diff --git a/cli-processor/pom.xml b/cli-processor/pom.xml
index 8cf166e9d..0fe90e8ad 100644
--- a/cli-processor/pom.xml
+++ b/cli-processor/pom.xml
@@ -52,10 +52,6 @@
 			<groupId>nl.talsmasoftware</groupId>
 			<artifactId>lazy4j</artifactId>
 		</dependency>
-		<dependency>
-			<groupId>com.google.auto.service</groupId>
-			<artifactId>auto-service-annotations</artifactId>
-		</dependency>
 		<dependency>
 			<groupId>org.apache.logging.log4j</groupId>
 			<artifactId>log4j-core</artifactId>
diff --git a/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/CLIProcessor.java b/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/CLIProcessor.java
index ff919cf54..104fb9018 100644
--- a/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/CLIProcessor.java
+++ b/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/CLIProcessor.java
@@ -7,10 +7,13 @@
 
 import static org.fusesource.jansi.Ansi.ansi;
 
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.CommandExecutionException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.CommandService;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.ExtraArgument;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.ICommand;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.ICommandExecutor;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.AutoCloser;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CollectionUtil;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.IVersionInfo;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
 
@@ -35,11 +38,10 @@
 import java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets;
 import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Collection;
-import java.util.Collections;
-import java.util.Deque;
 import java.util.LinkedList;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicBoolean;
 import java.util.function.Function;
 import java.util.stream.Collectors;
 
@@ -164,6 +166,13 @@ private ExitStatus parseCommand(String... args) {
     assert commandArgs != null;
     CallingContext callingContext = new CallingContext(commandArgs);
 
+    if (LOGGER.isDebugEnabled()) {
+      String commandChain = callingContext.getCalledCommands().stream()
+          .map(ICommand::getName)
+          .collect(Collectors.joining(" -> "));
+      LOGGER.debug("Processing command chain: {}", commandChain);
+    }
+
     ExitStatus status;
     // the first two arguments should be the <command> and <operation>, where <type>
     // is the object type
@@ -177,10 +186,16 @@ private ExitStatus parseCommand(String... args) {
     return status;
   }
 
+  @NonNull
   protected final List<ICommand> getTopLevelCommands() {
-    List<ICommand> retval = Collections.unmodifiableList(commands);
-    assert retval != null;
-    return retval;
+    return CollectionUtil.unmodifiableList(commands);
+  }
+
+  @NonNull
+  protected final Map<String, ICommand> getTopLevelCommandsByName() {
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(getTopLevelCommands()
+        .stream()
+        .collect(Collectors.toUnmodifiableMap(ICommand::getName, Function.identity())));
   }
 
   private static void handleNoColor() {
@@ -200,7 +215,8 @@ public static void handleQuiet() {
   }
 
   protected void showVersion() {
-    @SuppressWarnings("resource") PrintStream out = AnsiConsole.out(); // NOPMD - not owner
+    @SuppressWarnings("resource")
+    PrintStream out = AnsiConsole.out(); // NOPMD - not owner
     getVersionInfos().values().stream().forEach(info -> {
       out.println(ansi()
           .bold().a(info.getName()).boldOff()
@@ -230,63 +246,44 @@ public class CallingContext {
     @NonNull
     private final List<Option> options;
     @NonNull
-    private final Deque<ICommand> calledCommands;
+    private final List<ICommand> calledCommands;
+    @Nullable
+    private final ICommand targetCommand;
     @NonNull
     private final List<String> extraArgs;
 
     @SuppressFBWarnings(value = "CT_CONSTRUCTOR_THROW", justification = "Use of final fields")
     public CallingContext(@NonNull List<String> args) {
-      Map<String, ICommand> topLevelCommandMap = getTopLevelCommands().stream()
-          .collect(Collectors.toUnmodifiableMap(ICommand::getName, Function.identity()));
-
+      @SuppressWarnings("PMD.LooseCoupling")
+      LinkedList<ICommand> calledCommands = new LinkedList<>();
       List<Option> options = new LinkedList<>(OPTIONS);
-      Deque<ICommand> calledCommands = new LinkedList<>();
       List<String> extraArgs = new LinkedList<>();
 
-      boolean endArgs = false;
-      for (String arg : args) {
-        if (endArgs || arg.startsWith("-")) {
+      AtomicBoolean endArgs = new AtomicBoolean();
+      args.forEach(arg -> {
+        if (endArgs.get() || arg.startsWith("-")) {
           extraArgs.add(arg);
         } else if ("--".equals(arg)) {
-          endArgs = true;
+          endArgs.set(true);
         } else {
-          ICommand command;
-          if (calledCommands.isEmpty()) {
-            command = topLevelCommandMap.get(arg);
-          } else {
-            command = calledCommands.getLast();
-            command = command.getSubCommandByName(arg);
-          }
+          ICommand command = calledCommands.isEmpty()
+              ? getTopLevelCommandsByName().get(arg)
+              : calledCommands.getLast().getSubCommandByName(arg);
 
           if (command == null) {
             extraArgs.add(arg);
-            endArgs = true;
+            endArgs.set(true);
           } else {
             calledCommands.add(command);
+            options.addAll(command.gatherOptions());
           }
         }
-      }
+      });
 
-      if (LOGGER.isDebugEnabled()) {
-        String commandChain = calledCommands.stream()
-            .map(ICommand::getName)
-            .collect(Collectors.joining(" -> "));
-        LOGGER.debug("Processing command chain: {}", commandChain);
-      }
-
-      for (ICommand cmd : calledCommands) {
-        options.addAll(cmd.gatherOptions());
-      }
-
-      options = Collections.unmodifiableList(options);
-      extraArgs = Collections.unmodifiableList(extraArgs);
-
-      assert options != null;
-      assert extraArgs != null;
-
-      this.options = options;
-      this.calledCommands = calledCommands;
-      this.extraArgs = extraArgs;
+      this.calledCommands = CollectionUtil.unmodifiableList(calledCommands);
+      this.targetCommand = calledCommands.peekLast();
+      this.options = CollectionUtil.unmodifiableList(options);
+      this.extraArgs = CollectionUtil.unmodifiableList(extraArgs);
     }
 
     @NonNull
@@ -296,7 +293,7 @@ public CLIProcessor getCLIProcessor() {
 
     @Nullable
     public ICommand getTargetCommand() {
-      return calledCommands.peekLast();
+      return targetCommand;
     }
 
     @NonNull
@@ -305,7 +302,7 @@ protected List<Option> getOptionsList() {
     }
 
     @NonNull
-    private Deque<ICommand> getCalledCommands() {
+    private List<ICommand> getCalledCommands() {
       return calledCommands;
     }
 
@@ -326,57 +323,102 @@ protected Options toOptions() {
     @NonNull
     public ExitStatus processCommand() {
       CommandLineParser parser = new DefaultParser();
-      CommandLine cmdLine;
 
-      // this uses a two phase approach where:
+      // this uses a three phase approach where:
       // phase 1: checks if help or version are used
-      // phase 2: executes the command
+      // phase 2: parse and validate arguments
+      // phase 3: executes the command
 
       // phase 1
-      ExitStatus retval = null;
-      {
-        try {
-          Options phase1Options = new Options();
-          phase1Options.addOption(HELP_OPTION);
-          phase1Options.addOption(VERSION_OPTION);
+      CommandLine cmdLine;
+      try {
+        Options phase1Options = new Options();
+        phase1Options.addOption(HELP_OPTION);
+        phase1Options.addOption(VERSION_OPTION);
+
+        cmdLine = ObjectUtils.notNull(parser.parse(phase1Options, getExtraArgs().toArray(new String[0]), true));
+      } catch (ParseException ex) {
+        String msg = ex.getMessage();
+        assert msg != null;
+        return handleInvalidCommand(msg);
+      }
 
-          cmdLine = parser.parse(phase1Options, getExtraArgs().toArray(new String[0]), true);
-        } catch (ParseException ex) {
-          String msg = ex.getMessage();
-          assert msg != null;
-          return handleInvalidCommand(msg);
+      if (cmdLine.hasOption(VERSION_OPTION)) {
+        showVersion();
+        return ExitCode.OK.exit();
+      }
+      if (cmdLine.hasOption(HELP_OPTION)) {
+        showHelp();
+        return ExitCode.OK.exit();
+      }
+
+      // phase 2
+      try {
+        cmdLine = ObjectUtils.notNull(parser.parse(toOptions(), getExtraArgs().toArray(new String[0])));
+      } catch (ParseException ex) {
+        String msg = ex.getMessage();
+        assert msg != null;
+        return handleInvalidCommand(msg);
+      }
+
+      ICommand targetCommand = getTargetCommand();
+      if (targetCommand != null) {
+        if (targetCommand.isSubCommandRequired()) {
+          return handleError(
+              ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS
+                  .exitMessage("Please choose a valid sub-command."),
+              cmdLine,
+              true);
         }
 
-        if (cmdLine.hasOption(VERSION_OPTION)) {
-          showVersion();
-          retval = ExitCode.OK.exit();
-        } else if (cmdLine.hasOption(HELP_OPTION)) {
-          showHelp();
-          retval = ExitCode.OK.exit();
+        List<ExtraArgument> extraArguments = targetCommand.getExtraArguments();
+        int maxArguments = extraArguments.size();
+
+        List<String> actualArgs = cmdLine.getArgList();
+        int actualArgsSize = actualArgs.size();
+        if (actualArgs.size() > maxArguments) {
+          return handleError(
+              ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS
+                  .exitMessage("The provided extra arguments exceed the number of allowed arguments."),
+              cmdLine,
+              true);
+        }
+
+        List<ExtraArgument> requiredExtraArguments = targetCommand.getExtraArguments().stream()
+            .filter(ExtraArgument::isRequired)
+            .collect(Collectors.toUnmodifiableList());
+
+        if (actualArgsSize < requiredExtraArguments.size()) {
+          return handleError(
+              ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS
+                  .exitMessage("Please provide the required extra arguments."),
+              cmdLine,
+              true);
         }
       }
 
-      if (retval == null) {
-        // phase 2
+      for (ICommand cmd : getCalledCommands()) {
         try {
-          cmdLine = parser.parse(toOptions(), getExtraArgs().toArray(new String[0]));
-        } catch (ParseException ex) {
+          cmd.validateOptions(this, cmdLine);
+        } catch (InvalidArgumentException ex) {
           String msg = ex.getMessage();
           assert msg != null;
           return handleInvalidCommand(msg);
         }
+      }
 
-        if (cmdLine.hasOption(NO_COLOR_OPTION)) {
-          handleNoColor();
-        }
-
-        if (cmdLine.hasOption(QUIET_OPTION)) {
-          handleQuiet();
-        }
-        retval = invokeCommand(cmdLine);
+      // phase 3
+      if (cmdLine.hasOption(NO_COLOR_OPTION)) {
+        handleNoColor();
       }
 
-      retval.generateMessage(cmdLine.hasOption(SHOW_STACK_TRACE_OPTION));
+      if (cmdLine.hasOption(QUIET_OPTION)) {
+        handleQuiet();
+      }
+      ExitStatus retval = invokeCommand(cmdLine);
+      if (ExitCode.OK.equals(retval.getExitCode())) {
+        handleError(retval, cmdLine, false);
+      }
       return retval;
     }
 
@@ -387,22 +429,21 @@ public ExitStatus processCommand() {
     protected ExitStatus invokeCommand(@NonNull CommandLine cmdLine) {
       ExitStatus retval;
       try {
-        for (ICommand cmd : getCalledCommands()) {
-          try {
-            cmd.validateOptions(this, cmdLine);
-          } catch (InvalidArgumentException ex) {
-            String msg = ex.getMessage();
-            assert msg != null;
-            return handleInvalidCommand(msg);
-          }
-        }
-
         ICommand targetCommand = getTargetCommand();
         if (targetCommand == null) {
           retval = ExitCode.INVALID_COMMAND.exit();
         } else {
           ICommandExecutor executor = targetCommand.newExecutor(this, cmdLine);
-          retval = executor.execute();
+          try {
+            executor.execute();
+            retval = ExitCode.OK.exit();
+          } catch (CommandExecutionException ex) {
+            retval = ex.toExitStatus();
+          } catch (RuntimeException ex) {
+            retval = ExitCode.RUNTIME_ERROR
+                .exitMessage("Unexpected error occured: " + ex.getLocalizedMessage())
+                .withThrowable(ex);
+          }
         }
 
         if (ExitCode.INVALID_COMMAND.equals(retval.getExitCode())) {
@@ -416,6 +457,18 @@ protected ExitStatus invokeCommand(@NonNull CommandLine cmdLine) {
       return retval;
     }
 
+    @NonNull
+    public ExitStatus handleError(
+        @NonNull ExitStatus exitStatus,
+        @NonNull CommandLine cmdLine,
+        boolean showHelp) {
+      exitStatus.generateMessage(cmdLine.hasOption(SHOW_STACK_TRACE_OPTION));
+      if (showHelp) {
+        showHelp();
+      }
+      return exitStatus;
+    }
+
     @NonNull
     public ExitStatus handleInvalidCommand(
         @NonNull String message) {
@@ -499,7 +552,7 @@ protected String buildHelpCliSyntax() {
       StringBuilder builder = new StringBuilder(64);
       builder.append(getExec());
 
-      Deque<ICommand> calledCommands = getCalledCommands();
+      List<ICommand> calledCommands = getCalledCommands();
       if (!calledCommands.isEmpty()) {
         builder.append(calledCommands.stream()
             .map(ICommand::getName)
@@ -572,30 +625,33 @@ protected String buildHelpCliSyntax() {
       return retval;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Output the help text to the console.
+     */
     public void showHelp() {
 
       HelpFormatter formatter = new HelpFormatter();
       formatter.setLongOptSeparator("=");
 
+      @SuppressWarnings("resource")
       AnsiPrintStream out = AnsiConsole.out();
-      int terminalWidth = Math.max(out.getTerminalWidth(), 40);
 
-      @SuppressWarnings("resource") PrintWriter writer = new PrintWriter( // NOPMD not owned
-          out,
+      try (PrintWriter writer = new PrintWriter( // NOPMD not owned
+          AutoCloser.preventClose(out),
           true,
-          StandardCharsets.UTF_8);
-      formatter.printHelp(
-          writer,
-          terminalWidth,
-          buildHelpCliSyntax(),
-          buildHelpHeader(),
-          toOptions(),
-          HelpFormatter.DEFAULT_LEFT_PAD,
-          HelpFormatter.DEFAULT_DESC_PAD,
-          buildHelpFooter(),
-          false);
-      writer.flush();
+          StandardCharsets.UTF_8)) {
+        formatter.printHelp(
+            writer,
+            Math.max(out.getTerminalWidth(), 50),
+            buildHelpCliSyntax(),
+            buildHelpHeader(),
+            toOptions(),
+            HelpFormatter.DEFAULT_LEFT_PAD,
+            HelpFormatter.DEFAULT_DESC_PAD,
+            buildHelpFooter(),
+            false);
+        writer.flush();
+      }
     }
   }
-
 }
diff --git a/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/command/AbstractCommandExecutor.java b/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/command/AbstractCommandExecutor.java
index 51bfcef70..16176edc9 100644
--- a/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/command/AbstractCommandExecutor.java
+++ b/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/command/AbstractCommandExecutor.java
@@ -6,7 +6,6 @@
 package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.CLIProcessor.CallingContext;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitStatus;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
 
 import org.apache.commons.cli.CommandLine;
@@ -37,7 +36,7 @@ protected CommandLine getCommandLine() {
   }
 
   @Override
-  public abstract ExitStatus execute();
+  public abstract void execute() throws CommandExecutionException;
 
   @NonNull
   protected ICommand getCommand() {
diff --git a/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/command/AbstractTerminalCommand.java b/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/command/AbstractTerminalCommand.java
index a42ac1a85..65da54530 100644
--- a/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/command/AbstractTerminalCommand.java
+++ b/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/command/AbstractTerminalCommand.java
@@ -5,14 +5,21 @@
 
 package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command;
 
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.UriUtils;
+
+import java.net.URI;
+import java.net.URISyntaxException;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
 import java.nio.file.Paths;
 import java.util.Collection;
 import java.util.Collections;
 
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
+import nl.talsmasoftware.lazy4j.Lazy;
 
 public abstract class AbstractTerminalCommand implements ICommand {
+  private static Lazy<Path> currentWorkingDirectory = Lazy.lazy(() -> Paths.get("").toAbsolutePath());
 
   @SuppressWarnings("null")
   @Override
@@ -25,7 +32,23 @@ public boolean isSubCommandRequired() {
     return false;
   }
 
-  protected static Path resolvePathAgainstCWD(@NonNull Path path) {
-    return Paths.get("").toAbsolutePath().resolve(path).normalize();
+  @NonNull
+  protected static Path getCurrentWorkingDirectory() {
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(currentWorkingDirectory.get());
+  }
+
+  @NonNull
+  protected static Path resolveAgainstCWD(@NonNull Path path) {
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(getCurrentWorkingDirectory().resolve(path).normalize());
+  }
+
+  @NonNull
+  protected static URI resolveAgainstCWD(@NonNull URI uri) {
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(getCurrentWorkingDirectory().toUri().resolve(uri.normalize()));
+  }
+
+  @NonNull
+  protected static URI resolveAgainstCWD(@NonNull String uri) throws URISyntaxException {
+    return UriUtils.toUri(uri, ObjectUtils.notNull(getCurrentWorkingDirectory().toUri()));
   }
 }
diff --git a/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/command/CommandExecutionException.java b/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/command/CommandExecutionException.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..22617b901
--- /dev/null
+++ b/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/command/CommandExecutionException.java
@@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
+/*
+ * SPDX-FileCopyrightText: none
+ * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
+ */
+
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command;
+
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitCode;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitStatus;
+
+import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
+
+/**
+ * For use in commands to short-circut command execution.
+ */
+public class CommandExecutionException
+    extends Exception {
+  private final ExitCode exitCode;
+
+  /**
+   * the serial version UID.
+   */
+  private static final long serialVersionUID = 1L;
+
+  /**
+   * Constructs a new exception with the provided {@code code}, and no message or
+   * cause.
+   *
+   * @param code
+   *          the exit code associated with this error
+   */
+  public CommandExecutionException(@NonNull ExitCode code) {
+    this.exitCode = code;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Constructs a new exception with the provided {@code code}, {@code message},
+   * and no cause.
+   *
+   * @param code
+   *          the exit code associated with this error
+   * @param message
+   *          the exception message
+   */
+  public CommandExecutionException(@NonNull ExitCode code, String message) {
+    super(message);
+    this.exitCode = code;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Constructs a new exception with no message and the provided {@code code}
+   * and {@code cause}.
+   *
+   * @param code
+   *          the exit code associated with this error
+   * @param cause
+   *          the original exception cause
+   */
+  public CommandExecutionException(@NonNull ExitCode code, Throwable cause) {
+    super(cause);
+    this.exitCode = code;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Constructs a new exception with the provided {@code code}, {@code message},
+   * and {@code cause}.
+   *
+   * @param code
+   *          the exit code associated with this error
+   * @param message
+   *          the exception message
+   * @param cause
+   *          the original exception cause
+   */
+  public CommandExecutionException(@NonNull ExitCode code, String message, Throwable cause) {
+    super(message, cause);
+    this.exitCode = code;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Generate an {@link ExitStatus} based on this exception.
+   *
+   * @return the exit status
+   */
+  @NonNull
+  public ExitStatus toExitStatus() {
+    String message = getLocalizedMessage();
+
+    ExitStatus retval = message == null
+        ? exitCode.exit()
+        : exitCode.exitMessage(message);
+
+    Throwable cause = getCause();
+    if (cause != null) {
+      retval.withThrowable(cause);
+    }
+    return retval;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/command/ICommandExecutor.java b/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/command/ICommandExecutor.java
index 8721da0f0..342d0498a 100644
--- a/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/command/ICommandExecutor.java
+++ b/cli-processor/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/processor/command/ICommandExecutor.java
@@ -6,35 +6,26 @@
 package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.CLIProcessor.CallingContext;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitStatus;
 
 import org.apache.commons.cli.CommandLine;
 
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 
 public interface ICommandExecutor {
-  @NonNull
-  ExitStatus execute();
+  void execute() throws CommandExecutionException;
 
   @NonNull
   static ICommandExecutor using(
       @NonNull CallingContext callingContext,
       @NonNull CommandLine commandLine,
       @NonNull ExecutionFunction function) {
-    return new ICommandExecutor() {
-      @Override
-      public ExitStatus execute() {
-        return function.execute(callingContext, commandLine);
-      }
-
-    };
+    return () -> function.execute(callingContext, commandLine);
   }
 
   @FunctionalInterface
   interface ExecutionFunction {
-    @NonNull
-    ExitStatus execute(
+    void execute(
         @NonNull CallingContext callingContext,
-        @NonNull CommandLine commandLine);
+        @NonNull CommandLine commandLine) throws CommandExecutionException;
   }
 }
diff --git a/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/impl/StreamSequence.java b/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/impl/StreamSequence.java
index 907c3328b..bfedaea5b 100644
--- a/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/impl/StreamSequence.java
+++ b/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/impl/StreamSequence.java
@@ -50,10 +50,11 @@ public Object[] toArray() {
   }
 
   @Override
-  public <T> T[] toArray(T[] a) {
-    return getValue().toArray(a);
+  public <T> T[] toArray(T[] array) {
+    return getValue().toArray(array);
   }
 
+  @SuppressWarnings("PMD.NullAssignment")
   @Override
   public List<ITEM> getValue() {
     instanceLock.lock();
diff --git a/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/item/DefaultItemWriter.java b/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/item/DefaultItemWriter.java
index 03c66652a..197102488 100644
--- a/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/item/DefaultItemWriter.java
+++ b/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/item/DefaultItemWriter.java
@@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ protected void writeCollectionValue(@NonNull ICollectionValue value) {
   }
 
   @Override
-  public void close() throws Exception {
+  public void close() {
     writer.close();
   }
 
diff --git a/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/model/AbstractGlobalDefinition.java b/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/model/AbstractGlobalDefinition.java
index bb8100c24..f89623f0d 100644
--- a/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/model/AbstractGlobalDefinition.java
+++ b/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/model/AbstractGlobalDefinition.java
@@ -60,12 +60,6 @@ public final QName getDefinitionQName() {
     return definitionQName.get();
   }
 
-  @Override
-  public final boolean isInline() {
-    // never inline
-    return false;
-  }
-
   @Override
   public final INSTANCE getInlineInstance() {
     // never inline
diff --git a/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/model/validation/XmlSchemaContentValidator.java b/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/model/validation/XmlSchemaContentValidator.java
index 041a6ced0..7558e2d4b 100644
--- a/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/model/validation/XmlSchemaContentValidator.java
+++ b/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/model/validation/XmlSchemaContentValidator.java
@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.constraint.IConstraint.Level;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
 
+import org.eclipse.jdt.annotation.Owning;
 import org.xml.sax.ErrorHandler;
 import org.xml.sax.SAXException;
 import org.xml.sax.SAXParseException;
@@ -60,7 +61,7 @@ private static Schema toSchema(@NonNull List<? extends Source> schemaSources) th
    * @throws SAXException
    *           if an error occurred while parsing the provided XML schemas
    */
-  public XmlSchemaContentValidator(@NonNull List<? extends Source> schemaSources) throws SAXException {
+  public XmlSchemaContentValidator(@Owning @NonNull List<? extends Source> schemaSources) throws SAXException {
     this(toSchema(ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(schemaSources, "schemaSources")));
   }
 
diff --git a/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/util/DeleteOnShutdown.java b/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/util/DeleteOnShutdown.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..662a97670
--- /dev/null
+++ b/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/util/DeleteOnShutdown.java
@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+/*
+ * SPDX-FileCopyrightText: none
+ * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
+ */
+
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util;
+
+import java.io.IOException;
+import java.nio.file.FileVisitResult;
+import java.nio.file.Files;
+import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.nio.file.SimpleFileVisitor;
+import java.nio.file.attribute.BasicFileAttributes;
+import java.util.LinkedHashSet;
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.concurrent.locks.Lock;
+import java.util.concurrent.locks.ReentrantLock;
+
+/**
+ * Used to perform cleanup on shutdown.
+ */
+@SuppressWarnings("PMD.DoNotUseThreads")
+public final class DeleteOnShutdown {
+  private static Set<Path> paths = new LinkedHashSet<>();
+  private static final Lock LOCK = new ReentrantLock();
+
+  static {
+    Runtime.getRuntime().addShutdownHook(
+        new Thread(DeleteOnShutdown::shutdownHook));
+  }
+
+  @SuppressWarnings("PMD.NullAssignment")
+  private static void shutdownHook() {
+    LOCK.lock();
+    try {
+      Set<Path> localSet = new LinkedHashSet<>(paths);
+      paths = null;
+      localSet.forEach(path -> {
+        try {
+          Files.walkFileTree(path,
+              new SimpleFileVisitor<>() {
+                @Override
+                public FileVisitResult postVisitDirectory(
+                    Path dir, IOException exc) throws IOException {
+                  Files.delete(dir);
+                  return FileVisitResult.CONTINUE;
+                }
+
+                @Override
+                public FileVisitResult visitFile(
+                    Path file, BasicFileAttributes attrs)
+                    throws IOException {
+                  Files.delete(file);
+                  return FileVisitResult.CONTINUE;
+                }
+              });
+        } catch (IOException ex) {
+          // this is a best effort
+        }
+      });
+    } finally {
+      LOCK.unlock();
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Register a new path to be deleted on JVM termination.
+   * <p>
+   * If the path is a directory, then its contents will also be deleted.
+   *
+   * @param path
+   *          the path to delete
+   */
+  public static void register(Path path) {
+    LOCK.lock();
+    try {
+      if (paths == null) {
+        throw new IllegalStateException("ShutdownHook already in progress.");
+      }
+      paths.add(path);
+    } finally {
+      LOCK.unlock();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private DeleteOnShutdown() {
+    // disable construction
+  }
+
+}
diff --git a/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/util/UriUtils.java b/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/util/UriUtils.java
index 9bf7249c0..861ce637f 100644
--- a/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/util/UriUtils.java
+++ b/core/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/util/UriUtils.java
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ private UriUtils() {
    *          the base URI to use for URI normalization
    * @return a new URI
    * @throws URISyntaxException
-   *           an error if the location string is not convertible to URI
+   *           if the location string is not convertible to URI
    */
   @SuppressWarnings("PMD.PreserveStackTrace")
   @NonNull
@@ -91,12 +91,11 @@ public static URI relativize(URI base, URI other, boolean prepend) throws URISyn
 
   private static boolean hasSameSchemeAndAuthority(URI base, URI other) {
     String baseScheme = base.getScheme();
-    boolean retval = (baseScheme == null && other.getScheme() == null)
-        || (baseScheme != null && baseScheme.equals(other.getScheme()));
+    boolean retval = baseScheme == null && other.getScheme() == null
+        || baseScheme != null && baseScheme.equals(other.getScheme());
     String baseAuthority = base.getAuthority();
-    retval = retval && ((baseAuthority == null && other.getAuthority() == null)
-        || (baseAuthority != null && baseAuthority.equals(other.getAuthority())));
-    return retval;
+    return retval && (baseAuthority == null && other.getAuthority() == null
+        || baseAuthority != null && baseAuthority.equals(other.getAuthority()));
   }
 
   /**
@@ -132,7 +131,7 @@ public static String prependRelativePath(String base, String target) {
 
     // Construct the relative path
     StringBuilder retval = new StringBuilder();
-    for (int j = 0; j < (baseSegments.length - segmentIndex); j++) {
+    for (int j = 0; j < baseSegments.length - segmentIndex; j++) {
       retval.append("..");
       if (retval.length() != 0) {
         retval.append(URI_SEPERATOR);
diff --git a/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/cst/BuildCstVisitorTest.java b/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/cst/BuildCstVisitorTest.java
index 2be7d0c5a..3308bb4a6 100644
--- a/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/cst/BuildCstVisitorTest.java
+++ b/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/cst/BuildCstVisitorTest.java
@@ -83,9 +83,8 @@ class BuildCstVisitorTest {
   @RegisterExtension
   Mockery context = new JUnit5Mockery();
 
-  @SuppressWarnings("null")
   @NonNull
-  private IDocumentNodeItem newTestDocument() {
+  private static IDocumentNodeItem newTestDocument() {
     MockNodeItemFactory factory = new MockNodeItemFactory();
 
     return factory.document(URI.create("http://example.com/content"), ROOT,
diff --git a/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/cst/path/StepTest.java b/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/cst/path/StepTest.java
index c781e0093..3c0f7b99a 100644
--- a/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/cst/path/StepTest.java
+++ b/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/cst/path/StepTest.java
@@ -317,7 +317,7 @@ void testFlagAxis() {
 
     Assertions.assertThat(actual.getValue())
         .hasOnlyElementsOfType(IFlagNodeItem.class)
-        .map(flag -> FnData.fnDataItem(flag).asString())
+        .map(flag -> FnData.fnDataItem(ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(flag)).asString())
         .containsExactly("flag-2-b-v1", "flag-2-b-v2", "flag-2-b-v3");
   }
 
@@ -398,27 +398,27 @@ void testDescendantAxis() {
         = MetapathExpression.compile("descendant::*", dynamicContext.getStaticContext())
             .evaluate(node2, dynamicContext);
 
-    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> a
+    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> nodeA
         = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(node2.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "a"))).iterator().next();
-    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> b
+    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> nodeB
         = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(node2.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "b"))).iterator().next();
-    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> c
+    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> nodeC
         = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(node2.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "c"))).iterator().next();
 
     Assertions.assertThat(actual.getValue()).isEqualTo(
         List.of(
-            a,
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(a.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(a.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(a.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next(),
-            b,
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(b.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(b.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(b.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next(),
-            c,
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(c.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(c.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(c.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next()));
+            nodeA,
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeA.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeA.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeA.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next(),
+            nodeB,
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeB.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeB.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeB.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next(),
+            nodeC,
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeC.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeC.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeC.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next()));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -435,28 +435,28 @@ void testDescendantOrSelfAxis() {
         = MetapathExpression.compile("descendant-or-self::*", dynamicContext.getStaticContext())
             .evaluate(node2, dynamicContext);
 
-    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> a
+    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> nodeA
         = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(node2.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "a"))).iterator().next();
-    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> b
+    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> nodeB
         = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(node2.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "b"))).iterator().next();
-    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> c
+    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> nodeC
         = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(node2.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "c"))).iterator().next();
 
     Assertions.assertThat(actual.getValue()).isEqualTo(
         List.of(
             node2,
-            a,
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(a.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(a.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(a.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next(),
-            b,
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(b.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(b.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(b.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next(),
-            c,
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(c.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(c.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(c.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next()));
+            nodeA,
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeA.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeA.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeA.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next(),
+            nodeB,
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeB.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeB.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeB.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next(),
+            nodeC,
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeC.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeC.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeC.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next()));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -521,15 +521,15 @@ void testFollowingAxis() {
         .getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "node-2"))
         .iterator().next();
 
-    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> c
+    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> nodeC
         = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(node2.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "c"))).iterator().next();
 
     Assertions.assertThat(actual.getValue()).isEqualTo(
         List.of(
-            c,
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(c.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(c.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(c.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next()));
+            nodeC,
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeC.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeC.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeC.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next()));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -550,14 +550,14 @@ void testPrecedingAxis() {
         .getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "node-2"))
         .iterator().next();
 
-    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> a
+    IModelNodeItem<?, ?> nodeA
         = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(node2.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "a"))).iterator().next();
 
     Assertions.assertThat(actual.getValue()).isEqualTo(
         List.of(
-            a,
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(a.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(a.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
-            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(a.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next()));
+            nodeA,
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeA.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "x"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeA.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "y"))).iterator().next(),
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(nodeA.getModelItemsByName(new QName(NS, "z"))).iterator().next()));
   }
 }
diff --git a/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/item/node/MockNodeItemFactory.java b/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/item/node/MockNodeItemFactory.java
index bf6d73e12..9543bf819 100644
--- a/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/item/node/MockNodeItemFactory.java
+++ b/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/metapath/item/node/MockNodeItemFactory.java
@@ -30,10 +30,6 @@
 @SuppressWarnings("checkstyle:MissingJavadocMethodCheck")
 @SuppressFBWarnings("RV_RETURN_VALUE_IGNORED_NO_SIDE_EFFECT")
 public class MockNodeItemFactory {
-  @SuppressWarnings("exports")
-  public MockNodeItemFactory() {
-  }
-
   @SuppressWarnings("null")
   @NonNull
   protected <T extends INodeItem> T newMock(@NonNull Class<T> clazz, @NonNull String name) {
@@ -44,7 +40,7 @@ protected <T extends INodeItem> T newMock(@NonNull Class<T> clazz, @NonNull Stri
         .append('-')
         .append(UUID.randomUUID().toString())
         .toString();
-    return Mockito.mock(clazz, withSettings().defaultAnswer(Answers.CALLS_REAL_METHODS));
+    return Mockito.mock(clazz, withSettings().name(mockName).defaultAnswer(Answers.CALLS_REAL_METHODS));
   }
 
   @NonNull
diff --git a/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/model/constraint/DefaultConstraintValidatorTest.java b/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/model/constraint/DefaultConstraintValidatorTest.java
index 854c40361..e82b3dfd6 100644
--- a/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/model/constraint/DefaultConstraintValidatorTest.java
+++ b/core/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/core/model/constraint/DefaultConstraintValidatorTest.java
@@ -30,8 +30,6 @@
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.ISource;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CollectionUtil;
 
-import org.jmock.api.Invocation;
-import org.jmock.lib.action.CustomAction;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
 import java.net.URI;
@@ -70,8 +68,6 @@ void testAllowedValuesAllowOther() {
         .allowsOther(true)
         .build();
 
-    DynamicContext dynamicContext = new DynamicContext();
-
     doReturn(flagDefinition).when(flag).getDefinition();
     doReturn("flag/path").when(flag).toPath(any(IPathFormatter.class));
 
@@ -85,6 +81,7 @@ void testAllowedValuesAllowOther() {
 
     FindingCollectingConstraintValidationHandler handler = new FindingCollectingConstraintValidationHandler();
     DefaultConstraintValidator validator = new DefaultConstraintValidator(handler);
+    DynamicContext dynamicContext = new DynamicContext();
     validator.validate(flag, dynamicContext);
     validator.finalizeValidation(dynamicContext);
 
@@ -121,8 +118,6 @@ void testAllowedValuesMultipleAllowOther() {
     List<? extends IAllowedValuesConstraint> allowedValuesConstraints
         = List.of(allowedValues1, allowedValues2);
 
-    DynamicContext dynamicContext = new DynamicContext();
-
     doReturn(flagDefinition).when(flag).getDefinition();
     doReturn("flag/path").when(flag).toPath(any(IPathFormatter.class));
 
@@ -136,6 +131,7 @@ void testAllowedValuesMultipleAllowOther() {
 
     FindingCollectingConstraintValidationHandler handler = new FindingCollectingConstraintValidationHandler();
     DefaultConstraintValidator validator = new DefaultConstraintValidator(handler);
+    DynamicContext dynamicContext = new DynamicContext();
     validator.validate(flag, dynamicContext);
     validator.finalizeValidation(dynamicContext);
 
@@ -206,23 +202,4 @@ void testMultipleAllowedValuesConflictingAllowOther() {
         () -> assertThat("only 1 finding", handler.getFindings(), hasSize(1)),
         () -> assertThat("finding is for a flag node", handler.getFindings(), hasItem(hasProperty("node", is(flag1)))));
   }
-
-  private static class FlagVisitorAction
-      extends CustomAction {
-    @NonNull
-    private DynamicContext dynamicContext;
-
-    public FlagVisitorAction(@NonNull DynamicContext dynamicContext) {
-      super("return the flag");
-      this.dynamicContext = dynamicContext;
-    }
-
-    @Override
-    public Object invoke(Invocation invocation) {
-      IFlagNodeItem thisFlag = (IFlagNodeItem) invocation.getInvokedObject();
-      assert thisFlag != null;
-      DefaultConstraintValidator.Visitor visitor = (DefaultConstraintValidator.Visitor) invocation.getParameter(0);
-      return visitor.visitFlag(thisFlag, dynamicContext);
-    }
-  }
 }
diff --git a/databind-metaschema/pom.xml b/databind-metaschema/pom.xml
index efffba434..ee9b3ab7c 100644
--- a/databind-metaschema/pom.xml
+++ b/databind-metaschema/pom.xml
@@ -38,11 +38,6 @@
 			<artifactId>metaschema-databind</artifactId>
 		</dependency>
 
-		<dependency>
-			<groupId>com.google.auto.service</groupId>
-			<artifactId>auto-service-annotations</artifactId>
-		</dependency>
-
 		<dependency>
 			<groupId>com.github.spotbugs</groupId>
 			<artifactId>spotbugs-annotations</artifactId>
diff --git a/databind-metaschema/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/modules/sarif/SarifValidationHandler.java b/databind-metaschema/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/modules/sarif/SarifValidationHandler.java
index 3211cf8e7..31b4e779b 100644
--- a/databind-metaschema/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/modules/sarif/SarifValidationHandler.java
+++ b/databind-metaschema/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/modules/sarif/SarifValidationHandler.java
@@ -45,6 +45,7 @@
 import java.net.URISyntaxException;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
 import java.nio.file.StandardOpenOption;
+import java.util.Collection;
 import java.util.LinkedHashMap;
 import java.util.LinkedList;
 import java.util.List;
@@ -56,6 +57,10 @@
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.Nullable;
 
+/**
+ * Supports building a Static Analysis Results Interchange Format (SARIF)
+ * document based on a set of validation findings.
+ */
 @SuppressWarnings("PMD.CouplingBetweenObjects")
 public final class SarifValidationHandler {
   private enum Kind {
@@ -99,15 +104,15 @@ public String getLabel() {
   }
 
   @NonNull
-  public static final String SARIF_NS = "https://docs.oasis-open.org/sarif/sarif/v2.1.0";
+  static final String SARIF_NS = "https://docs.oasis-open.org/sarif/sarif/v2.1.0";
   @NonNull
-  public static final IAttributable.Key SARIF_HELP_URL_KEY
+  static final IAttributable.Key SARIF_HELP_URL_KEY
       = IAttributable.key("help-url", SARIF_NS);
   @NonNull
-  public static final IAttributable.Key SARIF_HELP_TEXT_KEY
+  static final IAttributable.Key SARIF_HELP_TEXT_KEY
       = IAttributable.key("help-text", SARIF_NS);
   @NonNull
-  public static final IAttributable.Key SARIF_HELP_MARKDOWN_KEY
+  static final IAttributable.Key SARIF_HELP_MARKDOWN_KEY
       = IAttributable.key("help-markdown", SARIF_NS);
 
   @NonNull
@@ -131,6 +136,15 @@ public String getLabel() {
   private final SchemaRuleRecord schemaRule = new SchemaRuleRecord();
   private boolean schemaValid = true;
 
+  /**
+   * Construct a new validation handler.
+   *
+   * @param source
+   *          the URI of the content that was validated
+   * @param toolVersion
+   *          the version information for the tool producing the validation
+   *          results
+   */
   public SarifValidationHandler(
       @NonNull URI source,
       @Nullable IVersionInfo toolVersion) {
@@ -147,17 +161,29 @@ private URI getSource() {
     return source;
   }
 
-  public IVersionInfo getToolVersion() {
+  private IVersionInfo getToolVersion() {
     return toolVersion;
   }
 
-  public void addFindings(@NonNull List<? extends IValidationFinding> findings) {
+  /**
+   * Register a collection of validation finding.
+   *
+   * @param findings
+   *          the findings to register
+   */
+  public void addFindings(@NonNull Collection<? extends IValidationFinding> findings) {
     for (IValidationFinding finding : findings) {
       assert finding != null;
       addFinding(finding);
     }
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Register a validation finding.
+   *
+   * @param finding
+   *          the finding to register
+   */
   public void addFinding(@NonNull IValidationFinding finding) {
     if (finding instanceof JsonValidationFinding) {
       addJsonValidationFinding((JsonValidationFinding) finding);
@@ -207,7 +233,20 @@ private void addConstraintValidationFinding(@NonNull ConstraintValidationFinding
     results.add(new ConstraintResult(finding));
   }
 
-  public void write(@NonNull Path outputFile) throws IOException {
+  /**
+   * Write the collection of findings to the provided output file.
+   *
+   * @param outputFile
+   *          the path to the output file to write to
+   * @param bindingContext
+   *          the context used to access Metaschema module information based on
+   *          Java class bindings
+   * @throws IOException
+   *           if an error occurred while writing the SARIF file
+   */
+  public void write(
+      @NonNull Path outputFile,
+      @NonNull IBindingContext bindingContext) throws IOException {
 
     URI output = ObjectUtils.notNull(outputFile.toUri());
 
@@ -246,7 +285,6 @@ public void write(@NonNull Path outputFile) throws IOException {
       run.setTool(tool);
     }
 
-    IBindingContext bindingContext = IBindingContext.newInstance();
     bindingContext.registerModule(SarifModule.class);
     bindingContext.newSerializer(Format.JSON, Sarif.class)
         .disableFeature(SerializationFeature.SERIALIZE_ROOT)
@@ -428,7 +466,8 @@ public List<Result> generateResults(@NonNull URI output) throws IOException {
         assert constraint != null;
         ConstraintRuleRecord rule = getRuleRecord(constraint);
 
-        @SuppressWarnings("PMD.AvoidInstantiatingObjectsInLoops") Result result = new Result();
+        @SuppressWarnings("PMD.AvoidInstantiatingObjectsInLoops")
+        Result result = new Result();
 
         String id = constraint.getId();
         if (id != null) {
diff --git a/databind-metaschema/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/modules/sarif/SarifValidationHandlerTest.java b/databind-metaschema/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/modules/sarif/SarifValidationHandlerTest.java
index 9dce9a8d1..76b3488ac 100644
--- a/databind-metaschema/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/modules/sarif/SarifValidationHandlerTest.java
+++ b/databind-metaschema/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/modules/sarif/SarifValidationHandlerTest.java
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.validation.IValidationFinding;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.IVersionInfo;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.IBindingContext;
 
 import org.jmock.Expectations;
 import org.jmock.junit5.JUnit5Mockery;
@@ -110,7 +111,7 @@ void testValid() throws IOException {
 
     // no need to cleanup this file, since it is created in the target directory
     Path sarifFile = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(Paths.get("target/test.sarif"));
-    handler.write(sarifFile);
+    handler.write(sarifFile, IBindingContext.newInstance());
 
     Path sarifSchema = Paths.get("modules/sarif/sarif-schema-2.1.0.json");
 
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/AbstractModuleLoaderStrategy.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/AbstractModuleLoaderStrategy.java
index fe5ba18d2..148b067cb 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/AbstractModuleLoaderStrategy.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/AbstractModuleLoaderStrategy.java
@@ -95,7 +95,7 @@ public IBoundModule registerModule(
   }
 
   @NonNull
-  protected abstract Class<? extends IBoundModule> handleUnboundModule(IModule key);
+  protected abstract Class<? extends IBoundModule> handleUnboundModule(@NonNull IModule key);
 
   /**
    * Get the Module instance for a given class annotated by the
@@ -106,6 +106,8 @@ public IBoundModule registerModule(
    *
    * @param moduleClass
    *          the Module class
+   * @param bindingContext
+   *          the Metaschema binding context used to lookup binding information
    * @return the new Module instance
    */
   @NonNull
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/DefaultBindingContext.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/DefaultBindingContext.java
index 4558b2a2d..d34994a07 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/DefaultBindingContext.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/DefaultBindingContext.java
@@ -125,8 +125,6 @@ public final IBoundModule registerModule(@NonNull Class<? extends IBoundModule>
    * Get the binding matchers that are associated with this class.
    *
    * @return the list of matchers
-   * @see #registerBindingMatcher(Class)
-   * @see #registerBindingMatcher(IBoundDefinitionModelAssembly)
    */
   @NonNull
   protected Collection<IBindingMatcher> getBindingMatchers() {
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/IBindingContext.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/IBindingContext.java
index 5f1f0e631..890092d85 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/IBindingContext.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/IBindingContext.java
@@ -257,8 +257,6 @@ default IConstraintLoader newConstraintLoader() {
    *
    * @param module
    *          the Module module to generate classes for
-   * @param compilePath
-   *          the path to the directory to generate classes in
    * @return the registered module, which may be a different instance than what
    *         was provided if dynamic compilation was performed
    * @throws UnsupportedOperationException
@@ -304,7 +302,6 @@ default IBoundModule registerModule(@NonNull IModule module) {
    * @param rootQName
    *          the root XML element's QName
    * @return the bound class or {@code null} if not recognized
-   * @see IBindingContext#registerBindingMatcher(Class)
    */
   @Nullable
   Class<? extends IBoundObject> getBoundClassForRootXmlQName(@NonNull QName rootQName);
@@ -316,7 +313,6 @@ default IBoundModule registerModule(@NonNull IModule module) {
    * @param rootName
    *          the JSON/YAML property/item name
    * @return the bound class or {@code null} if not recognized
-   * @see IBindingContext#registerBindingMatcher(Class)
    */
   @Nullable
   Class<? extends IBoundObject> getBoundClassForRootJsonName(@NonNull String rootName);
@@ -830,7 +826,8 @@ default IValidationResult validateWithSchema(
       switch (asFormat) {
       case JSON: {
         JSONObject json;
-        try (@SuppressWarnings("resource") InputStream is
+        try (@SuppressWarnings("resource")
+        InputStream is
             = new BufferedInputStream(ObjectUtils.notNull(targetResource.openStream()))) {
           json = new JSONObject(new JSONTokener(is));
         }
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/PostProcessingModuleLoaderStrategy.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/PostProcessingModuleLoaderStrategy.java
index 8186e9075..b2d05c400 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/PostProcessingModuleLoaderStrategy.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/PostProcessingModuleLoaderStrategy.java
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ public IBoundModule loadModule(Class<? extends IBoundModule> clazz, IBindingCont
 
   @Override
   public void postProcessModule(IModule module, IBindingContext bindingContext) {
-    processModule(module, bindingContext);
+    processModule(module);
     delegate.postProcessModule(module, bindingContext);
   }
 
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ public IBoundModule registerModule(IModule module, IBindingContext bindingContex
     postProcessedModulesLock.lock();
     try {
       // process before registering
-      processModule(module, bindingContext);
+      processModule(module);
 
       boundModule = delegate.registerModule(module, bindingContext);
 
@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ public IBoundModule registerModule(IModule module, IBindingContext bindingContex
     return boundModule;
   }
 
-  protected void processModule(IModule module, IBindingContext bindingContext) {
+  private void processModule(@NonNull IModule module) {
     postProcessedModulesLock.lock();
     try {
       if (!postProcessedModules.contains(module)) {
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/RootAssemblyBindingMatcher.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/RootAssemblyBindingMatcher.java
index 40ab248f2..838da028c 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/RootAssemblyBindingMatcher.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/RootAssemblyBindingMatcher.java
@@ -51,4 +51,9 @@ public Class<? extends IBoundObject> getBoundClassForXmlQName(QName rootQName) {
   public Class<? extends IBoundObject> getBoundClassForJsonName(String rootName) {
     return getRootJsonName().equals(rootName) ? getClazz() : null;
   }
+
+  @Override
+  public String toString() {
+    return getDefinition().getRootXmlQName().toString();
+  }
 }
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/JavaCompilerSupport.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/JavaCompilerSupport.java
index fcf9e731a..ffce169e7 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/JavaCompilerSupport.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/JavaCompilerSupport.java
@@ -94,8 +94,8 @@ protected List<String> generateCompilerOptions() {
   /**
    * Generate and compile Java classes.
    *
-   * @param classDir
-   *          the directory to generate the classes in
+   * @param classFiles
+   *          the files to compile
    * @param compileOut
    *          a Writer for additional output from the compiler; use System.err if
    *          null
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/ModuleCompilerHelper.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/ModuleCompilerHelper.java
index e9ee84b17..becb466b4 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/ModuleCompilerHelper.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/ModuleCompilerHelper.java
@@ -116,9 +116,9 @@ public static IProduction compileModule(
     IProduction production = JavaGenerator.generate(module, classDir, bindingConfiguration);
     List<IGeneratedClass> classesToCompile = production.getGeneratedClasses().collect(Collectors.toList());
 
-    List<Path> classes = classesToCompile.stream()
+    List<Path> classes = ObjectUtils.notNull(classesToCompile.stream()
         .map(IGeneratedClass::getClassFile)
-        .collect(Collectors.toUnmodifiableList());
+        .collect(Collectors.toUnmodifiableList()));
 
     JavaCompilerSupport compiler = new JavaCompilerSupport(classDir);
 
@@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ public static IProduction compileModule(
       ModuleDescriptor descriptor = databindModule.getDescriptor();
       if (descriptor != null) {
         // add the databind module to the task
-        compiler.addRootModule(descriptor.name());
+        compiler.addRootModule(ObjectUtils.notNull(descriptor.name()));
         usingModule = true;
       }
     }
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/typeinfo/DefaultMetaschemaClassFactory.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/typeinfo/DefaultMetaschemaClassFactory.java
index faf19be57..9e4b0cfb8 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/typeinfo/DefaultMetaschemaClassFactory.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/typeinfo/DefaultMetaschemaClassFactory.java
@@ -231,8 +231,8 @@ public IGeneratedClass generatePackageInfoClass(
   }
 
   /**
-   * Creates and configures a builder, for a Module module, that can be used to
-   * generate a Java class.
+   * Creates and configures a builder for a module that can be used to generate a
+   * Java class.
    *
    * @param module
    *          a parsed Module module
@@ -251,51 +251,7 @@ protected TypeSpec.Builder newClassBuilder(
         .addModifiers(Modifier.FINAL);
 
     builder.superclass(AbstractBoundModule.class);
-
-    AnnotationSpec.Builder moduleAnnotation = AnnotationSpec.builder(MetaschemaModule.class);
-
-    ITypeResolver typeResolver = getTypeResolver();
-    for (IFieldDefinition definition : module.getFieldDefinitions()) {
-      if (definition.hasChildren()) {
-        moduleAnnotation.addMember("fields", "$T.class", typeResolver.getClassName(definition));
-      }
-    }
-
-    for (IAssemblyDefinition definition : module.getAssemblyDefinitions()) {
-      moduleAnnotation.addMember(
-          "assemblies",
-          "$T.class",
-          typeResolver.getClassName(ObjectUtils.notNull(definition)));
-    }
-
-    for (IModule moduleImport : module.getImportedModules()) {
-      moduleAnnotation.addMember(
-          "imports",
-          "$T.class",
-          typeResolver.getClassName(ObjectUtils.notNull(moduleImport)));
-    }
-
-    Map<String, String> bindings = module.getNamespaceBindings();
-    if (!bindings.isEmpty()) {
-      for (Map.Entry<String, String> binding : bindings.entrySet()) {
-        moduleAnnotation.addMember(
-            "nsBindings",
-            "$L",
-            AnnotationSpec.builder(NsBinding.class)
-                .addMember("prefix", "$S", binding.getKey())
-                .addMember("uri", "$S", binding.getValue())
-                .build());
-      }
-    }
-
-    {
-      MarkupMultiline remarks = module.getRemarks();
-      if (remarks != null) {
-        moduleAnnotation.addMember("remarks", "$S", remarks.toMarkdown());
-      }
-    }
-
-    builder.addAnnotation(moduleAnnotation.build());
+    builder.addAnnotation(buildModuleAnnotation(module).build());
 
     builder.addField(
         FieldSpec.builder(MarkupLine.class, "NAME", Modifier.PRIVATE, Modifier.STATIC, Modifier.FINAL)
@@ -477,6 +433,50 @@ protected TypeSpec.Builder newClassBuilder(
     return ObjectUtils.notNull(builder);
   }
 
+  private AnnotationSpec.Builder buildModuleAnnotation(@NonNull IModule module) {
+    AnnotationSpec.Builder retval = AnnotationSpec.builder(MetaschemaModule.class);
+
+    ITypeResolver typeResolver = getTypeResolver();
+    for (IFieldDefinition definition : module.getFieldDefinitions()) {
+      if (definition.hasChildren()) {
+        retval.addMember("fields", "$T.class", typeResolver.getClassName(definition));
+      }
+    }
+
+    for (IAssemblyDefinition definition : module.getAssemblyDefinitions()) {
+      retval.addMember(
+          "assemblies",
+          "$T.class",
+          typeResolver.getClassName(ObjectUtils.notNull(definition)));
+    }
+
+    for (IModule moduleImport : module.getImportedModules()) {
+      retval.addMember(
+          "imports",
+          "$T.class",
+          typeResolver.getClassName(ObjectUtils.notNull(moduleImport)));
+    }
+
+    Map<String, String> bindings = module.getNamespaceBindings();
+    if (!bindings.isEmpty()) {
+      for (Map.Entry<String, String> binding : bindings.entrySet()) {
+        retval.addMember(
+            "nsBindings",
+            "$L",
+            AnnotationSpec.builder(NsBinding.class)
+                .addMember("prefix", "$S", binding.getKey())
+                .addMember("uri", "$S", binding.getValue())
+                .build());
+      }
+    }
+
+    MarkupMultiline remarks = module.getRemarks();
+    if (remarks != null) {
+      retval.addMember("remarks", "$S", remarks.toMarkdown());
+    }
+    return retval;
+  }
+
   /**
    * Generate the contents of the class represented by the provided
    * {@code builder}.
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/typeinfo/FlagInstanceTypeInfoImpl.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/typeinfo/FlagInstanceTypeInfoImpl.java
index 3d3972425..7f81c0b90 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/typeinfo/FlagInstanceTypeInfoImpl.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/codegen/typeinfo/FlagInstanceTypeInfoImpl.java
@@ -54,10 +54,29 @@ public Set<IModelDefinition> buildField(
       FieldSpec.Builder fieldBuilder) {
     super.buildField(typeBuilder, fieldBuilder);
 
-    AnnotationSpec.Builder annotation = AnnotationSpec.builder(BoundFlag.class);
-
     IFlagInstance instance = getInstance();
 
+    fieldBuilder.addAnnotation(buildBoundFlagAnnotation(instance).build());
+
+    IModelDefinition parent = instance.getContainingDefinition();
+    IFlagInstance jsonKey = parent.getJsonKey();
+    if (instance.equals(jsonKey)) {
+      fieldBuilder.addAnnotation(JsonKey.class);
+    }
+
+    if (parent instanceof IFieldDefinition) {
+      IFieldDefinition parentField = (IFieldDefinition) parent;
+
+      if (parentField.hasJsonValueKeyFlagInstance() && instance.equals(parentField.getJsonValueKeyFlagInstance())) {
+        fieldBuilder.addAnnotation(JsonFieldValueKeyFlag.class);
+      }
+    }
+    return CollectionUtil.emptySet();
+  }
+
+  private static AnnotationSpec.Builder buildBoundFlagAnnotation(@NonNull IFlagInstance instance) {
+    AnnotationSpec.Builder annotation = AnnotationSpec.builder(BoundFlag.class);
+
     String formalName = instance.getEffectiveFormalName();
     if (formalName != null) {
       annotation.addMember("formalName", "$S", formalName);
@@ -97,21 +116,6 @@ public Set<IModelDefinition> buildField(
 
     AnnotationGenerator.buildValueConstraints(annotation, definition);
 
-    fieldBuilder.addAnnotation(annotation.build());
-
-    IModelDefinition parent = instance.getContainingDefinition();
-    IFlagInstance jsonKey = parent.getJsonKey();
-    if (instance.equals(jsonKey)) {
-      fieldBuilder.addAnnotation(JsonKey.class);
-    }
-
-    if (parent instanceof IFieldDefinition) {
-      IFieldDefinition parentField = (IFieldDefinition) parent;
-
-      if (parentField.hasJsonValueKeyFlagInstance() && instance.equals(parentField.getJsonValueKeyFlagInstance())) {
-        fieldBuilder.addAnnotation(JsonFieldValueKeyFlag.class);
-      }
-    }
-    return CollectionUtil.emptySet();
+    return annotation;
   }
 }
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/io/json/MetaschemaJsonReader.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/io/json/MetaschemaJsonReader.java
index 9a786cd3f..1efd9003f 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/io/json/MetaschemaJsonReader.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/io/json/MetaschemaJsonReader.java
@@ -431,7 +431,7 @@ private IBoundObject readComplexDefinitionObject(
     IBoundObject item = definition.newInstance(
         JsonLocation.NA.equals(location)
             ? null
-            : () -> new MetaschemaData(location));
+            : () -> new MetaschemaData(ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(location)));
 
     try {
       // call pre-parse initialization hook
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/io/xml/MetaschemaXmlReader.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/io/xml/MetaschemaXmlReader.java
index 39acfecba..ed3d15ec6 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/io/xml/MetaschemaXmlReader.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/io/xml/MetaschemaXmlReader.java
@@ -146,8 +146,9 @@ public <CLASS> CLASS read(@NonNull IBoundDefinitionModelComplex definition) thro
       ItemReadHandler handler = new ItemReadHandler(ObjectUtils.notNull(event.asStartElement()));
       Object value = definition.readItem(null, handler);
       if (value == null) {
-        throw new IOException(String.format("Unable to read data%s",
-            XmlEventUtil.generateLocationMessage(reader.peek())));
+        event = reader.peek();
+        throw new IOException(String.format("Unable to read data.%s",
+            event == null ? "" : XmlEventUtil.generateLocationMessage(event)));
       }
 
       return ObjectUtils.asType(value);
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/IBoundDefinitionModelComplex.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/IBoundDefinitionModelComplex.java
index 59036b177..3ae7306d0 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/IBoundDefinitionModelComplex.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/IBoundDefinitionModelComplex.java
@@ -26,11 +26,6 @@ public interface IBoundDefinitionModelComplex
   @NonNull
   Map<String, IBoundProperty<?>> getJsonProperties(@Nullable Predicate<IBoundInstanceFlag> flagFilter);
 
-  @Override
-  default boolean isInline() {
-    return getBoundClass().getEnclosingClass() != null;
-  }
-
   @Nullable
   Method getBeforeDeserializeMethod();
 
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/IBoundInstanceModelField.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/IBoundInstanceModelField.java
index fa0d02f35..b2a36b9cf 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/IBoundInstanceModelField.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/IBoundInstanceModelField.java
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.datatype.IDataTypeAdapter;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IBoundObject;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IFieldInstanceAbsolute;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.IBindingContext;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.model.impl.DefinitionField;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.model.impl.InstanceModelFieldComplex;
@@ -42,8 +43,8 @@ static IBoundInstanceModelField<?> newInstance(
     IBoundInstanceModelField<?> retval;
     if (IBoundObject.class.isAssignableFrom(itemType)) {
       IBindingContext bindingContext = containingDefinition.getBindingContext();
-      IBoundDefinitionModel<?> definition
-          = bindingContext.getBoundDefinitionForClass(itemType.asSubclass(IBoundObject.class));
+      IBoundDefinitionModel<?> definition = bindingContext.getBoundDefinitionForClass(
+          ObjectUtils.notNull(itemType.asSubclass(IBoundObject.class)));
       if (definition == null) {
         throw new IllegalStateException(String.format(
             "The field '%s' on class '%s' is not bound to a Metaschema field",
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/impl/AbstractBoundDefinitionModelComplex.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/impl/AbstractBoundDefinitionModelComplex.java
index b05c8e1ca..e175ef956 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/impl/AbstractBoundDefinitionModelComplex.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/impl/AbstractBoundDefinitionModelComplex.java
@@ -96,11 +96,6 @@ public final QName getDefinitionQName() {
     return definitionQName.get();
   }
 
-  @Override
-  public boolean isInline() {
-    return getBoundClass().getEnclosingClass() != null;
-  }
-
   @Override
   public Method getBeforeDeserializeMethod() {
     return beforeDeserializeMethod;
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/impl/DefinitionAssembly.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/impl/DefinitionAssembly.java
index 068ad33e2..436dbb775 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/impl/DefinitionAssembly.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/impl/DefinitionAssembly.java
@@ -74,6 +74,10 @@ public final class DefinitionAssembly
    *
    * @param clazz
    *          the class the assembly is bound to
+   * @param annotation
+   *          the binding annotation associated with this class
+   * @param module
+   *          the module containing this class
    * @param bindingContext
    *          the Metaschema binding context managing this class used to lookup
    *          binding information
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/impl/DefinitionField.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/impl/DefinitionField.java
index b9f3e2359..0c38d771d 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/impl/DefinitionField.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/impl/DefinitionField.java
@@ -95,6 +95,10 @@ private static Field getFieldValueField(Class<?> clazz) {
    *
    * @param clazz
    *          the Java class the definition is bound to
+   * @param annotation
+   *          the binding annotation associated with this class
+   * @param module
+   *          the module containing this class
    * @param bindingContext
    *          the Metaschema binding context managing this class used to lookup
    *          binding information
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/BindingConstraintLoader.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/BindingConstraintLoader.java
index caf09412b..fd60dc82e 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/BindingConstraintLoader.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/BindingConstraintLoader.java
@@ -153,10 +153,11 @@ protected List<IConstraintSet> parseResource(@NonNull URI resource, @NonNull Deq
 
       ISource source = ISource.externalSource(builder.build());
 
-      List<ITargetedConstraints> targetedConstraints = CollectionUtil.listOrEmpty(obj.getContexts()).stream()
+      List<ITargetedConstraints> targetedConstraints = ObjectUtils.notNull(CollectionUtil.listOrEmpty(obj.getContexts())
+          .stream()
           .flatMap(context -> parseContext(ObjectUtils.notNull(context), null, source)
               .getTargetedConstraints().stream())
-          .collect(Collectors.toList());
+          .collect(Collectors.toList()));
       retval.add(new MetaConstraintSet(targetedConstraints));
 
       retval = CollectionUtil.unmodifiableList(retval);
@@ -263,17 +264,17 @@ private Context parseContext(
 
     List<String> metapaths;
     if (parent == null) {
-      metapaths = CollectionUtil.listOrEmpty(contextObj.getMetapaths()).stream()
+      metapaths = ObjectUtils.notNull(CollectionUtil.listOrEmpty(contextObj.getMetapaths()).stream()
           .map(MetaschemaMetapath::getTarget)
-          .collect(Collectors.toList());
+          .collect(Collectors.toList()));
     } else {
       List<String> parentMetapaths = parent.getMetapaths().stream()
           .collect(Collectors.toList());
-      metapaths = CollectionUtil.listOrEmpty(contextObj.getMetapaths()).stream()
+      metapaths = ObjectUtils.notNull(CollectionUtil.listOrEmpty(contextObj.getMetapaths()).stream()
           .map(MetaschemaMetapath::getTarget)
           .flatMap(childPath -> parentMetapaths.stream()
               .map(parentPath -> parentPath + '/' + childPath))
-          .collect(Collectors.toList());
+          .collect(Collectors.toList()));
     }
 
     AssemblyConstraints contextConstraints = contextObj.getConstraints();
@@ -283,9 +284,9 @@ private Context parseContext(
     }
     Context context = new Context(metapaths, constraints);
 
-    List<Context> childContexts = CollectionUtil.listOrEmpty(contextObj.getContexts()).stream()
+    List<Context> childContexts = ObjectUtils.notNull(CollectionUtil.listOrEmpty(contextObj.getContexts()).stream()
         .map(childObj -> parseContext(ObjectUtils.notNull(childObj), context, source))
-        .collect(Collectors.toList());
+        .collect(Collectors.toList()));
 
     context.addAll(childContexts);
 
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/BindingModuleLoader.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/BindingModuleLoader.java
index dd0b35bd0..b6bcc7248 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/BindingModuleLoader.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/BindingModuleLoader.java
@@ -56,6 +56,8 @@ public class BindingModuleLoader
    *
    * @param bindingContext
    *          the Metaschema binding context used to load bound resources
+   * @param postProcessor
+   *          the post processor to use when after loading a module
    */
   public BindingModuleLoader(
       @NonNull IBindingContext bindingContext,
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/AbstractBindingModelContainerSupport.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/AbstractBindingModelContainerSupport.java
index 0a6b457ba..c92d3fc6a 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/AbstractBindingModelContainerSupport.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/AbstractBindingModelContainerSupport.java
@@ -7,6 +7,8 @@
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IAssemblyDefinition;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IAssemblyInstanceAbsolute;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IChoiceGroupInstance;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IChoiceInstance;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IContainerModelAbsolute;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IContainerModelSupport;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IFieldDefinition;
@@ -55,6 +57,22 @@ protected static void addInstance(
     fieldInstances.put(effectiveName, field);
   }
 
+  protected static void addInstance(
+      @NonNull IChoiceInstance choice,
+      @NonNull List<IModelInstanceAbsolute> modelInstances,
+      @NonNull List<IChoiceInstance> choiceInstances) {
+    modelInstances.add(choice);
+    choiceInstances.add(choice);
+  }
+
+  protected static void addInstance(
+      @NonNull IChoiceGroupInstance choiceGroup,
+      @NonNull List<IModelInstanceAbsolute> modelInstances,
+      @NonNull Map<String, IChoiceGroupInstance> choiceGroupInstances) {
+    modelInstances.add(choiceGroup);
+    choiceGroupInstances.put(choiceGroup.getGroupAsName(), choiceGroup);
+  }
+
   @NonNull
   protected static IAssemblyInstanceAbsolute newInstance(
       @NonNull AssemblyReference obj,
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/AssemblyModelContainerSupport.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/AssemblyModelContainerSupport.java
index c995d6170..63bf64851 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/AssemblyModelContainerSupport.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/AssemblyModelContainerSupport.java
@@ -31,6 +31,7 @@
 import java.util.LinkedList;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
 
 import javax.xml.namespace.QName;
 
@@ -95,7 +96,11 @@ IChoiceGroupInstance> of(
    * @param nodeItemFactory
    *          the node item factory used to generate child nodes
    */
-  @SuppressWarnings({ "PMD.AvoidInstantiatingObjectsInLoops", "PMD.UseConcurrentHashMap", "PMD.PrematureDeclaration" })
+  @SuppressWarnings({
+      "PMD.AvoidInstantiatingObjectsInLoops",
+      "PMD.UseConcurrentHashMap",
+      "PMD.PrematureDeclaration",
+      "PMD.NPathComplexity" })
   @SuppressFBWarnings(value = "CT_CONSTRUCTOR_THROW", justification = "Use of final fields")
   protected AssemblyModelContainerSupport(
       @NonNull AssemblyModel model,
@@ -112,17 +117,17 @@ protected AssemblyModelContainerSupport(
     final Map<String, IChoiceGroupInstance> choiceGroupInstances = new LinkedHashMap<>();
 
     // create counters to track child positions
-    int assemblyReferencePosition = 0;
-    int assemblyInlineDefinitionPosition = 0;
-    int fieldReferencePosition = 0;
-    int fieldInlineDefinitionPosition = 0;
-    int choicePosition = 0;
-    int choiceGroupPosition = 0;
-
-    // TODO: make "instances" a constant
+    AtomicInteger assemblyReferencePosition = new AtomicInteger();
+    AtomicInteger assemblyInlineDefinitionPosition = new AtomicInteger();
+    AtomicInteger fieldReferencePosition = new AtomicInteger();
+    AtomicInteger fieldInlineDefinitionPosition = new AtomicInteger();
+    AtomicInteger choicePosition = new AtomicInteger();
+    AtomicInteger choiceGroupPosition = new AtomicInteger();
+
     IBoundInstanceModelChoiceGroup instance = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(
-        modelInstance.getDefinition().getChoiceGroupInstanceByName("instances"));
-    for (Object obj : ObjectUtils.notNull(model.getInstances())) {
+        modelInstance.getDefinition()
+            .getChoiceGroupInstanceByName(BindingConstants.METASCHEMA_CHOICE_GROUP_GROUP_AS_NAME));
+    ObjectUtils.notNull(model.getInstances()).forEach(obj -> {
       assert obj != null;
 
       IBoundInstanceModelGroupedAssembly objInstance
@@ -132,14 +137,14 @@ protected AssemblyModelContainerSupport(
         IAssemblyInstanceAbsolute assembly = newInstance(
             (AssemblyReference) obj,
             objInstance,
-            assemblyReferencePosition++,
+            assemblyReferencePosition.getAndIncrement(),
             parent);
         addInstance(assembly, modelInstances, namedModelInstances, assemblyInstances);
       } else if (obj instanceof InlineDefineAssembly) {
         IAssemblyInstanceAbsolute assembly = new InstanceModelAssemblyInline(
             (InlineDefineAssembly) obj,
             objInstance,
-            assemblyInlineDefinitionPosition++,
+            assemblyInlineDefinitionPosition.getAndIncrement(),
             parent,
             nodeItemFactory);
         addInstance(assembly, modelInstances, namedModelInstances, assemblyInstances);
@@ -147,38 +152,36 @@ protected AssemblyModelContainerSupport(
         IFieldInstanceAbsolute field = newInstance(
             (FieldReference) obj,
             objInstance,
-            fieldReferencePosition++,
+            fieldReferencePosition.getAndIncrement(),
             parent);
         addInstance(field, modelInstances, namedModelInstances, fieldInstances);
       } else if (obj instanceof InlineDefineField) {
         IFieldInstanceAbsolute field = new InstanceModelFieldInline(
             (InlineDefineField) obj,
             objInstance,
-            fieldInlineDefinitionPosition++,
+            fieldInlineDefinitionPosition.getAndIncrement(),
             parent);
         addInstance(field, modelInstances, namedModelInstances, fieldInstances);
       } else if (obj instanceof AssemblyModel.Choice) {
         IChoiceInstance choice = new InstanceModelChoice(
             (Choice) obj,
             objInstance,
-            choicePosition++,
+            choicePosition.getAndIncrement(),
             parent,
             nodeItemFactory);
-        modelInstances.add(choice);
-        choiceInstances.add(choice);
+        addInstance(choice, modelInstances, choiceInstances);
       } else if (obj instanceof AssemblyModel.ChoiceGroup) {
         IChoiceGroupInstance choiceGroup = new InstanceModelChoiceGroup(
             (ChoiceGroup) obj,
             objInstance,
-            choiceGroupPosition++,
+            choiceGroupPosition.getAndIncrement(),
             parent,
             nodeItemFactory);
-        modelInstances.add(choiceGroup);
-        choiceGroupInstances.put(choiceGroup.getGroupAsName(), choiceGroup);
+        addInstance(choiceGroup, modelInstances, choiceGroupInstances);
       } else {
         throw new UnsupportedOperationException(String.format("Unknown model instance class: %s", obj.getClass()));
       }
-    }
+    });
 
     this.modelInstances = modelInstances.isEmpty()
         ? CollectionUtil.emptyList()
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/BindingConstants.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/BindingConstants.java
index 8d257fdaf..7442e8991 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/BindingConstants.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/BindingConstants.java
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ public final class BindingConstants {
   public static final String METASCHEMA_FIELD_INLINE_DEFINTION_NAME = "define-field";
   public static final String METASCHEMA_CHOICE_NAME = "choice";
   public static final String METASCHEMA_CHOICE_GROUP_NAME = "choice-group";
+  public static final String METASCHEMA_CHOICE_GROUP_GROUP_AS_NAME = "instances";
 
   private BindingConstants() {
     // disable construction
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/ChoiceModelContainerSupport.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/ChoiceModelContainerSupport.java
index ed3baa834..47ccfe812 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/ChoiceModelContainerSupport.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/ChoiceModelContainerSupport.java
@@ -26,6 +26,7 @@
 import java.util.LinkedList;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
 
 import javax.xml.namespace.QName;
 
@@ -91,31 +92,35 @@ public ChoiceModelContainerSupport(
     final Map<QName, IAssemblyInstanceAbsolute> assemblyInstances = new LinkedHashMap<>();
 
     // create counters to track child positions
-    int assemblyReferencePosition = 0;
-    int assemblyInlineDefinitionPosition = 0;
-    int fieldReferencePosition = 0;
-    int fieldInlineDefinitionPosition = 0;
+    AtomicInteger assemblyReferencePosition = new AtomicInteger();
+    AtomicInteger assemblyInlineDefinitionPosition = new AtomicInteger();
+    AtomicInteger fieldReferencePosition = new AtomicInteger();
+    AtomicInteger fieldInlineDefinitionPosition = new AtomicInteger();
 
     // TODO: make "instances" a constant
     IBoundInstanceModelChoiceGroup instance = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(
         bindingInstance.getDefinition().getChoiceGroupInstanceByName("choices"));
-    for (Object obj : ObjectUtils.notNull(binding.getChoices())) {
+
+    ObjectUtils.notNull(binding.getChoices()).forEach(obj -> {
       assert obj != null;
       IBoundInstanceModelGroupedAssembly objInstance
           = (IBoundInstanceModelGroupedAssembly) instance.getItemInstance(obj);
 
       if (obj instanceof AssemblyReference) {
-        IAssemblyInstanceAbsolute assembly = newInstance(
-            (AssemblyReference) obj,
-            objInstance,
-            assemblyReferencePosition++,
-            parent);
-        addInstance(assembly, modelInstances, namedModelInstances, assemblyInstances);
+        addInstance(
+            newInstance(
+                (AssemblyReference) obj,
+                objInstance,
+                assemblyReferencePosition.getAndIncrement(),
+                parent),
+            modelInstances,
+            namedModelInstances,
+            assemblyInstances);
       } else if (obj instanceof InlineDefineAssembly) {
         IAssemblyInstanceAbsolute assembly = new InstanceModelAssemblyInline(
             (InlineDefineAssembly) obj,
             objInstance,
-            assemblyInlineDefinitionPosition++,
+            assemblyInlineDefinitionPosition.getAndIncrement(),
             parent,
             nodeItemFactory);
         addInstance(assembly, modelInstances, namedModelInstances, assemblyInstances);
@@ -123,20 +128,20 @@ public ChoiceModelContainerSupport(
         IFieldInstanceAbsolute field = newInstance(
             (FieldReference) obj,
             objInstance,
-            fieldReferencePosition++,
+            fieldReferencePosition.getAndIncrement(),
             parent);
         addInstance(field, modelInstances, namedModelInstances, fieldInstances);
       } else if (obj instanceof InlineDefineField) {
         IFieldInstanceAbsolute field = new InstanceModelFieldInline(
             (InlineDefineField) obj,
             objInstance,
-            fieldInlineDefinitionPosition++,
+            fieldInlineDefinitionPosition.getAndIncrement(),
             parent);
         addInstance(field, modelInstances, namedModelInstances, fieldInstances);
       } else {
         throw new UnsupportedOperationException(String.format("Unknown model instance class: %s", obj.getClass()));
       }
-    }
+    });
 
     this.modelInstances = modelInstances.isEmpty()
         ? CollectionUtil.emptyList()
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/DefinitionAssemblyGlobal.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/DefinitionAssemblyGlobal.java
index 775383e94..eb26ca01f 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/DefinitionAssemblyGlobal.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/DefinitionAssemblyGlobal.java
@@ -150,7 +150,7 @@ public IModelConstrained getConstraintSupport() {
 
   @Override
   public IAssemblyNodeItem getSourceNodeItem() {
-    return boundNodeItem.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(boundNodeItem.get());
   }
 
   @Override
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/DefinitionFieldGlobal.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/DefinitionFieldGlobal.java
index 322e80d9b..4fd235277 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/DefinitionFieldGlobal.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/DefinitionFieldGlobal.java
@@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ public Object getDefaultValue() {
 
   @Override
   public IAssemblyNodeItem getSourceNodeItem() {
-    return boundNodeItem.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(boundNodeItem.get());
   }
 
   // ---------------------------------------
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/DefinitionFlagGlobal.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/DefinitionFlagGlobal.java
index 6ef747f97..1e39ef713 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/DefinitionFlagGlobal.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/DefinitionFlagGlobal.java
@@ -148,6 +148,6 @@ public MarkupMultiline getRemarks() {
 
   @NonNull
   public INodeItem getNodeItem() {
-    return boundNodeItem.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(boundNodeItem.get());
   }
 }
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceFlagInline.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceFlagInline.java
index 7d74be671..1762c1989 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceFlagInline.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceFlagInline.java
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ public IValueConstrained getConstraintSupport() {
 
   @Override
   public IAssemblyNodeItem getSourceNodeItem() {
-    return boundNodeItem.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(boundNodeItem.get());
   }
 
   @Override
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceFlagReference.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceFlagReference.java
index 503c8724b..17a8726e1 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceFlagReference.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceFlagReference.java
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ public IBindingMetaschemaModule getContainingModule() {
 
   @Override
   public IAssemblyNodeItem getSourceNodeItem() {
-    return boundNodeItem.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(boundNodeItem.get());
   }
 
   @Override
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelAssemblyInline.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelAssemblyInline.java
index 20302e8a6..6fb4458c9 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelAssemblyInline.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelAssemblyInline.java
@@ -158,13 +158,12 @@ public IGroupAs getGroupAs() {
 
   @Override
   public IAssemblyNodeItem getSourceNodeItem() {
-    return boundNodeItem.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(boundNodeItem.get());
   }
 
-  @SuppressWarnings("null")
   @Override
   public IContainerFlagSupport<IFlagInstance> getFlagContainer() {
-    return flagContainer.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(flagContainer.get());
   }
 
   @Override
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelAssemblyReference.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelAssemblyReference.java
index 6c78f3c91..3d4f748b1 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelAssemblyReference.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelAssemblyReference.java
@@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ public IGroupAs getGroupAs() {
 
   @Override
   public IAssemblyNodeItem getSourceNodeItem() {
-    return boundNodeItem.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(boundNodeItem.get());
   }
 
   // ---------------------------------------
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelChoice.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelChoice.java
index 237bc22d1..9895d90c2 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelChoice.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelChoice.java
@@ -17,7 +17,6 @@
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.INamedModelInstanceAbsolute;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.model.IBoundInstanceModelGroupedAssembly;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.model.binding.metaschema.AssemblyModel;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.model.binding.metaschema.AssemblyModel.Choice;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.model.metaschema.IBindingDefinitionModelAssembly;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.model.metaschema.IBindingInstance;
@@ -35,8 +34,6 @@ public class InstanceModelChoice
         IAssemblyInstanceAbsolute>
     implements IBindingInstance {
   @NonNull
-  private final AssemblyModel.Choice binding;
-  @NonNull
   private final Lazy<IContainerModelSupport<
       IModelInstanceAbsolute,
       INamedModelInstanceAbsolute,
@@ -52,7 +49,6 @@ public InstanceModelChoice(
       @NonNull IBindingDefinitionModelAssembly parent,
       @NonNull INodeItemFactory nodeItemFactory) {
     super(parent);
-    this.binding = binding;
     this.modelContainer = ObjectUtils.notNull(Lazy.lazy(() -> ChoiceModelContainerSupport.of(
         binding,
         bindingInstance,
@@ -64,11 +60,6 @@ public InstanceModelChoice(
             .get(position)));
   }
 
-  @NonNull
-  protected AssemblyModel.Choice getBinding() {
-    return binding;
-  }
-
   @Override
   public IBindingMetaschemaModule getContainingModule() {
     return getContainingDefinition().getContainingModule();
@@ -85,7 +76,7 @@ IAssemblyInstanceAbsolute> getModelContainer() {
 
   @Override
   public IAssemblyNodeItem getSourceNodeItem() {
-    return boundNodeItem.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(boundNodeItem.get());
   }
 
   @Override
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelChoiceGroup.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelChoiceGroup.java
index 471ee20d2..ba0cdb768 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelChoiceGroup.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelChoiceGroup.java
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ public InstanceModelChoiceGroup(
   }
 
   @NonNull
-  protected AssemblyModel.ChoiceGroup getBinding() {
+  private AssemblyModel.ChoiceGroup getBinding() {
     return binding;
   }
 
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ public IGroupAs getGroupAs() {
 
   @Override
   public IAssemblyNodeItem getSourceNodeItem() {
-    return boundNodeItem.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(boundNodeItem.get());
   }
 
   // ---------------------------------------
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelFieldInline.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelFieldInline.java
index e0213d68d..1b2bf9c5b 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelFieldInline.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelFieldInline.java
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ public InstanceModelFieldInline(
   }
 
   @NonNull
-  protected InlineDefineField getBinding() {
+  private InlineDefineField getBinding() {
     return binding;
   }
 
@@ -144,7 +144,7 @@ public Object getDefaultValue() {
 
   @Override
   public IAssemblyNodeItem getSourceNodeItem() {
-    return boundNodeItem.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(boundNodeItem.get());
   }
 
   // ---------------------------------------
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelFieldReference.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelFieldReference.java
index f5a6cb7c2..afe7c8ffa 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelFieldReference.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelFieldReference.java
@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ public IFieldDefinition getDefinition() {
   }
 
   @NonNull
-  protected FieldReference getBinding() {
+  private FieldReference getBinding() {
     return binding;
   }
 
@@ -95,7 +95,7 @@ public IGroupAs getGroupAs() {
 
   @Override
   public IAssemblyNodeItem getSourceNodeItem() {
-    return boundNodeItem.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(boundNodeItem.get());
   }
 
   // ---------------------------------------
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedAssemblyInline.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedAssemblyInline.java
index a3a681b40..4e2781bae 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedAssemblyInline.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedAssemblyInline.java
@@ -111,7 +111,7 @@ public InstanceModelGroupedAssemblyInline(
   }
 
   @NonNull
-  protected AssemblyModel.ChoiceGroup.DefineAssembly getBinding() {
+  private AssemblyModel.ChoiceGroup.DefineAssembly getBinding() {
     return binding;
   }
 
@@ -148,7 +148,7 @@ public IModelConstrained getConstraintSupport() {
 
   @Override
   public IAssemblyNodeItem getSourceNodeItem() {
-    return boundNodeItem.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(boundNodeItem.get());
   }
 
   // ---------------------------------------
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedAssemblyReference.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedAssemblyReference.java
index 15a8f74d7..6b1442884 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedAssemblyReference.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedAssemblyReference.java
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ public IAssemblyDefinition getDefinition() {
   }
 
   @NonNull
-  protected AssemblyModel.ChoiceGroup.Assembly getBinding() {
+  private AssemblyModel.ChoiceGroup.Assembly getBinding() {
     return binding;
   }
 
@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ public Map<IAttributable.Key, Set<String>> getProperties() {
 
   @Override
   public IAssemblyNodeItem getSourceNodeItem() {
-    return boundNodeItem.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(boundNodeItem.get());
   }
 
   @Override
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedFieldInline.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedFieldInline.java
index acd87a65b..bb872723f 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedFieldInline.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedFieldInline.java
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ public InstanceModelGroupedFieldInline(
   }
 
   @NonNull
-  protected AssemblyModel.ChoiceGroup.DefineField getBinding() {
+  private AssemblyModel.ChoiceGroup.DefineField getBinding() {
     return binding;
   }
 
@@ -119,7 +119,7 @@ public IValueConstrained getConstraintSupport() {
 
   @Override
   public IAssemblyNodeItem getSourceNodeItem() {
-    return boundNodeItem.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(boundNodeItem.get());
   }
 
   @Override
diff --git a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedFieldReference.java b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedFieldReference.java
index 08c68b82b..2b9903acc 100644
--- a/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedFieldReference.java
+++ b/databind/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/databind/model/metaschema/impl/InstanceModelGroupedFieldReference.java
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ public IFieldDefinition getDefinition() {
   }
 
   @NonNull
-  protected AssemblyModel.ChoiceGroup.Field getBinding() {
+  private AssemblyModel.ChoiceGroup.Field getBinding() {
     return binding;
   }
 
@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ public Map<IAttributable.Key, Set<String>> getProperties() {
 
   @Override
   public IAssemblyNodeItem getSourceNodeItem() {
-    return boundNodeItem.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(boundNodeItem.get());
   }
 
   @Override
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/pom.xml b/metaschema-cli/pom.xml
index 2c7a9286c..cd71d3fcc 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/pom.xml
+++ b/metaschema-cli/pom.xml
@@ -44,16 +44,6 @@
 			<groupId>${project.groupId}</groupId>
 			<artifactId>metaschema-databind-modules</artifactId>
 		</dependency>
-<!--
-		<dependency>
-			<groupId>com.google.auto.service</groupId>
-			<artifactId>auto-service-annotations</artifactId>
-		</dependency>
--->
-		<dependency>
-			<groupId>com.github.spotbugs</groupId>
-			<artifactId>spotbugs-annotations</artifactId>
-		</dependency>
 
 		<dependency>
 			<groupId>org.apache.logging.log4j</groupId>
@@ -66,8 +56,7 @@
 
 		<dependency>
 		    <groupId>io.github.hakky54</groupId>
-		    <artifactId>consolecaptor</artifactId>
-		    <version>1.0.3</version>
+		    <artifactId>logcaptor</artifactId>
 		    <scope>test</scope>
 		</dependency>
 		<dependency>
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/CLI.java b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/CLI.java
index 0c57fb0a0..542b654d5 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/CLI.java
+++ b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/CLI.java
@@ -19,6 +19,9 @@
 
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 
+/**
+ * The main entry point for the CLI application.
+ */
 @SuppressWarnings("PMD.ShortClassName")
 public final class CLI {
   /**
@@ -42,7 +45,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
   public static ExitStatus runCli(String... args) {
     System.setProperty("java.util.logging.manager", "org.apache.logging.log4j.jul.LogManager");
 
-    Map<String, IVersionInfo> versions = new LinkedHashMap<>();
+    @SuppressWarnings("PMD.UseConcurrentHashMap") Map<String, IVersionInfo> versions = new LinkedHashMap<>();
     versions.put(CLIProcessor.COMMAND_VERSION, new MetaschemaJavaVersion());
     versions.put(MetaschemaConstants.METASCHEMA_NAMESPACE, new MetaschemaVersion());
 
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/AbstractConvertSubcommand.java b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/AbstractConvertSubcommand.java
index 2e435e588..5921f4d74 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/AbstractConvertSubcommand.java
+++ b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/AbstractConvertSubcommand.java
@@ -7,18 +7,13 @@
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.CLIProcessor.CallingContext;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitCode;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitStatus;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.InvalidArgumentException;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.OptionUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.AbstractCommandExecutor;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.AbstractTerminalCommand;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.CommandExecutionException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.DefaultExtraArgument;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.ExtraArgument;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.MetaschemaException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.AutoCloser;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CustomCollectors;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.UriUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.IBindingContext;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.io.Format;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.io.IBoundLoader;
@@ -33,20 +28,17 @@
 import java.io.OutputStreamWriter;
 import java.io.Writer;
 import java.net.URI;
-import java.net.URISyntaxException;
 import java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets;
 import java.nio.file.Files;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
-import java.nio.file.Paths;
 import java.nio.file.StandardOpenOption;
 import java.util.Collection;
 import java.util.List;
-import java.util.Locale;
 
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 
 /**
- * Used by implementing classes to declare a content conversion command.
+ * Used by implementing classes to provide a content conversion command.
  */
 public abstract class AbstractConvertSubcommand
     extends AbstractTerminalCommand {
@@ -59,21 +51,6 @@ public abstract class AbstractConvertSubcommand
       new DefaultExtraArgument("source-file-or-URL", true),
       new DefaultExtraArgument("destination-file", false)));
 
-  @NonNull
-  private static final Option OVERWRITE_OPTION = ObjectUtils.notNull(
-      Option.builder()
-          .longOpt("overwrite")
-          .desc("overwrite the destination if it exists")
-          .build());
-  @NonNull
-  private static final Option TO_OPTION = ObjectUtils.notNull(
-      Option.builder()
-          .longOpt("to")
-          .required()
-          .hasArg().argName("FORMAT")
-          .desc("convert to format: xml, json, or yaml")
-          .build());
-
   @Override
   public String getName() {
     return COMMAND;
@@ -82,8 +59,8 @@ public String getName() {
   @Override
   public Collection<? extends Option> gatherOptions() {
     return ObjectUtils.notNull(List.of(
-        OVERWRITE_OPTION,
-        TO_OPTION));
+        MetaschemaCommands.OVERWRITE_OPTION,
+        MetaschemaCommands.TO_OPTION));
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -91,30 +68,6 @@ public List<ExtraArgument> getExtraArguments() {
     return EXTRA_ARGUMENTS;
   }
 
-  @SuppressWarnings("PMD.PreserveStackTrace") // intended
-  @Override
-  public void validateOptions(CallingContext callingContext, CommandLine cmdLine) throws InvalidArgumentException {
-
-    try {
-      String toFormatText = cmdLine.getOptionValue(TO_OPTION);
-      Format.valueOf(toFormatText.toUpperCase(Locale.ROOT));
-    } catch (IllegalArgumentException ex) {
-      InvalidArgumentException newEx = new InvalidArgumentException(
-          String.format("Invalid '%s' argument. The format must be one of: %s.",
-              OptionUtils.toArgument(TO_OPTION),
-              Format.names().stream()
-                  .collect(CustomCollectors.joiningWithOxfordComma("and"))));
-      newEx.setOption(TO_OPTION);
-      newEx.addSuppressed(ex);
-      throw newEx;
-    }
-
-    List<String> extraArgs = cmdLine.getArgList();
-    if (extraArgs.isEmpty() || extraArgs.size() > 2) {
-      throw new InvalidArgumentException("Illegal number of arguments.");
-    }
-  }
-
   /**
    * Used by implementing classes to provide for execution of a conversion
    * command.
@@ -140,77 +93,35 @@ protected AbstractConversionCommandExecutor(
      * Get the binding context to use for data processing.
      *
      * @return the context
-     * @throws MetaschemaException
-     *           if a Metaschema error occurred
-     * @throws IOException
-     *           if an error occurred while reading data
+     * @throws CommandExecutionException
+     *           if an error occurred getting the binding context
      */
     @NonNull
-    protected abstract IBindingContext getBindingContext() throws MetaschemaException, IOException;
+    protected abstract IBindingContext getBindingContext() throws CommandExecutionException;
 
     @SuppressWarnings({
         "PMD.OnlyOneReturn", // readability
         "PMD.CyclomaticComplexity", "PMD.CognitiveComplexity" // reasonable
     })
     @Override
-    public ExitStatus execute() {
+    public void execute() throws CommandExecutionException {
       CommandLine cmdLine = getCommandLine();
 
       List<String> extraArgs = cmdLine.getArgList();
 
       Path destination = null;
       if (extraArgs.size() > 1) {
-        destination = Paths.get(extraArgs.get(1)).toAbsolutePath();
+        destination = MetaschemaCommands.handleDestination(ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(extraArgs.get(1)), cmdLine);
       }
 
-      if (destination != null) {
-        if (Files.exists(destination)) {
-          if (!cmdLine.hasOption(OVERWRITE_OPTION)) {
-            return ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS.exitMessage(
-                String.format("The provided destination '%s' already exists and the '%s' option was not provided.",
-                    destination,
-                    OptionUtils.toArgument(OVERWRITE_OPTION)));
-          }
-          if (!Files.isWritable(destination)) {
-            return ExitCode.IO_ERROR.exitMessage(
-                "The provided destination '" + destination + "' is not writable.");
-          }
-        } else {
-          Path parent = destination.getParent();
-          if (parent != null) {
-            try {
-              Files.createDirectories(parent);
-            } catch (IOException ex) {
-              return ExitCode.INVALID_TARGET.exit().withThrowable(ex); // NOPMD readability
-            }
-          }
-        }
-      }
+      URI source = MetaschemaCommands.handleSource(
+          ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(extraArgs.get(0)),
+          ObjectUtils.notNull(getCurrentWorkingDirectory().toUri()));
 
-      String sourceName = ObjectUtils.notNull(extraArgs.get(0));
-      URI cwd = ObjectUtils.notNull(Paths.get("").toAbsolutePath().toUri());
+      Format toFormat = MetaschemaCommands.getFormat(cmdLine, MetaschemaCommands.TO_OPTION);
 
-      URI source;
-      try {
-        source = UriUtils.toUri(sourceName, cwd);
-      } catch (URISyntaxException ex) {
-        return ExitCode.IO_ERROR
-            .exitMessage(String.format("Cannot load source '%s' as it is not a valid file or URI.", sourceName))
-            .withThrowable(ex);
-      }
-      assert source != null;
-
-      String toFormatText = cmdLine.getOptionValue(TO_OPTION);
-      Format toFormat = Format.valueOf(toFormatText.toUpperCase(Locale.ROOT));
+      IBindingContext bindingContext = getBindingContext();
 
-      IBindingContext bindingContext;
-      try {
-        bindingContext = getBindingContext();
-      } catch (IOException | MetaschemaException ex) {
-        return ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR
-            .exitMessage(String.format("Unable to initialize the binding context. %s", ex.getLocalizedMessage()))
-            .withThrowable(ex);
-      }
       try {
         IBoundLoader loader = bindingContext.newBoundLoader();
         if (LOGGER.isInfoEnabled()) {
@@ -235,12 +146,11 @@ public ExitStatus execute() {
           }
         }
       } catch (IOException | IllegalArgumentException ex) {
-        return ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR.exit().withThrowable(ex); // NOPMD readability
+        throw new CommandExecutionException(ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR, ex);
       }
       if (destination != null && LOGGER.isInfoEnabled()) {
         LOGGER.info("Generated {} file: {}", toFormat.toString(), destination);
       }
-      return ExitCode.OK.exit();
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/AbstractValidateContentCommand.java b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/AbstractValidateContentCommand.java
index 3829bd66e..f854b42d6 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/AbstractValidateContentCommand.java
+++ b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/AbstractValidateContentCommand.java
@@ -8,29 +8,22 @@
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.CLIProcessor;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.CLIProcessor.CallingContext;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitCode;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitStatus;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.InvalidArgumentException;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.OptionUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.AbstractCommandExecutor;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.AbstractTerminalCommand;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.CommandExecutionException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.DefaultExtraArgument;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.ExtraArgument;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.util.LoggingValidationHandler;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.configuration.DefaultConfiguration;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.configuration.IMutableConfiguration;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.metapath.MetapathException;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IConstraintLoader;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IModule;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.MetaschemaException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.constraint.IConstraintSet;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.constraint.ValidationFeature;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.validation.AggregateValidationResult;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.validation.IValidationResult;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CollectionUtil;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CustomCollectors;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.IVersionInfo;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.UriUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.IBindingContext;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.IBindingContext.ISchemaValidationProvider;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.io.Format;
@@ -45,19 +38,19 @@
 import java.io.FileNotFoundException;
 import java.io.IOException;
 import java.net.URI;
-import java.net.URISyntaxException;
 import java.net.UnknownHostException;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
 import java.nio.file.Paths;
-import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Collection;
-import java.util.LinkedHashSet;
 import java.util.List;
-import java.util.Locale;
 import java.util.Set;
 
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
+import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.Nullable;
 
+/**
+ * Used by implementing classes to provide a content validation command.
+ */
 public abstract class AbstractValidateContentCommand
     extends AbstractTerminalCommand {
   private static final Logger LOGGER = LogManager.getLogger(AbstractValidateContentCommand.class);
@@ -68,15 +61,6 @@ public abstract class AbstractValidateContentCommand
       new DefaultExtraArgument("file-or-URI-to-validate", true)));
 
   @NonNull
-  private static final Option AS_OPTION = ObjectUtils.notNull(
-      Option.builder()
-          .longOpt("as")
-          .hasArg()
-          .argName("FORMAT")
-          .desc("source format: xml, json, or yaml")
-          .numberOfArgs(1)
-          .build());
-  @NonNull
   private static final Option CONSTRAINTS_OPTION = ObjectUtils.notNull(
       Option.builder("c")
           .hasArgs()
@@ -119,7 +103,7 @@ public String getName() {
   @Override
   public Collection<? extends Option> gatherOptions() {
     return List.of(
-        AS_OPTION,
+        MetaschemaCommands.AS_FORMAT_OPTION,
         CONSTRAINTS_OPTION,
         SARIF_OUTPUT_FILE_OPTION,
         SARIF_INCLUDE_PASS_OPTION,
@@ -132,31 +116,9 @@ public List<ExtraArgument> getExtraArguments() {
     return EXTRA_ARGUMENTS;
   }
 
-  @SuppressWarnings("PMD.PreserveStackTrace") // intended
-  @Override
-  public void validateOptions(CallingContext callingContext, CommandLine cmdLine) throws InvalidArgumentException {
-    List<String> extraArgs = cmdLine.getArgList();
-    if (extraArgs.size() != 1) {
-      throw new InvalidArgumentException("The source to validate must be provided.");
-    }
-
-    if (cmdLine.hasOption(AS_OPTION)) {
-      try {
-        String toFormatText = cmdLine.getOptionValue(AS_OPTION);
-        Format.valueOf(toFormatText.toUpperCase(Locale.ROOT));
-      } catch (IllegalArgumentException ex) {
-        InvalidArgumentException newEx = new InvalidArgumentException(
-            String.format("Invalid '%s' argument. The format must be one of: %s.",
-                OptionUtils.toArgument(AS_OPTION),
-                Arrays.asList(Format.values()).stream()
-                    .map(Enum::name)
-                    .collect(CustomCollectors.joiningWithOxfordComma("and"))));
-        newEx.addSuppressed(ex);
-        throw newEx;
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
+  /**
+   * Drives the validation execution.
+   */
   protected abstract class AbstractValidationCommandExecutor
       extends AbstractCommandExecutor {
 
@@ -180,124 +142,127 @@ public AbstractValidationCommandExecutor(
      * @param constraintSets
      *          the constraints to configure in the resulting binding context
      * @return the context
-     * @throws MetaschemaException
-     *           if a Metaschema error occurred
-     * @throws IOException
-     *           if an error occurred while reading data
+     * @throws CommandExecutionException
+     *           if a error occurred while getting the binding context
      */
     @NonNull
     protected abstract IBindingContext getBindingContext(@NonNull Set<IConstraintSet> constraintSets)
-        throws MetaschemaException, IOException;
+        throws CommandExecutionException;
 
+    /**
+     * Get the module to use for validation.
+     * <p>
+     * This module is used to generate schemas and as a source of built-in
+     * constraints.
+     *
+     * @param commandLine
+     *          the provided command line argument information
+     * @param bindingContext
+     *          the context used to access Metaschema module information based on
+     *          Java class bindings
+     * @return the loaded Metaschema module
+     * @throws CommandExecutionException
+     *           if an error occurred while loading the module
+     */
     @NonNull
     protected abstract IModule getModule(
         @NonNull CommandLine commandLine,
-        IBindingContext bindingContext)
-        throws IOException, MetaschemaException;
+        @NonNull IBindingContext bindingContext)
+        throws CommandExecutionException;
 
+    /**
+     * Get the schema validation implementation requested based on the provided
+     * command line arguments.
+     * <p>
+     * It is typical for this call to result in the dynamic generation of a schema
+     * to use for validation.
+     *
+     * @param module
+     *          the Metaschema module to generate the schema from
+     * @param commandLine
+     *          the provided command line argument information
+     * @param bindingContext
+     *          the context used to access Metaschema module information based on
+     *          Java class bindings
+     * @return the provider
+     */
     @NonNull
     protected abstract ISchemaValidationProvider getSchemaValidationProvider(
         @NonNull IModule module,
         @NonNull CommandLine commandLine,
         @NonNull IBindingContext bindingContext);
 
+    /**
+     * Execute the validation operation.
+     */
     @SuppressWarnings("PMD.OnlyOneReturn") // readability
     @Override
-    public ExitStatus execute() {
-      URI cwd = ObjectUtils.notNull(Paths.get("").toAbsolutePath().toUri());
+    public void execute() throws CommandExecutionException {
       CommandLine cmdLine = getCommandLine();
+      URI currentWorkingDirectory = ObjectUtils.notNull(getCurrentWorkingDirectory().toUri());
 
-      Set<IConstraintSet> constraintSets;
-      if (cmdLine.hasOption(CONSTRAINTS_OPTION)) {
-        IConstraintLoader constraintLoader = IBindingContext.getConstraintLoader();
-        constraintSets = new LinkedHashSet<>();
-        String[] args = cmdLine.getOptionValues(CONSTRAINTS_OPTION);
-        for (String arg : args) {
-          assert arg != null;
-          try {
-            URI constraintUri = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(UriUtils.toUri(arg, cwd));
-            constraintSets.addAll(constraintLoader.load(constraintUri));
-          } catch (IOException | MetaschemaException | MetapathException | URISyntaxException ex) {
-            return ExitCode.IO_ERROR.exitMessage("Unable to load constraint set '" + arg + "'.").withThrowable(ex);
-          }
-        }
-      } else {
-        constraintSets = CollectionUtil.emptySet();
-      }
+      Set<IConstraintSet> constraintSets = MetaschemaCommands.loadConstraintSets(
+          cmdLine,
+          CONSTRAINTS_OPTION,
+          currentWorkingDirectory);
 
-      IBindingContext bindingContext;
-      try {
-        bindingContext = getBindingContext(constraintSets);
-      } catch (IOException | MetaschemaException ex) {
-        return ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR
-            .exitMessage(String.format("Unable to initialize the binding context. %s", ex.getLocalizedMessage()))
-            .withThrowable(ex);
-      }
+      List<String> extraArgs = cmdLine.getArgList();
 
-      IBoundLoader loader = bindingContext.newBoundLoader();
+      URI source = MetaschemaCommands.handleSource(
+          ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(extraArgs.get(0)),
+          currentWorkingDirectory);
 
-      List<String> extraArgs = cmdLine.getArgList();
+      IBindingContext bindingContext = getBindingContext(constraintSets);
+      IBoundLoader loader = bindingContext.newBoundLoader();
+      Format asFormat = MetaschemaCommands.determineSourceFormat(
+          cmdLine,
+          MetaschemaCommands.AS_FORMAT_OPTION,
+          loader,
+          source);
 
-      String sourceName = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(extraArgs.get(0));
-      URI source;
+      IValidationResult validationResult = validate(source, asFormat, cmdLine, bindingContext);
+      handleOutput(source, validationResult, cmdLine, bindingContext);
 
-      try {
-        source = UriUtils.toUri(sourceName, cwd);
-      } catch (URISyntaxException ex) {
-        return ExitCode.IO_ERROR.exitMessage("Cannot load source '%s' as it is not a valid file or URI.")
-            .withThrowable(ex);
+      if (validationResult == null || validationResult.isPassing()) {
+        if (LOGGER.isInfoEnabled()) {
+          LOGGER.info("The file '{}' is valid.", source);
+        }
+      } else if (LOGGER.isErrorEnabled()) {
+        LOGGER.error("The file '{}' is invalid.", source);
       }
 
-      Format asFormat;
-      if (cmdLine.hasOption(AS_OPTION)) {
-        try {
-          String toFormatText = cmdLine.getOptionValue(AS_OPTION);
-          asFormat = Format.valueOf(toFormatText.toUpperCase(Locale.ROOT));
-        } catch (IllegalArgumentException ex) {
-          return ExitCode.IO_ERROR
-              .exitMessage("Invalid '--as' argument. The format must be one of: "
-                  + Arrays.stream(Format.values())
-                      .map(Enum::name)
-                      .collect(CustomCollectors.joiningWithOxfordComma("or")))
-              .withThrowable(ex);
-        }
-      } else {
-        // attempt to determine the format
-        try {
-          asFormat = loader.detectFormat(source);
-        } catch (FileNotFoundException ex) {
-          // this case was already checked for
-          return ExitCode.IO_ERROR.exitMessage("The provided source file '" + source + "' does not exist.");
-        } catch (IOException ex) {
-          return ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR.exit().withThrowable(ex);
-        } catch (IllegalArgumentException ex) {
-          return ExitCode.IO_ERROR.exitMessage(
-              "Source file has unrecognizable format. Use '--as' to specify the format. The format must be one of: "
-                  + Arrays.stream(Format.values())
-                      .map(Enum::name)
-                      .collect(CustomCollectors.joiningWithOxfordComma("or")));
-        }
+      if (validationResult != null && !validationResult.isPassing()) {
+        throw new CommandExecutionException(ExitCode.FAIL);
       }
+    }
+
+    @SuppressWarnings("PMD.CyclomaticComplexity")
+    @Nullable
+    private IValidationResult validate(
+        @NonNull URI source,
+        @NonNull Format asFormat,
+        @NonNull CommandLine commandLine,
+        @NonNull IBindingContext bindingContext) throws CommandExecutionException {
 
       if (LOGGER.isInfoEnabled()) {
         LOGGER.info("Validating '{}' as {}.", source, asFormat.name());
       }
 
-      IMutableConfiguration<ValidationFeature<?>> configuration = new DefaultConfiguration<>();
-      if (cmdLine.hasOption(SARIF_OUTPUT_FILE_OPTION) && cmdLine.hasOption(SARIF_INCLUDE_PASS_OPTION)) {
-        configuration.enableFeature(ValidationFeature.VALIDATE_GENERATE_PASS_FINDINGS);
-      }
-
       IValidationResult validationResult = null;
       try {
-        if (!cmdLine.hasOption(NO_SCHEMA_VALIDATION_OPTION)) {
-          IModule module = getModule(getCommandLine(), bindingContext);
+        IModule module = bindingContext.registerModule(getModule(commandLine, bindingContext));
+        if (!commandLine.hasOption(NO_SCHEMA_VALIDATION_OPTION)) {
           // perform schema validation
-          validationResult = getSchemaValidationProvider(module, getCommandLine(), bindingContext)
+          validationResult = getSchemaValidationProvider(module, commandLine, bindingContext)
               .validateWithSchema(source, asFormat, bindingContext);
         }
 
-        if (!cmdLine.hasOption(NO_CONSTRAINT_VALIDATION_OPTION)) {
+        if (!commandLine.hasOption(NO_CONSTRAINT_VALIDATION_OPTION)) {
+          IMutableConfiguration<ValidationFeature<?>> configuration = new DefaultConfiguration<>();
+          if (commandLine.hasOption(SARIF_OUTPUT_FILE_OPTION) && commandLine.hasOption(SARIF_INCLUDE_PASS_OPTION)) {
+            configuration.enableFeature(ValidationFeature.VALIDATE_GENERATE_PASS_FINDINGS);
+          }
+
           // perform constraint validation
           IValidationResult constraintValidationResult = bindingContext.validateWithConstraints(source, configuration);
           validationResult = validationResult == null
@@ -305,17 +270,30 @@ public ExitStatus execute() {
               : AggregateValidationResult.aggregate(validationResult, constraintValidationResult);
         }
       } catch (FileNotFoundException ex) {
-        return ExitCode.IO_ERROR.exitMessage(String.format("Resource not found at '%s'", source)).withThrowable(ex);
+        throw new CommandExecutionException(
+            ExitCode.IO_ERROR,
+            String.format("Resource not found at '%s'", source),
+            ex);
       } catch (UnknownHostException ex) {
-        return ExitCode.IO_ERROR.exitMessage(String.format("Unknown host for '%s'.", source)).withThrowable(ex);
+        throw new CommandExecutionException(
+            ExitCode.IO_ERROR,
+            String.format("Unknown host for '%s'.", source),
+            ex);
       } catch (IOException ex) {
-        return ExitCode.IO_ERROR.exit().withThrowable(ex);
-      } catch (MetapathException | MetaschemaException ex) {
-        return ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR.exit().withThrowable(ex);
+        throw new CommandExecutionException(ExitCode.IO_ERROR, ex.getLocalizedMessage(), ex);
+      } catch (MetapathException ex) {
+        throw new CommandExecutionException(ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR, ex.getLocalizedMessage(), ex);
       }
+      return validationResult;
+    }
 
-      if (cmdLine.hasOption(SARIF_OUTPUT_FILE_OPTION) && LOGGER.isInfoEnabled()) {
-        Path sarifFile = ObjectUtils.notNull(Paths.get(cmdLine.getOptionValue(SARIF_OUTPUT_FILE_OPTION)));
+    private void handleOutput(
+        @NonNull URI source,
+        @Nullable IValidationResult validationResult,
+        @NonNull CommandLine commandLine,
+        @NonNull IBindingContext bindingContext) throws CommandExecutionException {
+      if (commandLine.hasOption(SARIF_OUTPUT_FILE_OPTION) && LOGGER.isInfoEnabled()) {
+        Path sarifFile = ObjectUtils.notNull(Paths.get(commandLine.getOptionValue(SARIF_OUTPUT_FILE_OPTION)));
 
         IVersionInfo version
             = getCallingContext().getCLIProcessor().getVersionInfos().get(CLIProcessor.COMMAND_VERSION);
@@ -325,24 +303,15 @@ public ExitStatus execute() {
           if (validationResult != null) {
             sarifHandler.addFindings(validationResult.getFindings());
           }
-          sarifHandler.write(sarifFile);
+          sarifHandler.write(sarifFile, bindingContext);
         } catch (IOException ex) {
-          return ExitCode.IO_ERROR.exit().withThrowable(ex);
+          throw new CommandExecutionException(ExitCode.IO_ERROR, ex.getLocalizedMessage(), ex);
         }
       } else if (validationResult != null && !validationResult.getFindings().isEmpty()) {
         LOGGER.info("Validation identified the following issues:");
         LoggingValidationHandler.instance().handleResults(validationResult);
       }
 
-      if (validationResult == null || validationResult.isPassing()) {
-        if (LOGGER.isInfoEnabled()) {
-          LOGGER.info("The file '{}' is valid.", source);
-        }
-      } else if (LOGGER.isErrorEnabled()) {
-        LOGGER.error("The file '{}' is invalid.", source);
-      }
-
-      return (validationResult == null || validationResult.isPassing() ? ExitCode.OK : ExitCode.FAIL).exit();
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/ConvertContentUsingModuleCommand.java b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/ConvertContentUsingModuleCommand.java
index 59f7f35e9..4b6bdc298 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/ConvertContentUsingModuleCommand.java
+++ b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/ConvertContentUsingModuleCommand.java
@@ -6,10 +6,10 @@
 package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.commands;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.CLIProcessor.CallingContext;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.CommandExecutionException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.ICommandExecutor;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IBoundObject;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IModule;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.MetaschemaException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CollectionUtil;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.IBindingContext;
@@ -28,16 +28,18 @@
 import java.io.InputStream;
 import java.io.Writer;
 import java.net.URI;
-import java.net.URISyntaxException;
 import java.net.URL;
-import java.nio.file.Paths;
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.Collection;
 import java.util.List;
 
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 
-public class ConvertContentUsingModuleCommand
+/**
+ * This command implementation supports the conversion of a content instance
+ * between supported formats based on a provided Metaschema module.
+ */
+class ConvertContentUsingModuleCommand
     extends AbstractConvertSubcommand {
   @NonNull
   private static final String COMMAND = "convert";
@@ -66,35 +68,27 @@ public Collection<? extends Option> gatherOptions() {
   @Override
   public ICommandExecutor newExecutor(CallingContext callingContext, CommandLine commandLine) {
 
-    return new OscalCommandExecutor(callingContext, commandLine);
+    return new CommandExecutor(callingContext, commandLine);
   }
 
-  private final class OscalCommandExecutor
+  private final class CommandExecutor
       extends AbstractConversionCommandExecutor {
 
-    private OscalCommandExecutor(
+    private CommandExecutor(
         @NonNull CallingContext callingContext,
         @NonNull CommandLine commandLine) {
       super(callingContext, commandLine);
     }
 
     @Override
-    protected IBindingContext getBindingContext() throws IOException, MetaschemaException {
+    protected IBindingContext getBindingContext() throws CommandExecutionException {
       IBindingContext retval = MetaschemaCommands.newBindingContextWithDynamicCompilation();
 
-      URI cwd = ObjectUtils.notNull(Paths.get("").toAbsolutePath().toUri());
-
-      IModule module;
-      try {
-        module = MetaschemaCommands.handleModule(
-            getCommandLine(),
-            MetaschemaCommands.METASCHEMA_REQUIRED_OPTION,
-            cwd,
-            retval);
-      } catch (URISyntaxException ex) {
-        throw new IOException(String.format("Cannot load module as '%s' is not a valid file or URL.", ex.getInput()),
-            ex);
-      }
+      IModule module = MetaschemaCommands.loadModule(
+          getCommandLine(),
+          MetaschemaCommands.METASCHEMA_REQUIRED_OPTION,
+          ObjectUtils.notNull(getCurrentWorkingDirectory().toUri()),
+          retval);
       retval.registerModule(module);
       return retval;
     }
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/GenerateDiagramCommand.java b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/GenerateDiagramCommand.java
index 2db03846d..513265be8 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/GenerateDiagramCommand.java
+++ b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/GenerateDiagramCommand.java
@@ -7,18 +7,14 @@
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.CLIProcessor.CallingContext;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitCode;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitStatus;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.InvalidArgumentException;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.OptionUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.AbstractTerminalCommand;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.CommandExecutionException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.DefaultExtraArgument;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.ExtraArgument;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.ICommandExecutor;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IModule;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.MetaschemaException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.util.MermaidErDiagramGenerator;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.UriUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.IBindingContext;
 
 import org.apache.commons.cli.CommandLine;
@@ -35,7 +31,6 @@
 import java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets;
 import java.nio.file.Files;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
-import java.nio.file.Paths;
 import java.nio.file.StandardOpenOption;
 import java.util.Collection;
 import java.util.List;
@@ -43,7 +38,11 @@
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.SuppressFBWarnings;
 
-public class GenerateDiagramCommand
+/**
+ * This command implementation supports generation of a diagram depicting the
+ * objects and relationships within a provided Metaschema module.
+ */
+class GenerateDiagramCommand
     extends AbstractTerminalCommand {
   private static final Logger LOGGER = LogManager.getLogger(GenerateDiagramCommand.class);
 
@@ -71,8 +70,7 @@ public String getDescription() {
   @SuppressWarnings("null")
   @Override
   public Collection<? extends Option> gatherOptions() {
-    return List.of(
-        MetaschemaCommands.OVERWRITE_OPTION);
+    return List.of(MetaschemaCommands.OVERWRITE_OPTION);
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -80,14 +78,6 @@ public List<ExtraArgument> getExtraArguments() {
     return EXTRA_ARGUMENTS;
   }
 
-  @Override
-  public void validateOptions(CallingContext callingContext, CommandLine cmdLine) throws InvalidArgumentException {
-    List<String> extraArgs = cmdLine.getArgList();
-    if (extraArgs.isEmpty() || extraArgs.size() > 2) {
-      throw new InvalidArgumentException("Illegal number of arguments.");
-    }
-  }
-
   @Override
   public ICommandExecutor newExecutor(CallingContext callingContext, CommandLine cmdLine) {
     return ICommandExecutor.using(callingContext, cmdLine, this::executeCommand);
@@ -100,7 +90,8 @@ public ICommandExecutor newExecutor(CallingContext callingContext, CommandLine c
    *          information about the calling context
    * @param cmdLine
    *          the parsed command line details
-   * @return the execution result
+   * @throws CommandExecutionException
+   *           if an error occurred while executing the command
    */
   @SuppressWarnings({
       "PMD.OnlyOneReturn", // readability
@@ -108,92 +99,55 @@ public ICommandExecutor newExecutor(CallingContext callingContext, CommandLine c
   })
   @SuppressFBWarnings(value = "REC_CATCH_EXCEPTION",
       justification = "Catching generic exception for CLI error handling")
-  protected ExitStatus executeCommand(
+  protected void executeCommand(
       @NonNull CallingContext callingContext,
-      @NonNull CommandLine cmdLine) {
+      @NonNull CommandLine cmdLine) throws CommandExecutionException {
 
     List<String> extraArgs = cmdLine.getArgList();
 
     Path destination = null;
     if (extraArgs.size() > 1) {
-      destination = Paths.get(extraArgs.get(1)).toAbsolutePath();
+      destination = MetaschemaCommands.handleDestination(ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(extraArgs.get(1)), cmdLine);
     }
 
-    if (destination != null) {
-      if (Files.exists(destination)) {
-        if (!cmdLine.hasOption(MetaschemaCommands.OVERWRITE_OPTION)) {
-          return ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS.exitMessage( // NOPMD readability
-              String.format("The provided destination '%s' already exists and the '%s' option was not provided.",
-                  destination,
-                  OptionUtils.toArgument(MetaschemaCommands.OVERWRITE_OPTION)));
-        }
-        if (!Files.isWritable(destination)) {
-          return ExitCode.IO_ERROR.exitMessage( // NOPMD readability
-              "The provided destination '" + destination + "' is not writable.");
-        }
-      } else {
-        Path parent = destination.getParent();
-        if (parent != null) {
-          try {
-            Files.createDirectories(parent);
-          } catch (IOException ex) {
-            return ExitCode.INVALID_TARGET.exit().withThrowable(ex); // NOPMD readability
-          }
-        }
-      }
-    }
+    IBindingContext bindingContext = MetaschemaCommands.newBindingContextWithDynamicCompilation();
 
-    IBindingContext bindingContext;
+    URI moduleUri;
     try {
-      bindingContext = MetaschemaCommands.newBindingContextWithDynamicCompilation();
-    } catch (IOException ex) {
-      return ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR
-          .exitMessage(String.format("Unable to initialize the binding context. %s", ex.getLocalizedMessage()))
-          .withThrowable(ex);
-    }
-
-    URI cwd = ObjectUtils.notNull(Paths.get("").toAbsolutePath().toUri());
-
-    IModule module;
-    try {
-      URI moduleUri = UriUtils.toUri(ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(extraArgs.get(0)), cwd);
-      module = MetaschemaCommands.handleModule(moduleUri, bindingContext);
+      moduleUri = resolveAgainstCWD(ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(extraArgs.get(0)));
     } catch (URISyntaxException ex) {
-      return ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS
-          .exitMessage(
-              String.format("Cannot load module as '%s' is not a valid file or URL.", ex.getInput()))
-          .withThrowable(ex);
-    } catch (IOException | MetaschemaException ex) {
-      return ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR.exit().withThrowable(ex);
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(
+          ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS,
+          String.format("Cannot load module as '%s' is not a valid file or URL. %s",
+              extraArgs.get(0),
+              ex.getLocalizedMessage()),
+          ex);
     }
+    IModule module = MetaschemaCommands.loadModule(moduleUri, bindingContext);
 
-    try {
-      if (destination == null) {
-        Writer stringWriter = new StringWriter();
-        try (PrintWriter writer = new PrintWriter(stringWriter)) {
-          MermaidErDiagramGenerator.generate(module, writer);
-        }
+    if (destination == null) {
+      Writer stringWriter = new StringWriter();
+      try (PrintWriter writer = new PrintWriter(stringWriter)) {
+        MermaidErDiagramGenerator.generate(module, writer);
+      }
 
-        // Print the result
-        if (LOGGER.isInfoEnabled()) {
-          LOGGER.info(stringWriter.toString());
-        }
-      } else {
-        try (Writer writer = Files.newBufferedWriter(
-            destination,
-            StandardCharsets.UTF_8,
-            StandardOpenOption.CREATE,
-            StandardOpenOption.WRITE,
-            StandardOpenOption.TRUNCATE_EXISTING)) {
-          try (PrintWriter printWriter = new PrintWriter(writer)) {
-            MermaidErDiagramGenerator.generate(module, printWriter);
-          }
+      // Print the result
+      if (LOGGER.isInfoEnabled()) {
+        LOGGER.info(stringWriter.toString());
+      }
+    } else {
+      try (Writer writer = Files.newBufferedWriter(
+          destination,
+          StandardCharsets.UTF_8,
+          StandardOpenOption.CREATE,
+          StandardOpenOption.WRITE,
+          StandardOpenOption.TRUNCATE_EXISTING)) {
+        try (PrintWriter printWriter = new PrintWriter(writer)) {
+          MermaidErDiagramGenerator.generate(module, printWriter);
         }
+      } catch (IOException ex) {
+        throw new CommandExecutionException(ExitCode.IO_ERROR, ex);
       }
-
-      return ExitCode.OK.exit();
-    } catch (Exception ex) {
-      return ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR.exit().withThrowable(ex);
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/GenerateSchemaCommand.java b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/GenerateSchemaCommand.java
index 31bea72c7..ba91e4b69 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/GenerateSchemaCommand.java
+++ b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/GenerateSchemaCommand.java
@@ -7,23 +7,17 @@
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.CLIProcessor.CallingContext;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitCode;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitStatus;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.InvalidArgumentException;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.OptionUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.AbstractTerminalCommand;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.CommandExecutionException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.DefaultExtraArgument;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.ExtraArgument;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.ICommandExecutor;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.configuration.DefaultConfiguration;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.configuration.IMutableConfiguration;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IModule;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.MetaschemaException;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.xml.ModuleLoader;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.AutoCloser;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CustomCollectors;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.UriUtils;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.io.Format;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.IBindingContext;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.ISchemaGenerator;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.ISchemaGenerator.SchemaFormat;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.SchemaGenerationFeature;
@@ -36,50 +30,34 @@
 import java.io.IOException;
 import java.io.OutputStream;
 import java.io.OutputStreamWriter;
-import java.net.URI;
-import java.net.URISyntaxException;
 import java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets;
-import java.nio.file.Files;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
-import java.nio.file.Paths;
-import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Collection;
 import java.util.List;
-import java.util.Locale;
 
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 
-public class GenerateSchemaCommand
+/**
+ * This command implementation supports generation of schemas in a variety of
+ * formats based on a provided Metaschema module.
+ */
+class GenerateSchemaCommand
     extends AbstractTerminalCommand {
   private static final Logger LOGGER = LogManager.getLogger(GenerateSchemaCommand.class);
 
   @NonNull
   private static final String COMMAND = "generate-schema";
   @NonNull
-  private static final List<ExtraArgument> EXTRA_ARGUMENTS;
+  private static final List<ExtraArgument> EXTRA_ARGUMENTS = ObjectUtils.notNull(List.of(
+      new DefaultExtraArgument("metaschema-module-file-or-URL", true),
+      new DefaultExtraArgument("destination-schema-file", false)));
 
-  @NonNull
-  private static final Option AS_OPTION = ObjectUtils.notNull(
-      Option.builder()
-          .longOpt("as")
-          .required()
-          .hasArg()
-          .argName("FORMAT")
-          .desc("source format: xml, json, or yaml")
-          .build());
-  @NonNull
   private static final Option INLINE_TYPES_OPTION = ObjectUtils.notNull(
       Option.builder()
           .longOpt("inline-types")
           .desc("definitions declared inline will be generated as inline types")
           .build());
 
-  static {
-    EXTRA_ARGUMENTS = ObjectUtils.notNull(List.of(
-        new DefaultExtraArgument("metaschema-module-file-or-URL", true),
-        new DefaultExtraArgument("destination-schema-file", false)));
-  }
-
   @Override
   public String getName() {
     return COMMAND;
@@ -95,7 +73,7 @@ public String getDescription() {
   public Collection<? extends Option> gatherOptions() {
     return List.of(
         MetaschemaCommands.OVERWRITE_OPTION,
-        AS_OPTION,
+        MetaschemaCommands.AS_SCHEMA_FORMAT_OPTION,
         INLINE_TYPES_OPTION);
   }
 
@@ -104,85 +82,37 @@ public List<ExtraArgument> getExtraArguments() {
     return EXTRA_ARGUMENTS;
   }
 
-  @SuppressWarnings("PMD.PreserveStackTrace") // intended
-  @Override
-  public void validateOptions(CallingContext callingContext, CommandLine cmdLine) throws InvalidArgumentException {
-    try {
-      String asFormatText = cmdLine.getOptionValue(AS_OPTION);
-      if (asFormatText != null) {
-        SchemaFormat.valueOf(asFormatText.toUpperCase(Locale.ROOT));
-      }
-    } catch (IllegalArgumentException ex) {
-      InvalidArgumentException newEx = new InvalidArgumentException( // NOPMD - intentional
-          String.format("Invalid '%s' argument. The format must be one of: %s.",
-              OptionUtils.toArgument(AS_OPTION),
-              Arrays.asList(Format.values()).stream()
-                  .map(Enum::name)
-                  .collect(CustomCollectors.joiningWithOxfordComma("and"))));
-      newEx.setOption(AS_OPTION);
-      newEx.addSuppressed(ex);
-      throw newEx;
-    }
-
-    List<String> extraArgs = cmdLine.getArgList();
-    if (extraArgs.isEmpty() || extraArgs.size() > 2) {
-      throw new InvalidArgumentException("Illegal number of arguments.");
-    }
-  }
-
   @Override
   public ICommandExecutor newExecutor(CallingContext callingContext, CommandLine cmdLine) {
     return ICommandExecutor.using(callingContext, cmdLine, this::executeCommand);
   }
 
   /**
-   * Called to execute the schema generation.
+   * Execute the schema generation operation.
    *
    * @param callingContext
    *          the context information for the execution
    * @param cmdLine
    *          the parsed command line details
-   * @return the execution result
+   * @throws CommandExecutionException
+   *           if an error occurred while determining the source format
    */
   @SuppressWarnings({
-      "PMD.OnlyOneReturn" // readability
+      "PMD.OnlyOneReturn", // readability
+      "PMD.CyclomaticComplexity"
   })
-  protected ExitStatus executeCommand(
+  protected void executeCommand(
       @NonNull CallingContext callingContext,
-      @NonNull CommandLine cmdLine) {
+      @NonNull CommandLine cmdLine) throws CommandExecutionException {
     List<String> extraArgs = cmdLine.getArgList();
 
-    Path destination = null;
-    if (extraArgs.size() > 1) {
-      destination = Paths.get(extraArgs.get(1)).toAbsolutePath();
-    }
-
-    if (destination != null) {
-      if (Files.exists(destination)) {
-        if (!cmdLine.hasOption(MetaschemaCommands.OVERWRITE_OPTION)) {
-          return ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS.exitMessage( // NOPMD readability
-              String.format("The provided destination '%s' already exists and the '%s' option was not provided.",
-                  destination,
-                  OptionUtils.toArgument(MetaschemaCommands.OVERWRITE_OPTION)));
-        }
-        if (!Files.isWritable(destination)) {
-          return ExitCode.IO_ERROR.exitMessage( // NOPMD readability
-              "The provided destination '" + destination + "' is not writable.");
-        }
-      } else {
-        Path parent = destination.getParent();
-        if (parent != null) {
-          try {
-            Files.createDirectories(parent);
-          } catch (IOException ex) {
-            return ExitCode.INVALID_TARGET.exit().withThrowable(ex); // NOPMD readability
-          }
-        }
-      }
-    }
+    Path destination = extraArgs.size() > 1
+        ? MetaschemaCommands.handleDestination(
+            ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(extraArgs.get(1)),
+            cmdLine)
+        : null;
 
-    String asFormatText = cmdLine.getOptionValue(AS_OPTION);
-    SchemaFormat asFormat = SchemaFormat.valueOf(asFormatText.toUpperCase(Locale.ROOT));
+    SchemaFormat asFormat = MetaschemaCommands.getSchemaFormat(cmdLine, MetaschemaCommands.AS_SCHEMA_FORMAT_OPTION);
 
     IMutableConfiguration<SchemaGenerationFeature<?>> configuration = new DefaultConfiguration<>();
     if (cmdLine.hasOption(INLINE_TYPES_OPTION)) {
@@ -194,24 +124,16 @@ protected ExitStatus executeCommand(
       }
     }
 
-    String inputName = ObjectUtils.notNull(extraArgs.get(0));
-    URI cwd = ObjectUtils.notNull(Paths.get("").toAbsolutePath().toUri());
+    IBindingContext bindingContext = MetaschemaCommands.newBindingContextWithDynamicCompilation();
+    IModule module = MetaschemaCommands.loadModule(
+        ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(extraArgs.get(0)),
+        ObjectUtils.notNull(getCurrentWorkingDirectory().toUri()),
+        bindingContext);
+    bindingContext.registerModule(module);
 
-    URI input;
     try {
-      input = UriUtils.toUri(inputName, cwd);
-    } catch (URISyntaxException ex) {
-      return ExitCode.IO_ERROR.exitMessage(
-          String.format("Unable to load '%s' as it is not a valid file or URI.", inputName)).withThrowable(ex);
-    }
-    assert input != null;
-    try {
-      ModuleLoader loader = new ModuleLoader();
-      loader.allowEntityResolution();
-      IModule module = loader.load(input);
-
       if (LOGGER.isInfoEnabled()) {
-        LOGGER.info("Generating {} schema for '{}'.", asFormat.name(), input);
+        LOGGER.info("Generating {} schema for '{}'.", asFormat.name(), extraArgs.get(0));
       }
       if (destination == null) {
         @SuppressWarnings({ "resource", "PMD.CloseResource" }) // not owned
@@ -225,12 +147,11 @@ protected ExitStatus executeCommand(
       } else {
         ISchemaGenerator.generateSchema(module, destination, asFormat, configuration);
       }
-    } catch (IOException | MetaschemaException ex) {
-      return ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR.exit().withThrowable(ex); // NOPMD readability
+    } catch (IOException ex) {
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR, ex);
     }
     if (destination != null && LOGGER.isInfoEnabled()) {
       LOGGER.info("Generated {} schema file: {}", asFormat.toString(), destination);
     }
-    return ExitCode.OK.exit();
   }
 }
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/MetaschemaCommands.java b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/MetaschemaCommands.java
index 881bae0a9..f009ecf59 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/MetaschemaCommands.java
+++ b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/MetaschemaCommands.java
@@ -6,30 +6,59 @@
 package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.commands;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.commands.metapath.MetapathCommand;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitCode;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.OptionUtils;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.CommandExecutionException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.ICommand;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.metapath.MetapathException;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IConstraintLoader;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IModule;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.MetaschemaException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.constraint.IConstraintSet;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CollectionUtil;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CustomCollectors;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.DeleteOnShutdown;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.UriUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.IBindingContext;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.io.Format;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.io.IBoundLoader;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.model.metaschema.IBindingModuleLoader;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.ISchemaGenerator.SchemaFormat;
 
 import org.apache.commons.cli.CommandLine;
 import org.apache.commons.cli.Option;
 
+import java.io.FileNotFoundException;
 import java.io.IOException;
 import java.net.URI;
 import java.net.URISyntaxException;
 import java.nio.file.Files;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.nio.file.Paths;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.LinkedHashSet;
 import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Locale;
 import java.util.Set;
 
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 
+/**
+ * This class provides a variety of utility methods for processing
+ * Metaschema-related commands.
+ * <p>
+ * These methods handle the errors produced using the
+ * {@link CommandExecutionException}, which will return an exceptional result to
+ * the command line interface (CLI) processor. This approach keeps the command
+ * implementations fairly clean and simple.
+ */
+@SuppressWarnings("PMD.GodClass")
 public final class MetaschemaCommands {
+  /**
+   * A list of the Metaschema-related command pathways, for reuse in this and
+   * other CLI applications.
+   */
   @NonNull
   public static final List<ICommand> COMMANDS = ObjectUtils.notNull(List.of(
       new ValidateModuleCommand(),
@@ -39,6 +68,11 @@ public final class MetaschemaCommands {
       new ConvertContentUsingModuleCommand(),
       new MetapathCommand()));
 
+  /**
+   * Used by commands to declare a required Metaschema module for processing.
+   *
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
   @NonNull
   public static final Option METASCHEMA_REQUIRED_OPTION = ObjectUtils.notNull(
       Option.builder("m")
@@ -46,75 +80,539 @@ public final class MetaschemaCommands {
           .argName("FILE_OR_URL")
           .required()
           .desc("metaschema resource")
+          .numberOfArgs(1)
           .build());
+  /**
+   * Used by commands to declare an optional Metaschema module for processing.
+   *
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
   @NonNull
   public static final Option METASCHEMA_OPTIONAL_OPTION = ObjectUtils.notNull(
       Option.builder("m")
           .hasArg()
           .argName("FILE_OR_URL")
-          .required()
           .desc("metaschema resource")
+          .numberOfArgs(1)
           .build());
+  /**
+   * Used by commands to protect existing files from being overwritten, unless
+   * this option is provided.
+   */
   @NonNull
   public static final Option OVERWRITE_OPTION = ObjectUtils.notNull(
       Option.builder()
           .longOpt("overwrite")
           .desc("overwrite the destination if it exists")
           .build());
+  /**
+   * Used by commands to identify the target format for a content conversion
+   * operation.
+   *
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
+  @NonNull
+  public static final Option TO_OPTION = ObjectUtils.notNull(
+      Option.builder()
+          .longOpt("to")
+          .required()
+          .hasArg().argName("FORMAT")
+          .desc("convert to format: " + Arrays.stream(Format.values())
+              .map(Enum::name)
+              .collect(CustomCollectors.joiningWithOxfordComma("or")))
+          .numberOfArgs(1)
+          .build());
+  /**
+   * Used by commands to identify the source format for a content-related
+   * operation.
+   *
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
+  @NonNull
+  public static final Option AS_FORMAT_OPTION = ObjectUtils.notNull(
+      Option.builder()
+          .longOpt("as")
+          .hasArg()
+          .argName("FORMAT")
+          .desc("source format: " + Arrays.stream(Format.values())
+              .map(Enum::name)
+              .collect(CustomCollectors.joiningWithOxfordComma("or")))
+          .numberOfArgs(1)
+          .build());
+  /**
+   * Used by commands that produce schemas to identify the schema format to
+   * produce.
+   *
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
+  @NonNull
+  public static final Option AS_SCHEMA_FORMAT_OPTION = ObjectUtils.notNull(
+      Option.builder()
+          .longOpt("as")
+          .required()
+          .hasArg()
+          .argName("FORMAT")
+          .desc("schema format: " + Arrays.stream(SchemaFormat.values())
+              .map(Enum::name)
+              .collect(CustomCollectors.joiningWithOxfordComma("or")))
+          .numberOfArgs(1)
+          .build());
+
+  /**
+   * Get the provided source path or URI string as an absolute {@link URI} for the
+   * resource.
+   *
+   * @param pathOrUri
+   *          the resource
+   * @param currentWorkingDirectory
+   *          the current working directory the URI will be resolved against to
+   *          ensure it is absolute
+   * @return the absolute URI for the resource
+   * @throws CommandExecutionException
+   *           if the resulting URI is not a well-formed URI
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
+  @NonNull
+  public static URI handleSource(
+      @NonNull String pathOrUri,
+      @NonNull URI currentWorkingDirectory) throws CommandExecutionException {
+    try {
+      return getResourceUri(pathOrUri, currentWorkingDirectory);
+    } catch (URISyntaxException ex) {
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(
+          ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS,
+          String.format(
+              "Cannot load source '%s' as it is not a valid file or URI.",
+              pathOrUri),
+          ex);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get the provided destination path as an absolute {@link Path} for the
+   * resource.
+   * <p>
+   * This method checks if the path exists and if so, if the overwrite option is
+   * set. The method also ensures that the parent directory is created, if it
+   * doesn't already exist.
+   *
+   * @param path
+   *          the resource
+   * @param commandLine
+   *          the provided command line argument information
+   * @return the absolute URI for the resource
+   * @throws CommandExecutionException
+   *           if the path exists and cannot be overwritten or is not writable
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
+  public static Path handleDestination(
+      @NonNull String path,
+      @NonNull CommandLine commandLine) throws CommandExecutionException {
+    Path retval = Paths.get(path).toAbsolutePath();
+
+    if (Files.exists(retval)) {
+      if (!commandLine.hasOption(OVERWRITE_OPTION)) {
+        throw new CommandExecutionException(
+            ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS,
+            String.format("The provided destination '%s' already exists and the '%s' option was not provided.",
+                retval,
+                OptionUtils.toArgument(OVERWRITE_OPTION)));
+      }
+      if (!Files.isWritable(retval)) {
+        throw new CommandExecutionException(
+            ExitCode.IO_ERROR,
+            String.format(
+                "The provided destination '%s' is not writable.", retval));
+      }
+    } else {
+      Path parent = retval.getParent();
+      if (parent != null) {
+        try {
+          Files.createDirectories(parent);
+        } catch (IOException ex) {
+          throw new CommandExecutionException(
+              ExitCode.INVALID_TARGET,
+              ex);
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    return retval;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Parse the command line options to get the selected format.
+   *
+   * @param commandLine
+   *          the provided command line argument information
+   * @param option
+   *          the option specifying the format, which must be present on the
+   *          command line
+   * @return the format
+   * @throws CommandExecutionException
+   *           if the format option was not provided or was an invalid choice
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
+  @SuppressWarnings("PMD.PreserveStackTrace")
+  @NonNull
+  public static Format getFormat(
+      @NonNull CommandLine commandLine,
+      @NonNull Option option) throws CommandExecutionException {
+    // use the option
+    String toFormatText = commandLine.getOptionValue(option);
+    if (toFormatText == null) {
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(
+          ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS,
+          String.format("The '%s' argument was not provided.",
+              option.hasLongOpt()
+                  ? "--" + option.getLongOpt()
+                  : "-" + option.getOpt()));
+    }
+    try {
+      return Format.valueOf(toFormatText.toUpperCase(Locale.ROOT));
+    } catch (IllegalArgumentException ex) {
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(
+          ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS,
+          String.format("Invalid '%s' argument. The format must be one of: %s.",
+              option.hasLongOpt()
+                  ? "--" + option.getLongOpt()
+                  : "-" + option.getOpt(),
+              Arrays.stream(Format.values())
+                  .map(Enum::name)
+                  .collect(CustomCollectors.joiningWithOxfordComma("or"))));
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Parse the command line options to get the selected schema format.
+   *
+   * @param commandLine
+   *          the provided command line argument information
+   * @param option
+   *          the option specifying the format, which must be present on the
+   *          command line
+   * @return the format
+   * @throws CommandExecutionException
+   *           if the format option was not provided or was an invalid choice
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
+  @SuppressWarnings("PMD.PreserveStackTrace")
+  @NonNull
+  public static SchemaFormat getSchemaFormat(
+      @NonNull CommandLine commandLine,
+      @NonNull Option option) throws CommandExecutionException {
+    // use the option
+    String toFormatText = commandLine.getOptionValue(option);
+    if (toFormatText == null) {
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(
+          ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS,
+          String.format("Option '%s' not provided.",
+              option.hasLongOpt()
+                  ? "--" + option.getLongOpt()
+                  : "-" + option.getOpt()));
+    }
+    try {
+      return SchemaFormat.valueOf(toFormatText.toUpperCase(Locale.ROOT));
+    } catch (IllegalArgumentException ex) {
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(
+          ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS,
+          String.format("Invalid '%s' argument. The schema format must be one of: %s.",
+              option.hasLongOpt()
+                  ? "--" + option.getLongOpt()
+                  : "-" + option.getOpt(),
+              Arrays.stream(SchemaFormat.values())
+                  .map(Enum::name)
+                  .collect(CustomCollectors.joiningWithOxfordComma("or"))),
+          ex);
+    }
+  }
 
+  /**
+   * Detect the source format for content identified using the provided option.
+   * <p>
+   * This method will first check if the source format is explicitly declared on
+   * the command line. If so, this format will be returned.
+   * <p>
+   * If not, then the content will be analyzed to determine the format.
+   *
+   * @param commandLine
+   *          the provided command line argument information
+   * @param option
+   *          the option specifying the format, which must be present on the
+   *          command line
+   * @param loader
+   *          the content loader to use to load the content instance
+   * @param resource
+   *          the resource to load
+   * @return the identified content format
+   * @throws CommandExecutionException
+   *           if an error occurred while determining the source format
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
+  @SuppressWarnings({ "PMD.PreserveStackTrace", "PMD.OnlyOneReturn" })
   @NonNull
-  public static IModule handleModule(
+  public static Format determineSourceFormat(
       @NonNull CommandLine commandLine,
       @NonNull Option option,
-      @NonNull URI cwd,
-      @NonNull IBindingContext bindingContext) throws URISyntaxException, IOException, MetaschemaException {
-    String moduleName = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(commandLine.getOptionValue(option));
-    URI moduleUri = UriUtils.toUri(moduleName, cwd);
-    return handleModule(moduleUri, bindingContext);
+      @NonNull IBoundLoader loader,
+      @NonNull URI resource) throws CommandExecutionException {
+    if (commandLine.hasOption(option)) {
+      // use the option
+      return getFormat(commandLine, option);
+    }
+
+    // attempt to determine the format
+    try {
+      return loader.detectFormat(resource);
+    } catch (FileNotFoundException ex) {
+      // this case was already checked for
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(
+          ExitCode.IO_ERROR,
+          String.format("The provided source '%s' does not exist.", resource),
+          ex);
+    } catch (IOException ex) {
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(
+          ExitCode.IO_ERROR,
+          String.format("Unable to determine source format. Use '%s' to specify the format. %s",
+              option.hasLongOpt()
+                  ? "--" + option.getLongOpt()
+                  : "-" + option.getOpt(),
+              ex.getLocalizedMessage()),
+          ex);
+    }
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Load a Metaschema module based on the provided command line option.
+   *
+   * @param commandLine
+   *          the provided command line argument information
+   * @param option
+   *          the option specifying the module to load, which must be present on
+   *          the command line
+   * @param currentWorkingDirectory
+   *          the URI of the current working directory
+   * @param bindingContext
+   *          the context used to access Metaschema module information based on
+   *          Java class bindings
+   * @return the loaded module
+   * @throws CommandExecutionException
+   *           if an error occurred while loading the module
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
   @NonNull
-  public static IModule handleModule(
-      @NonNull URI moduleResource,
-      @NonNull IBindingContext bindingContext) throws IOException, MetaschemaException {
-    IBindingModuleLoader loader = bindingContext.newModuleLoader();
-    loader.allowEntityResolution();
-    return loader.load(moduleResource);
+  public static IModule loadModule(
+      @NonNull CommandLine commandLine,
+      @NonNull Option option,
+      @NonNull URI currentWorkingDirectory,
+      @NonNull IBindingContext bindingContext) throws CommandExecutionException {
+    String moduleName = commandLine.getOptionValue(option);
+    if (moduleName == null) {
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(
+          ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS,
+          String.format("Unable to determine the module to load. Use '%s' to specify the module.",
+              option.hasLongOpt()
+                  ? "--" + option.getLongOpt()
+                  : "-" + option.getOpt()));
+    }
+
+    URI moduleUri;
+    try {
+      moduleUri = UriUtils.toUri(moduleName, currentWorkingDirectory);
+    } catch (URISyntaxException ex) {
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(
+          ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS,
+          String.format("Cannot load module as '%s' is not a valid file or URL. %s",
+              ex.getInput(),
+              ex.getLocalizedMessage()),
+          ex);
+    }
+    return loadModule(moduleUri, bindingContext);
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Load a Metaschema module from the provided relative resource path.
+   * <p>
+   * This method will resolve the provided resource against the current working
+   * directory to create an absolute URI.
+   *
+   * @param moduleResource
+   *          the relative path to the module resource to load
+   * @param currentWorkingDirectory
+   *          the URI of the current working directory
+   * @param bindingContext
+   *          the context used to access Metaschema module information based on
+   *          Java class bindings
+   * @return the loaded module
+   * @throws CommandExecutionException
+   *           if an error occurred while loading the module
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
   @NonNull
-  public static URI handleResource(
-      @NonNull String location,
-      @NonNull URI cwd) throws IOException {
+  public static IModule loadModule(
+      @NonNull String moduleResource,
+      @NonNull URI currentWorkingDirectory,
+      @NonNull IBindingContext bindingContext) throws CommandExecutionException {
     try {
-      return UriUtils.toUri(location, cwd);
+      URI moduleUri = getResourceUri(
+          moduleResource,
+          currentWorkingDirectory);
+      return loadModule(moduleUri, bindingContext);
     } catch (URISyntaxException ex) {
-      IOException newEx = new IOException( // NOPMD - intentional
-          String.format("Cannot load module as '%s' is not a valid file or URL.", location));
-      newEx.addSuppressed(ex);
-      throw newEx;
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(
+          ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS,
+          String.format("Cannot load module as '%s' is not a valid file or URL. %s",
+              ex.getInput(),
+              ex.getLocalizedMessage()),
+          ex);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Load a Metaschema module from the provided resource path.
+   *
+   * @param moduleResource
+   *          the absolute path to the module resource to load
+   * @param bindingContext
+   *          the context used to access Metaschema module information based on
+   *          Java class bindings
+   * @return the loaded module
+   * @throws CommandExecutionException
+   *           if an error occurred while loading the module
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
+  @NonNull
+  public static IModule loadModule(
+      @NonNull URI moduleResource,
+      @NonNull IBindingContext bindingContext) throws CommandExecutionException {
+    // TODO: ensure the resource URI is absolute
+    try {
+      IBindingModuleLoader loader = bindingContext.newModuleLoader();
+      loader.allowEntityResolution();
+      return loader.load(moduleResource);
+    } catch (IOException | MetaschemaException ex) {
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR, ex);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * For a given resource location, resolve the location into an absolute URI.
+   *
+   * @param location
+   *          the resource location
+   * @param currentWorkingDirectory
+   *          the URI of the current working directory
+   * @return the resolved URI
+   * @throws URISyntaxException
+   *           if the location is not a valid URI
+   */
+  @NonNull
+  public static URI getResourceUri(
+      @NonNull String location,
+      @NonNull URI currentWorkingDirectory) throws URISyntaxException {
+    return UriUtils.toUri(location, currentWorkingDirectory);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Load a set of external Metaschema module constraints based on the provided
+   * command line option.
+   *
+   * @param commandLine
+   *          the provided command line argument information
+   * @param option
+   *          the option specifying the constraints to load, which must be present
+   *          on the command line
+   * @param currentWorkingDirectory
+   *          the URI of the current working directory
+   * @return the set of loaded constraints
+   * @throws CommandExecutionException
+   *           if an error occurred while loading the module
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
+  @NonNull
+  public static Set<IConstraintSet> loadConstraintSets(
+      @NonNull CommandLine commandLine,
+      @NonNull Option option,
+      @NonNull URI currentWorkingDirectory) throws CommandExecutionException {
+    Set<IConstraintSet> constraintSets;
+    if (commandLine.hasOption(option)) {
+      IConstraintLoader constraintLoader = IBindingContext.getConstraintLoader();
+      constraintSets = new LinkedHashSet<>();
+      String[] args = commandLine.getOptionValues(option);
+      for (String arg : args) {
+        assert arg != null;
+        try {
+          URI constraintUri = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(UriUtils.toUri(arg, currentWorkingDirectory));
+          constraintSets.addAll(constraintLoader.load(constraintUri));
+        } catch (URISyntaxException | IOException | MetaschemaException | MetapathException ex) {
+          throw new CommandExecutionException(
+              ExitCode.IO_ERROR,
+              String.format("Unable to process constraint set '%s'. %s",
+                  arg,
+                  ex.getLocalizedMessage()),
+              ex);
+        }
+      }
+    } else {
+      constraintSets = CollectionUtil.emptySet();
     }
+    return constraintSets;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Create a temporary directory for ephemeral files that will be deleted on
+   * shutdown.
+   *
+   * @return the temp directory path
+   * @throws IOException
+   *           if an error occurred while creating the temporary directory
+   */
   @NonNull
   public static Path newTempDir() throws IOException {
     Path retval = Files.createTempDirectory("metaschema-cli-");
-    retval.toFile().deleteOnExit();
-    return retval;
+    DeleteOnShutdown.register(retval);
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(retval);
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Create a new {@link IBindingContext} that is configured for dynamic
+   * compilation.
+   *
+   * @return the binding context
+   * @throws CommandExecutionException
+   *           if an error occurred while creating the binding context
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
   @NonNull
-  public static IBindingContext newBindingContextWithDynamicCompilation() throws IOException {
+  public static IBindingContext newBindingContextWithDynamicCompilation() throws CommandExecutionException {
     return newBindingContextWithDynamicCompilation(CollectionUtil.emptySet());
   }
 
+  /**
+   * Create a new {@link IBindingContext} that is configured for dynamic
+   * compilation and to use the provided constraints.
+   *
+   * @param constraintSets
+   *          the Metaschema module constraints to dynamicly bind to loaded
+   *          modules
+   * @return the binding context
+   * @throws CommandExecutionException
+   *           if an error occurred while creating the binding context
+   * @since 2.0.0
+   */
   @NonNull
   public static IBindingContext newBindingContextWithDynamicCompilation(@NonNull Set<IConstraintSet> constraintSets)
-      throws IOException {
-    return IBindingContext.builder()
-        .compilePath(newTempDir())
-        .constraintSet(constraintSets)
-        .build();
+      throws CommandExecutionException {
+    try {
+      Path tempDir = newTempDir();
+      return IBindingContext.builder()
+          .compilePath(tempDir)
+          .constraintSet(constraintSets)
+          .build();
+    } catch (IOException ex) {
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(ExitCode.RUNTIME_ERROR,
+          String.format("Unable to initialize the binding context. %s", ex.getLocalizedMessage()),
+          ex);
+    }
   }
 
   private MetaschemaCommands() {
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/ValidateContentUsingModuleCommand.java b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/ValidateContentUsingModuleCommand.java
index 7e2eda757..300c3413d 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/ValidateContentUsingModuleCommand.java
+++ b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/ValidateContentUsingModuleCommand.java
@@ -6,11 +6,11 @@
 package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.commands;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.CLIProcessor.CallingContext;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.CommandExecutionException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.ICommandExecutor;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.configuration.DefaultConfiguration;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.configuration.IMutableConfiguration;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IModule;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.MetaschemaException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.constraint.IConstraintSet;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.validation.JsonSchemaContentValidator;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.validation.XmlSchemaContentValidator;
@@ -32,10 +32,7 @@
 import java.io.Reader;
 import java.io.StringReader;
 import java.io.StringWriter;
-import java.net.URI;
-import java.net.URISyntaxException;
 import java.net.URL;
-import java.nio.file.Paths;
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.Collection;
 import java.util.List;
@@ -45,7 +42,11 @@
 
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 
-public class ValidateContentUsingModuleCommand
+/**
+ * This command implementation supports validation of a content instance based
+ * on a provided Metaschema module.
+ */
+class ValidateContentUsingModuleCommand
     extends AbstractValidateContentCommand {
   @NonNull
   private static final String COMMAND = "validate-content";
@@ -73,13 +74,13 @@ public Collection<? extends Option> gatherOptions() {
 
   @Override
   public ICommandExecutor newExecutor(CallingContext callingContext, CommandLine commandLine) {
-    return new OscalCommandExecutor(callingContext, commandLine);
+    return new CommandExecutor(callingContext, commandLine);
   }
 
-  private final class OscalCommandExecutor
+  private final class CommandExecutor
       extends AbstractValidationCommandExecutor {
 
-    private OscalCommandExecutor(
+    private CommandExecutor(
         @NonNull CallingContext callingContext,
         @NonNull CommandLine commandLine) {
       super(callingContext, commandLine);
@@ -87,29 +88,19 @@ private OscalCommandExecutor(
 
     @Override
     protected IBindingContext getBindingContext(@NonNull Set<IConstraintSet> constraintSets)
-        throws MetaschemaException, IOException {
+        throws CommandExecutionException {
       return MetaschemaCommands.newBindingContextWithDynamicCompilation(constraintSets);
     }
 
     @Override
     protected IModule getModule(
         CommandLine commandLine,
-        IBindingContext bindingContext) throws IOException, MetaschemaException {
-
-      URI cwd = ObjectUtils.notNull(Paths.get("").toAbsolutePath().toUri());
-
-      IModule module;
-      try {
-        module = MetaschemaCommands.handleModule(
-            commandLine,
-            MetaschemaCommands.METASCHEMA_REQUIRED_OPTION,
-            cwd,
-            bindingContext);
-      } catch (URISyntaxException ex) {
-        throw new IOException(String.format("Cannot load module as '%s' is not a valid file or URL.", ex.getInput()),
-            ex);
-      }
-      return module;
+        IBindingContext bindingContext) throws CommandExecutionException {
+      return MetaschemaCommands.loadModule(
+          commandLine,
+          MetaschemaCommands.METASCHEMA_REQUIRED_OPTION,
+          ObjectUtils.notNull(getCurrentWorkingDirectory().toUri()),
+          bindingContext);
     }
 
     @Override
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/ValidateModuleCommand.java b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/ValidateModuleCommand.java
index d070890ab..22400c6bc 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/ValidateModuleCommand.java
+++ b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/ValidateModuleCommand.java
@@ -6,9 +6,9 @@
 package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.commands;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.CLIProcessor.CallingContext;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.CommandExecutionException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.ICommandExecutor;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IModule;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.MetaschemaException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.constraint.IConstraintSet;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.util.JsonUtil;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.validation.JsonSchemaContentValidator;
@@ -38,7 +38,10 @@
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 import nl.talsmasoftware.lazy4j.Lazy;
 
-public class ValidateModuleCommand
+/**
+ * This command implementation supports validation a Metaschema module.
+ */
+class ValidateModuleCommand
     extends AbstractValidateContentCommand {
   @NonNull
   private static final String COMMAND = "validate";
@@ -55,14 +58,14 @@ public String getDescription() {
 
   @Override
   public ICommandExecutor newExecutor(CallingContext callingContext, CommandLine commandLine) {
-    return new ValidateModuleCommandExecutor(callingContext, commandLine);
+    return new CommandExecutor(callingContext, commandLine);
   }
 
-  private final class ValidateModuleCommandExecutor
+  private final class CommandExecutor
       extends AbstractValidationCommandExecutor {
     private final Lazy<ValidationProvider> validationProvider = Lazy.lazy(ValidationProvider::new);
 
-    private ValidateModuleCommandExecutor(
+    private CommandExecutor(
         @NonNull CallingContext callingContext,
         @NonNull CommandLine commandLine) {
       super(callingContext, commandLine);
@@ -70,7 +73,7 @@ private ValidateModuleCommandExecutor(
 
     @Override
     protected IBindingContext getBindingContext(Set<IConstraintSet> constraintSets)
-        throws MetaschemaException, IOException {
+        throws CommandExecutionException {
       return MetaschemaCommands.newBindingContextWithDynamicCompilation(constraintSets);
     }
 
@@ -90,16 +93,17 @@ protected ISchemaValidationProvider getSchemaValidationProvider(
   }
 
   private static final class ValidationProvider implements ISchemaValidationProvider {
+    @SuppressWarnings("resource")
     @Override
     public XmlSchemaContentValidator getXmlSchemas(
         @NonNull URL targetResource,
         @NonNull IBindingContext bindingContext) throws IOException, SAXException {
       try (InputStream is = this.getClass().getResourceAsStream("/schema/xml/metaschema-model_schema.xsd")) {
-        List<Source> retval = new LinkedList<>();
-        retval.add(new StreamSource(
+        List<Source> sources = new LinkedList<>();
+        sources.add(new StreamSource(
             ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(is,
                 "Unable to load '/schema/xml/metaschema.xsd' on the classpath")));
-        return new XmlSchemaContentValidator(retval);
+        return new XmlSchemaContentValidator(sources);
       }
     }
 
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/EvaluateMetapathCommand.java b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/EvaluateMetapathCommand.java
index 152750ae7..5ab8be68c 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/EvaluateMetapathCommand.java
+++ b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/EvaluateMetapathCommand.java
@@ -8,9 +8,8 @@
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.commands.MetaschemaCommands;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.CLIProcessor.CallingContext;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitCode;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitStatus;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.InvalidArgumentException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.AbstractTerminalCommand;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.CommandExecutionException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.ExtraArgument;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.ICommandExecutor;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.metapath.DynamicContext;
@@ -22,7 +21,6 @@
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.metapath.item.node.INodeItem;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.metapath.item.node.INodeItemFactory;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IModule;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.MetaschemaException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CollectionUtil;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.IBindingContext;
@@ -39,14 +37,27 @@
 import java.io.Writer;
 import java.net.URI;
 import java.net.URISyntaxException;
-import java.nio.file.Paths;
 import java.util.Collection;
 import java.util.List;
 
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.SuppressFBWarnings;
 
-public class EvaluateMetapathCommand
+/**
+ * This command implementation executes a Metapath query.
+ * <p>
+ * The query is executed using one of the following configurations:
+ * <ol>
+ * <li><b>module and content:</b> on a content instance parsed using a provided
+ * Metaschema module,</li>
+ * <li><b>module-only:</b> against the Metaschema module itself if no content
+ * instance is provided, or</li>
+ * <li><b>without content or module:</b> if both a module and content are
+ * omitted then the execution will be limited to operations that do not act on
+ * content.</li>
+ * </ol>
+ */
+class EvaluateMetapathCommand
     extends AbstractTerminalCommand {
   private static final Logger LOGGER = LogManager.getLogger(EvaluateMetapathCommand.class);
 
@@ -62,7 +73,7 @@ public class EvaluateMetapathCommand
           .desc("Metapath expression to execute")
           .build());
   @NonNull
-  public static final Option CONTENT_OPTION = ObjectUtils.notNull(
+  private static final Option CONTENT_OPTION = ObjectUtils.notNull(
       Option.builder("i")
           .hasArg()
           .argName("FILE_OR_URL")
@@ -93,14 +104,6 @@ public List<ExtraArgument> getExtraArguments() {
     return CollectionUtil.emptyList();
   }
 
-  @Override
-  public void validateOptions(CallingContext callingContext, CommandLine cmdLine) throws InvalidArgumentException {
-    List<String> extraArgs = cmdLine.getArgList();
-    if (!extraArgs.isEmpty()) {
-      throw new InvalidArgumentException("Illegal number of extra arguments.");
-    }
-  }
-
   @Override
   public ICommandExecutor newExecutor(CallingContext callingContext, CommandLine cmdLine) {
     return ICommandExecutor.using(callingContext, cmdLine, this::executeCommand);
@@ -108,41 +111,27 @@ public ICommandExecutor newExecutor(CallingContext callingContext, CommandLine c
 
   @SuppressWarnings({
       "PMD.OnlyOneReturn", // readability
-      "PMD.AvoidCatchingGenericException"
+      "PMD.AvoidCatchingGenericException",
+      "PMD.NPathComplexity",
+      "PMD.CognitiveComplexity",
+      "PMD.CyclomaticComplexity"
   })
   @SuppressFBWarnings(value = "REC_CATCH_EXCEPTION",
       justification = "Catching generic exception for CLI error handling")
-  protected ExitStatus executeCommand(
-      @NonNull CallingContext callingContext,
-      @NonNull CommandLine cmdLine) {
-    URI cwd = ObjectUtils.notNull(Paths.get("").toAbsolutePath().toUri());
+  private void executeCommand(
+      @SuppressWarnings("unused") @NonNull CallingContext callingContext,
+      @NonNull CommandLine cmdLine) throws CommandExecutionException {
 
     IModule module = null;
     INodeItem item = null;
     if (cmdLine.hasOption(MetaschemaCommands.METASCHEMA_OPTIONAL_OPTION)) {
-      IBindingContext bindingContext;
-      try {
-        bindingContext = MetaschemaCommands.newBindingContextWithDynamicCompilation();
-      } catch (Exception ex) {
-        return ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR
-            .exitMessage("Unable to initialize binding context." + ex.getMessage())
-            .withThrowable(ex);
-      }
+      IBindingContext bindingContext = MetaschemaCommands.newBindingContextWithDynamicCompilation();
 
-      try {
-        module = MetaschemaCommands.handleModule(
-            cmdLine,
-            MetaschemaCommands.METASCHEMA_OPTIONAL_OPTION,
-            cwd,
-            bindingContext);
-      } catch (URISyntaxException ex) {
-        return ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS
-            .exitMessage(
-                String.format("Cannot load module as '%s' is not a valid file or URL.", ex.getInput()))
-            .withThrowable(ex);
-      } catch (IOException | MetaschemaException ex) {
-        return ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR.exit().withThrowable(ex);
-      }
+      module = bindingContext.registerModule(MetaschemaCommands.loadModule(
+          cmdLine,
+          MetaschemaCommands.METASCHEMA_OPTIONAL_OPTION,
+          ObjectUtils.notNull(getCurrentWorkingDirectory().toUri()),
+          bindingContext));
 
       // determine if the query is evaluated against the module or the instance
       if (cmdLine.hasOption(CONTENT_OPTION)) {
@@ -150,32 +139,44 @@ protected ExitStatus executeCommand(
 
         IBoundLoader loader = bindingContext.newBoundLoader();
 
-        String content = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(cmdLine.getOptionValue(CONTENT_OPTION));
+        String contentLocation = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(cmdLine.getOptionValue(CONTENT_OPTION));
         URI contentResource;
         try {
-          contentResource = MetaschemaCommands.handleResource(content, cwd);
-        } catch (IOException ex) {
-          return ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS
-              .exitMessage("Unable to resolve content location. " + ex.getMessage())
-              .withThrowable(ex);
+          contentResource = MetaschemaCommands.getResourceUri(
+              contentLocation,
+              ObjectUtils.notNull(getCurrentWorkingDirectory().toUri()));
+        } catch (URISyntaxException ex) {
+          throw new CommandExecutionException(
+              ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS,
+              String.format("Unable to load content '%s'. %s",
+                  contentLocation,
+                  ex.getMessage()),
+              ex);
         }
 
         try {
           item = loader.loadAsNodeItem(contentResource);
         } catch (IOException ex) {
-          return ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS
-              .exitMessage("Unable to resolve content location. " + ex.getMessage())
-              .withThrowable(ex);
+          throw new CommandExecutionException(
+              ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS,
+              String.format("Unable to load content '%s'. %s",
+                  contentLocation,
+                  ex.getMessage()),
+              ex);
         }
       } else {
+        // evaluate against the module
         item = INodeItemFactory.instance().newModuleNodeItem(module);
       }
     } else if (cmdLine.hasOption(CONTENT_OPTION)) {
       // content provided, but no module; require module
-      return ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS.exitMessage(
-          String.format("Must use '%s' to specify the Metaschema module.", CONTENT_OPTION.getArgName()));
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(
+          ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS,
+          String.format("Must use '%s' to specify the Metaschema module.",
+              CONTENT_OPTION.getArgName()));
     }
 
+    // now setup to evaluate the metapath
     StaticContext.Builder builder = StaticContext.builder();
     if (module != null) {
       builder.defaultModelNamespace(module.getXmlNamespace());
@@ -184,7 +185,8 @@ protected ExitStatus executeCommand(
 
     String expression = cmdLine.getOptionValue(EXPRESSION_OPTION);
     if (expression == null) {
-      return ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS.exitMessage(
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(
+          ExitCode.INVALID_ARGUMENTS,
           String.format("Must use '%s' to specify the Metapath expression.", EXPRESSION_OPTION.getArgName()));
     }
 
@@ -193,10 +195,15 @@ protected ExitStatus executeCommand(
       MetapathExpression compiledMetapath = MetapathExpression.compile(expression, staticContext);
       ISequence<?> sequence = compiledMetapath.evaluate(item, new DynamicContext(staticContext));
 
+      // handle the metapath results
       try (Writer stringWriter = new StringWriter()) {
         try (PrintWriter writer = new PrintWriter(stringWriter)) {
           try (IItemWriter itemWriter = new DefaultItemWriter(writer)) {
             itemWriter.writeSequence(sequence);
+          } catch (IOException ex) {
+            throw new CommandExecutionException(ExitCode.IO_ERROR, ex);
+          } catch (Exception ex) {
+            throw new CommandExecutionException(ExitCode.RUNTIME_ERROR, ex);
           }
         }
 
@@ -204,10 +211,11 @@ protected ExitStatus executeCommand(
         if (LOGGER.isInfoEnabled()) {
           LOGGER.info(stringWriter.toString());
         }
+      } catch (IOException ex) {
+        throw new CommandExecutionException(ExitCode.IO_ERROR, ex);
       }
-      return ExitCode.OK.exit();
-    } catch (Exception ex) {
-      return ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR.exit().withThrowable(ex);
+    } catch (RuntimeException ex) {
+      throw new CommandExecutionException(ExitCode.PROCESSING_ERROR, ex);
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/ListFunctionsSubcommand.java b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/ListFunctionsSubcommand.java
index cc597da12..2537725f8 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/ListFunctionsSubcommand.java
+++ b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/ListFunctionsSubcommand.java
@@ -28,7 +28,11 @@
 
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 
-public class ListFunctionsSubcommand
+/**
+ * This command list the Metapath functions currently provided by the Metaschema
+ * runtime.
+ */
+class ListFunctionsSubcommand
     extends AbstractTerminalCommand {
   private static final Logger LOGGER = LogManager.getLogger(ListFunctionsSubcommand.class);
 
@@ -61,7 +65,8 @@ public ICommandExecutor newExecutor(CallingContext callingContext, CommandLine c
    */
   @SuppressWarnings({
       "PMD.OnlyOneReturn", // readability
-      "PMD.AvoidInstantiatingObjectsInLoops"
+      "PMD.AvoidInstantiatingObjectsInLoops",
+      "PMD.CognitiveComplexity"
   })
   protected ExitStatus executeCommand(
       @NonNull CallingContext callingContext,
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/MetapathCommand.java b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/MetapathCommand.java
index 903fd1590..0d1a0d79c 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/MetapathCommand.java
+++ b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/MetapathCommand.java
@@ -7,6 +7,10 @@
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.command.AbstractParentCommand;
 
+/**
+ * This sub-command implementation contains all command that relate to Metapath
+ * execution.
+ */
 public class MetapathCommand
     extends AbstractParentCommand {
   private static final String COMMAND = "metapath";
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/util/LoggingValidationHandler.java b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/util/LoggingValidationHandler.java
index 0fe51e7eb..16ac89d9c 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/util/LoggingValidationHandler.java
+++ b/metaschema-cli/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/util/LoggingValidationHandler.java
@@ -26,6 +26,10 @@
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.SuppressFBWarnings;
 
+/**
+ * Supports logging validation findings to the console using ANSI color codes to
+ * improve the visibility of warnings and errors.
+ */
 public final class LoggingValidationHandler
     extends AbstractValidationResultProcessor {
   private static final Logger LOGGER = LogManager.getLogger(LoggingValidationHandler.class);
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/CLITest.java b/metaschema-cli/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/CLITest.java
index 1e27f86b3..e9b7e8a79 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/CLITest.java
+++ b/metaschema-cli/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/CLITest.java
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitCode;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.cli.processor.ExitStatus;
 
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
 import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
 import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
@@ -38,9 +39,9 @@ void evaluateResult(@NonNull ExitStatus status, @NonNull ExitCode expectedCode,
       @NonNull Class<? extends Throwable> thrownClass) {
     status.generateMessage(true);
     Throwable thrown = status.getThrowable();
-    assert thrown != null;
-    assertAll(() -> assertEquals(expectedCode, status.getExitCode(), "exit code mismatch"),
-        () -> assertEquals(thrownClass, thrown.getClass(), "expected Throwable mismatch"));
+    assertAll(
+        () -> assertEquals(expectedCode, status.getExitCode(), "exit code mismatch"),
+        () -> assertEquals(thrownClass, thrown == null ? null : thrown.getClass(), "expected Throwable mismatch"));
   }
 
   private static Stream<Arguments> providesValues() {
@@ -157,7 +158,7 @@ private static Stream<Arguments> providesValues() {
                 "--disable-schema-validation"
             },
             // fail due to missing element during parsing
-            ExitCode.IO_ERROR, java.io.IOException.class));
+            ExitCode.FAIL, NO_EXCEPTION_CLASS));
         add(Arguments.of(
             new String[] { "validate-content",
                 "-m",
@@ -198,4 +199,16 @@ void testAllCommands(@NonNull String[] args, @NonNull ExitCode expectedExitCode,
       evaluateResult(CLI.runCli(fullArgs), expectedExitCode, expectedThrownClass);
     }
   }
+
+  @Test
+  void test() {
+    String[] cliArgs = { "validate-content",
+        "-m",
+        "src/test/resources/content/schema-validation-module.xml",
+        "src/test/resources/content/schema-validation-module-missing-required.xml",
+        "--as=xml",
+        "--disable-schema-validation"
+    };
+    CLI.runCli(cliArgs);
+  }
 }
diff --git a/metaschema-cli/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/EvaluateMetapathSubCommandTest.java b/metaschema-cli/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/EvaluateMetapathSubCommandTest.java
index f8d14ae13..9949e77fd 100644
--- a/metaschema-cli/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/EvaluateMetapathSubCommandTest.java
+++ b/metaschema-cli/src/test/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/cli/commands/metapath/EvaluateMetapathSubCommandTest.java
@@ -11,26 +11,22 @@
 
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
-import nl.altindag.console.ConsoleCaptor;
+import nl.altindag.log.LogCaptor;
 
 class EvaluateMetapathSubCommandTest {
 
   @Test
   void test() {
-    try (ConsoleCaptor consoleCaptor = new ConsoleCaptor()) {
+    try (LogCaptor captor = LogCaptor.forRoot()) {
       String[] args
           = {
               "metapath",
               "eval",
-              "-m",
-              "../databind/src/test/resources/metaschema/fields_with_flags/metaschema.xml",
-              "-i",
-              "../databind/src/test/resources/metaschema/fields_with_flags/example.json",
               "-e",
               "3 + 4 + 5",
               "--show-stack-trace" };
       CLI.runCli(args);
-      assertThat(consoleCaptor.getStandardOutput()).contains("12");
+      assertThat(captor.getInfoLogs().contains("12"));
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/metaschema-maven-plugin/pom.xml b/metaschema-maven-plugin/pom.xml
index e809e59c5..bb4031e58 100644
--- a/metaschema-maven-plugin/pom.xml
+++ b/metaschema-maven-plugin/pom.xml
@@ -95,6 +95,14 @@
     </dependencies>
 
     <build>
+        <resources>
+            <resource>
+                <directory>src/main/resources</directory>
+            </resource>
+            <resource>
+                <directory>${project.build.directory}/generated-resources/maven-plugin</directory>
+            </resource>
+        </resources>
         <pluginManagement>
             <plugins>
                 <!--This plugin's configuration is used to store Eclipse m2e settings only. It has no influence on the Maven build itself. -->
@@ -129,6 +137,11 @@
             <plugin>
                 <groupId>org.apache.maven.plugins</groupId>
                 <artifactId>maven-plugin-plugin</artifactId>
+                <configuration>
+                    <goalPrefix>metaschema</goalPrefix>
+                    <skipErrorNoDescriptorsFound>true</skipErrorNoDescriptorsFound>
+                    <outputDirectory>${project.build.directory}/classes/META-INF/maven</outputDirectory>
+                </configuration>
                 <executions>
                     <execution>
                         <id>default-addPluginArtifactMetadata</id>
@@ -138,21 +151,37 @@
                         </goals>
                     </execution>
                     <execution>
-                        <id>default-descriptor</id>
-                        <phase>process-classes</phase>
+                        <id>help-mojo</id>
                         <goals>
-                            <goal>descriptor</goal>
+                            <goal>helpmojo</goal>
                         </goals>
                         <configuration>
-                            <goalPrefix>metaschema</goalPrefix>
-                            <skipErrorNoDescriptorsFound>false</skipErrorNoDescriptorsFound>
+                        	<outputDirectory>${project.build.directory}/generated-sources/maven-plugin</outputDirectory>
                         </configuration>
                     </execution>
                     <execution>
-                        <id>help-mojo</id>
+                        <id>default-descriptor</id>
                         <goals>
-                            <goal>helpmojo</goal>
+                            <goal>descriptor</goal>
+                        </goals>
+                    </execution>
+                </executions>
+            </plugin>
+            <plugin>
+                <groupId>org.codehaus.mojo</groupId>
+                <artifactId>build-helper-maven-plugin</artifactId>
+                <executions>
+                    <execution>
+                        <id>add-generated-sources</id>
+                        <phase>generate-sources</phase>
+                        <goals>
+                            <goal>add-source</goal>
                         </goals>
+                        <configuration>
+                            <sources>
+                                <source>${project.build.directory}/generated-sources/maven-plugin</source>
+                            </sources>
+                        </configuration>
                     </execution>
                 </executions>
             </plugin>
diff --git a/metaschema-maven-plugin/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/maven/plugin/AbstractMetaschemaMojo.java b/metaschema-maven-plugin/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/maven/plugin/AbstractMetaschemaMojo.java
index 264171972..b3dea218e 100644
--- a/metaschema-maven-plugin/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/maven/plugin/AbstractMetaschemaMojo.java
+++ b/metaschema-maven-plugin/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/maven/plugin/AbstractMetaschemaMojo.java
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.constraint.IConstraintSet;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.validation.AbstractValidationResultProcessor;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.validation.IValidationFinding;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.validation.IValidationResult;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.validation.JsonSchemaContentValidator.JsonValidationFinding;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.validation.XmlSchemaContentValidator.XmlValidationFinding;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CollectionUtil;
@@ -33,11 +34,14 @@
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.codegen.config.DefaultBindingConfiguration;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.codegen.config.IBindingConfiguration;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.model.IBoundModule;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.model.metaschema.IBindingMetaschemaModule;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.model.metaschema.IBindingModuleLoader;
 
 import org.apache.maven.artifact.Artifact;
 import org.apache.maven.artifact.DependencyResolutionRequiredException;
 import org.apache.maven.plugin.AbstractMojo;
 import org.apache.maven.plugin.MojoExecution;
+import org.apache.maven.plugin.MojoExecutionException;
 import org.apache.maven.plugin.logging.Log;
 import org.apache.maven.plugins.annotations.Component;
 import org.apache.maven.plugins.annotations.Parameter;
@@ -48,12 +52,15 @@
 
 import java.io.File;
 import java.io.IOException;
+import java.io.OutputStream;
 import java.net.URI;
 import java.nio.charset.Charset;
 import java.nio.file.Files;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
 import java.nio.file.Paths;
+import java.nio.file.StandardOpenOption;
 import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashSet;
 import java.util.LinkedHashSet;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Objects;
@@ -388,7 +395,7 @@ protected boolean isGenerationRequired() {
   }
 
   protected Set<String> getClassPath() throws DependencyResolutionRequiredException {
-    Set<String> pathElements = null;
+    Set<String> pathElements;
     try {
       pathElements = new LinkedHashSet<>(getMavenProject().getCompileClasspathElements());
     } catch (DependencyResolutionRequiredException ex) {
@@ -406,6 +413,51 @@ protected Set<String> getClassPath() throws DependencyResolutionRequiredExceptio
     return pathElements;
   }
 
+  @NonNull
+  protected Set<IModule> getModulesToGenerateFor(@NonNull IBindingContext bindingContext)
+      throws MetaschemaException, IOException {
+    IBindingModuleLoader loader = bindingContext.newModuleLoader();
+    loader.allowEntityResolution();
+
+    LoggingValidationHandler validationHandler = new LoggingValidationHandler();
+
+    Set<IModule> modules = new HashSet<>();
+    for (File source : getModuleSources().collect(Collectors.toList())) {
+      assert source != null;
+      if (getLog().isInfoEnabled()) {
+        getLog().info("Using metaschema source: " + source.getPath());
+      }
+      IBindingMetaschemaModule module = loader.load(source);
+
+      IValidationResult result = bindingContext.validate(
+          module.getSourceNodeItem(),
+          loader.getBindingContext().newBoundLoader(),
+          null);
+
+      validationHandler.handleResults(result);
+
+      modules.add(module);
+    }
+    return modules;
+  }
+
+  protected void createStaleFile(@NonNull File staleFile) throws MojoExecutionException {
+    // create the stale file
+    if (!staleFileDirectory.exists() && !staleFileDirectory.mkdirs()) {
+      throw new MojoExecutionException("Unable to create output directory: " + staleFileDirectory);
+    }
+    try (OutputStream os
+        = Files.newOutputStream(staleFile.toPath(), StandardOpenOption.CREATE, StandardOpenOption.WRITE,
+            StandardOpenOption.TRUNCATE_EXISTING)) {
+      os.close();
+      if (getLog().isInfoEnabled()) {
+        getLog().info("Created stale file: " + staleFile);
+      }
+    } catch (IOException ex) {
+      throw new MojoExecutionException("Failed to write stale file: " + staleFile.getPath(), ex);
+    }
+  }
+
   protected final class LoggingValidationHandler
       extends AbstractValidationResultProcessor {
 
@@ -528,7 +580,7 @@ private CharSequence getMessage(@NonNull ConstraintValidationFinding finding) {
             .append('}');
       }
       if (documentUri != null || location != null) {
-        builder.append("]");
+        builder.append(']');
       }
       return builder;
     }
@@ -565,13 +617,13 @@ public IProduction generateClasses(@NonNull IModule module) {
       return production;
     }
 
-    public void compileClasses(@NonNull IProduction production, @NonNull Path classDir)
+    private void compileClasses(@NonNull IProduction production, @NonNull Path classDir)
         throws IOException, DependencyResolutionRequiredException {
       List<IGeneratedClass> classesToCompile = production.getGeneratedClasses().collect(Collectors.toList());
 
-      List<Path> classes = classesToCompile.stream()
+      List<Path> classes = ObjectUtils.notNull(classesToCompile.stream()
           .map(IGeneratedClass::getClassFile)
-          .collect(Collectors.toUnmodifiableList());
+          .collect(Collectors.toUnmodifiableList()));
 
       JavaCompilerSupport compiler = new JavaCompilerSupport(classDir);
 
diff --git a/metaschema-maven-plugin/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/maven/plugin/GenerateSchemaMojo.java b/metaschema-maven-plugin/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/maven/plugin/GenerateSchemaMojo.java
index a05e27d52..57eaa879b 100644
--- a/metaschema-maven-plugin/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/maven/plugin/GenerateSchemaMojo.java
+++ b/metaschema-maven-plugin/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/maven/plugin/GenerateSchemaMojo.java
@@ -10,10 +10,8 @@
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.configuration.IMutableConfiguration;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IModule;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.MetaschemaException;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.validation.IValidationResult;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.IBindingContext;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.model.metaschema.IBindingMetaschemaModule;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.model.metaschema.IBindingModuleLoader;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.ISchemaGenerator;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.SchemaGenerationFeature;
@@ -27,18 +25,15 @@
 
 import java.io.File;
 import java.io.IOException;
-import java.io.OutputStream;
 import java.io.Writer;
 import java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets;
 import java.nio.file.Files;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
 import java.nio.file.StandardOpenOption;
 import java.util.EnumSet;
-import java.util.HashSet;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Locale;
 import java.util.Set;
-import java.util.stream.Collectors;
 
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 
@@ -233,7 +228,7 @@ private static void generateSchema(
   public void execute() throws MojoExecutionException {
     File staleFile = getStaleFile();
     try {
-      staleFile = staleFile.getCanonicalFile();
+      staleFile = ObjectUtils.notNull(staleFile.getCanonicalFile());
     } catch (IOException ex) {
       if (getLog().isWarnEnabled()) {
         getLog().warn("Unable to resolve canonical path to stale file. Treating it as not existing.", ex);
@@ -256,71 +251,12 @@ public void execute() throws MojoExecutionException {
     }
 
     if (generate) {
-      File outputDir = getOutputDirectory();
-      if (getLog().isDebugEnabled()) {
-        getLog().debug(String.format("Using outputDirectory: %s", outputDir.getPath()));
-      }
-
-      if (!outputDir.exists() && !outputDir.mkdirs()) {
-        throw new MojoExecutionException("Unable to create output directory: " + outputDir);
-      }
-
-      IBindingContext bindingContext;
-      try {
-        bindingContext = newBindingContext();
-      } catch (MetaschemaException | IOException ex) {
-        throw new MojoExecutionException("Failed to create the binding context", ex);
-      }
-
-      IBindingModuleLoader loader = bindingContext.newModuleLoader();
-      loader.allowEntityResolution();
-
-      // generate Java sources based on provided metaschema sources
-      final Set<IModule> modules = new HashSet<>();
-      for (File source : getModuleSources().collect(Collectors.toList())) {
-        assert source != null;
-        if (getLog().isInfoEnabled()) {
-          getLog().info("Using metaschema source: " + source.getPath());
-        }
-        IBindingMetaschemaModule module;
-        try {
-          module = loader.load(source);
-        } catch (MetaschemaException | IOException ex) {
-          throw new MojoExecutionException("Loading of metaschema failed", ex);
-        }
-
-        IValidationResult result = bindingContext.validate(
-            module.getSourceNodeItem(),
-            loader.getBindingContext().newBoundLoader(),
-            null);
-
-        new LoggingValidationHandler().handleResults(result);
-
-        // ensure we get the version of the module with the constraints applied
-        modules.add(module);
-      }
-
-      generate(modules);
-
-      // create the stale file
-      if (!staleFileDirectory.exists() && !staleFileDirectory.mkdirs()) {
-        throw new MojoExecutionException("Unable to create output directory: " + staleFileDirectory);
-      }
-      try (OutputStream os
-          = Files.newOutputStream(staleFile.toPath(), StandardOpenOption.CREATE, StandardOpenOption.WRITE,
-              StandardOpenOption.TRUNCATE_EXISTING)) {
-        os.close();
-        if (getLog().isInfoEnabled()) {
-          getLog().info("Created stale file: " + staleFile);
-        }
-      } catch (IOException ex) {
-        throw new MojoExecutionException("Failed to write stale file: " + staleFile.getPath(), ex);
-      }
+      performGeneration();
+      createStaleFile(staleFile);
 
       // for m2e
       getBuildContext().refresh(getOutputDirectory());
     }
-
     // // add generated sources to Maven
     // try {
     // getMavenProject()..addCompileSourceRoot(getOutputDirectory().getCanonicalFile().getPath());
@@ -329,4 +265,37 @@ public void execute() throws MojoExecutionException {
     // sources.", ex);
     // }
   }
+
+  @SuppressWarnings("PMD.AvoidCatchingGenericException")
+  private void performGeneration() throws MojoExecutionException {
+    File outputDir = getOutputDirectory();
+    if (getLog().isDebugEnabled()) {
+      getLog().debug(String.format("Using outputDirectory: %s", outputDir.getPath()));
+    }
+
+    if (!outputDir.exists() && !outputDir.mkdirs()) {
+      throw new MojoExecutionException("Unable to create output directory: " + outputDir);
+    }
+
+    IBindingContext bindingContext;
+    try {
+      bindingContext = newBindingContext();
+    } catch (MetaschemaException | IOException ex) {
+      throw new MojoExecutionException("Failed to create the binding context", ex);
+    }
+
+    IBindingModuleLoader loader = bindingContext.newModuleLoader();
+    loader.allowEntityResolution();
+
+    // generate schemas based on provided metaschema sources
+    Set<IModule> modules;
+    try {
+      modules = getModulesToGenerateFor(bindingContext);
+    } catch (Exception ex) {
+      throw new MojoExecutionException("Loading of metaschema modules failed", ex);
+    }
+
+    generate(modules);
+
+  }
 }
diff --git a/metaschema-maven-plugin/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/maven/plugin/GenerateSourcesMojo.java b/metaschema-maven-plugin/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/maven/plugin/GenerateSourcesMojo.java
index 6520991de..eba856b80 100644
--- a/metaschema-maven-plugin/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/maven/plugin/GenerateSourcesMojo.java
+++ b/metaschema-maven-plugin/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/maven/plugin/GenerateSourcesMojo.java
@@ -7,13 +7,10 @@
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IModule;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.MetaschemaException;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.validation.IValidationResult;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.IBindingContext;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.codegen.JavaGenerator;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.codegen.config.DefaultBindingConfiguration;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.model.metaschema.IBindingMetaschemaModule;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.databind.model.metaschema.IBindingModuleLoader;
 
 import org.apache.maven.plugin.MojoExecutionException;
 import org.apache.maven.plugins.annotations.LifecyclePhase;
@@ -22,15 +19,10 @@
 
 import java.io.File;
 import java.io.IOException;
-import java.io.OutputStream;
-import java.nio.file.Files;
-import java.nio.file.StandardOpenOption;
 import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Collections;
-import java.util.HashSet;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Set;
-import java.util.stream.Collectors;
 
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 
@@ -116,7 +108,7 @@ protected void generate(@NonNull Set<IModule> modules) throws MojoExecutionExcep
   public void execute() throws MojoExecutionException {
     File staleFile = getStaleFile();
     try {
-      staleFile = staleFile.getCanonicalFile();
+      staleFile = ObjectUtils.notNull(staleFile.getCanonicalFile());
     } catch (IOException ex) {
       if (getLog().isWarnEnabled()) {
         getLog().warn("Unable to resolve canonical path to stale file. Treating it as not existing.", ex);
@@ -139,66 +131,8 @@ public void execute() throws MojoExecutionException {
     }
 
     if (generate) {
-
-      File outputDir = getOutputDirectory();
-      if (getLog().isDebugEnabled()) {
-        getLog().debug(String.format("Using outputDirectory: %s", outputDir.getPath()));
-      }
-
-      if (!outputDir.exists() && !outputDir.mkdirs()) {
-        throw new MojoExecutionException("Unable to create output directory: " + outputDir);
-      }
-
-      IBindingContext bindingContext;
-      try {
-        bindingContext = newBindingContext();
-      } catch (MetaschemaException | IOException ex) {
-        throw new MojoExecutionException("Failed to create the binding context", ex);
-      }
-      IBindingModuleLoader loader = bindingContext.newModuleLoader();
-      loader.allowEntityResolution();
-
-      // generate Java sources based on provided metaschema sources
-      final Set<IModule> modules = new HashSet<>();
-      for (File source : getModuleSources().collect(Collectors.toList())) {
-        assert source != null;
-        if (getLog().isInfoEnabled()) {
-          getLog().info("Using metaschema source: " + source.getPath());
-        }
-        IBindingMetaschemaModule module;
-        try {
-          module = loader.load(source);
-        } catch (Exception ex) {
-          throw new MojoExecutionException("Loading of metaschema failed", ex);
-        }
-
-        IValidationResult result = bindingContext.validate(
-            module.getSourceNodeItem(),
-            loader.getBindingContext().newBoundLoader(),
-            null);
-
-        new LoggingValidationHandler().handleResults(result);
-
-        // ensure we get the version of the module with the constraints applied
-        modules.add(module);
-      }
-
-      generate(modules);
-
-      // create the stale file
-      if (!staleFileDirectory.exists() && !staleFileDirectory.mkdirs()) {
-        throw new MojoExecutionException("Unable to create output directory: " + staleFileDirectory);
-      }
-      try (OutputStream os
-          = Files.newOutputStream(staleFile.toPath(), StandardOpenOption.CREATE, StandardOpenOption.WRITE,
-              StandardOpenOption.TRUNCATE_EXISTING)) {
-        os.close();
-        if (getLog().isInfoEnabled()) {
-          getLog().info("Created stale file: " + staleFile);
-        }
-      } catch (IOException ex) {
-        throw new MojoExecutionException("Failed to write stale file: " + staleFile.getPath(), ex);
-      }
+      performGeneration();
+      createStaleFile(staleFile);
 
       // for m2e
       getBuildContext().refresh(getOutputDirectory());
@@ -211,4 +145,33 @@ public void execute() throws MojoExecutionException {
       throw new MojoExecutionException("Unable to add output directory to maven sources.", ex);
     }
   }
+
+  @SuppressWarnings("PMD.AvoidCatchingGenericException")
+  private void performGeneration() throws MojoExecutionException {
+    File outputDir = getOutputDirectory();
+    if (getLog().isDebugEnabled()) {
+      getLog().debug(String.format("Using outputDirectory: %s", outputDir.getPath()));
+    }
+
+    if (!outputDir.exists() && !outputDir.mkdirs()) {
+      throw new MojoExecutionException("Unable to create output directory: " + outputDir);
+    }
+
+    IBindingContext bindingContext;
+    try {
+      bindingContext = newBindingContext();
+    } catch (MetaschemaException | IOException ex) {
+      throw new MojoExecutionException("Failed to create the binding context", ex);
+    }
+
+    // generate Java sources based on provided metaschema sources
+    Set<IModule> modules;
+    try {
+      modules = getModulesToGenerateFor(bindingContext);
+    } catch (Exception ex) {
+      throw new MojoExecutionException("Loading of metaschema modules failed", ex);
+    }
+
+    generate(modules);
+  }
 }
diff --git a/metaschema-testing/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/model/testing/AbstractTestSuite.java b/metaschema-testing/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/model/testing/AbstractTestSuite.java
index a2557a51b..e1c0e2a3f 100644
--- a/metaschema-testing/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/model/testing/AbstractTestSuite.java
+++ b/metaschema-testing/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/model/testing/AbstractTestSuite.java
@@ -264,6 +264,7 @@ protected OpenOption[] getWriteOpenOptions() {
     return OPEN_OPTIONS_TRUNCATE;
   }
 
+  @SuppressWarnings("PMD.AvoidCatchingGenericException")
   private DynamicContainer generateScenario(
       @NonNull TestScenario scenario,
       @NonNull URI collectionUri,
@@ -346,7 +347,7 @@ private DynamicContainer generateScenario(
             try {
               schemaPath = ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(lazySchema.get());
             } catch (Exception ex) {
-              throw new JUnitException( // NOPMD - cause is relevant, exception is not
+              throw new JUnitException(
                   "failed to generate schema", ex);
             }
             validateWithSchema(ObjectUtils.requireNonNull(supplier.get()), schemaPath);
@@ -416,13 +417,14 @@ protected Path convertContent(
       LOGGER.atInfo().log("Converting content '{}' to {} as '{}'", resource, toFormat, convertedContetPath);
     }
 
-    @SuppressWarnings("rawtypes") ISerializer serializer
+    ISerializer<?> serializer
         = context.newSerializer(toFormat, ObjectUtils.asType(object.getClass()));
     serializer.serialize(ObjectUtils.asType(object), convertedContetPath, getWriteOpenOptions());
 
     return convertedContetPath;
   }
 
+  @SuppressWarnings("PMD.AvoidCatchingGenericException")
   private DynamicTest generateValidationCase(
       @NonNull ContentCaseType contentCase,
       @NonNull IBindingContext bindingContext,
diff --git a/pom.xml b/pom.xml
index 166ee8873..ff5e660b6 100644
--- a/pom.xml
+++ b/pom.xml
@@ -41,7 +41,6 @@
 		<mojo.maven.version>3.8.1</mojo.maven.version>
 
 		<dependency.antlr4.version>4.13.2</dependency.antlr4.version>
-		<dependency.auto-service.version>1.1.1</dependency.auto-service.version>
 		<dependency.assertj.version>3.26.3</dependency.assertj.version>
 		<dependency.commons-cli.version>1.9.0</dependency.commons-cli.version>
 		<dependency.commons-collections4.version>4.4</dependency.commons-collections4.version>
@@ -177,12 +176,6 @@
 				<artifactId>cli-processor</artifactId>
 				<version>${project.version}</version>
 			</dependency>
-			<dependency>
-				<groupId>com.google.auto.service</groupId>
-				<artifactId>auto-service-annotations</artifactId>
-				<version>${dependency.auto-service.version}</version>
-				<scope>provided</scope>
-			</dependency>
 			<dependency>
 				<groupId>org.apache.xmlbeans</groupId>
 				<artifactId>xmlbeans</artifactId>
@@ -515,24 +508,11 @@
 				<plugin>
 					<groupId>org.apache.maven.plugins</groupId>
 					<artifactId>maven-compiler-plugin</artifactId>
-					<configuration>
-						<annotationProcessorPaths>
-							<path>
-								<groupId>com.google.auto.service</groupId>
-								<artifactId>auto-service</artifactId>
-								<version>${dependency.auto-service.version}</version>
-							</path>
-						</annotationProcessorPaths>
-					</configuration>
 				</plugin>
 				<plugin>
 					<groupId>org.apache.maven.plugins</groupId>
 					<artifactId>maven-dependency-plugin</artifactId>
 					<configuration>
-						<ignoredDependencies>
-							<ignoredDependency>
-								com.google.auto.service:auto-service</ignoredDependency>
-						</ignoredDependencies>
 						<usedDependencies>
 							<usedDependency>org.apache.logging.log4j:log4j-core</usedDependency>
 						</usedDependencies>
diff --git a/schemagen/pom.xml b/schemagen/pom.xml
index 6c214762d..b309c88d8 100644
--- a/schemagen/pom.xml
+++ b/schemagen/pom.xml
@@ -32,11 +32,6 @@
 			<groupId>${project.groupId}</groupId>
 			<artifactId>metaschema-databind</artifactId>
 		</dependency>
-		  <dependency>
-            <!-- for metaschema-databind -->
-            <groupId>com.google.auto.service</groupId>
-            <artifactId>auto-service-annotations</artifactId>
-        </dependency>
 		<dependency>
 			<groupId>${project.groupId}</groupId>
 			<artifactId>metaschema-testing</artifactId>
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/datatype/IDatatypeContent.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/datatype/IDatatypeContent.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 91b68ddf9..000000000
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/datatype/IDatatypeContent.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,23 +0,0 @@
-/*
- * SPDX-FileCopyrightText: none
- * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
- */
-
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.datatype;
-
-import java.util.List;
-
-import javax.xml.stream.XMLStreamException;
-import javax.xml.stream.XMLStreamWriter;
-
-import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
-
-public interface IDatatypeContent {
-  @NonNull
-  String getTypeName();
-
-  @NonNull
-  List<String> getDependencies();
-
-  void write(@NonNull XMLStreamWriter writer) throws XMLStreamException;
-}
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/json/impl/AssemblyDefinitionJsonSchema.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/json/impl/AssemblyDefinitionJsonSchema.java
index d357bffc4..0ff6169a1 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/json/impl/AssemblyDefinitionJsonSchema.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/json/impl/AssemblyDefinitionJsonSchema.java
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ private static Stream<? extends INamedModelInstanceAbsolute> explodeChoice(@NonN
 
   @NonNull
   protected List<IGroupableModelInstanceJsonProperty<?>> getGroupableModelInstances() {
-    return groupableModelInstances.get();
+    return ObjectUtils.notNull(groupableModelInstances.get());
   }
 
   @Override
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/json/impl/FieldDefinitionJsonSchema.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/json/impl/FieldDefinitionJsonSchema.java
index 1a033b174..46a974834 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/json/impl/FieldDefinitionJsonSchema.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/json/impl/FieldDefinitionJsonSchema.java
@@ -72,11 +72,10 @@ protected void generateBody(
       }
 
       // generate flag properties
-      for (IFlagInstance flag : flags) {
+      flags.forEach(flag -> {
         assert flag != null;
-        new FlagInstanceJsonProperty(flag)
-            .generateProperty(properties, state); // NOPMD unavoidable instantiation
-      }
+        new FlagInstanceJsonProperty(flag).generateProperty(properties, state);
+      });
 
       // generate value property
       if (jsonValueKeyFlag == null) {
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlDatatypeManager.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/XmlDatatypeManager.java
similarity index 75%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlDatatypeManager.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/XmlDatatypeManager.java
index bbc9b0be2..319bd00b7 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlDatatypeManager.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/XmlDatatypeManager.java
@@ -3,11 +3,15 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.datatype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.datatype.AbstractDatatypeManager;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.datatype.IDatatypeProvider;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.IDatatypeProvider;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.XmlCoreDatatypeProvider;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.XmlMarkupLineDatatypeProvider;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.XmlMarkupMultilineDatatypeProvider;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.XmlProseCompositDatatypeProvider;
 
 import org.codehaus.stax2.XMLStreamWriter2;
 
@@ -21,6 +25,10 @@
 import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
 import nl.talsmasoftware.lazy4j.Lazy;
 
+/**
+ * Support for managing Module data type implementations aligned with the XML
+ * schema format for use in schema generation.
+ */
 public class XmlDatatypeManager
     extends AbstractDatatypeManager {
   public static final String NS_XML_SCHEMA = "http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema";
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/XmlSchemaGenerator.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/XmlSchemaGenerator.java
index c87dd4ccb..67dce18ad 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/XmlSchemaGenerator.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/XmlSchemaGenerator.java
@@ -16,9 +16,8 @@
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.AbstractSchemaGenerator;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.SchemaGenerationException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.SchemaGenerationFeature;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.datatype.XmlDatatypeManager;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.XmlGenerationState;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype.IXmlType;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype.IXmlType;
 
 import org.codehaus.stax2.XMLOutputFactory2;
 import org.codehaus.stax2.XMLStreamWriter2;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/package-info.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/package-info.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 402dccc97..000000000
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/package-info.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,11 +0,0 @@
-/*
- * SPDX-FileCopyrightText: none
- * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
- */
-
-/**
- * Support for managing Module data type implementations aligned with the XML
- * schema format for use in schema generation.
- */
-
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.datatype;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/datatype/AbstractDatatypeContent.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/AbstractDatatypeContent.java
similarity index 94%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/datatype/AbstractDatatypeContent.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/AbstractDatatypeContent.java
index 6b3f7692d..f3ec0d79c 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/datatype/AbstractDatatypeContent.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/AbstractDatatypeContent.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.datatype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CollectionUtil;
 
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/AbstractXmlDatatypeProvider.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/AbstractXmlDatatypeProvider.java
similarity index 92%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/AbstractXmlDatatypeProvider.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/AbstractXmlDatatypeProvider.java
index d95c1e908..9a0b5681c 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/AbstractXmlDatatypeProvider.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/AbstractXmlDatatypeProvider.java
@@ -3,10 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.datatype;
-
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.datatype.IDatatypeContent;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.datatype.IDatatypeProvider;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl;
 
 import org.codehaus.stax2.XMLStreamWriter2;
 import org.eclipse.jdt.annotation.Owning;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/AbstractXmlMarkupDatatypeProvider.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/AbstractXmlMarkupDatatypeProvider.java
similarity index 92%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/AbstractXmlMarkupDatatypeProvider.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/AbstractXmlMarkupDatatypeProvider.java
index eb847965d..f0eb5eb27 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/AbstractXmlMarkupDatatypeProvider.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/AbstractXmlMarkupDatatypeProvider.java
@@ -3,12 +3,11 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.datatype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IModule;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CollectionUtil;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.datatype.IDatatypeContent;
 
 import org.eclipse.jdt.annotation.Owning;
 import org.jdom2.Element;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/datatype/CompositeDatatypeProvider.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/CompositeDatatypeProvider.java
similarity index 96%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/datatype/CompositeDatatypeProvider.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/CompositeDatatypeProvider.java
index 5f84881ac..271ef895d 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/datatype/CompositeDatatypeProvider.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/CompositeDatatypeProvider.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.datatype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CollectionUtil;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/IDatatypeContent.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/IDatatypeContent.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..f75ab7096
--- /dev/null
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/IDatatypeContent.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+/*
+ * SPDX-FileCopyrightText: none
+ * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
+ */
+
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl;
+
+import java.util.List;
+
+import javax.xml.stream.XMLStreamException;
+import javax.xml.stream.XMLStreamWriter;
+
+import edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations.NonNull;
+
+public interface IDatatypeContent {
+  /**
+   * Get the name of the data type.
+   *
+   * @return the name
+   */
+  @NonNull
+  String getTypeName();
+
+  /**
+   * Get the data type names this type depends on.
+   *
+   * @return the names
+   */
+  @NonNull
+  List<String> getDependencies();
+
+  /**
+   * Write the data type to the XML stream.
+   *
+   * @param writer
+   *          the XML stream
+   * @throws XMLStreamException
+   *           if an error occurred while writing to the XML stream
+   */
+  void write(@NonNull XMLStreamWriter writer) throws XMLStreamException;
+}
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/datatype/IDatatypeProvider.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/IDatatypeProvider.java
similarity index 89%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/datatype/IDatatypeProvider.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/IDatatypeProvider.java
index d2749bfee..76fc7a723 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/datatype/IDatatypeProvider.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/IDatatypeProvider.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.datatype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl;
 
 import org.codehaus.stax2.XMLStreamWriter2;
 
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/JDom2DatatypeContent.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/JDom2DatatypeContent.java
similarity index 89%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/JDom2DatatypeContent.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/JDom2DatatypeContent.java
index c55c0c330..008e9f151 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/JDom2DatatypeContent.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/JDom2DatatypeContent.java
@@ -3,10 +3,9 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.datatype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CollectionUtil;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.datatype.AbstractDatatypeContent;
 
 import org.jdom2.Element;
 import org.jdom2.output.Format;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/JDom2XmlSchemaLoader.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/JDom2XmlSchemaLoader.java
similarity index 97%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/JDom2XmlSchemaLoader.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/JDom2XmlSchemaLoader.java
index d4ff1f13f..98a0b5bb4 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/JDom2XmlSchemaLoader.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/JDom2XmlSchemaLoader.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.datatype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl;
 
 import org.jdom2.Document;
 import org.jdom2.Element;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlCoreDatatypeProvider.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlCoreDatatypeProvider.java
similarity index 94%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlCoreDatatypeProvider.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlCoreDatatypeProvider.java
index 05755130b..b09b9f5fc 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlCoreDatatypeProvider.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlCoreDatatypeProvider.java
@@ -3,12 +3,11 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.datatype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IModule;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CollectionUtil;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.datatype.IDatatypeContent;
 
 import org.jdom2.Attribute;
 import org.jdom2.Element;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlGenerationState.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlGenerationState.java
index 14202214f..281997443 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlGenerationState.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlGenerationState.java
@@ -20,15 +20,15 @@
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.AbstractGenerationState;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.SchemaGenerationException;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.SchemaGenerationFeature;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.datatype.XmlDatatypeManager;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype.IXmlComplexType;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype.IXmlSimpleType;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype.IXmlType;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype.XmlComplexTypeAssemblyDefinition;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype.XmlComplexTypeFieldDefinition;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype.XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeReference;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype.XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeRestriction;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype.XmlSimpleTypeUnion;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.XmlDatatypeManager;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype.IXmlComplexType;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype.IXmlSimpleType;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype.IXmlType;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype.XmlComplexTypeAssemblyDefinition;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype.XmlComplexTypeFieldDefinition;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype.XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeReference;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype.XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeRestriction;
+import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype.XmlSimpleTypeUnion;
 
 import org.codehaus.stax2.XMLStreamWriter2;
 
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlMarkupLineDatatypeProvider.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlMarkupLineDatatypeProvider.java
similarity index 89%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlMarkupLineDatatypeProvider.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlMarkupLineDatatypeProvider.java
index e69cc59ee..0c8ca2861 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlMarkupLineDatatypeProvider.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlMarkupLineDatatypeProvider.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.datatype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl;
 
 public class XmlMarkupLineDatatypeProvider
     extends AbstractXmlMarkupDatatypeProvider {
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlMarkupMultilineDatatypeProvider.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlMarkupMultilineDatatypeProvider.java
similarity index 89%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlMarkupMultilineDatatypeProvider.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlMarkupMultilineDatatypeProvider.java
index 8b8a16f85..4502d36fa 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlMarkupMultilineDatatypeProvider.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlMarkupMultilineDatatypeProvider.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.datatype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl;
 
 public class XmlMarkupMultilineDatatypeProvider
     extends AbstractXmlMarkupDatatypeProvider {
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlProseBaseDatatypeProvider.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlProseBaseDatatypeProvider.java
similarity index 89%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlProseBaseDatatypeProvider.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlProseBaseDatatypeProvider.java
index cfbc7f710..14cd3427e 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlProseBaseDatatypeProvider.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlProseBaseDatatypeProvider.java
@@ -3,11 +3,10 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.datatype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IModule;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CollectionUtil;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.datatype.IDatatypeContent;
 
 import org.jdom2.Element;
 
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlProseCompositDatatypeProvider.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlProseCompositDatatypeProvider.java
similarity index 81%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlProseCompositDatatypeProvider.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlProseCompositDatatypeProvider.java
index e11787667..394b68b4c 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/datatype/XmlProseCompositDatatypeProvider.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/XmlProseCompositDatatypeProvider.java
@@ -3,11 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.datatype;
-
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.datatype.CompositeDatatypeProvider;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.datatype.IDatatypeContent;
-import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.datatype.IDatatypeProvider;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl;
 
 import org.codehaus.stax2.XMLStreamWriter2;
 
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/AbstractXmlComplexType.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/AbstractXmlComplexType.java
similarity index 97%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/AbstractXmlComplexType.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/AbstractXmlComplexType.java
index ea684d300..f543cb255 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/AbstractXmlComplexType.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/AbstractXmlComplexType.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IFlagInstance;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IModelDefinition;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/AbstractXmlSimpleType.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/AbstractXmlSimpleType.java
similarity index 94%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/AbstractXmlSimpleType.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/AbstractXmlSimpleType.java
index c2346861f..108326d79 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/AbstractXmlSimpleType.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/AbstractXmlSimpleType.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.datatype.IDataTypeAdapter;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IValuedDefinition;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/AbstractXmlType.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/AbstractXmlType.java
similarity index 86%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/AbstractXmlType.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/AbstractXmlType.java
index 8e78c0172..a73ac16e5 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/AbstractXmlType.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/AbstractXmlType.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype;
 
 import javax.xml.namespace.QName;
 
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/IXmlComplexType.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/IXmlComplexType.java
similarity index 91%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/IXmlComplexType.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/IXmlComplexType.java
index 3c4c4ebb0..49cd8350a 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/IXmlComplexType.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/IXmlComplexType.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IDefinition;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.ModuleIndex.DefinitionEntry;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/IXmlSimpleType.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/IXmlSimpleType.java
similarity index 89%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/IXmlSimpleType.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/IXmlSimpleType.java
index e1ee56fea..5380ce311 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/IXmlSimpleType.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/IXmlSimpleType.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.datatype.IDataTypeAdapter;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.XmlGenerationState;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/IXmlType.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/IXmlType.java
similarity index 97%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/IXmlType.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/IXmlType.java
index 45d931288..275995b07 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/IXmlType.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/IXmlType.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.ObjectUtils;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.SchemaGenerationException;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/XmlComplexTypeAssemblyDefinition.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/XmlComplexTypeAssemblyDefinition.java
similarity index 99%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/XmlComplexTypeAssemblyDefinition.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/XmlComplexTypeAssemblyDefinition.java
index b05c81b20..07aec466b 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/XmlComplexTypeAssemblyDefinition.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/XmlComplexTypeAssemblyDefinition.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.datatype.markup.MarkupDataTypeProvider;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IAssemblyDefinition;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/XmlComplexTypeFieldDefinition.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/XmlComplexTypeFieldDefinition.java
similarity index 96%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/XmlComplexTypeFieldDefinition.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/XmlComplexTypeFieldDefinition.java
index d504644ea..af6135911 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/XmlComplexTypeFieldDefinition.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/XmlComplexTypeFieldDefinition.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.datatype.IDataTypeAdapter;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IFieldDefinition;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeReference.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeReference.java
similarity index 95%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeReference.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeReference.java
index 0369002a7..e03590de9 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeReference.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeReference.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.datatype.IDataTypeAdapter;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.XmlGenerationState;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeRestriction.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeRestriction.java
similarity index 98%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeRestriction.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeRestriction.java
index 10b5de4f2..457d50305 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeRestriction.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeDataTypeRestriction.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.datatype.markup.MarkupLine;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IValuedDefinition;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeUnion.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeUnion.java
similarity index 97%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeUnion.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeUnion.java
index 71256a7af..34ad7f5ef 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeUnion.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/XmlSimpleTypeUnion.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
  * SPDX-License-Identifier: CC0-1.0
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype;
 
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.model.IValuedDefinition;
 import gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.core.util.CollectionUtil;
diff --git a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/package-info.java b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/package-info.java
similarity index 74%
rename from schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/package-info.java
rename to schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/package-info.java
index 5b776c06d..7ca818916 100644
--- a/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/schematype/package-info.java
+++ b/schemagen/src/main/java/gov/nist/secauto/metaschema/schemagen/xml/impl/schematype/package-info.java
@@ -8,4 +8,4 @@
  * flags, fields, assemblies).
  */
 
-package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.schematype;
+package gov.nist.secauto.metaschema.schemagen.xml.impl.schematype;