Maybe, int))
def safe_div(x, y):
return Nothing if y == 0 else Just(x/y)
# type signature for a function that returns nothing
@sig(H/ int >> None)
def launch_missiles(num_missiles):
print "Launching {0} missiles! Bombs away!" % num_missiles
It is also possible to create type synonyms using t
. For example, check out the definition of Rational
:
Ratio, R =\
data.Ratio("a") == d.R("a", "a") & deriving(Eq)
Rational = t(Ratio, int)
@sig(H/ Rational >> Rational >> Rational)
def addRational(rat1, rat2):
...
Pattern matching is a more powerful control flow tool than the if
statement,
and can be used to deconstruct iterables and ADTs and bind values to local
variables.
Pattern matching expressions follow this syntax:
~(caseof(value_to_match)
| m(pattern_1) >> return_value_1
| m(pattern_2) >> return_value_2
| m(pattern_3) >> return_value_3)
Here is a function that uses pattern matching to compute the fibonacci
sequence. Note that within a pattern match expression, m.*
is used to bind
variables, and p.*
is used to access them.
def fib(x):
return ~(caseof(x)
| m(0) >> 1
| m(1) >> 1
| m(m.n) >> fib(p.n - 1) + fib(p.n - 2))
>>> fib(1)
1
>>> fib(6)
13
As the above example shows, you can combine pattern matching and recursive functions without a hitch.
You can also deconstruct an iterable using ^
(the cons operator). The variable
before the ^
is bound to the first element of the iterable, and the variable
after the ^
is bound to the rest of the iterable. Here is a function that
adds the first two elements of any iterable, returning Nothing
if there are
less than two elements:
@sig(H[(Num, "a")]/ ["a"] >> t(Maybe, "a"))
def add_first_two(x):
return ~(caseof(lst)
| m(m.x ^ (m.y ^ m.z)) >> Just(p.x + p.y)
| m(m.x) >> Nothing)
>>> add_first_two(L[1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
Just(3)
>>> add_first_two(L[9.0])
Nothing
Pattern matching is also very useful for deconstructing ADTs and assigning their fields to temporary variables.
def default_to_zero(x):
return ~(caseof(x)
| m(Just(m.x)) >> p.x
| m(Nothing) >> 0)
>>> default_to_zero(Just(27))
27
>>> default_to_zero(Nothing)
0
If you find pattern matching on ADTs too cumbersome, you can also use numeric
indexing on ADT fields. An IndexError
will be thrown if you mess something
up.
>>> Just(20.0)[0]
20.0
>>> Left("words words words words")[0]
'words words words words'
>>> Nothing[0] # IndexError
Typeclasses allow you to add additional functionality to your ADTs. Hask implements all of the major typeclasses from Haskell (see the Appendix for a full list) and provides syntax for creating new typeclass instances.
As an example, let's add a Monad
instance
for the Maybe
type. First, however, Maybe
needs
Functor
and
Applicative
instances.
def maybe_fmap(fn, x):
"""Apply a function to the value inside of a (Maybe a) value"""
return ~(caseof(x)
| m(Nothing) >> Nothing
| m(Just(m.x)) >> Just(fn(p.x)))
instance(Functor, Maybe).where(
fmap = maybe_fmap
)
Maybe
is now an instance of Functor
. This allows us to call fmap
and map any function of type a -> b
into a value of type Maybe a
.
>>> times2 = (lambda x: x * 2) ** (H/ int >> int)
>>> toFloat = float ** (H/ int >> float)
>>> fmap(toFloat, Just(10))
Just(10.0)
>>> fmap(toFloat, fmap(times2, Just(25)))
Just(50.0)
Lots of nested calls to fmap
get unwieldy very fast. Fortunately, any
instance of Functor
can be used with the infix fmap
operator, *
. This is
equivalent to <$>
in Haskell. Rewriting our example from above:
>>> (toFloat * times2) * Just(25)
Just(50.0)
>>> (toFloat * times2) * Nothing
Nothing
Note that this example uses *
as both the function compose operator and as
fmap
, to lift functions into a Maybe
value. If this seems confusing,
remember that fmap
for functions is just function composition!
Now that Maybe
is an instance of Functor
, we can make it an instance of
Applicative
and then an instance of Monad
by defining the appropriate
function implementations. To implement Applicative
, we just need to provide
pure
. To implement Monad
, we need to provide bind
.
from hask import Applicative, Monad
instance(Applicative, Maybe).where(
pure = Just
)
instance(Monad, Maybe).where(
bind = lambda x, f: ~(caseof(x)
| m(Just(m.a)) >> f(p.a)
| m(Nothing) >> Nothing)
)
The bind
function also has an infix form, which is >>
in Hask.
@sig(H/ int >> int >> t(Maybe, int))
def safe_div(x, y):
return Nothing if y == 0 else Just(x/y)
>>> from hask.Prelude import flip
>>> divBy = flip(safe_div)
>>> Just(9) >> divBy(3)
Just(3)
>>> Just(12) >> divBy(2) >> divBy(2) >> divBy(3)
Just(1)
>>> Just(12) >> divBy(0) >> divBy(6)
Nothing
As in Haskell, List
is also a monad, and bind
for the List
type is just
concatMap
.
>>> from hask.Data.List import replicate
>>> L[1, 2] >> replicate(2) >> replicate(2)
L[1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2]
You can also define typeclass instances for classes that are not ADTs:
class Person(object):
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age
instance(Eq, Person).where(
eq = lambda p1, p2: p1.name == p2.name and p1.age == p2.age
)
>>> Person("Philip Wadler", 59) == Person("Simon Peyton Jones", 57)
False
If you want instances of the Show
, Eq
, Read
, Ord
, and Bounded
typeclasses for your ADTs, it is adviseable to use deriving
to automagically
generate instances rather than defining them manually.
Defining your own typeclasses is pretty easy--take a look at help(Typeclass)
and look at the typeclasses defined in Data.Functor
and Data.Num
to
see how it's done.
Hask also supports operator sections (e.g. (1+)
in Haskell). Sections are
just TypedFunc
objects, so they are automagically curried and typechecked.
>>> from hask import __
>>> f = (__ - 20) * (2 ** __) * (__ + 3)
>>> f(10)
8172
>>> ((90/__) * (10+__)) * Just(20)
Just(3)
>>> from hask.Data.List import takeWhile
>>> takeWhile(__<5, L[1, ...])
L[1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> (__+__)('Hello ', 'world')
'Hello world'
>>> (__**__)(2)(10)
1024
>>> from hask.Data.List import zipWith, take
>>> take(5) % zipWith(__ * __, L[1, ...], L[1, ...])
L[1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
As you can see, this much easier than using lambda
and adding a type
signature with the (lambda x: ...) ** (H/ ...)
syntax.
In addition, the types of the TypedFuncs
created by sections are always
polymorphic, to allow for any operator overloading.
If you don't need the full power of pattern matching and just want a neater switch statement, you can use guards. The syntax for guards is almost identical to the syntax for pattern matching.
~(guard(expr_to_test)
| c(test_1) >> return_value_1
| c(test_2) >> return_value_2
| otherwise >> return_value_3
)
As in Haskell, otherwise
will always evaluate to True
and can be used as a
catch-all in guard expressions. If no match is found (and an otherwise
clause
is not present), a NoGuardMatchException
will be raised.
Guards will also play nicely with sections:
>>> from hask import guard, c, otherwise
>>> porridge_tempurature = 80
>>> ~(guard(porridge_tempurature)
... | c(__ < 20) >> "Porridge is too cold!"
... | c(__ < 90) >> "Porridge is just right!"
... | c(__ < 150) >> "Porridge is too hot!"
... | otherwise >> "Porridge has gone thermonuclear"
... )
'Porridge is just right!'
If you need a more complex conditional, you can always use lambdas, regular Python functions, or any other callable in your guard condition.
def examine_password_security(password):
analysis = ~(guard(password)
| c(lambda x: len(x) > 20) >> "Wow, that's one secure password"
| c(lambda x: len(x) < 5) >> "You made Bruce Schneier cry"
| c(__ == "12345") >> "Same combination as my luggage!"
| otherwise >> "Hope it's not 'password'"
)
return analysis
>>> nuclear_launch_code = "12345"
>>> examine_password_security(nuclear_launch_code)
'Same combination as my luggage!'
If you want to use Maybe
and Either
to handle errors raised by Python
functions defined outside Hask, you can use the decorators in_maybe
and
in_either
to create functions that call the original function and return the
result wrapped inside a Maybe
or Either
value.
If a function wrapped in in_maybe
raises an exception, the wrapped function
will return Nothing
. Otherwise, the result will be returned wrapped in a
Just
.
def eat_cheese(cheese):
if cheese <= 0:
raise ValueError("Out of cheese error")
return cheese - 1
maybe_eat = in_maybe(eat_cheese)
>>> maybe_eat(1)
Just(0)
>>> maybe_eat(0)
Nothing
Note that this is equivalent to lifting the original function into the Maybe
monad. That is, its type has changed from func
to a -> Maybe b
. This
makes it easier to use the convineient monad error handling style commonly seen
in Haskell with existing Python functions.
Continuing with this silly example, let's try to eat three pieces of cheese,
returning Nothing
if the attempt was unsuccessful:
>>> cheese = 10
>>> cheese_left = Just(cheese) >> maybe_eat >> maybe_eat >> maybe_eat
>>> cheese_left
Just(7)
>>> cheese = 1
>>> cheese_left = Just(cheese) >> maybe_eat >> maybe_eat >> maybe_eat
>>> cheese_left
Nothing
Notice that we have taken a regular Python function that throws Exceptions, and are now handling it in a type-safe, monadic way.
The in_either
function works just like in_maybe
. If an Exception is thrown,
the wrapped function will return the exception wrapped in Left
. Otherwise,
the result will be returned wrapped in Right
.
either_eat = in_either(eat_cheese)
>>> either_eat(Right(10))
Right(9)
>>> either_eat(Right(0))
Left(ValueError('Out of cheese error',))
Chained cheese-eating in the Either
monad is left as an exercise for
the reader.
You can also use in_maybe
or in_either
as decorators:
@in_maybe
def some_function(x, y):
...
All of your favorite functions from Prelude
, Data.List
, Data.Maybe
,
Data.Either
, Data.Monoid
, and more are implemented too. Everything is
pretty well documented, so if you're not sure about some function or typeclass,
use help
liberally. See the Appendix below for a full list of modules. Some
highlights:
>>> from hask.Data.Maybe import mapMaybe
>>> mapMaybe(safe_div(12)) % L[0, 1, 3, 0, 6]
L[12, 4, 2]
>>> from hask.Data.List import isInfixOf
>>> isInfixOf(L[2, 8], L[1, 4, 6, 2, 8, 3, 7])
True
>>> from hask.Control.Monad import join
>>> join(Just(Just(1)))
Just(1)
Hask also provies TypeFunc
wrappers for everything in __builtins__
for ease
of compatibity. (Eventually, Hask will have typed wrappers for most of the
Python standard library.)
>>> from hask.Prelude import flip
>>> from hask.Data.Tuple import snd
>>> from hask.Python.builtins import divmod, hex
>>> hexMod = hex * snd * flip(divmod, 16)
>>> hexMod(24)
'0x8'
If you want to poke around behind the curtain, here are some useful starting points:
typeof(obj)
returns an object's type in Hask's type systemhas_instance(some_type, typeclass)
tests for typeclass membershipnt_to_tuple
converts instances ofnamedtuple
(including Hask ADTs) into regular tuplestypify
converts a Python function into aTypedFunc
object
Table 1. Overview of Hask typeclasses.
Typeclass | Superclasses | Required functions | Optional functions | Magic Methods |
---|---|---|---|---|
Show |
show |
str |
||
Read |
read |
|||
Eq |
eq |
ne |
== , != |
|
Ord |
Eq |
lt |
gt , le , ge |
< , < , =< , => |
Enum |
toEnum , fromEnum |
pred , succ , enumTo , enumFromTo , enumFromThen , enumFromThenTo |
||
Bounded |
minBound , maxBound |
|||
Functor |
fmap |
* |
||
Applicative |
Functor |
pure |
||
Monad |
Applicative |
bind |
>> |
|
Monoid |
mappend , mempty |
mconcat |
+ |
|
Foldable |
foldr |
fold , foldMap , foldr_ , foldl , foldl_ , foldr1 , foldl1 , toList , null , length , elem , maximum , minimum , sum , product |
len |
|
Traversable |
Foldable , Functor |
traverse |
sequenceA , mapM , sequence |
|
Num |
Show , Eq |
add , mul , abs , signum , fromInteger , negate |
sub |
+ , - , * |
Real |
Num , Ord |
toRational |
||
Integral |
Real , Enum |
quotRem , divMod , toInteger |
quot , rem , div , mod |
/ , % |
Fractional |
Num |
fromRational , div |
recip |
/ |
Floating |
Fractional |
exp , sqrt , log , pow , logBase , sin , tan , cos , asin , atan , acos , sinh , tanh , cosh , asinh , atanh , acosh |
||
RealFrac |
Real , Fractional |
properFraction , truncate , round , ceiling , floor |
||
RealFloat |
Floating , RealFrac |
floatRange , isNaN , isInfinite , isNegativeZero , atan2 |
Table 2. Hask library structure.
Module | Dependencies | Exported functions |
---|---|---|
hask |
hask.lang , hask.Data.Char , hask.Data.Either , hask.Data.Eq , hask.Data.Foldable , hask.Data.Functor , hask.Data.List , hask.Data.Maybe , hask.Data.Monoid , hask.Data.Num , hask.Data.Ord , hask.Data.Ratio , hask.Data.String , hask.Data.Traversable , hask.Data.Tuple , hask.Control.Applicative , hask.Control.Monad , hask.Python.builtins |
instance , __ , guard , c , otherwise , NoGuardMatchException , L , data , d , deriving , sig , H , t , func , TypeSignatureError , caseof , p , m , IncompletePatternError , _t , _i , _q , typeof , has_instance , Typeclass , Hask , Read , Show , Eq , Ord , Enum , Bounded , Num , Real , Integral , Fractional , Floating , RealFrac , RealFloat , Functor , Applicative , Monad , Traversable , Foldable , Maybe , Just , Nothing , in_maybe , Either , Left , Right , in_either , Ordering , LT , EQ , GT |
hask.Prelude |
hask.lang |
hask.Data.Either , hask.Data.Eq , hask.Data.Foldable , hask.Data.Functor , hask.Data.List , hask.Data.Maybe , hask.Data.Num , hask.Data.Ord , hask.Data.Traversable , hask.Data.Tuple , hask.Control.Applicative , hask.Control.Monad |
hask.Data.Maybe |
hask.lang , hask.Data.Eq , hask.Data.Ord , hask.Data.Functor , hask.Control.Applicative , hask.Control.Monad |
Maybe (Nothing , Just ), in_maybe , maybe , isJust , isNothing , fromJust , listToMaybe , maybeToList , catMaybes , mapMaybe |
hask.Data.Either |
hask.lang , hask.Data.Eq , hask.Data.Ord , hask.Data.Functor , hask.Control.Applicative , hask.Control.Monad |
Either (Left , Right ), in_either , either , lefts , rights , isLeft , isRight , partitionEithers |
hask.Data.List |
hask.lang , hask.Data.Foldable , hask.Data.Eq , hask.Data.Ord , hask.Data.Num , hask.Data.Maybe |
head , last , tail , init , uncons , null , length , map , reverse , intersperse , intercalate , transpose , subsequences , permutations , foldl , foldl_ , foldl1 , foldl1_ , foldr , foldr1 , concat , concatMap , and_ , or_ , any , all , sum , product , minimum , maximum , scanl , scanl1 , scanr , scanr1 , mapAccumL , mapAccumR , iterate , repeat , replicate , cycle , unfoldr , take , drop , splitAt , takeWhile , dropWhile , dropWhileEnd , span , break_ , stripPrefix , group , inits , tails , isPrefixOf , isSuffixOf , isInfixOf , isSubsequenceOf , elem , notElem , lookup , find , filter , partition , elemIndex , elemIndices , findIndex , findIndicies , zip , zip3 , zip4 , zip5 , zip6 , zip7 , zipWith , zipWith3 , zipWith4 , zipWith5 , zipWith6 , zipWith7 , unzip , unzip3 , unzip4 , unzip5 , unzip6 , unzip7 , lines , words , unlines , unwords , nub , delete , diff , union , intersect , sort , sortOn , insert , nubBy , deleteBy , deleteFirstBy , unionBy , intersectBy , groupBy , sortBy , insertBy , maximumBy , minimumBy , genericLength , genericTake , genericDrop , genericSplitAt , genericIndex , genericReplicate |
hask.Data.String |
hask.lang |
words , unwords , lines , unlines |
hask.Data.Tuple |
hask.lang |
fst , snd , swap , curry , uncurry |
hask.Data.Char |
hask.lang |
isControl , isSpace , isLower , isUpper , isAlpha , isAlphaNum , isPrint , isDigit , isOctDigit , isHexDigit , isLetter , isMark , isNumber , isPunctuation , isSymbol , isSeparator , isAscii , isLatin1 , isAsciiUpper , toLower , toUpper , toTitle , digitToInt , intToDigit , chr , ord |
hask.Data.Eq |
hask.lang |
Eq (== , != ) |
hask.Data.Ord |
hask.lang , hask.Data.Eq |
Ord (> , < , >= , <= ), Ordering (LT , EQ , GT ), max , min , compare , comparing |
hask.Data.Functor |
hask.lang |
Functor (fmap , * ), |
hask.Data.Foldable |
hask.lang |
Foldable |
hask.Data.Traversable |
hask.lang , hask.Data.Foldable , hask.Data.Functor |
Traversable |
hask.Data.Monoid |
hask.lang |
Monoid (mappend , mempty , mconcat ) |
hask.Data.Ratio |
hask.lang , hask.Data.Num |
Integral , Ratio (R ), Rational , toRatio , toRational , numerator , denominator |
hask.Data.Num |
hask.lang , hask.Data.Eq , hask.Data.Ord |
Num (+ , * , abs , signum , fromInteger , negate , - ), Fractional (fromRational , / , recip ), Floating (exp , sqrt , log , pow , logBase , sin , tan , cos , asin , atan , acos , sinh , tanh , cosh , asinh , atanh , acosh ), Real (toRational ), Integral (quotRem , quot , rem , div , mod ), toRatio , RealFrac (properFraction , truncate , round , ceiling , floor ), RealFloat (isNan , isInfinite , isNegativeZero , atan2 ) |
hask.Control.Applicative |
hask.lang , hask.Data.Functor |
Applicative |
hask.Control.Monad |
hask.lang , hask.Control.Applicative , hask.Data.Functor |
Monad (bind , >> ), join , liftM |
hask.Python.builtins |
hask.lang |
callable , cmp , delattr , divmod , frozenset , getattr , hasattr , hash , hex , isinstance , issubclass , len , oct , repr , setattr , sorted , unichr |
hask.lang |
Show (show ), Read , Eq , Ord , Enum (fromEnum , succ , pred , enumFrom , enumFromTo , enumFromThen , enumFromThenTo ), Bounded , typeof , is_builtin , has_instance , nt_to_tuple , build_instance , Typeclass , Hask , TypedFunc , TypeSignatureError , undefined , caseof , m , p , IncompletePattnerError , data , d , deriving , H , sig , t , func , typify , NoGuardMatchException , guard , c , otherwise , instance , __ , _t , _q , _i , List , L |