Eelios is a programming language made, within approximately 2 weeks, for the ongoing (as of writing this) Repl.It's Programming Jam. (It got disqualified as I was the only one who was working on it and the jam required atleast a team of 2 people) It is a pretty basic imperative language with a gimmick.
This code generates a render of the Mandelbrot set.
[
getNumber <- | message: String | -> Number [
n <- 0,
valid <- false,
while valid = false do [
number <- input message,
if (isNumber number) & (toNumber number) > 0 then [
valid <- true,
n <- toNumber number
] else print "Please try again."
],
eval n
],
maxIterations <- getNumber("Please enter the maximum number of iterations."),
width <- getNumber("Please enter the width of the render."),
height <- getNumber("Please enter the height of the render."),
py <- 0,
while py < height do [
line <- "",
px <- 0,
yScaled <- py / height * 2 - 1,
while px < width do [
xScaled <- px / width * 3.5 - 2.5,
x <- 0,
y <- 0,
i <- 0,
while i < maxIterations & x ^ 2 + y ^ 2 <= 2 ^ 2 do [
xTemp <- x ^ 2 - y ^ 2 + xScaled,
y <- 2 * x * y + yScaled,
x <- xTemp,
i <- i + 1
],
part <- maxIterations / 8,
if i > part * 7 then [ line <- line + "@" ]
else if i > part * 6 then [ line <- line + "#" ]
else if i > part * 5 then [ line <- line + "O" ]
else if i > part * 4 then [ line <- line + "!" ]
else if i > part * 3 then [ line <- line + ";" ]
else if i > part * 2 then [ line <- line + ":" ]
else if i > part then [ line <- line + "," ]
else [ line <- line + "." ],
px <- px + 1
],
print line,
py <- py + 1
]
]
In virtually every language you can have arrays of numbers, strings, booleans etc, well in Eelios, you can also have arrays of instructions.
One of the instructions in Eelios is the print instruction, it prints text to the console.
print "Hi"
The above code would print Hi to the console
[
print "Hi",
print "Hello",
print "Hi There"
]
This is an array of instructions, you can index this array like any other and add elements to it like any other.
[
array <- [ print "Hi", print "Hello", print "Hi There" ],
array[1],
array[0],
array[2]
]
You might have noticed that the program itself is also an array of instructions, and yes, this is in-fact the case. I'll explain these concepts in more depth in the Documentation.
Eelios doesn't care about the styling of the code, so indentation, spacing and all that stuff are all purely for readability.
It's very basic. Simply, anything, until an EOL - End Of Line or EOF - End Of File, after a # is considered a comment and will be ignored by Eelios.
[
some, # This is a comment
# code, <- you can comment out lines of code
nice
]
Number, # A number (could be an integer or float)
String, # An array of characters (though there isn't a character data type and strings aren't internally represented using an array)
Boolean, # `true` or `false`
Instruction, # An Instruction
Array<DataType>, # An array of some data (every element in the array must have the same data type)
| <DataType>, <DataType> | -> <DataType>, # A function
( <DataType>, <DataType> ) => <DataType>, # A closure
Yeah.... That's basically it. Told you it's very basic...
1, 1.23, 2., .3 # Number literals (0 gets appended on the right and left side respectively for the last 2 literals, thus, 2.0, 0.3)
"Hi", "", "\"Hello World\"" # String literals (only double quotes can be used for string literals)
true, false # Boolean literals
"Told you it's very basic..."
+<Number>, -<Number> # Plus & Minus unary operators
<Number> ^ <Number> # Exponentiation binary operator
<Number> * <Number>, <Number> / <Number>, <Number> % <Number> # Multiplication, Division & Modulus binary operators
<T> + <T>, <Number> - <Number> # Addition & Subtraction binary operators (where T is Number | String)
<Number> < <Number>, <Number> > <Number>, <Number> <= <Number>, <Number> >= <Number> # Less Than, Greater Than, Less Than Or Equal & Greater Than Or Equal binary operators
<T> = <T>, <T> != <T> # Equal & Not Equal binary operators (where T is any data type other than Instruction or Array)
<Boolean> & <Boolean>, <Boolean> | <Number> # And & Or binary operators
All the operators are listed in the order of precedence, from highest to lowest. (So the plus & minus unary operators have the highest precedence)
This is the fun stuff... right, so any one instruction (any place where a single instruction is expected), in Eelios, can just be a single normal instruction or be an array of instructions or be an expression which evaluates to one of the former... A program in Eelios is just one instruction, however, since Eelios allows you to substitute any single instruction with an array of instructions, a program can, and most likely is, an array of instructions.
The code for executing a program is literally just executing one instruction...
Take the if instruction, for example, it has the following syntax, if <Boolean> then <instruction> else <instruction>. You can use this instruction like shown below.
if a > b then print a else print b
The if instruction expects just a single instruction after the then keyword and after the optional else keyword. However, because Eelios allows you to substitute any one instruction with an array of instructions the following is also equally valid code.
if a > b then [ print "The larger number", print a ] else [ print "The larger number", print b ]
Eelios also allows you to substitute in any expression which evaluates to a instruction, thus, you can also do the following.
[
thenBody <- [ print "The larger number", print a ],
elseBody <- | | -> Instruction [ eval [ print "The larger number", print b ] ],
if a > b then thenBody else elseBody()
]
The variable
elseBodyis a function which returns an array of instructions... Functions are explained in the next section
print <Any> # Prints the value of a single expression
print <Any> . <Any> # Prints the value of multiple expressions (the expressions are seperated by a `.`)
len <Array | String> # Returns the length of the array or string provided
input <optional String> # Gets input from the user and returns a string (the optional string is a prompt message)
toString <Any> # Converts the given value in to a string
toNumber <String> # Converts the given string in to a number
toBoolean <String> # Converts the given string in to a boolean
isNumber <String> # Returns true if the string is a valid number i.e. it can be converted to a number without any errors
isBoolean <String> # Returns true if the string is a valid boolean i.e. it can be converted to a boolean withoutt any errors
<variable> <- <Any> # Assigns the value that the expression evaluates to some variable
eval <Any> # Returns the value that the expression evaluates to the code which called the instruction, anything after the `eval` instruction will not be executed. (this behaves like the `return` keyword in literally every other language)
exec <Instruction> # Executes the instruction and evaluates to the value that the instruction returned (this is the only instruction which can and can only be used in an expression, you can actually call this an operator if you like :D, even though it's not implemented as one)
if <Boolean> then <Instruction> else <Instruction> # If the expression evaluates to `true` the first instruction will be executed, otherwise, if the second instruction exists, it will be executed
while <Boolean> do <Instruction> # The instruction will be executed repeatedly while the expression evaluates to `true`
ifandwhilestatements are scoped, so any new variables you create inside ofiforwhilestatements will be discarded
Because of how the eval instruction and exec instructions work, you can emulate the conditional (ternary) operator.
c <- exec if a > b then eval x else eval y
The exec instruction executes the if instruction and it executes the eval instruction which returns a value, that value is then assigned to c.
Something I find interesting is if..else if..else instructions, as, they doesn't exist in the language (weren't specified in the language syntax), however the syntax works as expected.
if a > b then print "Larger" else if a = b then print "Equal" else print "Smaller"
If I add the square brackets, it will become clear as to how this works...
if a > b then [ print "Larger" ] else [ if a = b then [ print "Equal" ] else [ print "Smaller" ] ]
The else body of the first if instruction just consists of another if instruction, and, because you can remove the brackets as it's only one instruction, it seems like else if is a built in feature, even though it really isn't.
Functions, in Eelios, are pure functions (functions whose output is always the same for a given input). Furthermore, functions, as well as closures, are anonymous, the only way you can assign them a name is by assigning them to a variable.
| <parameter> : <datatype> | -> <datatype> <instruction>
Within the | | you provide the list of parameters with their respective data type and then after the -> you provide the function return type. The instruction can reference the parameters by their names and can also, just like in any other instruction, define new variables... However, functions, as well as closures, are scoped, so any new variables you define inside of a function will be discarded after the function has been called.
The way you return a value from a function is using the previously mentioned eval instruction. Anything after the eval instruction will not be executed.
There is no
voidreturn type, thus, every function, as well as closure, must always return a value
Closures are basically identical to functions in Eelios, the only difference is that they capture the environment that they were defined in, so variables which were defined outside before the closure can be used and also mutated (even if those values go out of scope).
( <parameter> : <datatype> ) => <datatype> <instruction>
Any variables defined after the closure cannot be used inside of the closure, as, they were not a part of the environment it captured.
If you wish to do recursion in Eelios, you must use the self value to reference the current function/closure.
I chose the term
selfto refer to the current function/closure instead of the name of the function, like in most other languages, because, well, all functions and closures in Eelios are anonymous, thus, by definition, they do not have a name assigned to them, unless they are assigned to a variable (which may not always be the case)
| x : Number, y : Number | -> Number [
eval x + y
]
This function takes 2 arguments of type Number and returns the addition of them. You can't exactly reuse this function, since it's anonymous, so you can assign it to a variable like shown below, if you want to reuse it.
add <- | x : Number, y : Number | -> Number eval x + y
Since the instruction only contains a single instruction, the
evalinstruction, you can remove the unnecessary square brackets. (I prefer to keep them most of the time because it's easier to read with them)
larger <- | x: Number, y : Number | -> Number [
if x > y then [
eval x
] else [
eval y
]
]
This function takes 2 arguments of type Number and returns the argument which was larger.
[ larger <- | x: Number, y : Number | -> Number [ if x > y then eval x, eval y ], print "The larger number is " . larger(4, 5) ]
[
a <- 5,
increment <- () => Instruction [ a <- a + 1, eval [] ],
print a,
increment(),
print a
]
Since this is a closure, it can use the variable a and also mutate a, which is exactly what it does. Whenever this closure is called, a, will be incremented by 1.
Notice I was able to call
incrementwhere an instruction was expected, Eelios does not support expression-statements, however, since instructions can be substituted by expressions which evaluate to instructions, this is exactly what we use. Theincrementclosure evaluates to an empty array of instructions, thus, nothing would actually happen.If you wanted something to happen, you can make the array not empty,
increment <- () => Instruction [ a <- a + 1, eval print "Hey" ], this would printHievery time it gets called, if it was called where a instruction was expected. (i.e. the result wasn't stored in a variable for example)
[
factorial <- | n: Number | -> Number [
if n = 1 then eval n,
eval n * self(n - 1)
],
print factorial(5)
]
This function recursively calls itself to evaluate the factorial of 5. So, in this case, it evaluates to 1 * 2 * 3 * 4 * 5 which equals 120.
print "Hello World"
[
text <- "Woah",
idx <- 0,
while idx < len text do [
print text[idx],
idx <- idx + 1
]
]
This code makes use of String indexing, for getting each character, as well as the len instruction, to get the length of the text.
[
a <- [
x <- 2,
eval x ^ 3,
print "Hi"
],
print exec a
]
The eval instruction evaluates the instruction being called to the value that it's expression evaluates to, in this case, 8. The exec instruction simply executes the instructions, in order, and then finds the eval instruction and returns that value... If the exec instruction found no eval instructions, it would cause an error.
"Anything after the
evalinstruction will not be executed.", this is why there is no "Hi" in the console.
[
a <- 4,
b <- 5,
eval a + b
]
The program itself is also just another array of instructions, so the same rules apply.
[
valid <- false,
n <- 0,
while valid = false do [
number <- input "Please enter a number.",
if isNumber number then [
valid <- true,
n <- toNumber number
] else [
print "Invalid number entered please try again."
]
],
print "The user entered " + toString n
]
Uses a while loop to keep getting input from the user until they enter a valid number.
[
multiply <- | a: Number, b: Number, callback: Instruction | -> Instruction [
product <- a * b,
callback,
eval []
],
multiply(2, 3, print "a: " . a . " x b: " . b . " = " . product)
]
The instruction print "a: " . a . " x b: " . b . " = " . product is invalid outside of the multiply function, and indeed, you would get an error if you tried to execute it outside of the multiply function, but that's not being done here... It's only being executed inside of the multiply function where the variables a, b and product are all defined. Just because the instruction appears in the arguments it doesn't necessarily mean it's being executed. (Unless it's the argument of an exec instruction)
[
map <- | x: Number, fn : | Number | -> Number | -> Number [ eval fn(x) ],
addOne <- | x: Number | -> Number [ eval x + 1 ],
double <- | x: Number | -> Number [ eval x * 2 ],
a <- [1, 2, 3, 4, 5],
b <- [],
c <- [],
idx <- 0,
while idx < len a do [
b[idx] <- map(a[idx], addOne),
c[idx] <- map(a[idx], double),
idx <- idx + 1
],
print a,
print b,
print c
]
You can also return functions or closures from functions and closures, you can also have arrays of functions or closures etc...
Generates and prints the first 10 Fibonacci numbers.
[
fib <- | n: Number | -> Number [
if n <= 1 then [
eval n
] else [
eval self(n - 1) + self(n - 2)
]
],
idx <- 0,
while idx < 10 do [
n <- fib(idx),
print n,
idx <- idx + 1
]
]
