08_basic-configuration.po

#
# AUTHOR <EMAIL@ADDRESS>, YEAR.
#
msgid ""
msgstr ""
"Project-Id-Version: 0\n"
"POT-Creation-Date: 2015-06-18T12:29:19\n"
"PO-Revision-Date: 2015-04-05 00:57+0100\n"
"Last-Translator: Mateusz Kacprzak <mateusz.kacprzak@yandex.ru>\n"
"Language-Team: \n"
"Language: pl_PL\n"
"MIME-Version: 1.0\n"
"Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8\n"
"Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit\n"
"X-Generator: Poedit 1.7.5\n"

#. Tag: keyword
#, no-c-format
msgid "Configuration"
msgstr "Konfiguracja"

#. Tag: keyword
#, no-c-format
msgid "Localization"
msgstr "Wersja językowa"

#. Tag: keyword
#, no-c-format
msgid "Locales"
msgstr "Lokalizacje"

#. Tag: keyword
#, no-c-format
msgid "Network"
msgstr "Sieć"

#. Tag: keyword
#, no-c-format
msgid "Name resolution"
msgstr "Rozwiązywanie nazw"

#. Tag: keyword
#, no-c-format
msgid "Users"
msgstr "Użytkownicy"

#. Tag: keyword
#, no-c-format
msgid "Groups"
msgstr "Grupy"

#. Tag: keyword
#, no-c-format
msgid "Accounts"
msgstr "Konta"

#. Tag: keyword
#, no-c-format
msgid "Command-line interpreter"
msgstr "Interpreter poleceń"

#. Tag: keyword
#, no-c-format
msgid "Shell"
msgstr "Powłoka"

#. Tag: keyword
#, no-c-format
msgid "Printing"
msgstr "Drukowanie"

#. Tag: keyword
#, no-c-format
msgid "Bootloader"
msgstr "Program rozruchowy"

#. Tag: keyword
#, no-c-format
msgid "Kernel compiling"
msgstr "Kompilowanie jądra"

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Basic Configuration: Network, Accounts, Printing..."
msgstr "Podstawowa konfiguracja: sieć, konta, drukowanie"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "A computer with a new installation created with <command>debian-installer</command> is intended to be as functional as possible, but many services still have to be configured. Furthermore, it is always good to know how to change certain configuration elements defined during the initial installation process."
msgstr "Bezpośrednio po instalacji systemu dokonanej przy pomocy programu <command>debian-installer</command>, komputer powinien być w zasadzie gotowy do użytku, ale wiele usług jeszcze pozostanie do skonfigurowania. Co więcej, warto wiedzieć jak zmienić poszczególne elementy konfiguracji zdefiniowane pierwotnie w procesie instalacji. "

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "This chapter reviews everything included in what we could call the “basic configuration”: networking, language and locales, users and groups, printing, mount points, etc."
msgstr "Ten rozdział opisuje wszystko to, co można zaliczyć do podstaw konfiguracji: sieci, język i ustawienia regionalne, użytkownicy i grupy, drukowanie, punkty montowania, itd."

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Configuring the System for Another Language"
msgstr "Konfigurowanie systemu na inny język "

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>French localization</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>Francuska wersja językowa</primary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "If the system was installed using French, the machine will probably already have French set as the default language. But it is good to know what the installer does to set the language, so that later, if the need arises, you can change it."
msgstr "Jeśli system był zainstalowany w języku francuskim, to prawdopodobnie będzie on miał również ustawiony ten język jako domyślny po instalacji. Jednak warto wiedzieć w jaki sposób instalator ustawia język, aby później, jeśli zajdzie taka potrzeba, będziecie potrafili go zmienić."

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>TOOL</emphasis> The <command>locale</command> command to display the current configuration"
msgstr "<emphasis>NARZĘDZIE</emphasis> Polecenie <command>locale</command> do wyświetlania obecnej konfiguracji"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <command>locale</command> command lists a summary of the current configuration of various locale parameters (date format, numbers format, etc.), presented in the form of a group of standard environment variables dedicated to the dynamic modification of these settings."
msgstr "Polecenie <command>locale</command> wyświetla podsumowanie obecnej konfiguracji różnych ustawień regionalnych (format daty, format liczb, itd.), które przedstawione jest w formie grupy standardowych zmiennych środowiskowych przeznaczonych do dynamicznej modyfikacji tych ustawień."

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Setting the Default Language"
msgstr "Ustawianie domyślnego języka."

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>locales</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>lokalizacje</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>language</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>język</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>locale-gen</command></primary>"
msgstr "<primary><command>locale-gen</command></primary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "A locale is a group of regional settings. This includes not only the language for text, but also the format for displaying numbers, dates, times, and monetary sums, as well as the alphabetical comparison rules (to properly account for accented characters). Although each of these parameters can be specified independently from the others, we generally use a locale, which is a coherent set of values for these parameters corresponding to a “region” in the broadest sense. These locales are usually indicated under the form, <literal><replaceable>language-code</replaceable>_<replaceable>COUNTRY-CODE</replaceable></literal>, sometimes with a suffix to specify the character set and encoding to be used. This enables consideration of idiomatic or typographical differences between different regions with a common language."
msgstr "Lokalizacja to zestaw ustawień regionalnych. Zalicza się do nich nie tylko język tekstu, ale również format wyświetlania liczb, dat, godzin i kwot pieniężnych, a także reguły porównań alfabetycznych, które definiują alfabetyczną kolejność znaków (z uwzględnieniem znaków diakrytycznych danego języka). Mimo, że każde z tych ustawień może być definiowane niezależnie od pozostałych, na ogół używamy lokalizacji, która stanowi spójny zbiór wartości tychże ustawień, odpowiadający \"regionowi\" w najszerszym tego słowa znaczeniu. Lokalizacje zazwyczaj są oznaczane kodem o formacie <literal><replaceable>kod_języka</replaceable>_<replaceable>KOD_KRAJU</replaceable></literal>, czasami z dodatkowym przyrostkiem określającym zestaw znaków i kodowanie. Mechanizm lokalizacji pozwala na istnienie idiomatycznych bądź typograficznych różnic pomiędzy regionami posługującymi się tym samym językiem."

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>CULTURE</emphasis> Character sets"
msgstr "<emphasis>KULTURA</emphasis> Zestawy znaków"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>character set</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>zestaw znaków</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>encoding</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>kodowanie</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>ISO-8859-1</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>ISO-8859-1</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>ISO-8859-15</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>ISO-8859-15</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>Latin 1</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>Łaciński 1</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>Latin 9</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>Łaciński 9</primary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Historically, each locale has an associated “character set” (group of known characters) and a preferred “encoding” (internal representation for characters within the computer)."
msgstr "Historycznie, każda lokalizacja posiada powiązany z nią \"zestaw znaków\" (grupę wszystkich rozpoznawanych w tej lokalizacji znaków) i preferowane \"kodowanie\" (wewnętrzną, numeryczną reprezentację znaków w komputerze)."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The most popular encodings for latin-based languages were limited to 256 characters because they opted to use a single byte for each character. Since 256 characters was not enough to cover all European languages, multiple encodings were needed, and that's how we ended up with <emphasis>ISO-8859-1</emphasis> (also known as “Latin 1”) up to <emphasis>ISO-8859-15</emphasis> (also known as “Latin 9”), among others."
msgstr "Najbardziej popularne kodowania dla języków wywodzących się z łaciny były ograniczone do 256 znaków, ponieważ do zapisu pojedynczego znaku używano jednego bajta. Ponieważ taka ilość znaków była niewystarczająca, żeby pokryć wszystkie europejskie języki, pojawiło się wiele oddzielnych kodowań odpowiadających różnym krajom i obszarom, między innymi kodowania od <emphasis>ISO-8859-1</emphasis> (znane jako \"Łaciński 1\") aż do <emphasis>ISO-8859-15</emphasis> (znano jako \"\"Łaciński 9\")."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Working with foreign languages often implied regular switches between various encodings and character sets. Furthermore, writing multilingual documents led to further, almost intractable problems. Unicode (a super-catalog of nearly all writing systems from all of the world's languages) was created to work around this problem. One of Unicode's encodings, UTF-8, retains all 128 ASCII symbols (7-bit codes), but handles other characters differently. Those are preceded by a specific escape sequence of a few bits, which implicitly defines the length of the character. This allows encoding all Unicode characters on a sequence of one or more bytes. Its use has been popularized by the fact that it's the default encoding in XML documents."
msgstr "Używanie różnych języków wymagało w takiej sytuacji częstego przełączania się między różnymi kodowaniami i zestawami znaków. Co więcej, tworzenie wielojęzycznych dokumentów prowadziło do dalszych, niemal nierozwiązywalnych problemów. W odpowiedzi na te trudności stworzono Unicode, katalog znaków obejmujący niemal wszystkie systemy pisma języków całego świata. W jednym z kodowań Unicode, UTF-8, pierwsze 128 znaków ASCII (zapisywanych siedmiobitowymi kodami, odpowiadających podstawowemu alfabetowi łacińskiemu bez jakichkolwiek regionalnych znaków diakrytycznych) zostało zachowanych, ale pozostałe zdefiniowano inaczej - są poprzedzone specjalną sekwencją bitów, która pośrednio określa długość kodowania danego znaku. To pozwala na zakodowanie każdego znaku Unicode sekwencją jednego lub więcej bajtów. Standard Unicode został spopularyzowany przez fakt, że jest to domyślne kodowanie w dokumentach XML."

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>ASCII</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>ASCII</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>UTF-8</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>UTF-8</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>Unicode</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>Unicode</primary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "This is the encoding that should generally be used, and is thus the default on Debian systems."
msgstr "Spośród wszystkich kodowań, to powinno być generalnie używane, w związku z czym stanowi ono domyślne ustawienie w systemie Debian."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <emphasis role=\"pkg\">locales</emphasis> package includes all the elements required for proper functioning of “localization” of various applications. During installation, this package will ask to select a set of supported languages. This set can be changed at any time by running <command>dpkg-reconfigure locales</command> as root."
msgstr "Pakiet <emphasis role=\"pkg\">locales</emphasis> zawiera wszystkie elementy niezbędne do prawidłowego działania \"regionalizacji\" różnych aplikacji. Podczas instalacji użytkownik będzie musiał dokonać wyboru zestawu obsługiwanych języków. Zestaw ten może być później zmieniony w każdej chwili komendą <command>dpkg-reconfigure locales</command> wykonaną jako root."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The first question invites you to select “locales” to support. Selecting all English locales (meaning those beginning with “<literal>en_US</literal>”) is a reasonable choice. Do not hesitate to choose other locales if the machine will host foreign users. The list of locales enabled on the system is stored in the <filename>/etc/locale.gen</filename> file. It is possible to edit this file by hand, but you should run <command>locale-gen</command> after any modifications. It will generate the necessary files for the added locales to work, and remove any obsolete files."
msgstr "Na początku będziesz proszony o wybór lokalizacji. Poza wyborem opcji anglojęzycznej (lokalizacji rozpoczynających się od <literal>en_US</literal>, możesz również wybrać inne lokalizacje, jeżeli na komputerze będą używane inne języki. Lista lokalizacji obsługiwanych przez system jest przechowywana w pliku <filename>/etc/locale.gen</filename>. Można edytować go ręcznie, ale po każdej modyfikacji należy uruchomić polecenie <command>locale-gen</command>, które dla wybranych lokalizacji stworzy potrzebne pliki oraz skasuje pliki już niepotrzebne."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The second question, entitled “Default locale for the system environment”, requests a default locale. The recommended choice in the U.S.A. is “<literal>en_US.UTF-8</literal>”. British English speakers will prefer “<literal>en_GB.UTF-8</literal>”, and Canadians will prefer either “<literal>en_CA.UTF-8</literal>” or, for French, “<literal>fr_CA.UTF-8</literal>”. The <filename>/etc/default/locale</filename> file will then be modified to store this choice. From there, it's picked up by all user sessions since PAM will inject its content in the <varname>LANG</varname> environment variable."
msgstr "Następne pytanie (“Default locale for the system environment”) prosi o wybór domyślnej lokalizacji. Zalecanym wyborem dla Stanów Zjednoczonych jest \"<literal>en_US.UTF-8</literal>\", dla Wielkiej Brytanii “<literal>en_GB.UTF-8</literal>”, a dla Kanady “<literal>en_CA.UTF-8</literal>” albo “<literal>fr_CA.UTF-8</literal>” - dla francuskojęzycznych. Plik <filename>/etc/default/locale</filename> zostanie wówczas zmieniony, zapisując ten wybór. //dokończyć"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>environment</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>środowisko</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>locale</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>lokalizacja</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><varname>LANG</varname></primary>"
msgstr "<primary><varname>LANG</varname></primary>"

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BEHIND THE SCENES</emphasis> <filename>/etc/environment</filename> and <filename>/etc/default/locale</filename>"
msgstr "<emphasis>ZA KULISAMI</emphasis> <filename>/etc/environment</filename> oraz <filename>/etc/default/locale</filename>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <filename>/etc/environment</filename> file provides the <command>login</command>, <command>gdm</command>, or even <command>ssh</command> programs with the correct environment variables to be created."
msgstr "Plik <filename>/etc/environment</filename> pozwala programom:<command>login</command>, <command>gdm</command>, a nawet <command>ssh</command> na stworzenie poprawnych zmiennych środowiskowych."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "These applications do not create these variables directly, but rather via a PAM (<filename>pam_env.so</filename>) module. PAM (Pluggable Authentication Module) is a modular library centralizing the mechanisms for authentication, session initialization, and password management. See <xref linkend=\"sect.config-pam\" /> for an example of PAM configuration."
msgstr "Aplikacje te nie tworzą tych zmiennych bezpośrednio, tylko poprzez moduł PAM (<filename>pam_env.so</filename>). PAM (Pluggable Authentication Module) jest biblioteką modułową centralizującą mechanizmy autentykacji, inicjalizacji sesji oraz zarządzania hasłami. Przykładową konfigurację PAM możesz zobaczyć w <xref linkend=\"sect.config-pam\" />."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <filename>/etc/default/locale</filename> file works in a similar manner, but contains only the <varname>LANG</varname> environment variable. Thanks to this split, some PAM users can inherit a complete environment without localization. Indeed, it's generally discouraged to run server programs with localization enabled; on the other hand, localization and regional settings are recommended for programs that open user sessions."
msgstr "Plik <filename>/etc/default/locale</filename> działa w podobny sposób, ale zawiera wyłącznie zmienną środowiskową <varname>LANG</varname>. Dzięki temu podziałowi, niektórzy użytkownicy PAM mogą dziedziczyć kompletne środowisko bez ustawień regionalnych. Najczęściej nie zaleca się uruchamiania programów serwerowych z aktywowanymi ustawieniami regionalnymi, są one natomiast zalecane dla programów otwierających sesje użytkowników."

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>PAM</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>PAM</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>pam_env.so</filename></primary>"
msgstr "<primary><filename>pam_env.so</filename></primary>"

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Configuring the Keyboard"
msgstr "Konfiguracja klawiatury"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>keyboard layout</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>układ klawiatury</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>layout, keyboard</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>układ, klawiatura</primary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Even if the keyboard layout is managed differently in console and graphical mode, Debian offers a single configuration interface that works for both: it's based on debconf and is implemented in the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">keyboard-configuration</emphasis> package. Thus the <command>dpkg-reconfigure keyboard-configuration</command> command can be used at any time to reset the keyboard layout."
msgstr "Nawet gdy zarządzanie układem klawiatury odbywa się oddzielnie dla trybu tekstowego (wiersz poleceń) i graficznego, Debian oferuje jeden wspólny interfejs służący do konfiguracji obu trybów: jest on oparty na narzędziu debconf i zaimplementowany w pakiecie <emphasis role=\"pkg\">keyboard-configuration</emphasis>. Dzięki temu polecenie <command>dpkg-reconfigure keyboard-configuration</command> może zostać w każdej chwili użyte do zresetowania układu klawiatury."

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><emphasis>console-data</emphasis></primary>"
msgstr "<primary><emphasis>console-data</emphasis></primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><emphasis>console-tools</emphasis></primary>"
msgstr "<primary><emphasis>console-tools</emphasis></primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><emphasis>keyboard-configuration</emphasis></primary>"
msgstr "<primary><emphasis>keyboard-configuration</emphasis></primary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<indexterm><primary><literal>azerty</literal></primary></indexterm>The questions are relevant to the physical keyboard layout (a standard PC keyboard in the US will be a “Generic 104 key”), then the layout to choose (generally “US”), and then the position of the AltGr key (right Alt). Finally comes the question of the key to use for the “Compose key”, which allows for entering special characters by combining keystrokes. Type successively <keycombo action=\"seq\"><keycap>Compose</keycap><keycap>'</keycap><keycap>e</keycap></keycombo> and produce an e-acute (“é”). All these combinations are described in the <filename>/usr/share/X11/locale/en_US.UTF-8/Compose</filename> file (or another file, determined according to the current locale indicated by <filename>/usr/share/X11/locale/compose.dir</filename>)."
msgstr "<indexterm><primary><literal>azerty</literal></primary></indexterm>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><literal>Compose</literal>, key</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><literal>Meta</literal>, key</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>key</primary><secondary><literal>Meta</literal></secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>key</primary><secondary><literal>Compose</literal></secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Note that the keyboard configuration for graphical mode described here only affects the default layout; the GNOME and KDE environments, among others, provide a keyboard control panel in their preferences allowing each user to have their own configuration. Some additional options regarding the behavior of some particular keys are also available in these control panels."
msgstr "Należy mieć na uwadze, że opisana tutaj konfiguracja klawiatury dla trybu graficznego dotyczy jedynie domyślnego układu; środowiska GNOME i KDE oraz inne posiadają w swoich ustawieniach panel sterowania klawiatury umożliwiający każdemu użytkownikowi na określenie swojej własnej konfiguracji. W panelach tych są również dostępne różne dodatkowe opcje dotyczące zachowania niektórych poszczególnych klawiszy."

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Migrating to UTF-8"
msgstr "Migracja do UTF-8"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The generalization of UTF-8 encoding has been a long awaited solution to numerous difficulties with interoperability, since it facilitates international exchange and removes the arbitrary limits on characters that can be used in a document. The one drawback is that it had to go through a rather difficult transition phase. Since it could not be completely transparent (that is, it could not happen at the same time all over the world), two conversion operations were required: one on file contents, and the other on filenames. Fortunately, the bulk of this migration has been completed and we discuss it largely for reference."
msgstr "Ogólność kodowania UTF-8 była długo oczekiwanym rozwiązaniem licznych trudności związanych ze współpracą systemów o dmiennych konfiguracjach oraz z komunikacją osób, firm i organizacji posługujących się różnymi językami. UTF-8 ułatwia międzynarodową wymianę informacji i eliminuje niewygodne ograniczenia związane z niemożnością użycia pewnych znaków w dokumentach tekstowych. Niedogodnością związaną z wprowadzeniem UTF-8 była dość kłopotliwa faza przejściowa, w trakcie której UTF-8 stopniowo zastępowało lokalne strony kodowe. Proces ten nie mógł nastąpić jednocześnie na całym świecie, w związku z czym został podzielony na dwie zasadnicze operacje: przekodowanie zawartości plików oraz przekodowanie nazw plików. Na szczęście dla czytelnika, ogrom tej pracy został już wykonany i całe zagadnienie jest tutaj omawiane wyłącznie dla celów poglądowych."

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>CULTURE</emphasis> <foreignphrase>Mojibake</foreignphrase> and interpretation errors"
msgstr "<emphasis>KULTURA</emphasis> <foreignphrase>Mojibake</foreignphrase> oraz błędy interpretacji."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "When a text is sent (or stored) without encoding information, it is not always possible for the recipient to know with certainty what convention to use for determining the meaning of a set of bytes. You can usually get an idea by getting statistics on the distribution of values present in the text, but that doesn't always give a definite answer. When the encoding system chosen for reading differs from that used in writing the file, the bytes are mis-interpreted, and you get, at best, errors on some characters, or, at worst, something completely illegible."
msgstr "Gdy tekst jest wysyłany bądź przechowywany bez informacji kodowania, odbiorca nie zawsze jest w stanie stwierdzić z pewnością jakiego kodowania, konwencji bądź protokołu powinien użyć aby określić znaczenie surowego zbioru bajtów. Pewne wskazówki można uzyskać tworząc i analizując rozkład częstości występowania poszczególnych wartości (znaków) w tekście, ale to nie zawsze daje pewną i ostateczną odpowiedź. Gdy do zapisu i odczytu pliku zostaną użyte różne systemy kodowania, dochodzi do błędnej interpretacji bajtów. W najlepszym przypadku prowadzi to do przekłamania niektórych pojedynczych znaków, a w najgorszym czyni cały tekst kompletnie niezrozumiałym."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Thus, if a French text appears normal with the exception of accented letters and certain symbols which appear to be replaced with sequences of characters like “é” or è” or “ç”, it is probably a file encoded as UTF-8 but interpreted as ISO-8859-1 or ISO-8859-15. This is a sign of a local installation that has not yet been migrated to UTF-8. If, instead, you see question marks instead of accented letters — even if these question marks seem to also replace a character that should have followed the accented letter — it is likely that your installation is already configured for UTF-8 and that you have been sent a document encoded in Western ISO."
msgstr "Zatem, jeśli tekst w języku francuskim wygląda normalnie za wyjątkiem np. liter z zaznaczonym akcentem i niektórych innych symboli, które zostały zastąpione przez takie ciągi znaków jak “é” czy è” bądź “ç”, to najprawdopodobniej mamy do czynienia z plikiem zakodowanym w UTF-8, który został odczytany jako np. ISO-8859-2 albo ISO-8859-15. Jest to oznaka, że lokalna instalacja systemu nie została jeszcze przekonfigurowana na UTF-8. Jeśli zamiast liter z zaznaczonym akcentem widnieją znaki zapytania - nawet jeśli znaki zapytania zdają się zastępować również litery, które powinny były pojawić się bezpośrednio po literach zaakcentowanych - wówczas zapewne zachodzi sytuacja odwrotna, tzn. nasz system jest poprawnie ustawiony na kodowanie UTF-8, natomiast plik, którego odczytu dokonujemy jest zapisany w zachodnim ISO."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "So much for “simple” cases. These cases only appear in Western culture, since Unicode (and UTF-8) was designed to maximize the common points with historical encodings for Western languages based on the Latin alphabet, which allows recognition of parts of the text even when some characters are missing."
msgstr "To tyle jeśli chodzi o \"proste\" przypadki. Mamy z nimi do czynienia jedynie w zachodniej  kulturze, jako, że standard Unicode został zaprojektowany tak, by maksymalnie pokrywał się ze starszymi kodowaniami języków zachodnich opartych na łacińskim alfabecie, co umożliwia poprawne odczytanie części tekstu nawet gdy brakuje pojedynczych znaków."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "In more complex configurations, which, for example, involve two environments corresponding to two different languages that do not use the same alphabet, you often get completely illegible results — a series of abstract symbols that have nothing to do with each other. This is especially common with Asian languages due to their numerous languages and writing systems. The Japanese word <foreignphrase>mojibake</foreignphrase> has been adopted to describe this phenomenon. When it appears, diagnosis is more complex and the simplest solution is often to simply migrate to UTF-8 on both sides."
msgstr "W bardziej złożonych sytuacjach, przykładowo przy kontakcie dwóch systemów bądź środowisk używających języków opartych na różnych alfabetach, rezultaty często mogą być całkowicie nieczytelne - ciągi abstrakcyjnych symboli nie powiązanych ze sobą w żaden logiczny sposób. Jest to szczególnie powszechna sytuacja w przypadku języków azjatyckich, z uwagi na mnogość i zróżnicowanie ich systemów pisma. W języku japońskim narodziło się nawet specjalne określenie na to zjawisko - <foreignphrase>mojibake</foreignphrase>. Gdy do niego dochodzi, najprostszym rozwiązaniem jest zazwyczaj  po prostu migracja systemu do UTF-8."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "As far as file names are concerned, the migration can be relatively simple. The <command>convmv</command> tool (in the package with the same name) was created specifically for this purpose; it allows renaming files from one encoding to another. The use of this tool is relatively simple, but we recommend doing it in two steps to avoid surprises. The following example illustrates a UTF-8 environment containing directory names encoded in ISO-8859-15, and the use of <command>convmv</command> to rename them."
msgstr "Jeśli chodzi o nazwy plików, migracja jest względnie prostym procesem. Specjalnie do tego zastosowania zostało stworzone narzędzie <command>convmv</command>, będące częścią pakietu o tej samej nazwie; pozwala ono konwertować nazwy plików z jednego kodowania na drugie. Użycie tego narzędzia jest relatywnie proste, ale zalecamy podział całej procedury na dwa etapy w celu uniknięcia niespodzianek. Następujący przykład ilustruje konwersję nazw katalogów zakodowanych w ISO-8859-15 przy użyciu narzędzia <command>convmv</command> w systemie ustawionym na UTF-8."

#. Tag: screen
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"<computeroutput>$ </computeroutput><userinput>ls travail/</userinput>\n"
"<computeroutput>Ic?nes  ?l?ments graphiques  Textes\n"
"$ </computeroutput><userinput>convmv -r -f iso-8859-15 -t utf-8 travail/</userinput>\n"
"<computeroutput>Starting a dry run without changes...\n"
"mv \"travail/�l�ments graphiques\"        \"travail/Éléments graphiques\"\n"
"mv \"travail/Ic�nes\"     \"travail/Icônes\"\n"
"No changes to your files done. Use --notest to finally rename the files.\n"
"$ </computeroutput><userinput>convmv -r --notest -f iso-8859-15 -t utf-8 travail/</userinput>\n"
"<computeroutput>mv \"travail/�l�ments graphiques\"        \"travail/Éléments graphiques\"\n"
"mv \"travail/Ic�nes\"     \"travail/Icônes\"\n"
"Ready!\n"
"$ </computeroutput><userinput>ls travail/</userinput>\n"
"<computeroutput>Éléments graphiques  Icônes  Textes</computeroutput>\n"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "For the file content, conversion procedures are more complex due to the vast variety of existing file formats. Some file formats include encoding information that facilitates the tasks of the software used to treat them; it is sufficient, then, to open these files and re-save them specifying UTF-8 encoding. In other cases, you have to specify the original encoding (ISO-8859-1 or “Western”, or ISO-8859-15 or “Western (Euro)”, according to the formulations) when opening the file."
msgstr "Jeśli chodzi o zawartość plików, procedury konwersji są bardziej złożone z uwagi na mnogość istniejących formatów plików. Niektóre formaty zawierają informacje kodowania, co ułatwia zadanie programom odczytującym te pliki; w przypadku tych formatów wystarczy otworzyć plik w odpowiednim programie i zapisać go ponownie wybierając UTF-8 jako kodowanie. W pozostałych przypadkach należy określić oryginalne kodowanie (np. ISO-8859-1 czyli \"zachodnie\", bądź ISO-8859-15 czyli \"zachodnioeuropejskie\") w chwili otwierania pliku."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "For simple text files, you can use <command>recode</command> (in the package of the same name) which allows automatic recoding. This tool has numerous options so you can play with its behavior. We recommend you consult the documentation, the <citerefentry> <refentrytitle>recode</refentrytitle> <manvolnum>1</manvolnum> </citerefentry> man page, or the <citerefentry> <refentrytitle>recode</refentrytitle> </citerefentry> info page (more complete)."
msgstr "W przypadku prostych plików tekstowych można użyć narzędzia <command>recode</command>, będącego elementem pakietu o tej samej nazwie, które umożliwia automatyczną konwersję kodowania. Narzędzie to posiada liczne opcje umozliwiające dostosowanie jego zachowania do potrzeb użytkownika. Zalecamy zapoznanie się z dokumentacją - stroną <citerefentry> <refentrytitle>recode</refentrytitle> <manvolnum>1</manvolnum> </citerefentry> linuksowego manuala <command>man</command>, bądź stroną <citerefentry> <refentrytitle>recode</refentrytitle> </citerefentry> w manualu <command>info</command> (to drugie źródło jest bardziej wyczerpujące)."

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Configuring the Network"
msgstr "Konfiguracja Sieci"

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> Essential network concepts (Ethernet, IP address, subnet, broadcast)."
msgstr "<emphasis>POWRÓT DO PODSTAW</emphasis> Elementarne koncepcje związane z sieciami (Ethernet, adres IP, podsieć, nadawanie)."

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>Ethernet</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>Ethernet</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>10BASE-T</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>10BASE-T</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>100BASE-T</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>100BASE-T</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>1000BASE-T</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>1000BASE-T</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>10GBASE-T</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>10GBASE-T</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>connector, RJ45</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>złącze, RJ45</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>RJ45 connector</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>złącze RJ45</primary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Most modern local networks use the Ethernet protocol, where data is split into small blocks called frames and transmitted on the wire one frame at a time. Data speeds vary from 10 Mb/s for older Ethernet cards to 10 Gb/s in the newest cards (with the most common rate currently growing from 100 Mb/s to 1 Gb/s). The most widely used cables are called 10BASE-T, 100BASE-T, 1000BASE-T or 10GBASE-T depending on the throughput they can reliably provide (the T stands for “twisted pair”); those cables end in an RJ45 connector. There are other cable types, used mostly for speeds above 1 Gb/s."
msgstr "Większość nowoczesnych sieci lokalnych używa protokołu Ethernet, w którym dane są dzielone na małe bloki nazywane ramkami i przesyłane poprzez przewód jedna po drugiej. Prędkość przesyłu waha się od 10Mb/s dla starszych kart sieciowych Ethernet do 10Gb/s w przypadku kart nowszych, przy czym najpowszechniej spotykane prędkości plasują się w przedziale od 100Mb/s do 1Gb/s. Najczęściej używane kable nazywane są 10BASE-T, 100BASE-T, 1000BASE-T lub 10GBASE-T, w zależności od posiadanej przepustowości (litera T oznacza \"twisted pair\" czyli typ przewodu po polsku zwany skrętką); kable te kończą się złączem RJ45. Istnieją również inne typy kabli, używane głównie w przypadku prędkości powyżej 1Gb/s."

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>address, IP address</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>adres, adres IP</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>IP address</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>adres IP</primary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "An IP address is a number used to identify a network interface on a computer on a local network or the Internet. In the currently most widespread version of IP (IPv4), this number is encoded in 32 bits, and is usually represented as 4 numbers separated by periods (e.g. <literal>192.168.0.1</literal>), each number being between 0 and 255 (inclusive, which corresponds to 8 bits of data). The next version of the protocol, IPv6, extends this addressing space to 128 bits, and the addresses are generally represented as series of hexadecimal numbers separated by colons (e.g., 2001:0db8:13bb:0002:0000:0000:0000:0020, or 2001:db8:13bb:2::20 for short)."
msgstr "Adres IP jest liczbą używaną do zidentyfikowania interfejsu sieciowego komputera w sieci lokalnej bądź Internecie. W IPv4, obecnie najbardziej rozpowszechnionej wersji protokołu IP, liczba ta jest zapisywana na 32 bitach i zwykle przedstawiana jako cztery 8-bitowe liczby oddzielone kropkami, np. <literal>192.168.0.1</literal>. Każda z tych czterech liczb mieści się w przedziale 0-255. W następnej wersji protokołu, IPv6, przestrzeń adresowa jest rozszerzona z 32 do 128 bitów, a adres zwykle jest przedstawiany jako ciąg liczb szesnastkowych oddzielonych dwukropkami, np. 2001:0db8:13bb:0002:0000:0000:0000:0020. Liczby wynoszące zero często pomija się dla większej zwartości zapisu: 2001:db8:13bb:2::20."

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>subnet</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>podsieć</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>mask</primary><secondary>subnet mask</secondary>"
msgstr "<primary>maska</primary><secondary>maska podsieci</secondary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>network</primary><secondary>address</secondary>"
msgstr "<primary>sieć</primary><secondary>adres</secondary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "A subnet mask (netmask) defines in its binary code which portion of an IP address corresponds to the network, the remainder specifying the machine. In the example of configuring a static IPv4 address given here, the subnet mask, <literal>255.255.255.0</literal> (24 “1”s followed by 8 “0”s in binary representation) indicates that the first 24 bits of the IP address correspond to the network address, and the other 8 are specific to the machine. In IPv6, for readability, only the number of “1”s is expressed; the netmask for an IPv6 network could, thus, be <literal>64</literal>."
msgstr "Maska podsieci określa która część adresu IP odpowiada sieci, a która znajdującemu się w niej konkretnemu komputerowi, czyli hostowi. Adres IP zapisany binarnie stanowi ciąg bitów, składający się zasadniczo z dwóch nastepujących po sobie fragmentów: adresu sieci oraz liczby identyfikującej hosta w tej sieci. Maska podsieci, składająca się podobnie jak adres IP z czterech 8-bitowych liczb, określa długość tego pierwszego fragmentu. W podanym tutaj przykładzie konfigurowania statycznego adresu IPv4, maska podsieci wynosi <literal>255.255.255.0</literal>, czyli 24 jedynki i 8 zer w zapisie binarnym, co znacza, że pierwsze 24 bity adresu IP stanowią adres sieci, a pozostałe 8 bitów określa komputer w tej sieci. W wersji IPv6 zamiast pełnej maski zapisuje się tylko ilość jedynek, w celu zwiekszenia czytelności; w takiej konwencji maska może wynosić przykładowo 64."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The network address is an IP address in which the part describing the machine's number is 0. The range of IPv4 addresses in a complete network is often indicated by the syntax, <emphasis>a.b.c.d/e</emphasis>, in which <emphasis>a.b.c.d</emphasis> is the network address and <emphasis>e</emphasis> is the number of bits affected to the network part in an IP address. The example network would thus be written: <literal>192.168.0.0/24</literal>. The syntax is similar in IPv6: <literal>2001:db8:13bb:2::/64</literal>."
msgstr "Adres sieci to adres IP, w którym część odpowiadająca hostowi wynosi 0. Zakres adresów IPv4 w konkretnej sieci często podaje się w formie <emphasis>a.b.c.d/e</emphasis>, gdzie <emphasis>a.b.c.d</emphasis> oznacza adres sieci, a <emphasis>e</emphasis> to długość maski podsieci, czyli liczba bitów przypadająca na część sieci w adresie IP. Przykładową sieć można zatem zapisać następująco: <literal>192.168.0.0/24</literal>, co znacza, że adresy w tej sieci mieszczą się w zakresie od <literal>192.168.0.0</literal> do  <literal>192.168.0.255</literal>. Podobny zapis stosuje się w wersji IPv6: <literal>2001:db8:13bb:2::/64</literal>."

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>router</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>router</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>bridge</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>most</primary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "A router is a machine that connects several networks to each other. All traffic coming through a router is guided to the correct network. To do this, the router analyzes incoming packets and redirects them according to the IP address of their destination. The router is often known as a gateway; in this configuration, it works as a machine that helps reach out beyond a local network (towards an extended network, such as the Internet)."
msgstr "Router jest urządzeniem, które łączy ze sobą wiele różnych sieci, umożliwiając komunikację pomiędzy nimi. Wszystkie dane przechodzące przez router są przez niego kierowane do właściwej sieci. W tym celu router analizuje napływające dane i przekierowuje je w zależności od zawartego w nich docelowego adresu IP. Router jest często nazywany bramą (gateway) - wówczas służy jako urządzenie poprzez które komputer w sieci lokalnej może nawiązać komunikację z siecią zewnętrzną. "

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>broadcast</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The special broadcast address connects all the stations in a network. Almost never “routed”, it only functions on the network in question. Specifically, it means that a data packet addressed to the broadcast never passes through the router."
msgstr "Specjalny adres rozgłoszeniowy (\"broadcast\") łączy wszystkie hosty w sieci, pozwalając na wysłanie danych do wszystkich komputerów w sieci poprzez pojedynczą transmisję. Prawie zawsze jest nieroutowalny (tj. nie podlega routingowi), czyli działa tylko w odniesieniu do sieci z którą jest związany. W praktyce oznacza to, że pakiet danych opatrzony rozgłoszeniowym adresem docelowym nigdy nie przejdzie przez router."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "This chapter focuses on IPv4 addresses, since they are currently the most commonly used. The details of the IPv6 protocol are approached in <xref linkend=\"sect.ipv6\" />, but the concepts remain the same."
msgstr "Ten rozdział skupia się na adresach IPv4, jako, że są obecnie najpowszechniej stosowanymi. Szczegóły protokołu IPv6 są omówione w <xref linkend=\"sect.ipv6\" />, aczkolwiek główne koncepcje pozostają takie same."

#. Tag: para
#, fuzzy, no-c-format
msgid "Since the network is automatically configured during the initial installation, the <filename>/etc/network/interfaces</filename> file already contains a valid configuration. A line starting with <literal>auto</literal> gives a list of interfaces to be automatically configured on boot by <emphasis role=\"pkg\">ifupdown</emphasis> and its <filename>/etc/init.d/networking</filename> init script. This will often be <literal>eth0</literal>, which refers to the first Ethernet card."
msgstr "Jako, że sieć jest automatycznie konfigurowana podczas instalacji, plik <filename>/etc/network/interfaces</filename> już zawiera poprawne ustawienia. W wierszu zaczynającym się od <literal>auto</literal> znajduje się lista interfejsów mających zostać automatycznie skonfigurowanych podczas rozruchu przez narzędzie <emphasis role=\"pkg\">ifupdown</emphasis> oraz skrypt startowy <filename>/etc/init.d/networking</filename>. Na liście interfejsów najczęściej będzie się znajdować pierwsza karta sieciowa Ethernet oznaczona jako <literal>eth0</literal>."

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>network</primary><secondary>configuration</secondary>"
msgstr "<primary>sieć</primary><secondary>konfiguracja</secondary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>configuration</primary><secondary>of the network</secondary>"
msgstr "<primary>konfiguracja</primary><secondary>sieci</secondary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>interface</primary><secondary>network interface</secondary>"
msgstr "<primary>interfejs</primary><secondary>interfejs sieciowy</secondary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><literal>eth0</literal></primary>"
msgstr "<primary><literal>eth0</literal></primary>"

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>ALTERNATIVE</emphasis> NetworkManager"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><emphasis role=\"pkg\">network-manager</emphasis></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "If Network Manager is particularly recommended in roaming setups (see <xref linkend=\"sect.roaming-network-config\" />), it's also perfectly usable as the default network management tool. You can create “System connections” that are used as soon as the computer boots either manually with a <filename>.ini</filename>-like file in <filename>/etc/NetworkManager/system-connections/</filename> or through a graphical tool (<command>nm-connection-editor</command>). Just remember to deactivate all entries in <filename>/etc/network/interfaces</filename> if you want Network Manager to handle them. <ulink type=\"block\" url=\"http://wiki.gnome.org/NetworkManager/SystemSettings\" /> <ulink type=\"block\" url=\"http://projects.gnome.org/NetworkManager/developers/api/09/ref-settings.html\" />"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Ethernet Interface"
msgstr "Interfejs Ethernet"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "If the computer has an Ethernet card, the IP network that is associated with it must be configured by choosing from one of two methods. The simplest method is dynamic configuration with DHCP, and it requires a DHCP server on the local network. It may indicate a desired hostname, corresponding to the <literal>hostname</literal> setting in the example below. The DHCP server then sends configuration settings for the appropriate network."
msgstr "Jeśli komputer jest wyposażony w kartę sieciową Ethernet, należy odpowiednio skonfigurować powiązaną z nim sieć IP korzystając z jednej z dwóch metod. Najprostszy sposób to dynamiczna konfiguracja przy użyciu protokołu DHCP; wymaga ona obecności serwera DHCP w lokalnej sieci. W jej ramach można określić pożądaną nazwę hosta, odpowiadającą ustawieniu <literal>hostname</literal> w poniższym przykładzie. Serwer DHCP odpowiada za przesłanie ustawień sieciowych dla odpowiedniej sieci."

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>DHCP</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>DHCP</primary>"

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "DHCP configuration"
msgstr "Konfiguracja DHCP"

#. Tag: programlisting
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"\n"
"auto eth0\n"
"iface eth0 inet dhcp\n"
"  hostname arrakis\n"
msgstr ""
"\n"
"auto eth0\n"
"iface eth0 inet dhcp\n"
"  hostname arrakis\n"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "A “static” configuration must indicate network settings in a fixed manner. This includes at least the IP address and subnet mask; network and broadcast addresses are also sometimes listed. A router connecting to the exterior will be specified as a gateway."
msgstr "Konfiguracja statyczna polega na ręcznym zdefiniowaniu wszystkich ustawień poprzez nadanie im stałych wartości. Przede wszystkim należy określić adres IP oraz maskę podsieci; czasami również wyznacza się adres sieci oraz adres rozgłoszeniowy. Podaje się również adres bramy domyślnej czyli routera łączącego sieć lokalną z siecią zewnętrzną."

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Static configuration"
msgstr "Konfiguracja statyczna"

#. Tag: programlisting
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"\n"
"auto eth0\n"
"iface eth0 inet static\n"
"  address 192.168.0.3\n"
"  netmask 255.255.255.0\n"
"  broadcast 192.168.0.255\n"
"  network 192.168.0.0\n"
"  gateway 192.168.0.1\n"
msgstr ""
"\n"
"auto eth0\n"
"iface eth0 inet static\n"
"  address 192.168.0.3\n"
"  netmask 255.255.255.0\n"
"  broadcast 192.168.0.255\n"
"  network 192.168.0.0\n"
"  gateway 192.168.0.1\n"

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>NOTE</emphasis> Multiple addresses"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "It is possible not only to associate several interfaces to a single, physical network card, but also several IP addresses to a single interface. Remember also that an IP address may correspond to any number of names via DNS, and that a name may also correspond to any number of numerical IP addresses."
msgstr "Możliwe jest nie tylko przyporządkowanie wielu interfejsów do jednej fizycznej karty sieciowej, ale również przyporządkowanie wielu adresów IP do jednego interfejsu. Należy również pamiętać, że adres IP może odpowiadać dowolnej liczbie adresów domenowych DNS, podobnie jak nazwa domenowa może odpowiadać wielu adresom IP."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "As you can guess, the configurations can be rather complex, but these options are only used in very special cases. The examples cited here are typical of the usual configurations."
msgstr "Jak mozna się domyślić, konfiguracja może byc dość skomplikowana, ale opcje te są jedynie używane w bardzo szczególnych przypadkach. Przykładu tutaj podane są typowe dla najczęstszych konfiguracji."

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Connecting with PPP through a PSTN Modem"
msgstr "Połączenie przy użyciu PPP poprzez modem PSTN."

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>PPP</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>PPP</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, fuzzy, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>point to point</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>point to point</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>connection</primary><secondary>by PSTN modem</secondary>"
msgstr "<primary>połączenie</primary><secondary>poprzez modem PSTN</secondary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>modem</primary><secondary>PSTN</secondary>"
msgstr "<primary>modem</primary><secondary>PSTN</secondary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "A point to point (PPP) connection establishes an intermittent connection; this is the most common solution for connections made with a telephone modem (“PSTN modem”, since the connection goes over the public switched telephone network)."
msgstr "Protokół point-to-point (PPP) tworzy tymczasowe połączenie pomiędzy hostami; jest to najczęściej stosowane rozwiązanie w przypadku połączeń realizowanych poprzez modem telefoniczny (modem \"PSTN\" - \"public switched telephone network\" - jako, że połączenie odbywa się przez publiczną komutowaną sieć telefoniczną)."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "A connection by telephone modem requires an account with an access provider, including a telephone number, username, password, and, sometimes the authentication protocol to be used. Such a connection is configured using the <command>pppconfig</command> tool in the Debian package of the same name. By default, it sets up a connection named <literal>provider</literal> (as in Internet service provider). When in doubt about the authentication protocol, choose <emphasis>PAP</emphasis>: it is offered by the majority of Internet service providers."
msgstr "Połączenie poprzez modem telefoniczny wymaga posiadania konta u dostawcy usług, w zakres którego wchodzą numer telefonu, nazwa użytkownika, hasło, oraz czasami protokół uwierzytelniania który ma zostać użyty. Połączenie takie jest konfigurowane przy użyciu narzędzia <command>pppconfig</command> zawartego w pakiecie Debiana o tej samej nazwie. Domyślnie, ustanawiane jest połączenie o nazwie <literal>provider</literal> (od dostawcy usług internetowych). W razie wątpliwości co do wyboru protokołu uwierzytelniania, należy wybrać <emphasis>PAP</emphasis>, jako oferowany przez większość dostawców internetowych."

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>pppconfig</command></primary>"
msgstr "<primary><command>pppconfig</command></primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>PAP</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>PAP</primary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "After configuration, it is possible to connect using the <command>pon</command> command (giving it the name of the connection as a parameter, when the default value of <literal>provider</literal> is not appropriate). The link is disconnected with the <command>poff</command> command. These two commands can be executed by the root user, or by any other user, provided they are in the <literal>dip</literal> group."
msgstr "Po dokonaniu konfiguracji możliwe jest nawiązanie połączenia przy użyciu polecenia <command>pon</command>, przyjmującego jako parametr nazwę połączenia gdy domyślna wartość ustawienia <literal>provider</literal> nie jest odpowiednia. Połączenie jest kończone poleceniem <command>poff</command>. Obe te polecenia mogą być wykonane z uprawnieniami roota, bądź przez jakiegokolwiek użytkownika pod warunkiem, że należy on do grupy <literal>dip</literal>."

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>pon</command></primary>"
msgstr "<primary><command>pon</command></primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>poff</command></primary>"
msgstr "<primary><command>poff</command></primary>"

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>TOOL</emphasis> On-demand connection with <command>diald</command>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>diald</command></primary>"
msgstr "<primary><command>diald</command></primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>connection</primary><secondary>on demand</secondary>"
msgstr "<primary>połączenie</primary><secondary>na żądanie</secondary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<command>diald</command> is an on-demand connection service that automatically establishes a connection when needed, by detecting an outgoing IP packet and disconnecting after a period of inactivity."
msgstr "Narzędzie <command>diald</command> jest usługą połączenia na żądanie, która automatycznie ustanawia połączenie gdy wykryje wychodzący pakiet IP, oraz automatycznie zamyka połączenie po dostatecznie długim okresie nieaktywności."

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Connecting through an ADSL Modem"
msgstr "Nawiązywanie połączenia poprzez modem ADSL."

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>connection</primary><secondary>by ADSL modem</secondary>"
msgstr "<primary>połączenie</primary><secondary>poprzez modem ADSL</secondary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>modem</primary><secondary>ADSL</secondary>"
msgstr "<primary>modem</primary><secondary>ADSL</secondary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>ADSL, modem</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>ADSL, modem</primary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The generic term “ADSL modem” covers a multitude of devices with very different functions. The modems that are simplest to use with Linux are those that have an Ethernet interface (and not only a USB interface). These tend to be popular; most ADSL Internet service providers lend (or lease) a “box” with Ethernet interfaces. Depending on the type of modem, the configuration required can vary widely."
msgstr "Ogólna nazwa \"modem ADSL\" odnosi się do wielu urządzeń o różnych funkcjonalnościach. Modemy najprostsze w użyciu z systemem Linux to te, które poza interfejsem USB posiadają również interfejs Ethernet. Są one dość popularne - większość dostawców usług internetowych stosujących technologię ADSL wynajmuje bądź dzierżawi modem z portem Ethernetowym. Wymagana konfiguracja może różnić się znacznie w zależności od konkretnego typu modemu."

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Modems Supporting PPPOE"
msgstr "Modem obsługujące PPPOE"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>PPPOE</primary>"
msgstr "<primary>PPPOE</primary>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>pppoeconf</command></primary>"
msgstr "<primary><command>pppoeconf</command></primary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Some Ethernet modems work with the PPPOE protocol (Point to Point Protocol over Ethernet). The <command>pppoeconf</command> tool (from the package with the same name) will configure the connection. To do so, it modifies the <filename>/etc/ppp/peers/dsl-provider</filename> file with the settings provided and records the login information in the <filename>/etc/ppp/pap-secrets</filename> and <filename>/etc/ppp/chap-secrets</filename> files. It is recommended to accept all modifications that it proposes."
msgstr "Niektóre modemy Ethernetowe współpracują z protokołem PPPIE (Point to Point over Ethernet). Narzędzie <command>pppoeconf</command> z pakietu o tej samej nazwie pozwala dokonać konfiguracji takiego połączenia. W tym celu wprowadza ono otrzymane ustawienia do pliku <filename>/etc/ppp/peers/dsl-provider</filename>, oraz zapisuje informacje logowania w plikach <filename>/etc/ppp/pap-secrets</filename> i <filename>/etc/ppp/chap-secrets</filename>. Zaleca się zaakceptowanie i zatwierdzenie wszystkich proponowanych przez nie zmian."

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Once this configuration is complete, you can open the ADSL connection with the command, <command>pon dsl-provider</command> and disconnect with <command>poff dsl-provider</command>."
msgstr "Gdy konfiguracja jest zakończona, można nawiązać połączenie ADSL poleceniem <command>pon dsl-provider</command> oraz zakończyć je poleceniem <command>poff dsl-provider</command>."

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><literal>dsl-provider</literal></primary>"
msgstr "<primary><literal>dsl-provider</literal></primary>"

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>TIP</emphasis> Starting <command>ppp</command> via <command>init</command>"
msgstr "<emphasis>WSKAZÓWKA</emphasis> Uruchamianie <command>ppp</command> poprzez <command>init</command>"

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>init</command></primary>"
msgstr "<primary><command>init</command></primary>"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "PPP connections over ADSL are, by definition, intermittent. Since they are usually not billed according to time, there are few downsides to the temptation of keeping them always open; one simple means to do so is to use the <command>init</command> process to control the connection. All that's needed is to add a line such as the following at the end of the <filename>/etc/inittab</filename> file; then, any time the connection is disconnected, <command>init</command> will reconnect it."
msgstr "Połączenia PPP nawiązywane poprzez ADSL są z definicji tymczasowe. Ponieważ opłaty naliczane za te połączenia zazwyczaj nie zależą od czasu ich trwania, dobrym pomysłem może być utrzymywanie ich jako otwartych przez cały czas. Jednym prostem sposobem na dokonanie tego jest użycie procesu <command>init</command> w celu kontroli połączenia. Wystarczy dodać na końcu pliku <filename>/etc/inittab</filename> wiersz podany poniżej. Wówczas, ilekroć połączenie zostanie rozłączone, <command>init</command> natychmiast je przywróci."

#. Tag: programlisting
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"\n"
"adsl:2345:respawn:/usr/sbin/pppd call dsl-provider\n"
msgstr ""
"\n"
"adsl:2345:respawn:/usr/sbin/pppd call dsl-provider\n"

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Most ADSL connections disconnect on a daily basis, but this method reduces the duration of the interruption."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Modems Supporting PPTP"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>PPTP</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol) protocol was created by Microsoft. Deployed at the beginning of ADSL, it was quickly replaced by PPPOE. If this protocol is forced on you, see <xref linkend=\"network-infrastructure\" /> in the section about virtual private networks detailing PPTP."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Modems Supporting DHCP"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "When a modem is connected to the computer by an Ethernet cable (crossover cable) you typically configure a network connection by DHCP on the computer; the modem automatically acts as a gateway by default and takes care of routing (meaning that it manages the network traffic between the computer and the Internet)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> Crossover cable for a direct Ethernet connection"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>crossover cable</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Computer network cards expect to receive data on specific wires in the cable, and send their data on others. When you connect a computer to a local network, you usually connect a cable (straight or crossover) between the network card and a repeater or switch. However, if you want to connect two computers directly (without an intermediary switch or repeater), you must route the signal sent by one card to the receiving side of the other card, and vice-versa. This is the purpose of a crossover cable, and the reason it is used."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Note that this distinction is becoming less relevant over time, as modern network cards are able do detect the type of cable present and adapt accordingly, so it won't be unusual that both kinds of cable will work in a given location."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Most “ADSL routers” on the market can be used like this, as do most of the ADSL modems provided by Internet services providers."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Automatic Network Configuration for Roaming Users"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>network</primary><secondary>roaming configuration</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Many Falcot engineers have a laptop computer that, for professional purposes, they also use at home. The network configuration to use differs according to location. At home, it may be a wifi network (protected by a WEP key), while the workplace uses a wired network for greater security and more bandwidth."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "To avoid having to manually connect or disconnect the corresponding network interfaces, administrators installed the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">network-manager</emphasis> package on these roaming machines. This software enables a user to easily switch from one network to another using a small icon displayed in the notification area of their graphical desktop. Clicking on this icon displays a list of available networks (both wired and wireless), so they can simply choose the network they wish to use. The program saves the configuration for the networks to which the user has already connected, and automatically switches to the best available network when the current connection drops."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "In order to do this, the program is structured in two parts: a daemon running as root handles activation and configuration of network interfaces and a user interface controls this daemon. PolicyKit handles the required authorizations to control this program and Debian configured PolicyKit in such a way so that members of the netdev group can add or change Network Manager connections."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Network Manager knows how to handle various types of connections (DHCP, manual configuration, local network), but only if the configuration is set with the program itself. This is why it will systematically ignore all network interfaces in <filename>/etc/network/interfaces</filename> for which it is not suited. Since Network Manager doesn't give details when no network connections are shown, the easy way is to delete from <filename>/etc/network/interfaces</filename> any configuration for all interfaces that must be managed by Network Manager."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Note that this program is installed by default when the “Desktop Environment” task is chosen during initial installation."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>ALTERNATIVE</emphasis> Configuration by “network profile”"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><emphasis role=\"pkg\">guessnet</emphasis></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "More advanced users may want to try the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">guessnet</emphasis> package for automatic network configuration. A group of test scripts determine which network profile should be activated and configure it on the fly."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Users who prefer to manually select a network profile will prefer the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">netenv</emphasis> program, found in the package of the same name."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Setting the Hostname and Configuring the Name Service"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>name</primary><secondary>attribution and resolution</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>assignment of names</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The purpose of assigning names to IP numbers is to make them easier for people to remember. In reality, an IP address identifies a network interface associated with a device such as a network card. Since each machine can have several network cards, and several interfaces on each card, one single computer can have several names in the domain name system."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Each machine is, however, identified by a main (or “canonical”) name, stored in the <filename>/etc/hostname</filename> file and communicated to the Linux kernel by initialization scripts through the <command>hostname</command> command. The current value is available in a virtual filesystem, and you can get it with the <command>cat /proc/sys/kernel/hostname</command> command."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>hostname</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> <filename>/proc/</filename> and <filename>/sys/</filename>, virtual filesystems"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>/proc/</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>proc</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>/sys/</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>sys</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <filename>/proc/</filename> and <filename>/sys/</filename> file trees are generated by “virtual” filesystems. This is a practical means of recovering information from the kernel (by listing virtual files) and communicating them to it (by writing to virtual files)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<filename>/sys/</filename> in particular is designed to provide access to internal kernel objects, especially those representing the various devices in the system. The kernel can, thus, share various pieces of information: the status of each device (for example, if it is in energy saving mode), whether it is a removable device, etc. Note that <filename>/sys/</filename> has only existed since kernel version 2.6."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Surprisingly, the domain name is not managed in the same way, but comes from the complete name of the machine, acquired through name resolution. You can change it in the <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> file; simply write a complete name for the machine there at the beginning of the list of names associated with the address of the machine, as in the following example:"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: programlisting
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"\n"
"127.0.0.1     localhost\n"
"192.168.0.1   arrakis.falcot.com arrakis\n"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>hosts</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>/etc/hosts</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>domain</primary><secondary>name</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>name</primary><secondary>domain</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>NSS</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Name Resolution"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>resolution</primary><secondary>name</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>name</primary><secondary>resolution</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The mechanism for name resolution in Linux is modular and can use various sources of information declared in the <filename>/etc/nsswitch.conf</filename> file. The entry that involves host name resolution is <literal>hosts</literal>. By default, it contains <literal>files dns</literal>, which means that the system consults the <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> file first, then DNS servers. NIS/NIS+ or LDAP servers are other possible sources."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>NOTE</emphasis> NSS and DNS"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Be aware that the commands specifically intended to query DNS (especially <command>host</command>) do not use the standard name resolution mechanism (NSS). As a consequence, they do not take into consideration <filename>/etc/nsswitch.conf</filename>, and thus, not <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> either."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Configuring DNS Servers"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>DNS</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>Domain Name Service</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "DNS (Domain Name Service) is a distributed and hierarchical service mapping names to IP addresses, and vice-versa. Specifically, it can turn a human-friendly name such as <literal>www.eyrolles.com</literal> into the actual IP address, <literal>213.244.11.247</literal>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "To access DNS information, a DNS server must be available to relay requests. Falcot Corp has its own, but an individual user is more likely to use the DNS servers provided by their ISP."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>resolv.conf</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><literal>nameserver</literal></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The DNS servers to be used are indicated in the <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename>, one per line, with the <literal>nameserver</literal> keyword preceding an IP address, as in the following example:"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: programlisting
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"\n"
"nameserver 212.27.32.176\n"
"nameserver 212.27.32.177\n"
"nameserver 8.8.8.8\n"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> file"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "If there is no name server on the local network, it is still possible to establish a small table mapping IP addresses and machine hostnames in the <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> file, usually reserved for local network stations. The syntax of this file is very simple: each line indicates a specific IP address followed by the list of any associated names (the first being “completely qualified”, meaning it includes the domain name)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "This file is available even during network outages or when DNS servers are unreachable, but will only really be useful when duplicated on all the machines on the network. The slightest alteration in correspondence will require the file to be updated everywhere. This is why <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> generally only contains the most important entries."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "This file will be sufficient for a small network not connected to the Internet, but with 5 machines or more, it is recommended to install a proper DNS server."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>TIP</emphasis> Bypassing DNS"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Since applications check the <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> file before querying DNS, it is possible to include information in there that is different from what the DNS would return, and therefore to bypass normal DNS-based name resolution."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "This allows, in the event of DNS changes not yet propagated, to test access to a website with the intended name even if this name is not properly mapped to the correct IP address yet."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Another possible use is to redirect traffic intended for a specific host to the localhost, thus preventing any communication with the given host. For example, hostnames of servers dedicated to serving ads could be diverted which would bypass these ads resulting in more fluid, less distracting, navigation."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "User and Group Databases"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>user</primary><secondary>database</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>group</primary><secondary>database</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>database</primary><secondary>of users</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>database</primary><secondary>of groups</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The list of users is usually stored in the <filename>/etc/passwd</filename> file, while the <filename>/etc/shadow</filename> file stores encrypted passwords. Both are text files, in a relatively simple format, which can be read and modified with a text editor. Each user is listed there on a line with several fields separated with a colon (“<literal>:</literal>”)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>NOTE</emphasis> Editing system files"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The system files mentioned in this chapter are all plain text files, and can be edited with a text editor. Considering their importance to core system functionality, it is always a good idea to take extra precautions when editing system files. First, always make a copy or backup of a system file before opening or altering it. Second, on servers or machines where more than one person could potentially access the same file at the same time, take extra steps to guard against file corruption."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "For this purpose, it is enough to use the <command>vipw</command> command to edit the <filename>/etc/passwd</filename> file, or <command>vigr</command> to edit <filename>/etc/group</filename>. These commands lock the file in question prior to running the text editor, (<command>vi</command> by default, unless the <varname>EDITOR</varname> environment variable has been altered). The <literal>-s</literal> option in these commands allows editing the corresponding <foreignphrase>shadow</foreignphrase> file."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> Crypt, a one-way function"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>crypt</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<command>crypt</command> is a one-way function that transforms a string (<varname>A</varname>) into another string (<varname>B</varname>) in a way that <varname>A</varname> cannot be derived from <varname>B</varname>. The only way to identify <varname>A</varname> is to test all possible values, checking each one to determine if transformation by the function will produce <varname>B</varname> or not. It uses up to 8 characters as input (string <varname>A</varname>) and generates a string of 13, printable, ASCII characters (string <varname>B</varname>)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "User List: <filename>/etc/passwd</filename>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Here is the list of fields in the <filename>/etc/passwd</filename> file:"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>passwd</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>/etc/passwd</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><literal>uid</literal></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><literal>gid</literal></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><literal>GECOS</literal></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><literal>login</literal></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "login, for example <literal>rhertzog</literal>;"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "password: this is a password encrypted by a one-way function (<command>crypt</command>), relying on <literal>DES</literal>, <literal>MD5</literal>, <literal>SHA-256</literal> or <literal>SHA-512</literal>. The special value “<literal>x</literal>” indicates that the encrypted password is stored in <filename>/etc/shadow</filename>;"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<literal>uid</literal>: unique number identifying each user;"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<literal>gid</literal>: unique number for the user's main group (Debian creates a specific group for each user by default);"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<literal>GECOS</literal>: data field usually containing the user's full name;"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "login directory, assigned to the user for storage of their personal files (the environment variable <varname>$HOME</varname> generally points here);"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "program to execute upon login. This is usually a command interpreter (shell), giving the user free rein. If you specify <command>/bin/false</command> (which does nothing and returns control immediately), the user can not login."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> Unix group"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>group</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "A Unix group is an entity including several users so that they can easily share files using the integrated permission system (by benefiting from the same rights). You can also restrict use of certain programs to a specific group."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "The Hidden and Encrypted Password File: <filename>/etc/shadow</filename>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>shadow</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>/etc/shadow</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <filename>/etc/shadow</filename> file contains the following fields:"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "login;"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "encrypted password;"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "several fields managing password expiration."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>DOCUMENTATION</emphasis> <filename>/etc/passwd</filename>, <filename>/etc/shadow</filename> and <filename>/etc/group</filename> file formats"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "These formats are documented in the following man pages: <citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>shadow</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>group</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>SECURITY</emphasis> <filename>/etc/shadow</filename> file security"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<filename>/etc/shadow</filename>, unlike its alter-ego, <filename>/etc/passwd</filename>, cannot be read by regular users. Any encrypted password stored in <filename>/etc/passwd</filename> is readable by anybody; a cracker could try to “break” (or reveal) a password by one of several “brute force” methods which, simply put, guess at commonly used combinations of characters. This attack — called a \"dictionary attack\" — is no longer possible on systems using <filename>/etc/shadow</filename>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Modifying an Existing Account or Password"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>chsh</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>chfn</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>chage</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>password</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The following commands allow modification of the information stored in specific fields of the user databases: <command>passwd</command> permits a regular user to change their password, which in turn, updates the <filename>/etc/shadow</filename> file; <command>chfn</command> (CHange Full Name), reserved for the super-user (root), modifies the <literal>GECOS</literal> field. <command>chsh</command> (CHange SHell) allows the user to change their login shell, however available choices will be limited to those listed in <filename>/etc/shells</filename>; the administrator, on the other hand, is not bound by this restriction and can set the shell to any program of their choosing."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Finally, the <command>chage</command> (CHange AGE) command allows the administrator to change the password expiration settings (the <literal>-l <replaceable>user</replaceable></literal> option will list the current settings). You can also force the expiration of a password using the <command>passwd -e <replaceable>user</replaceable></command> command, which will require the user to change their password the next time they log in."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Disabling an Account"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>Disable an account</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>account</primary><secondary>disable</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "You may find yourself needing to “disable an account” (lock out a user), as a disciplinary measure, for the purposes of an investigation, or simply in the event of a prolonged or definitive absence of a user. A disabled account means the user cannot login or gain access to the machine. The account remains intact on the machine and no files or data are deleted; it is simply inaccessible. This is accomplished by using the command <command>passwd -l <replaceable>user</replaceable></command> (lock). Re-enabling the account is done in similar fashion, with the <literal>-u</literal> option (unlock)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>GOING FURTHER</emphasis> NSS and system databases"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>Name Service Switch</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Instead of using the usual files to manage lists of users and groups, you could use other types of databases, such as LDAP or <command>db</command>, by using an appropriate NSS (Name Service Switch) module. The modules used are listed in the <filename>/etc/nsswitch.conf</filename> file, under the <literal>passwd</literal>, <literal>shadow</literal> and <literal>group</literal> entries. See <xref linkend=\"sect.config-nss\" /> for a specific example of the use of an NSS module by LDAP."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Group List: <filename>/etc/group</filename>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Groups are listed in the <filename>/etc/group</filename> file, a simple textual database in a format similar to that of the <filename>/etc/passwd</filename> file, with the following fields:"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "group name;"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "password (optional): This is only used to join a group when one is not a usual member (with the <command>newgrp</command> or <command>sg</command> commands, see sidebar);"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<literal>gid</literal>: unique group identification number;"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "list of members: list of names of users who are members of the group, separated by commas."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> Working with several groups"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>newgrp</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>sg</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>id</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>group</primary><secondary>change</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Each user may be a member of many groups; one of them is their “main group”. A user's main group is, by default, created during initial user configuration. By default, each file that a user creates belongs to them, as well as to their main group. This is not always desirable; for example, when the user needs to work in a directory shared by a group other than their main group. In this case, the user needs to change their main group using one of the following commands: <command>newgrp</command>, which starts a new shell, or <command>sg</command>, which simply executes a command using the supplied alternate group. These commands also allow the user to join a group to which they do not belong. If the group is password protected, they will need to supply the appropriate password before the command is executed."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Alternatively, the user can set the <literal>setgid</literal> bit on the directory, which causes files created in that directory to automatically belong to the correct group. For more details, see sidebar <xref linkend=\"sidebar.setgid-dir\" />."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <command>id</command> command displays the current state of a user, with their personal identifier (<varname>uid</varname> variable), current main group (<varname>gid</varname> variable), and the list of groups to which they belong (<varname>groups</varname> variable)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>group</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>/etc/group</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <command>addgroup</command> and <command>delgroup</command> commands add or delete a group, respectively. The <command>groupmod</command> command modifies a group's information (its <literal>gid</literal> or identifier). The command <command>passwd -g <replaceable>group</replaceable></command> changes the password for the group, while the <command>passwd -r -g <replaceable>group</replaceable></command> command deletes it."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>addgroup</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>delgroup</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>groupmod</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>group</primary><secondary>creation</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>creation</primary><secondary>of groups</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>group</primary><secondary>deletion</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>deletion of a group</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>TIP</emphasis> <command>getent</command>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>getent</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <command>getent</command> (get entries) command checks the system databases the standard way, using the appropriate library functions, which in turn call the NSS modules configured in the <filename>/etc/nsswitch.conf</filename> file. The command takes one or two arguments: the name of the database to check, and a possible search key. Thus, the command <command>getent passwd rhertzog</command> will give the information from the user database regarding the user <literal>rhertzog</literal>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Creating Accounts"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>account</primary><secondary>creation</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>creation</primary><secondary>of user accounts</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "One of the first actions an administrator needs to do when setting up a new machine is to create user accounts. This is typically done using the <command>adduser</command> command which takes a user-name for the new user to be created, as an argument."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>adduser</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <command>adduser</command> command asks a few questions before creating the account, but its usage is fairly straightforward. Its configuration file, <filename>/etc/adduser.conf</filename>, includes all the interesting settings: it can be used to automatically set a quota for each new user by creating a user template, or to change the location of user accounts; the latter is rarely useful, but it comes in handy when you have a large number of users and want to divide their accounts over several disks, for instance. You can also choose a different default shell."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> Quota"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>quota</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The term “quota” refers to a limit on machine resources that a user is allowed to use. This frequently refers to disk space."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The creation of an account populates the user's home directory with the contents of the <filename>/etc/skel/</filename> template. This provides the user with a set of standard directories and configuration files."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>group</primary><secondary>add a user</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>add a user to a group</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "In some cases, it will be useful to add a user to a group (other than their default “main” group) in order to grant them additional permissions. For example, a user who is included in the <emphasis>audio</emphasis> group can access audio devices (see sidebar “Device access permissions”). This can be achieved with a command such as <command>adduser <replaceable>user</replaceable> <replaceable>group</replaceable></command>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> Device access permissions"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>device</primary><secondary>access permissions</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>file</primary><secondary>special</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>mode</primary><secondary>character</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>mode</primary><secondary>block</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>block, mode</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>character, mode</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>special, file</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>mknod</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Each hardware peripheral device is represented under Unix with a special file, usually stored in the file tree under <filename>/dev/</filename> (DEVices). Two types of special files exist according to the nature of the device: “character mode” and “block mode” files, each mode allowing for only a limited number of operations. While character mode limits interaction with read/write operations, block mode also allows seeking within the available data. Finally, each special file is associated with two numbers (“major” and “minor”) that identify the device to the kernel in a unique manner. Such a file, created by the <command>mknod</command> command, simply contains a symbolic (and more human-friendly) name."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The permissions of a special file map to the permissions necessary to access the device itself. Thus, a file such as <filename>/dev/mixer</filename>, representing the audio mixer, only has read/write permissions for the root user and members of the <literal>audio</literal> group. Only these users can operate the audio mixer."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "It should be noted that the combination of <emphasis role=\"pkg\">udev</emphasis>, <emphasis role=\"pkg\">consolekit</emphasis> and <emphasis role=\"pkg\">policykit</emphasis> can add additional permissions to allow users physically connected to the console (and not through the network) to access to certain devices."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Shell Environment"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Command interpreters (or shells) are frequently a user's first point of contact with the computer, and they must therefore be rather friendly. Most of them use initialization scripts that allow configuration of their behavior (automatic completion, prompt text, etc.)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>command line interface</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>command interpreter</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>shell</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>bash</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<command>bash</command>, the standard shell, uses the <filename>/etc/bash.bashrc</filename> initialization script for “interactive” shells, and <filename>/etc/profile</filename> for “login” shells."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> Login shell and (non) interactive shell"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "In simple terms, a login shell is invoked when you log in to the console either locally or remotely via <command>ssh</command>, or when you run an explicit <command>bash --login</command> command. Regardless of whether it's a login shell or not, a shell can be interactive (in an <command>xterm</command>-type terminal for instance); or non-interactive (when executing a script)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>DISCOVERY</emphasis> Other shells, other scripts"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Each command interpreter has a specific syntax and its own configuration files. Thus, <command>zsh</command> uses <filename>/etc/zshrc</filename> and <filename>/etc/zshenv</filename>; <command>csh</command> uses <filename>/etc/csh.cshrc</filename>, <filename>/etc/csh.login</filename> and <filename>/etc/csh.logout</filename>. The man pages for these programs document which files they use."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>zsh</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>csh</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "For <command>bash</command>, it is useful to activate “automatic completion” in the <filename>/etc/bash.bashrc</filename> file (simply uncomment a few lines)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> Automatic completion"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>automatic completion</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Many command interpreters provide a completion feature, which allows the shell to automatically complete a partially typed command name or argument when the user hits the <keycap>Tab</keycap> key. This lets users work more efficiently and be less error-prone."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "This function is very powerful and flexible. It is possible to configure its behavior according to each command. Thus, the first argument following <command>apt-get</command> will be proposed according to the syntax of this command, even if it does not match any file (in this case, the possible choices are <literal>install</literal>, <literal>remove</literal>, <literal>upgrade</literal>, etc.)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> The tilde, a shortcut to HOME"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>~</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>tilde</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The tilde is often used to indicate the directory to which the environment variable, <varname>HOME</varname>, points (being the user's home directory, such as <filename>/home/rhertzog/</filename>). Command interpreters automatically make the substitution: <filename>~/hello.txt</filename> becomes <filename>/home/rhertzog/hello.txt</filename>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The tilde also allows access to another user's home directory. Thus, <filename>~rmas/bonjour.txt</filename> is synonymous with <filename>/home/rmas/bonjour.txt</filename>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "In addition to these common scripts, each user can create their own <filename>~/.bashrc</filename> and <filename>~/.bash_profile</filename> to configure their shell. The most common changes are the addition of aliases; these are words that are automatically replaced with the execution of a command, which makes it faster to invoke that command. For instance, you could create the <literal>la</literal> alias for the command <command>ls -la | less</command> command; then you only have to type <command>la</command> to inspect the contents of a directory in detail."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> Environment variables"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>environment</primary><secondary>environment variable</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>variable, environment</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Environment variables allow storage of global settings for the shell or various other programs called. They are contextual (each process has its own set of environment variables) but inheritable. This last characteristic offers the possibility for a login shell to declare variables which will be passed down to all programs it executes."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Setting default environment variables is an important element of shell configuration. Leaving aside the variables specific to a shell, it is preferable to place them in the <filename>/etc/environment</filename> file, since it is used by the various programs likely to initiate a shell session. Variables typically defined there include <varname>ORGANIZATION</varname>, which usually contains the name of the company or organization, and <varname>HTTP_PROXY</varname>, which indicates the existence and location of an HTTP proxy."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>TIP</emphasis> All shells configured identically"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Users often want to configure their login and interactive shells in the same way. To do this, they choose to interpret (or “source”) the content from <filename>~/.bashrc</filename> in the <filename>~/.bash_profile</filename> file. It is possible to do the same with files common to all users (by calling <filename>/etc/bash.bashrc</filename> from <filename>/etc/profile</filename>)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Printer Configuration"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>configuration</primary><secondary>printing</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>printing</primary><secondary>configuration</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Printer configuration used to cause a great many headaches for administrators and users alike. These headaches are now mostly a thing of the past, thanks to <emphasis role=\"pkg\">cups</emphasis>, the free print server using the IPP protocol (Internet Printing Protocol)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>IPP</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>Internet Printing Protocol</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>cups</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "This program is divided over several Debian packages: <emphasis role=\"pkg\">cups</emphasis> is the central print server; <emphasis role=\"pkg\">cups-bsd</emphasis> is a compatibility layer allowing use of commands from the traditional BSD printing system (<command>lpd</command> daemon, <command>lpr</command> and <command>lpq</command> commands, etc.); <emphasis role=\"pkg\">cups-client</emphasis> contains a group of programs to interact with the server (block or unblock a printer, view or delete print jobs in progress, etc.); and finally, <emphasis role=\"pkg\">cups-driver-gutenprint</emphasis> contains a collection of additional printer drivers for <command>cups</command>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>lpr</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>lpd</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>lpq</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>COMMUNITY</emphasis> CUPS"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>CUPS</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>Common Unix Printing System</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "CUPS (Common Unix Printing System) is a project (and a trademark) managed by Apple, Inc. <ulink type=\"block\" url=\"http://www.cups.org/\" />"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "After installation of these different packages, <command>cups</command> is administered easily through a web interface accessible at the local address: <literal>http://localhost:631/</literal>. There you can add printers (including network printers), remove, and administer them. You can also administer <command>cups</command> with the <command>system-config-printer</command> graphical interface (from the Debian package of the same name), which is installed by default if the “Desktop environment” task is chosen."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>cups</command></primary><secondary>administration</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>NOTE</emphasis> Obsolescence of <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>cups</emphasis> no longer uses the <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file, which is now obsolete. Programs that rely upon this file to get a list of available printers will, thus, fail. To avoid this problem, delete this file and make it a symbolic link (see sidebar <xref linkend=\"sidebar.symbolic-link\" />) to <filename>/var/run/cups/printcap</filename>, which is maintained by <emphasis>cups</emphasis> to ensure compatibility."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>printcap</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Configuring the Bootloader"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>loader</primary><secondary>bootloader</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>bootloader</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "It is probably already functional, but it is always good to know how to configure and install the bootloader in case it disappears from the Master Boot Record. This can occur after installation of another operating system, such as Windows. The following information can also help you to modify the bootloader configuration if needed."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> Master boot record"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>MBR</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>Master Boot Record</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The Master Boot Record (MBR) occupies the first 512 bytes of the first hard disk, and is the first thing loaded by the BIOS to hand over control to a program capable of booting the desired operating system. In general, a bootloader gets installed in the MBR, removing its previous content."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Identifying the Disks"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>CULTURE</emphasis> <emphasis>udev</emphasis> and <filename>/dev/</filename>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <filename>/dev/</filename> directory traditionally houses so-called “special” files, intended to represent system peripherals (see sidebar <xref linkend=\"sidebar.special-files\" />). Once upon a time, it used to contain all special files that could potentially be used. This approach had a number of drawbacks among which the fact that it restricted the number of devices that one could use (due to the hardcoded list of names), and that it was impossible to know which special files were actually useful."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Nowadays, the management of special files is entirely dynamic and matches better the nature of hot-swappable computer devices. The kernel cooperates with <emphasis>udev</emphasis> to create and delete them as needed when the corresponding devices appear and disappear. For this reason, <filename>/dev/</filename> doesn't need to be persistent and is thus a RAM-based filesystem that starts empty and contains only the relevant entries."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The kernel communicates lots of information about any newly added device and hands out a pair of major/minor numbers to identify it. With this <command>udevd</command> can create the special file under the name and with the permissions that it wants. It can also create aliases and do additional actions (initialization or registration tasks for example). <command>udevd</command>'s behavior is driven by a large set of (customizable) rules."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "With dynamically assigned names, you can thus keep the same name for a given device, regardless of the connector used or the connection order, which is especially useful when you use various USB peripherals. The first partition on the first hard drive can then be called <filename>/dev/sda1</filename> for backwards compatibility, or <filename>/dev/root-partition</filename> if you prefer, or even both at the same time since <command>udevd</command> can be configured to automatically create a symbolic link."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Previously, some kernel modules did automatically load when you tried to access the corresponding device file; henceforth, the peripheral's special file no longer exists prior to loading the module, which is no big deal, since most modules are loaded on boot thanks to automatic hardware detection. But for undetectable peripherals (such as older disk drives or PS/2 mice), this doesn't work. Consider adding the modules, <literal>floppy</literal>, <literal>psmouse</literal> and <literal>mousedev</literal> to <filename>/etc/modules</filename> in order to force loading them on boot."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>hard drive, names</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>names</primary><secondary>of hard drives</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Configuration of the bootloader must identify the different hard drives and their partitions. Linux uses “block” special files stored in the <filename>/dev/</filename> directory, for this purpose. Historically, <filename>/dev/hda</filename> was the master disk on the first IDE controller, and <filename>/dev/hdb</filename> its first slave, <filename>/dev/hdc</filename> and <filename>/dev/hdd</filename> being, respectively, the master and slave disks on the second IDE controller, and so on down for any others. <filename>/dev/sda</filename> corresponded to the first SCSI drive, <filename>/dev/sdb</filename> being the second, etc. Since Debian <emphasis role=\"distribution\">Squeeze</emphasis>, this naming scheme has been unified by the Linux kernel, and all hard drives (IDE/PATA, SATA, SCSI, USB, IEEE 1394) are now represented by <filename>/dev/sd*</filename>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Each partition is represented by its number on the disk on which it resides: for instance, <filename>/dev/sda1</filename> is the first partition on the first disk, and <filename>/dev/sdb3</filename> is the third partition on the second disk."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The PC architecture (or “i386”) is limited to four “primary” partitions per disk. To go beyond this limitation, one of them must be created as an “extended” partition, and it can then contain additional “secondary” partitions. These secondary partitions must be numbered from 5. Thus the first secondary partition could be <filename>/dev/sda5</filename>, followed by <filename>/dev/sda6</filename>, etc."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>partition</primary><secondary>primary</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>partition</primary><secondary>extended</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>partition</primary><secondary>secondary</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "It is not always easy to remember what disk is connected to which SATA controller, or in third position in the SCSI chain, especially since the naming of hotplugged hard drives (which includes among others most SATA disks and external disks) can change from one boot to another. Fortunately, <command>udev</command> creates, in addition to <filename>/dev/sd*</filename>, symbolic links with a fixed name, which you could then use if you wished to identify a hard drive in a non-ambiguous manner. These symbolic links are stored in <filename>/dev/disk/by-id</filename>. On a machine with two physical disks, for example, one could find the following:"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: screen
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"mirexpress:/dev/disk/by-id# <computeroutput></computeroutput><userinput>ls -l</userinput><computeroutput>\n"
"total 0\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  9 23 jul. 08:58 ata-STM3500418AS_9VM3L3KP -&gt; ../../sda\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 ata-STM3500418AS_9VM3L3KP-part1 -&gt; ../../sda1\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 ata-STM3500418AS_9VM3L3KP-part2 -&gt; ../../sda2\n"
"[...]\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  9 23 jul. 08:58 ata-WDC_WD5001AALS-00L3B2_WD-WCAT00241697 -&gt; ../../sdb\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 ata-WDC_WD5001AALS-00L3B2_WD-WCAT00241697-part1 -&gt; ../../sdb1\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 ata-WDC_WD5001AALS-00L3B2_WD-WCAT00241697-part2 -&gt; ../../sdb2\n"
"[...]\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  9 23 jul. 08:58 scsi-SATA_STM3500418AS_9VM3L3KP -&gt; ../../sda\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 scsi-SATA_STM3500418AS_9VM3L3KP-part1 -&gt; ../../sda1\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 scsi-SATA_STM3500418AS_9VM3L3KP-part2 -&gt; ../../sda2\n"
"[...]\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  9 23 jul. 08:58 scsi-SATA_WDC_WD5001AALS-_WD-WCAT00241697 -&gt; ../../sdb\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 scsi-SATA_WDC_WD5001AALS-_WD-WCAT00241697-part1 -&gt; ../../sdb1\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 scsi-SATA_WDC_WD5001AALS-_WD-WCAT00241697-part2 -&gt; ../../sdb2\n"
"[...]\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  9 23 jul. 16:48 usb-LaCie_iamaKey_3ed00e26ccc11a-0:0 -&gt; ../../sdc\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 16:48 usb-LaCie_iamaKey_3ed00e26ccc11a-0:0-part1 -&gt; ../../sdc1\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 16:48 usb-LaCie_iamaKey_3ed00e26ccc11a-0:0-part2 -&gt; ../../sdc2\n"
"[...]\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  9 23 jul. 08:58 wwn-0x5000c50015c4842f -&gt; ../../sda\n"
"lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 wwn-0x5000c50015c4842f-part1 -&gt; ../../sda1\n"
"[...]\n"
"mirexpress:/dev/disk/by-id# </computeroutput>\n"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Note that some disks are listed several times (because they behave simultaneously as ATA disks and SCSI disks), but the relevant information is mainly in the model and serial numbers of the disks, from which you can find the peripheral file."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The example configuration files given in the following sections are based on the same setup: a single SATA disk, where the first partition is an old Windows installation and the second contains Debian GNU/Linux."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Configuring LILO"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>LILO</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>Linux Loader</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>LILO</emphasis> (LInux LOader) is the oldest bootloader — solid but rustic. It writes the physical address of the kernel to boot on the MBR, which is why each update to LILO (or its configuration file) must be followed by the command <command>lilo</command>. Forgetting to do so will render a system unable to boot if the old kernel was removed or replaced as the new one will not be in the same location on the disk."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "LILO's configuration file is <filename>/etc/lilo.conf</filename>; a simple file for standard configuration is illustrated in the example below."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "LILO configuration file"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: programlisting
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"\n"
"# The disk on which LILO should be installed.\n"
"# By indicating the disk and not a partition.\n"
"# you order LILO to be installed on the MBR.\n"
"boot=/dev/sda\n"
"# the partition that contains Debian\n"
"root=/dev/sda2\n"
"# the item to be loaded by default\n"
"default=Linux\n"
"\n"
"# the most recent kernel image\n"
"image=/vmlinuz\n"
"  label=Linux\n"
"  initrd=/initrd.img\n"
"  read-only\n"
"\n"
"# Old kernel (if the newly installed kernel doesn't boot)\n"
"image=/vmlinuz.old\n"
"  label=LinuxOLD\n"
"  initrd=/initrd.img.old\n"
"  read-only\n"
"  optional\n"
"\n"
"# only for Linux/Windows dual boot\n"
"other=/dev/sda1\n"
"  label=Windows\n"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "GRUB 2 Configuration"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>GRUB</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>GRUB 2</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>GRUB</emphasis> (GRand Unified Bootloader) is more recent. It is not necessary to invoke it after each update of the kernel; <emphasis>GRUB</emphasis> knows how to read the filesystems and find the position of the kernel on the disk by itself. To install it on the MBR of the first disk, simply type <command>grub-install /dev/sda</command>. <indexterm><primary><command>grub-install</command></primary></indexterm>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>NOTE</emphasis> Disk names for GRUB"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "GRUB can only identify hard drives based on information provided by the BIOS. <literal>(hd0)</literal> corresponds to the first disk thus detected, <literal>(hd1)</literal> the second, etc. In most cases, this order corresponds exactly to the usual order of disks under Linux, but problems can occur when you associate SCSI and IDE disks. GRUB stores correspondences that it detects in the file <filename>/boot/grub/device.map</filename>. If you find errors there (because you know that your BIOS detects drives in a different order), correct them manually and run <command>grub-install</command> again."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Partitions also have a specific name in GRUB. When you use “classical” partitions in MS-DOS format, the first partition on the first disk is labeled, <literal>(hd0,msdos1)</literal>, the second <literal>(hd0,msdos2)</literal>, etc."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "GRUB 2 configuration is stored in <filename>/boot/grub/grub.cfg</filename>, but this file (in Debian) is generated from others. Be careful not to modify it by hand, since such local modifications will be lost the next time <command>update-grub</command> is run (which may occur upon update of various packages). The most common modifications of the <filename>/boot/grub/grub.cfg</filename> file (to add command line parameters to the kernel or change the duration that the menu is displayed, for example) are made through the variables in <filename>/etc/default/grub</filename>. To add entries to the menu, you can either create a <filename>/boot/grub/custom.cfg</filename> file or modify the <filename>/etc/grub.d/50_custom</filename> file. For more complex configurations, you can modify other files in <filename>/etc/grub.d</filename>, or add to them; these scripts should return configuration snippets, possibly by making use of external programs. These scripts are the ones that will update the list of kernels to boot: <filename>10_linux</filename> takes into consideration the installed Linux kernels; <filename>20_linux_xen</filename> takes into account Xen virtual systems, and <filename>30_os-prober</filename> lists other operating systems (Windows, Mac OSX, Hurd)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "For Macintosh Computers (PowerPC): Configuring Yaboot"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>yaboot</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Yaboot is the bootloader used by old Macintosh computers using PowerPC processors. They do not boot like PCs, but rely on a “bootstrap” partition, from which the BIOS (or OpenFirmware) executes the loader, and on which the <command>ybin</command> program installs <command>yaboot</command> and its configuration file. You will only need to run this command again if the <filename>/etc/yaboot.conf</filename> is modified (it is duplicated on the bootstrap partition, and <command>yaboot</command> knows how to find the position of the kernels on the disks)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Before executing <command>ybin</command>, you must first have a valid <filename>/etc/yaboot.conf</filename>. The following is an example of a minimal configuration. <indexterm><primary><command>ybin</command></primary></indexterm>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Yaboot configuration file"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: programlisting
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"\n"
"# bootstrap partition\n"
"boot=/dev/sda2\n"
"# the disk\n"
"device=hd:\n"
"# the Linux partition\n"
"partition=3\n"
"root=/dev/sda3\n"
"# boot after 3 seconds of inactivity\n"
"# (timeout is in tenths of seconds)\n"
"timeout=30\n"
"\n"
"install=/usr/lib/yaboot/yaboot\n"
"magicboot=/usr/lib/yaboot/ofboot\n"
"enablecdboot\n"
"\n"
"# last kernel installed\n"
"image=/vmlinux\n"
"        label=linux\n"
"        initrd=/initrd.img\n"
"        read-only\n"
"\n"
"# old kernel\n"
"image=/vmlinux.old\n"
"        label=old\n"
"        initrd=/initrd.img.old\n"
"        read-only\n"
"\n"
"# only for Linux/Mac OSX dual-boot\n"
"macosx=/dev/sda5\n"
"\n"
"# bsd=/dev/sdaX and macos=/dev/sdaX\n"
"# are also possible\n"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Other Configurations: Time Synchronization, Logs, Sharing Access…"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The many elements listed in this section are good to know for anyone who wants to master all aspects of configuration of the GNU/Linux system. They are, however, treated briefly and frequently refer to the documentation."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Timezone"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>timezone</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> Symbolic links"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>link</primary><secondary>symbolic</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>symbolic link</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>ln</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "A symbolic link is a pointer to another file. When you access it, the file to which it points is opened. Removal of the link will not cause deletion of the file to which it points. Likewise, it does not have its own set of permissions, but rather retains the permissions of its target. Finally, it can point to any type of file: directories, special files (sockets, named pipes, device files, etc.), even other symbolic links."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <command>ln -s <replaceable>target</replaceable> <replaceable>link-name</replaceable></command> command creates a symbolic link, named <replaceable>link-name</replaceable>, pointing to <replaceable>target</replaceable>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "If the target does not exist, then the link is “broken” and accessing it will result in an error indicating that the target file does not exist. If the link points to another link, you will have a “chain” of links that turns into a “cycle” if one of the targets points to one of its predecessors. In this case, accessing one of the links in the cycle will result in a specific error (“too many levels of symbolic links”); this means the kernel gave up after several rounds of the cycle."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The timezone, configured during initial installation, is a configuration item for the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">tzdata</emphasis> package. To modify it, use the <command>dpkg-reconfigure tzdata</command> command, which allows you to choose the timezone to be used in an interactive manner. Its configuration is stored in the <filename>/etc/timezone</filename> file. Additionally, the corresponding file in the <filename>/usr/share/zoneinfo</filename> directory is copied in <filename>/etc/localtime</filename>; this file contains the rules governing the dates where daylight saving time is active, for countries that use it."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>timezone</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>/etc/timezone</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>zoneinfo</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>/usr/share/zoneinfo/</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>DST</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>daylight saving time</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "When you need to temporarily change the timezone, use the <varname>TZ</varname> environment variable, which takes priority over the configured system default:"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><varname>TZ</varname></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: screen
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"\n"
"<computeroutput>$ </computeroutput><userinput>date</userinput>\n"
"<computeroutput>Wed Mar 28 15:51:19 CEST 2012</computeroutput>\n"
"<computeroutput>$ </computeroutput><userinput>TZ=\"Pacific/Honolulu\" date</userinput>\n"
"<computeroutput>Wed Mar 28 03:51:21 HST 2012</computeroutput>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>NOTE</emphasis> System clock, hardware clock"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "There are two time sources in a computer. A computer's motherboard has a hardware clock, called the “CMOS clock”. This clock is not very precise, and provides rather slow access times. The operating system kernel has its own, the software clock, which it keeps up to date with its own means (possibly with the help of time servers, see the “Time Synchronization” section). This system clock is generally more accurate, especially since it doesn't need access to hardware variables. However, since it only exists in live memory, it is zeroed out every time the machine is booted, contrary to the CMOS clock, which has a battery and therefore “survives” rebooting or halting of the machine. The system clock is, thus, set from the CMOS clock during boot, and the CMOS clock is updated on shutdown (to take into account possible changes or corrections if it has been improperly adjusted)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "In practice, there is a problem, since the CMOS clock is nothing more than a counter and contains no information regarding the time zone. There is a choice to make regarding its interpretation: either the system considers it runs in universal time (UTC, formerly GMT), or in local time. This choice could be a simple shift, but things are actually more complicated: as a result of daylight saving time, this offset is not constant. The result is that the system has no way to determine whether the offset is correct, especially around periods of time change. Since it is always possible to reconstruct local time from universal time and the timezone information, we strongly recommend using the CMOS clock in universal time."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Unfortunately, Windows systems in their default configuration ignore this recommendation; they keep the CMOS clock on local time, applying time changes when booting the computer by trying to guess during time changes if the change has already been applied or not. This works relatively well, as long as the system has only Windows running on it. But when a computer has several systems (whether it be a “dual-boot” configuration or running other systems via virtual machine), chaos ensues, with no means to determine if the time is correct. If you absolutely must retain Windows on a computer, you should either configure it to keep the CMOS clock as UTC (setting the registry key <literal>HKLM\\SYSTEM\\CurrentControlSet\\Control\\TimeZoneInformation\\RealTimeIsUniversal</literal> to “1” as a DWORD), or use <command>hwclock --localtime --set</command> on the Debian system to set the hardware clock and mark it as tracking the local time (and make sure to manually check your clock in spring and autumn)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Time Synchronization"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>time synchronization</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>clock</primary><secondary>synchronization</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Time synchronization, which may seem superfluous on a computer, is very important on a network. Since users do not have permissions allowing them to modify the date and time, it is important for this information to be precise to prevent confusion. Furthermore, having all of the computers on a network synchronized allows better cross-referencing of information from logs on different machines. Thus, in the event of an attack, it is easier to reconstruct the chronological sequence of actions on the various machines involved in the compromise. Data collected on several machines for statistical purposes won't make a great deal of sense if they are not synchronized."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> NTP"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>NTP</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>Network</primary><secondary>Time Protocol</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "NTP (Network Time Protocol) allows a machine to synchronize with others fairly accurately, taking into consideration the delays induced by the transfer of information over the network and other possible offsets."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "While there are numerous NTP servers on the Internet, the more popular ones may be overloaded. This is why we recommend using the <emphasis>pool.ntp.org</emphasis> NTP server, which is, in reality, a group of machines that have agreed to serve as public NTP servers. You could even limit use to a sub-group specific to a country, with, for example, <emphasis>us.pool.ntp.org</emphasis> for the United States, or <emphasis>ca.pool.ntp.org</emphasis> for Canada, etc."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "However, if you manage a large network, it is recommended that you install your own NTP server, which will synchronize with the public servers. In this case, all the other machines on your network can use your internal NTP server instead of increasing the load on the public servers. You will also increase homogeneity with your clocks, since all the machines will be synchronized on the same source, and this source is very close in terms of network transfer times."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "For Workstations"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Since work stations are regularly rebooted (even if only to save energy), synchronizing them by NTP at boot is enough. To do so, simply install the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">ntpdate</emphasis> package. You can change the NTP server used if needed by modifying the <filename>/etc/default/ntpdate</filename> file."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>ntpdate</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>/etc/default/ntpdate</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "For Servers"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Servers are only rarely rebooted, and it is very important for their system time to be correct. To permanently maintain correct time, you would install a local NTP server, a service offered in the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">ntp</emphasis> package. In its default configuration, the server will synchronize with <emphasis>pool.ntp.org</emphasis> and provide time in response to requests coming from the local network. You can configure it by editing the <filename>/etc/ntp.conf</filename> file, the most significant alteration being the NTP server to which it refers. If the network has a lot of servers, it may be interesting to have one local time server which synchronizes with the public servers and is used as a time source by the other servers of the network."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><emphasis role=\"pkg\">ntp</emphasis></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>server</primary><secondary>NTP</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>NTP</primary><secondary>server</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>GOING FURTHER</emphasis> GPS modules and other time sources"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>GPS</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>DCF-77</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "If time synchronization is particularly crucial to your network, it is possible to equip a server with a GPS module (which will use the time from GPS satellites) or a DCF-77 module (which will sync time with the atomic clock near Frankfurt, Germany). In this case, the configuration of the NTP server is a little more complicated, and prior consultation of the documentation is an absolute necessity."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Rotating Log Files"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>file</primary><secondary>logs, rotation</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>logs</primary><secondary>files, rotation</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>rotation of log files</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>logrotate</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Log files can grow, fast, and it is necessary to archive them. The most common scheme is a rotating archive: the log file is regularly archived, and only the latest <replaceable>X</replaceable> archives are retained. <command>logrotate</command>, the program responsible for these rotations, follows directives given in the <filename>/etc/logrotate.conf</filename> file and all of the files in the <filename>/etc/logrotate.d/</filename> directory. The administrator may modify these files, if they wish to adapt the log rotation policy defined by Debian. The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>logrotate</refentrytitle> <manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> man page describes all of the options available in these configuration files. You may want to increase the number of files retained in log rotation, or move the log files to a specific directory dedicated to archiving them rather than delete them. You could also send them by e-mail to archive them elsewhere."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <command>logrotate</command> program is executed daily by the <command>cron</command> scheduling program (described in <xref linkend=\"sect.task-scheduling-cron-atd\" />)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Sharing Administrator Rights"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>account</primary><secondary>administrator account</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>root</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>sudo</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Frequently, several administrators work on the same network. Sharing the root passwords is not very elegant, and opens the door for abuse due to the anonymity such sharing creates. The solution to this problem is the <command>sudo</command> program, which allows certain users to execute certain commands with special rights. In the most common use case, <command>sudo</command> allows a trusted user to execute any command as root. To do so, the user simply executes <command>sudo <replaceable>command</replaceable></command> and authenticates using their personal password."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "When installed, the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">sudo</emphasis> package gives full root rights to members of the <literal>sudo</literal> Unix group. To delegate other rights, the administrator must use the <command>visudo</command> command, which allows them to modify the <filename>/etc/sudoers</filename> configuration file (here again, this will invoke the <command>vi</command> editor, or any other editor indicated in the <varname>EDITOR</varname> environment variable). Adding a line with <literal><replaceable>username</replaceable> ALL=(ALL) ALL</literal> allows the user in question to execute any command as root."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>visudo</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>sudoers</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>/etc/sudoers</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "More sophisticated configurations allow authorization of only specific commands to specific users. All the details of the various possibilities are given in the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sudoers</refentrytitle> <manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> man page."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "List of Mount Points"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>point, mount</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>mount point</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> Mounting and unmounting"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "In a Unix-like system such as Debian, files are organized in a single tree-like hierarchy of directories. The <filename>/</filename> directory is called the “root directory”; all additional directories are sub-directories within this root. “Mounting” is the action of including the content of a peripheral device (often a hard drive) into the system's general file tree. As a consequence, if you use a separate hard drive to store users' personal data, this disk will have to be “mounted” in the <filename>/home/</filename> directory. The root filesystem is always mounted at boot by the kernel; other devices are often mounted later during the startup sequence or manually with the <command>mount</command> command."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>mount</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Some removable devices are automatically mounted when connected, especially when using the GNOME, KDE or other graphical desktop environments. Others have to be mounted manually by the user. Likewise, they must be unmounted (removed from the file tree). Normal users do not usually have permission to execute the <command>mount</command> and <command>umount</command> commands. The administrator can, however, authorize these operations (independently for each mount point) by including the <literal>user</literal> option in the <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> file."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <command>mount</command> command can be used without arguments (it then lists all mounted filesystems). The following parameters are required to mount or unmount a device. For the complete list, please refer to the corresponding man pages, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle> <manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>umount</refentrytitle> <manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>. For simple cases, the syntax is simple too: for example, to mount the <filename>/dev/sdc1</filename> partition, which has an ext3 filesystem, into the <filename>/mnt/tmp/</filename> directory, you would simply run <command>mount -t ext3 /dev/sdc1 /mnt/tmp/</command>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> file gives a list of all possible mounts that happen either automatically on boot or manually for removable storage devices. Each mount point is described by a line with several space-separated fields: <indexterm><primary><filename>fstab</filename></primary></indexterm> <indexterm><primary><filename>/etc/fstab</filename></primary></indexterm>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "device to mount: this can be a local partition (hard drive, CD-ROM) or a remote filesystem (such as NFS)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "This field is frequently replaced with the unique ID of the filesystem (which you can determine with <command>blkid <userinput>device</userinput></command>) prefixed with <literal>UUID=</literal>. This guards against a change in the name of the device in the event of addition or removal of disks, or if disks are detected in a different order."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "mount point: this is the location on the local filesystem where the device, remote system, or partition will be mounted."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "type: this field defines the filesystem used on the mounted device. <literal>ext4</literal>, <literal>ext3</literal>, <literal>vfat</literal>, <literal>ntfs</literal>, <literal>btrfs</literal>, <literal>xfs</literal> are a few examples."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> NFS, a network filesystem"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "NFS is a network filesystem; under Linux, it allows transparent access to remote files by including them in the local filesystem."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "A complete list of known filesystems is available in the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle> <manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> man page. The <literal>swap</literal> special value is for swap partitions; the <literal>auto</literal> special value tells the <command>mount</command> program to automatically detect the filesystem (which is especially useful for disk readers and USB keys, since each one might have a different filesystem);"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "options: there are many of them, depending on the filesystem, and they are documented in the <command>mount</command> man page. The most common are"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<literal>rw</literal> or <literal>ro</literal>, meaning, respectively, that the device will be mounted with read/write or read-only permissions."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<literal>noauto</literal> deactivates automatic mounting on boot."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<literal>user</literal> authorizes all users to mount this filesystem (an operation which would otherwise be restricted to the root user)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<literal>defaults</literal> means the group of default options: <literal>rw</literal>, <literal>suid</literal>, <literal>dev</literal>, <literal>exec</literal>, <literal>auto</literal>, <literal>nouser</literal> and <literal>async</literal>, each of which can be individually disabled after <literal>defaults</literal> by adding <literal>nosuid</literal>, <literal>nodev</literal> and so on to block <literal>suid</literal>, <literal>dev</literal> and so on. Adding the <literal>user</literal> option reactivates it, since <literal>defaults</literal> includes <literal>nouser</literal>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "backup: this field is almost always set to <literal>0</literal>. When it is <literal>1</literal>, it tells the <command>dump</command> tool that the partition contains data that is to be backed up."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "check order: this last field indicates whether the integrity of the filesystem should be checked on boot, and in which order this check should be executed. If it is <literal>0</literal>, no check is conducted. The root filesystem should have the value <literal>1</literal>, while other permanent filesystems get the value <literal>2</literal>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Example <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> file:"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: programlisting
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"\n"
"# /etc/fstab: static file system information.\n"
"#\n"
"# &lt;file system&gt; &lt;mount point&gt;   &lt;type&gt;  &lt;options&gt;       &lt;dump&gt;  &lt;pass&gt;\n"
"proc            /proc           proc    defaults        0       0\n"
"# / was on /dev/sda1 during installation\n"
"UUID=c964222e-6af1-4985-be04-19d7c764d0a7 / ext3 errors=remount-ro 0 1\n"
"# swap was on /dev/sda5 during installation\n"
"UUID=ee880013-0f63-4251-b5c6-b771f53bd90e none swap sw  0       0\n"
"/dev/scd0       /media/cdrom0   udf,iso9660 user,noauto 0       0\n"
"/dev/fd0        /media/floppy   auto    rw,user,noauto  0       0\n"
"arrakis:/shared /shared         nfs     defaults        0       0\n"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The last entry in this example corresponds to a network filesystem (NFS): the <filename>/shared/</filename> directory on the <emphasis>arrakis</emphasis> server is mounted at <filename>/shared/</filename> on the local machine. The format of the <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> file is documented on the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fstab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> man page."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>GOING FURTHER</emphasis> Auto-mounting"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <emphasis>am-utils</emphasis> package provides the <command>amd</command> auto-mounting utility, able to mount removable media on demand when a user attempts to access their usual mount point. It will unmount these devices when no process is accessing them any longer."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><emphasis>am-utils</emphasis></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>amd</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>automount</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><emphasis>autofs</emphasis></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>automounter</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Other auto-mounting utilities exist, such as <command>automount</command> in the <emphasis>autofs</emphasis> package."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Note also that GNOME, KDE, and other graphical desktop environments work together with <emphasis>udisks</emphasis>, and can automatically mount removable media when they are connected."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<command>locate</command> and <command>updatedb</command>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>locate</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>updatedb</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>mlocate</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <command>locate</command> command can find the location of a file when you only know part of the name. It sends a result almost instantaneously, since it consults a database that stores the location of all the files on the system; this database is updated daily by the <command>updatedb</command> command. There are multiple implementations of the <command>locate</command> command and Debian picked <emphasis role=\"pkg\">mlocate</emphasis> for its standard system."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<command>mlocate</command> is smart enough to only return files which are accessible to the user running the command even though it uses a database that knows about all files on the system (since its <command>updatedb</command> implementation runs with root rights). For extra safety, the administrator can use <varname>PRUNEDPATHS</varname> in <filename>/etc/updatedb.conf</filename> to exclude some directories from being indexed."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Compiling a Kernel"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>compilation</primary><secondary>of a kernel</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>kernel</primary><secondary>compilation</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The kernels provided by Debian include the largest possible number of features, as well as the maximum of drivers, in order to cover the broadest spectrum of existing hardware configurations. This is why some users prefer to recompile the kernel in order to only include what they specifically need. There are two reasons for this choice. First, it may be to optimize memory consumption, since the kernel code, even if it is never used, occupies memory for nothing (and never “goes down” on the swap space, since it is actual RAM that it uses), which can decrease overall system performance. A locally compiled kernel can also limit the risk of security problems since only a fraction of the kernel code is compiled and run."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>NOTE</emphasis> Security updates"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "If you choose to compile your own kernel, you must accept the consequences: Debian cannot ensure security updates for your custom kernel. By keeping the kernel provided by Debian, you benefit from updates prepared by the Debian Project's security team."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Recompilation of the kernel is also necessary if you want to use certain features that are only available as patches (and not included in the standard kernel version)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>GOING FURTHER</emphasis> The Debian Kernel Handbook"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><emphasis role=\"pkg\">debian-kernel-handbook</emphasis></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The Debian kernel teams maintains the “Debian Kernel Handbook” (also available in the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">debian-kernel-handbook</emphasis> package) with comprehensive documentation about most kernel related tasks and about how official Debian kernel packages are handled. This is the first place you should look into if you need more information than what is provided in this section. <ulink type=\"block\" url=\"http://kernel-handbook.alioth.debian.org\" />"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Introduction and Prerequisites"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Unsurprisingly Debian manages the kernel in the form of a package, which is not how kernels have traditionally been compiled and installed. Since the kernel remains under the control of the packaging system, it can then be removed cleanly, or deployed on several machines. Furthermore, the scripts associated with these packages automate the interaction with the bootloader and the initrd generator."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The upstream Linux sources contain everything needed to build a Debian package of the kernel. But you still need to install <emphasis role=\"pkg\">build-essential</emphasis> to ensure that you have the tools required to build a Debian package. Furthermore, the configuration step for the kernel requires the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">libncurses5-dev</emphasis> package. Finally, the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">fakeroot</emphasis> package will enable creation of the Debian package without using administrator's rights."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>CULTURE</emphasis> The good old days of <emphasis role=\"pkg\">kernel-package</emphasis>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><emphasis role=\"pkg\">kernel-package</emphasis></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Before the Linux build system gained the ability to build proper Debian packages, the recommended way to build such packages was to use <command>make-kpkg</command> from the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">kernel-package</emphasis> package."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Getting the Sources"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>Linux kernel sources</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>kernel</primary><secondary>sources</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>source</primary><secondary>of the Linux kernel</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Like anything that can be useful on a Debian system, the Linux kernel sources are available in a package. To retrieve them, just install the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">linux-source-<replaceable>version</replaceable></emphasis> package. The <command>apt-cache search ^linux-source</command> command lists the various kernel versions packaged by Debian. The latest version is available in the <emphasis role=\"distribution\">Unstable</emphasis> distribution: you can retrieve them without much risk (especially if your APT is configured according to the instructions of <xref linkend=\"sect.apt-mix-distros\" />). Note that the source code contained in these packages does not correspond precisely with that published by Linus Torvalds and the kernel developers; like all distributions, Debian applies a number of patches, which might (or might not) find their way into the upstream version of Linux. These modifications include backports of fixes/features/drivers from newer kernel versions, new features not yet (entirely) merged in the upstream Linux tree, and sometimes even Debian specific changes."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The remainder of this section focuses on the 3.2 version of the Linux kernel, but the examples can, of course, be adapted to the particular version of the kernel that you want."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "We assume the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">linux-source-3.2</emphasis> package has been installed. It contains <filename>/usr/src/linux-source-3.2.tar.bz2</filename>, a compressed archive of the kernel sources. You must extract these files in a new directory (not directly under <filename>/usr/src/</filename>, since there is no need for special permissions to compile a Linux kernel): <filename>~/kernel/</filename> is appropriate."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: screen
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"\n"
"<computeroutput>$ </computeroutput><userinput>mkdir ~/kernel; cd ~/kernel</userinput>\n"
"<computeroutput>$ </computeroutput><userinput>tar -xjf /usr/src/linux-source-3.2.tar.bz2</userinput>\n"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>CULTURE</emphasis> Location of kernel sources"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Traditionally, Linux kernel sources would be placed in <filename>/usr/src/linux/</filename> thus requiring root permissions for compilation. However, working with administrator rights should be avoided when not needed. There is a <literal>src</literal> group that allows members to work in this directory, but working in <filename>/usr/src/</filename> should be avoided nevertheless. By keeping the kernel sources in a personal directory, you get security on all counts: no files in <filename>/usr/</filename> unknown to the packaging system, and no risk of misleading programs that read <filename>/usr/src/linux</filename> when trying to gather information on the used kernel."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Configuring the Kernel"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>kernel</primary><secondary>configuration</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>configuration</primary><secondary>of the kernel</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>.config</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The next step consists of configuring the kernel according to your needs. The exact procedure depends on the goals."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "When recompiling a more recent version of the kernel (possibly with an additional patch), the configuration will most likely be kept as close as possible to that proposed by Debian. In this case, and rather than reconfiguring everything from scratch, it is sufficient to copy the <filename>/boot/config-<replaceable>version</replaceable></filename> file (the version is that of the kernel currently used, which can be found with the <command>uname -r</command> command) into a <filename>.config</filename> file in the directory containing the kernel sources."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: screen
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"\n"
"<computeroutput>$ </computeroutput><userinput>cp /boot/config-3.2.0-4-amd64 ~/kernel/linux-source-3.2/.config</userinput>\n"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Unless you need to change the configuration, you can stop here and skip to the next section. If you need to change it, on the other hand, or if you decide to reconfigure everything from scratch, you must take the time to configure your kernel. There are various dedicated interfaces in the kernel source directory that can be used by calling the <command>make <replaceable>target</replaceable></command> command, where <replaceable>target</replaceable> is one of the values described below."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "<command>make menuconfig</command> compiles and executes a text-mode interface (this is where the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">libncurses5-dev</emphasis> package is required) which allows navigating the options available in a hierarchical structure. Pressing the <keycap>Space</keycap> key changes the value of the selected option, and <keycap>Enter</keycap> validates the button selected at the bottom of the screen; <guibutton>Select</guibutton> returns to the selected sub-menu; <guibutton>Exit</guibutton> closes the current screen and move back up in the hierarchy; <guibutton>Help</guibutton> will display more detailed information on the role of the selected option. The arrow keys allow moving within the list of options and buttons. To exit the configuration program, choose <guibutton>Exit</guibutton> from the main menu. The program then offers to save the changes you've made; accept if you are satisfied with your choices."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Other interfaces have similar features, but they work within more modern graphical interfaces; such as <command>make xconfig</command> which uses a Qt graphical interface, and <command>make gconfig</command> which uses GTK+. The former requires <emphasis role=\"pkg\">libqt4-dev</emphasis>, while the latter depends on <emphasis role=\"pkg\">libglade2-dev</emphasis> and <emphasis role=\"pkg\">libgtk2.0-dev</emphasis>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "When using one of those configuration interfaces, it's always a good idea to start from a reasonable default configuration. The kernel provides such configurations in <filename>arch/<replaceable>arch</replaceable>/configs/*_defconfig</filename> and you can put your selected configuration in place with a command like <command>make x86_64_defconfig</command> (in the case of a 64-bit PC) or <command>make i386_defconfig</command> (in the case of a 32-bit PC)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>TIP</emphasis> Dealing with outdated <filename>.config</filename> files"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "When you provide a <filename>.config</filename> file that has been generated with another (usually older) kernel version, you will have to update it. You can do so with <command>make oldconfig</command>, it will interactively ask you the questions corresponding to the new configuration options. If you want to use the default answer to all those questions you can use <command>make olddefconfig</command>. With <command>make oldnoconfig</command>, it will assume a negative answer to all questions."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Compiling and Building the Package"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>make deb-pkg</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>NOTE</emphasis> Clean up before rebuilding"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "If you have already compiled once in the directory and wish to rebuild everything from scratch (for example because you substantially changed the kernel configuration), you will have to run <command>make clean</command> to remove the compiled files. <command>make distclean</command> removes even more generated files, including your <filename>.config</filename> file too, so make sure to backup it first."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Once the kernel configuration is ready, a simple <command>make deb-pkg</command> will generate up to 5 Debian packages: <emphasis role=\"pkg\">linux-image-<replaceable>version</replaceable></emphasis> that contains the kernel image and the associated modules, <emphasis role=\"pkg\">linux-headers-<replaceable>version</replaceable></emphasis> which contains the header files required to build external modules, <emphasis role=\"pkg\">linux-firmware-image-<replaceable>version</replaceable></emphasis> which contains the firmware files needed by some drivers, <emphasis role=\"pkg\">linux-image-<replaceable>version</replaceable>-dbg</emphasis> which contains the debugging symbols for the kernel image and its modules, and <emphasis role=\"pkg\">linux-libc-dev</emphasis> which contains headers relevant to some user space libraries like GNU glibc."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The <replaceable>version</replaceable> is defined by the concatenation of the upstream version (as defined by the variables <literal>VERSION</literal>, <literal>PATCHLEVEL</literal>, <literal>SUBLEVEL</literal> and <literal>EXTRAVERSION</literal> in the <filename>Makefile</filename>), of the <literal>LOCALVERSION</literal> configuration parameter, and of the <literal>LOCALVERSION</literal> environment variable. The package version reuses the same version string with an appended revision that is regularly incremented (and stored in <filename>.version</filename>), except if you override it with the <literal>KDEB_PKGVERSION</literal> environment variable."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: screen
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"\n"
"<computeroutput>$ </computeroutput><userinput>make deb-pkg LOCALVERSION=-falcot KDEB_PKGVERSION=1</userinput>\n"
"[...]\n"
"<computeroutput>$ </computeroutput><userinput>ls ../*.deb</userinput>\n"
"<computeroutput>../linux-firmware-image-3.2.46-falcot_1_amd64.deb\n"
"../linux-headers-3.2.46-falcot_1_amd64.deb\n"
"../linux-image-3.2.46-falcot_1_amd64.deb\n"
"../linux-image-3.2.46-falcot-dbg_1_amd64.deb\n"
"../linux-libc-dev_1_amd64.deb\n"
"</computeroutput>\n"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Compiling External Modules"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>kernel</primary><secondary>external modules</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>modules</primary><secondary>external kernel modules</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><command>dkms</command></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Some modules are maintained outside of the official Linux kernel. To use them, they must be compiled alongside the matching kernel. A number of common third party modules are provided by Debian in dedicated packages, such as <emphasis role=\"pkg\">virtualbox-source</emphasis> (kernel support for the VirtualBox virtualization solution) or <emphasis role=\"pkg\">oss4-source</emphasis> (Open Sound System, some alternative audio drivers)."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "These external packages are many and varied and we won't list them all here; the <command>apt-cache search source$</command> command can narrow down the search field. However, a complete list isn't particularly useful since there is no particular reason for compiling external modules except when you know you need it. In such cases, the device's documentation will typically detail the specific module(s) it needs to function under Linux."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "For example, let's look at the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">virtualbox-source</emphasis> package: after installation, a <filename>.tar.bz2</filename> of the module's sources is stored in <filename>/usr/src/</filename>. While we could manually extract the tarball and build the module, in practice we prefer to automate all this using DKMS. Most modules offer the required DKMS integration in a package ending with a <literal>-dkms</literal> suffix. In our case, installing <emphasis role=\"pkg\">virtualbox-dkms</emphasis> is all that is needed to compile the kernel module for the current kernel provided that we have the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">linux-headers-*</emphasis> package matching the installed kernel. For instance, if you use <emphasis role=\"pkg\">linux-image-amd64</emphasis>, you would also install <emphasis role=\"pkg\">linux-headers-amd64</emphasis>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: screen
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"\n"
"<computeroutput>$ </computeroutput><userinput>sudo apt-get install virtualbox-dkms</userinput>\n"
"<computeroutput>\n"
"[...]\n"
"Loading new virtualbox-4.1.18 DKMS files...\n"
"First Installation: checking all kernels...\n"
"Building only for 3.2.0-4-amd64\n"
"Building initial module for 3.2.0-4-amd64\n"
"Done.\n"
"\n"
"vboxdrv:\n"
"Running module version sanity check.\n"
" - Original module\n"
"   - No original module exists within this kernel\n"
" - Installation\n"
"   - Installing to /lib/modules/3.2.0-4-amd64/updates/dkms/\n"
"[...]\n"
"DKMS: install completed.\n"
"$ </computeroutput><userinput>sudo dkms status</userinput>\n"
"<computeroutput>virtualbox, 4.1.18, 3.2.0-4-amd64, x86_64: installed\n"
"virtualbox-guest, 4.1.18, 3.2.0-4-amd64, x86_64: installed\n"
"$ </computeroutput><userinput>sudo modinfo vboxdrv</userinput>\n"
"<computeroutput>filename:       /lib/modules/3.2.0-4-amd64/updates/dkms/vboxdrv.ko\n"
"version:        4.1.18_Debian (0x00190000)\n"
"license:        GPL\n"
"description:    Oracle VM VirtualBox Support Driver\n"
"[...]\n"
"</computeroutput>\n"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "<emphasis>ALTERNATIVE</emphasis> module-assistant"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><emphasis role=\"pkg\">module-assistant</emphasis></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Before DKMS, <emphasis role=\"pkg\">module-assistant</emphasis> was the simplest solution to build and deploy kernel modules. It can still be used, in particular for packages lacking DKMS integration: with a simple command like <command>module-assistant auto-install virtualbox</command> (or <command>m-a a-i virtualbox</command> for short), the modules are compiled for the current kernel, put in a new Debian package, and that package gets installed on the fly."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Applying a Kernel Patch"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>kernel</primary><secondary>patch</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>patch of the kernel</primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Some features are not included in the standard kernel due to a lack of maturity or to some disagreement with the kernel maintainers. Such features may be distributed as patches that anyone is then free to apply to the kernel sources."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Debian distributes some of these patches in <emphasis role=\"pkg\">linux-patch-*</emphasis> or <emphasis role=\"pkg\">kernel-patch-*</emphasis> packages (for instance, <emphasis role=\"pkg\">linux-patch-grsecurity2</emphasis>, which tightens some of the kernel's security policies). These packages install files in the <filename>/usr/src/kernel-patches/</filename> directory."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "To apply one or more of these installed patches, use the <command>patch</command> command in the sources directory then start compilation of the kernel as described above."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: screen
#, no-c-format
msgid ""
"\n"
"<computeroutput>$ </computeroutput><userinput>cd ~/kernel/linux-source-3.2</userinput>\n"
"<computeroutput>$ </computeroutput><userinput>make clean</userinput>\n"
"<computeroutput>$ </computeroutput><userinput>zcat /usr/src/kernel-patches/diffs/grsecurity2/grsecurity-2.9.1-3.2.21-201206221855.patch.gz | patch -p1</userinput>\n"
"<computeroutput>$ </computeroutput><userinput>make deb-pkg LOCALVERSION=-grsec</userinput>\n"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Note that a given patch may not necessarily work with every version of the kernel; it is possible for <command>patch</command> to fail when applying them to kernel sources. An error message will be displayed and give some details about the failure; in this case, refer to the documentation available in the Debian package of the patch (in the <filename>/usr/share/doc/linux-patch-*/</filename> directory). In most cases, the maintainer indicates for which kernel versions their patch is intended."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Installing a Kernel"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>installation</primary><secondary>of a kernel</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary>kernel</primary><secondary>installation</secondary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Features of a Debian Kernel Package"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: indexterm
#, no-c-format
msgid "<primary><filename>vmlinuz</filename></primary>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "A Debian kernel package installs the kernel image (<filename>vmlinuz-<replaceable>version</replaceable></filename>), its configuration (<filename>config-<replaceable>version</replaceable></filename>) and its symbols table (<filename>System.map-<replaceable>version</replaceable></filename>) in <filename>/boot/</filename>. The symbols table helps developers understand the meaning of a kernel error message; without it, kernel “oopses” (an “oops” is the kernel equivalent of a segmentation fault for user space programs, in other words messages generated following an invalid pointer dereference) only contain numeric memory addresses, which is useless information without the table mapping these addresses to symbols and function names. The modules are installed in the <filename>/lib/modules/<replaceable>version</replaceable>/</filename> directory."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The package's configuration scripts automatically generate an initrd image, which is a mini-system designed to be loaded in memory (hence the name, which stands for “init ramdisk”) by the bootloader, and used by the Linux kernel solely for loading the modules needed to access the devices containing the complete Debian system (for example, the driver for IDE disks). Finally, the post-installation scripts update the symbolic links <filename>/vmlinuz</filename>, <filename>/vmlinuz.old</filename>, <filename>/initrd.img</filename> and <filename>/initrd.img.old</filename> so that they point to the latest two kernels installed, respectively, as well as the corresponding initrd images."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Most of those tasks are offloaded to hook scripts in the <filename>/etc/kernel/*.d/</filename> directories. For instance, the integration with <command>grub</command> relies on <filename>/etc/kernel/postinst.d/zz-update-grub</filename> and <filename>/etc/kernel/postrm.d/zz-update-grub</filename> to call <command>update-grub</command> when kernels are installed or removed."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: title
#, no-c-format
msgid "Installing with <command>dpkg</command>"
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "Using <command>apt-get</command> is so convenient that it makes it easy to forget about the lower-level tools, but the easiest way of installing a compiled kernel is to use a command such as <command>dpkg -i <replaceable>package</replaceable>.deb</command>, where <literal><replaceable>package</replaceable>.deb</literal> is the name of a <emphasis role=\"pkg\">linux-image</emphasis> package such as <filename>linux-image-3.2.48-falcot_1_amd64.deb</filename>."
msgstr ""

#. Tag: para
#, no-c-format
msgid "The configuration steps described in this chapter are basic and can lead both to a server system or a workstation, and it can be massively duplicated in semi-automated ways. However, it is not enough by itself to provide a fully configured system. A few pieces are still in need of configuration, starting with low-level programs known as the “Unix services”."
msgstr ""