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tractatus.tex
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% %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% %
% %
% Project Gutenberg's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, by Ludwig Wittgenstein
% %
% This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with %
% almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or %
% re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included %
% with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org %
% %
% %
% Title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus %
% %
% Author: Ludwig Wittgenstein %
% %
% Contributor: Bertrand Russell %
% %
% Translator: C. K. Ogden %
% %
% Release Date: October 22, 2010 [EBook #5740] %
% %
% Language: German %
% %
% Character set encoding: UTF-8 %
% %
% *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRACTATUS LOGICO-PHILOSOPHICUS ***
% %
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Project Gutenberg's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, by Ludwig Wittgenstein
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
Title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
Author: Ludwig Wittgenstein
Contributor: Bertrand Russell
Translator: C. K. Ogden
Release Date: October 22, 2010 [EBook #5740]
Language: German
Character set encoding: UTF-8
*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRACTATUS LOGICO-PHILOSOPHICUS ***
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Produced by Jana Srna, Norbert H. Langkau, and the Online
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%%%% FRONT MATTER %%%%
% -----File: 001.png---
\mainmatter
\begin{center}
{\LARGE International Library of Psychology\\
\vspace{0.5ex}
Philosophy and Scientific Method}
\vspace{\baselineskip}
\begin{tabular}{lc}
\textsc{General Editor:} & \hspace{2em}\textsc{C.~K. Ogden, m.a.}\\
& \hspace{2em}(\textit{Magdalene College, Cambridge})\\
\end{tabular}
% -----File: 002.png---
% -----File: 003.png---
\cleardoublepage
{\Huge\bfseries Tractatus\\
\vspace{1.2ex}
Logico-Philosophicus}
\vspace{15ex}
By\\
\vspace{0.7ex}
\textbf{LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN}
\vspace{2\baselineskip}
With an Introduction by\\
\vspace{0.7ex}
\textbf{BERTRAND RUSSELL, F.R.S.}
\vfill
LONDON\\
\vspace{0.5ex}
{\large KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER \& CO., LTD.\\}
\vspace{0.5ex}
NEW YORK: HARCOURT, BRACE \& COMPANY, INC.\\
\vspace{1ex}
1922
% -----File: 004.png---
\newpage\null\vfill
{\footnotesize PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY THE EDINBURGH PRESS,\\
9 AND 11 YOUNG STREET, EDINBURGH.}
\end{center}
% -----File: 005.png---
\Note
\textit{In rendering Mr Wittgenstein's \BookTitle{Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus}
available for English readers, the somewhat unusual course has been
adopted of printing the original side by side with the translation.
Such a method of presentation seemed desirable both on account of the
obvious difficulties raised by the vocabulary and in view of the
peculiar literary character of the whole. As a result, a certain
latitude has been possible in passages to which objection might
otherwise be taken as over-literal.}
\textit{The proofs of the translation and the version of the original
which appeared in the final number of Ostwald's \BookTitle{Annalen der
Naturphilosophie (1921)} have been very carefully revised by
the author himself; and the Editor further desires to express his
indebtedness to Mr F.~P. Ramsey, of Trinity College, Cambridge,
for assistance both with the translation and in the preparation of
the book for the press.}
\begin{flushright}
\textit{C.~K.~O.}
\end{flushright}
\vfill\vfill
% -----File: 006.png---
% -----File: 007.png---
%%%% MAIN MATTER %%%%
\Introduction
\textsc{Mr Wittgenstein's} \BookTitle{Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus}, whether
or not it prove to give the ultimate truth on the matters
with which it deals, certainly deserves, by its breadth and
scope and profundity, to be considered an important event
in the philosophical world. Starting from the principles
of Symbolism and the relations which are necessary
between words and things in any language, it applies
the result of this inquiry to various departments of traditional
philosophy, showing in each case how traditional
philosophy and traditional solutions arise out of ignorance
of the principles of Symbolism and out of misuse of
language.
The logical structure of propositions and the nature
of logical inference are first dealt with. Thence we pass
successively to Theory of Knowledge, Principles of Physics,
Ethics, and finally the Mystical (\German{das Mystische}).
In order to understand Mr Wittgenstein's book, it is
necessary to realize what is the problem with which he is
concerned. In the part of his theory which deals with
Symbolism he is concerned with the conditions which
would have to be fulfilled by a logically perfect language.
There are various problems as regards language. First,
there is the problem what actually occurs in our minds
when we use language with the intention of meaning
something by it; this problem belongs to psychology.
Secondly, there is the problem as to what is the relation
subsisting between thoughts, words, or sentences, and that
which they refer to or mean; this problem belongs to
epistemology. Thirdly, there is the problem of using
sentences so as to convey truth rather than falsehood;
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this belongs to the special sciences dealing with the
subject-matter of the sentences in question. Fourthly,
there is the question: what relation must one fact (such
as a sentence) have to another in order to be \emph{capable}
of being a symbol for that other? This last is a logical
question, and is the one with which Mr Wittgenstein is
concerned. He is concerned with the conditions for \emph{accurate}
Symbolism, \idEst\ for Symbolism in which a sentence
``means'' something quite definite. In practice, language
is always more or less vague, so that what we assert is
never quite precise. Thus, logic has two problems to deal
with in regard to Symbolism: (1)~the conditions for sense
rather than nonsense in combinations of symbols; (2)~the
conditions for uniqueness of meaning or reference in
symbols or combinations of symbols. A logically perfect
language has rules of syntax which prevent nonsense, and
has single symbols which always have a definite and
unique meaning. Mr Wittgenstein is concerned with the
conditions for a logically perfect language---not that any
language is logically perfect, or that we believe ourselves
capable, here and now, of constructing a logically perfect
language, but that the whole function of language is to
have meaning, and it only fulfils this function in proportion
as it approaches to the ideal language which we
postulate.
The essential business of language is to assert or
deny facts. Given the syntax of a language, the meaning
of a sentence is determinate as soon as the meaning of
the component words is known. In order that a certain
sentence should assert a certain fact there must, however
the language may be constructed, be something in common
between the structure of the sentence and the structure of
the fact. This is perhaps the most fundamental thesis
of Mr Wittgenstein's theory. That which has to be in
common between the sentence and the fact cannot, so
he contends, be itself in turn \emph{said} in language. It can,
in his phraseology, only be \emph{shown}, not said, for whatever
we may say will still need to have the same structure.
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The first requisite of an ideal language would be that
there should be one name for every simple, and never the
same name for two different simples. A name is a simple
symbol in the sense that it has no parts which are themselves
symbols. In a logically perfect language nothing
that is not simple will have a simple symbol. The symbol
for the whole will be a ``complex,'' containing the symbols
for the parts. In speaking of a ``complex'' we are, as
will appear later, sinning against the rules of philosophical
grammar, but this is unavoidable at the outset. ``Most
propositions and questions that have been written about
philosophical matters are not false but senseless. We
cannot, therefore, answer questions of this kind at all,
but only state their senselessness. Most questions and
propositions of the \DPtypo{philosopher}{philosophers} result from the fact that
we do not understand the logic of our language. They
are of the same kind as the question whether the Good is
more or less identical than the Beautiful'' (\PropERef{4.003}). What
is complex in the world is a fact. Facts which are not
compounded of other facts are what Mr Wittgenstein calls
\German{Sachverhalte}, whereas a fact which may consist of two
or more facts is called a \German{Tatsache}: thus, for example,
``Socrates is wise'' is a \German{Sachverhalt}, as well as a \German{Tatsache},
whereas ``Socrates is wise and Plato is his pupil'' is a
\German{Tatsache} but not a \German{Sachverhalt}.
He compares linguistic expression to projection in
geometry. A geometrical figure may be projected in
many ways: each of these ways corresponds to a different
language, but the projective properties of the original
figure remain unchanged whichever of these ways may
be adopted. These projective properties correspond to
that which in his theory the proposition and the fact
must have in common, if the proposition is to assert the
fact.
In certain elementary ways this is, of course, obvious.
It is impossible, for example, to make a statement about
two men (assuming for the moment that the men may
be treated as simples), without employing two names, and
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if you are going to assert a relation between the two men
it will be necessary that the sentence in which you make
the assertion shall establish a relation between the two
names. If we say ``Plato loves Socrates,'' the word
``loves'' which occurs between the word ``Plato'' and the
word ``Socrates'' establishes a certain relation between
these two words, and it is owing to this fact that our
sentence is able to assert a relation between the person's
name by the words ``Plato'' and ``Socrates.'' ``We must
not say, the complex sign `$a R b$' says `$a$ stands in a
certain relation $R$ to $b$'; but we must say, that `$a$'
stands in a certain relation to `$b$' says \emph{that $a R b$}''
(\PropERef{3.1432}).
Mr Wittgenstein begins his theory of Symbolism with
the statement (\PropERef{2.1}): ``We make to ourselves pictures of
facts.'' A picture, he says, is a model of the reality, and
to the objects in the reality correspond the elements of
the picture: the picture itself is a fact. The fact that
things have a certain relation to each other is represented
by the fact that in the picture its elements have a certain
relation to one another. ``In the picture and the pictured
there must be something identical in order that the one
can be a picture of the other at all. What the picture
must have in common with reality in order to be able
to represent it after its manner---rightly or falsely---is its
form of representation'' (\PropERef{2.161}, \PropERef{2.17}).
We speak of a logical picture of a reality when we
wish to imply only so much resemblance as is essential to
its being a picture in any sense, that is to say, when we
wish to imply no more than identity of logical form.
The logical picture of a fact, he says, is a \German{Gedanke}. A
picture can correspond or not correspond with the fact and
be accordingly true or false, but in both cases it shares the
logical form with the fact. The sense in which he speaks of
pictures is illustrated by his statement: ``The gramophone
record, the musical thought, the score, the waves of sound,
all stand to one another in that pictorial internal relation
which holds between language and the world. To all of
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them the logical structure is common. (Like the two
youths, their two horses and their lilies in the story.
They are all in a certain sense one)'' (\PropERef{4.014}). The
possibility of a proposition representing a fact rests upon
the fact that in it objects are represented by signs. The
so-called logical ``constants'' are not represented by signs,
but are themselves present in the proposition as in the
fact. The proposition and the fact must exhibit the same
logical ``manifold,'' and this cannot be itself represented
since it has to be in common between the fact and
the picture. Mr Wittgenstein maintains that everything
properly philosophical belongs to what can only be shown,
to what is in common between a fact and its logical
picture. It results from this view that nothing correct can
be said in philosophy. Every philosophical proposition
is bad grammar, and the best that we can hope to achieve
by philosophical discussion is to lead people to see that
philosophical discussion is a mistake. ``Philosophy is
not one of the natural sciences. (The word `philosophy'
must mean something which stands above or below, but
not beside the natural sciences.) The object of philosophy
is the logical clarification of thoughts. Philosophy is not
a theory but an activity. A philosophical work consists
essentially of elucidations. The result of philosophy is
not a number of `philosophical propositions,' but to
make propositions clear. Philosophy should make clear
and delimit sharply the thoughts which otherwise are,
as it were, opaque and blurred'' (\PropERef{4.111} and \PropERef{4.112}). In
accordance with this principle the things that have to be
said in leading the reader to understand Mr Wittgenstein's
theory are all of them things which that theory itself
condemns as meaningless. With this proviso we will
endeavour to convey the picture of the world which
seems to underlie his system.
The world consists of facts: facts cannot strictly
speaking be defined, but we can explain what we mean
by saying that facts are what make propositions true, or
false. Facts may contain parts which are facts or may
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contain no such parts; for example: ``Socrates was a wise
Athenian,'' consists of the two facts, ``Socrates was wise,''
and ``Socrates was an Athenian.'' A fact which has no
parts that are facts is called by Mr Wittgenstein a \German{Sachverhalt}.
This is the same thing that he calls an atomic fact.
An atomic fact, although it contains no parts that are
facts, nevertheless does contain parts. If we may regard
``Socrates is wise'' as an atomic fact we perceive that it
contains the constituents ``Socrates'' and ``wise.'' If an
atomic fact is analysed as fully as \DPtypo{possibly}{possible} (theoretical,
not practical possibility is meant) the constituents finally
reached may be called ``simples'' or ``objects.'' It is not
contended by Wittgenstein that we can actually isolate
the simple or have empirical knowledge of it. It is a
logical necessity demanded by theory, like an electron.
His ground for maintaining that there must be simples
is that every complex presupposes a fact. It is not
necessarily assumed that the complexity of facts is finite;
even if every fact consisted of an infinite number of atomic
facts and if every atomic fact consisted of an infinite
number of objects there would still be objects and atomic
facts (\PropERef{4.2211}). The assertion that there is a certain
complex reduces to the assertion that its constituents
are related in a certain way, which is the assertion of
a \emph{fact}: thus if we give a name to the complex the name
only has meaning in virtue of the truth of a certain
proposition, namely the proposition asserting the relatedness
of the constituents of the complex. Thus the naming
of complexes presupposes propositions, while propositions
presupposes the naming of simples. In this way the
naming of simples is shown to be what is logically first
in logic.
The world is fully described if all atomic facts are
known, together with the fact that these are all of them.
The world is not described by merely naming all the
objects in it; it is necessary also to know the atomic facts
of which these objects are constituents. Given this total
of atomic facts, every true proposition, however complex,
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can theoretically be inferred. A proposition (true or
false) asserting an atomic fact is called an atomic proposition.
All atomic propositions are logically independent
of each other. No atomic proposition implies any other
or is inconsistent with any other. Thus the whole business
of logical inference is concerned with propositions which
are not atomic. Such propositions may be called
molecular.
Wittgenstein's theory of molecular propositions turns
upon his theory of the construction of truth-functions.
A truth-function of a proposition $p$ is a proposition
containing $p$ and such that its truth or falsehood depends
only upon the truth or falsehood of $p$, and similarly a
truth-function of several propositions $p$, $q$, $r$\ldots is one
containing $p$, $q$, $r$\ldots and such that its truth or falsehood
depends only upon the truth or falsehood of
$p$, $q$, $r$\ldots\ It might seem at first sight as though there
were other functions of propositions besides truth-functions;
such, for example, would be ``A believes $p$,'' for in general
A will believe some true propositions and some false
ones: unless he is an exceptionally gifted individual, we
cannot infer that $p$ is true from the fact that he believes
it or that $p$ is false from the fact that he does not believe
it. Other apparent exceptions would be such as ``$p$ is a
very complex proposition'' or ``$p$ is a proposition about
Socrates.'' Mr Wittgenstein maintains, however, for
reasons which will appear presently, that such exceptions
are only apparent, and that every function of a proposition
is really a truth-function. It follows that if we can
define truth-functions generally, we can obtain a general
definition of all propositions in terms of the original set
of atomic propositions. This Wittgenstein proceeds to
do.
It has been shown by Dr Sheffer (\BookTitle{Trans.\ Am.\ Math.\ Soc.},
Vol.~XIV. pp.~481--488) that all truth-functions of a given
set of propositions can be constructed out of either of
the two functions ``not-$p$ or not-$q$'' or ``not-$p$ and not-$q$.''
Wittgenstein makes use of the latter, assuming a knowledge
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of Dr Sheffer's work. The manner in which other
truth-functions are constructed out of ``not-$p$ and not-$q$''
is easy to see. ``Not-$p$ and not-$p$'' is equivalent to
``not-$p$,'' hence we obtain a definition of negation in terms
of our primitive function: hence we can define ``$p$ or $q$,''
since this is the negation of ``not-$p$ and not-$q$,'' \idEst\ of
our primitive function. The development of other truth-functions
out of ``not-$p$'' and ``$p$ or $q$'' is given in detail
at the beginning of \BookTitle{Principia Mathematica}. This gives all
that is wanted when the propositions which are arguments
to our truth-function are given by enumeration. Wittgenstein,
however, by a very interesting analysis succeeds in
extending the process to general propositions, \idEst\ to cases
where the propositions which are arguments to our truth-function
are not given by enumeration but are given as
all those satisfying some condition. For example, let $fx$
be a propositional function (\idEst\ a function whose values
are propositions), such as ``$x$ is human''---then the various
values of $fx$ form a set of propositions. We may extend
the idea ``not-$p$ and not-$q$'' so as to apply to simultaneous
denial of all the propositions which are values of $fx$. In
this way we arrive at the proposition which is ordinarily
represented in mathematical logic by the words ``$fx$
is false for all values of $x$.'' The negation of this would
be the proposition ``there is at least one $x$ for which $fx$ is
true'' which is represented by ``$(\exists x) \DotOp fx$.'' If we had
started with not-$fx$ instead of $fx$ we should have arrived
at the proposition ``$fx$ is true for all values of $x$'' which
is represented by ``$(x) \DotOp fx$.'' Wittgenstein's method of
dealing with general propositions [\idEst\ ``$(x) \DotOp fx$'' and
``$(\exists x) \DotOp fx$''] differs from previous methods by the fact
that the generality comes only in specifying the set of
propositions concerned, and when this has been done the
building up of truth-functions proceeds exactly as it would
in the case of a finite number of enumerated arguments
\enlargethispage{9pt} % enlarge to make the last line fit
$p$, $q$, $r\fourdots$
Mr Wittgenstein's explanation of his symbolism at
this point is not quite fully given in the text. The symbol
% -----File: 015.png---
he uses is $(\overline{p}, \overline{\xi}, \DPtypo{\overline{N}}{N}(\overline{\xi}))$. The following is the explanation
of this symbol:
\begin{center}{%
\begin{minipage}{0.65\textwidth}
\noindent\hangindent 1.5em $\overline{p}$ stands for all atomic propositions.
\noindent\hangindent 1.5em $\overline{\xi}$ stands for any set of propositions.
\noindent\hangindent 1.5em $\DPtypo{\overline{N}}{N}(\overline{\xi})$ stands for the negation of all the propositions
making up $\overline{\xi}$.
\end{minipage}%
}\end{center}
The whole symbol $(\overline{p}, \overline{\xi}, \DPtypo{\overline{N}}{N}(\overline{\xi}))$ means whatever can be
obtained by taking any selection of atomic propositions,
negating them all, then taking any selection of the set
of propositions now obtained, together with any of the
originals---and so on indefinitely. This is, he says, the
general truth-function and also the general form of proposition.
What is meant is somewhat less complicated
than it sounds. The symbol is intended to describe a
process by the help of which, given the atomic propositions,
all others can be manufactured. The process depends
upon:
(\textit{a})~Sheffer's proof that all truth-functions can be
obtained out of simultaneous negation, \idEst\ out of ``not-$p$
and not-$q$'';
(\textit{b})~Mr Wittgenstein's theory of the derivation of
general propositions from conjunctions and disjunctions;
(\textit{c})~The assertion that a proposition can only occur in
another proposition as argument to a truth-function.
Given these three foundations, it follows that all propositions
which are not atomic can be derived from such
as are, by a uniform process, and it is this process which
is indicated by Mr Wittgenstein's symbol.
From this uniform method of construction we arrive
at an amazing simplification of the theory of inference,
as well as a definition of the sort of propositions that
belong to logic. The method of generation which has
just been described, enables Wittgenstein to say that all
propositions can be constructed in the above manner from
atomic propositions, and in this way the totality of propositions
is defined. (The apparent exceptions which we
mentioned above are dealt with in a manner which we
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shall consider later.) Wittgenstein is enabled to assert
that propositions are all that follows from the totality of
atomic propositions (together with the fact that it is the
totality of them); that a proposition is always a truth-function
of atomic propositions; and that if $p$ follows from
$q$ the meaning of $p$ is contained in the meaning of $q$, from
which of course it results that nothing can be deduced
from an atomic proposition. All the propositions of logic,
he maintains, are tautologies, such, for example, as ``$p$
or not $p$.''
The fact that nothing can be deduced from an atomic
proposition has interesting applications, for example, to
causality. There cannot, in Wittgenstein's logic, be any
such thing as a causal nexus. ``The events of the future,''
he says, ``\emph{cannot} be inferred from those of the present.
Superstition is the belief in the causal nexus.'' That the
sun will rise to-morrow is a hypothesis. We do not in
fact know whether it will rise, since there is no compulsion
according to which one thing must happen because another
happens.
Let us now take up another subject---that of names.
In Wittgenstein's theoretical logical language, names are
only given to simples. We do not give two names to
one thing, or one name to two things. There is no way
whatever, according to him, by which we can describe
the totality of things that can be named, in other words,
the totality of what there is in the world. In order to be
able to do this we should have to know of some property
which must belong to every thing by a logical necessity.
It has been sought to find such a property in self-identity,
but the conception of identity is subjected by Wittgenstein
to a destructive criticism from which there seems no escape.
The definition of identity by means of the identity of indiscernibles
is rejected, because the identity of indiscernibles
appears to be not a logically necessary principle. According
to this principle $x$ is identical with $y$ if every property
of $x$ is a property of $y$, but it would, after all, be logically
possible for two things to have exactly the same properties.
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If this does not in fact happen that is an accidental
characteristic of the world, not a logically necessary
characteristic, and accidental characteristics of the world
must, of course, not be admitted into the structure of
logic. Mr Wittgenstein accordingly banishes identity
and adopts the convention that different letters are to
mean different things. In practice, identity is needed as
between a name and a description or between two descriptions.
It is needed for such propositions as ``Socrates
is the philosopher who drank the hemlock,'' or ``The
even prime is the next number after 1.'' For such uses
of identity it is easy to provide on Wittgenstein's system.
The rejection of identity removes one method of
speaking of the totality of things, and it will be found
that any other method that may be suggested is equally
fallacious: so, at least, Wittgenstein contends and, I
think, rightly. This amounts to saying that ``object'' is
a pseudo-concept. To say ``$x$ is an object'' is to say
nothing. It follows from this that we cannot make such
statements as ``there are more than three objects in the
world,'' or ``there are an infinite number of objects in
the world.'' Objects can only be mentioned in connexion
with some definite property. We can say ``there are more
than three objects which are human,'' or ``there are more
than three objects which are red,'' for in these statements
the word object can be replaced by a variable in the
language of logic, the variable being one which satisfies
in the first case the function ``$x$ is human''; in the second
the function ``$x$ is red.'' But when we attempt to say
``there are more than three objects,'' this substitution of
the variable for the word ``object'' becomes impossible,
and the proposition is therefore seen to be meaningless.
We here touch one instance of Wittgenstein's fundamental
thesis, that it is impossible to say anything about
the world as a whole, and that whatever can be said has
to be about bounded portions of the world. This view
may have been originally suggested by notation, and if
so, that is much in its favour, for a good notation has
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a subtlety and suggestiveness which at times make it
seem almost like a live teacher. Notational irregularities
are often the first sign of philosophical errors, and
a perfect notation would be a substitute for thought.
But although notation may have first suggested to
Mr Wittgenstein the limitation of logic to things within
the world as opposed to the world as a whole, yet the
view, once suggested, is seen to have much else to
recommend it. Whether it is ultimately true I do not,
for my part, profess to know. In this Introduction I
am concerned to expound it, not to pronounce upon it.
According to this view we could only say things about
the world as a whole if we could get outside the world,
if, that is to say, it ceased to be for us the whole world.
Our world may be bounded for some superior being who
can survey it from above, but for us, however finite it
may be, it cannot have a boundary, since it has nothing
outside it. Wittgenstein uses, as an analogy, the field
of vision. Our field of vision does not, for us, have a
visual boundary, just because there is nothing outside
it, and in like manner our logical world has no logical
boundary because our logic knows of nothing outside it.
These considerations lead him to a somewhat curious
discussion of Solipsism. Logic, he says, fills the world.
The boundaries of the world are also its boundaries. In
logic, therefore, we cannot say, there is this and this in
the world, but not that, for to say so would apparently
presuppose that we exclude certain possibilities, and this
cannot be the case, since it would require that logic
should go beyond the boundaries of the world as if it
could contemplate these boundaries from the other side
also. What we cannot think we cannot think, therefore
we also cannot say what we cannot think.
This, he says, gives the key to Solipsism. What
Solipsism intends is quite correct, but this cannot be
said, it can only be shown. That the world is \emph{my} world
appears in the fact that the boundaries of language (the
only language I understand) indicate the boundaries of
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my world. The metaphysical subject does not belong to
the world but is a boundary of the world.