THE present translation of Strabo, the great Geographer
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-of Antiquity, is the first which has been laid before the
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-English public. It is curious that a classic of so much
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-renown and intrinsic value should have remained a
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-comparatively sealed book to this country for so many
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-centuries; yet such is the fact. It is true that the imperfect state of the Greek text, and the difficulty of
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-geographical identification, have always been appalling
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-obstacles; yet, after the acute and valuable labours of
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-Gossellin, Du Theil, Groskurd, and especially of Gustav
-
-Cramer of
The translation was, in the first instance, intrusted to
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-Mr. H. C. Hamilton, whose knowledge of the subject,
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-and familiarity with the various languages concerned,
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-peculiarly fitted him for the undertaking. His official
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-
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-
This is all it seems necessary to state here. In the - -third volume will be given some account of the life and - -labours of Strabo, and of the manuscripts and principal - -editions; also a complete index of the places mentioned - -in the text, accompanied, where possible, by the modern - -names.
-THE present translation of Strabo, the great Geographer of Antiquity, is the first which has been laid before the English public. It is curious that a classic of so much renown and intrinsic value should have remained a comparatively sealed book to this country for so many centuries; yet such is the fact. It is true that the imperfect state of the Greek text, and the difficulty of geographical identification, have always been appalling obstacles; yet, after the acute and valuable labours of Gossellin, Du Theil, Groskurd, and especially of Gustav Cramer of
The translation was, in the first instance, intrusted to Mr. H. C. Hamilton, whose knowledge of the subject, and familiarity with the various languages concerned, peculiarly fitted him for the undertaking. His official
This is all it seems necessary to state here. In the third volume will be given some account of the life and labours of Strabo, and of the manuscripts and principal editions; also a complete index of the places mentioned in the text, accompanied, where possible, by the modern names.
+STRABO, the author of this work, was born at
In the 17th book our author speaks of the death of
The only information which we can obtain of the personal
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-history of Strabo is to be collected from the scanty references
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-made to himself in the course of this work;
STRABO, the author of this work, was born at
In the 17th book our author speaks of the death of
The only information which we can obtain of the personal history of Strabo is to be collected from the scanty references made to himself in the course of this work;
It is remarkable that of his father and his father's family he is totally silent, but of his mother and her connexions he has left us some notices. She was of a distinguished family who had settled at
Dorylaüs, her great grandfather, was a distinguished officer, and friend of Euergetes; but the latter being assassinated at the mother of my mother.
Mithridates Eupator, who succeeded to the kingdom of
Dorylaüs made overtures to Lucullus for the revolt of the kingdom of Pontus to the Romans, and in return received great promises of reward, which were never fulfilled. Lucullus ceased to command in the war, and was succeeded by Pompey, who, through enmity and jealousy, prevailed on the senate not to confirm the conditions entered into by his predecessor. As before observed, there is no mention of Strabo's father in the works which have come down to us. Malte-Brun, in his Life of Strabo in the Biographie Universelle, collects several passages tending to show that he was a Roman. The name of Strabo, or squinting,
originally Greek, was used by the Romans, and applied to the father of Pompey the Great, among others. How the geographer acquired this name is not related.
When a very young man, he received instruction in grammar and rhetoric from Aristodemus, at Nysa in Caria.
Strabo also attended the lessons of Tyrannio of Amisus,
In book xvi.,
The philosophical sect to which he belonged was the Stoic, as plainly appears from many passages in his Geography.
+He wrote a History, which he describes (vol. i. p. 21) as composed in a lucid style; it is cited by Plutarch, and also by
Strabo was a great traveller, and apparently had no professional or other occupation. We may therefore conclude that his father left him a good property. Much of his geographical information is the result of personal observation. In a passage of his 2nd bookOur descriptions shall consist of what we ourselves have observed in our travels by land and sea, and of what we conceive to be credible in the statements and writings of others; for in a westerly direction we have travelled from Armenia to that part of Tyrrhenia which is over against Sardinia; and southward, from the Euxine to the frontiers of Ethiopia. Of all the writers on geography, not one can be mentioned who has travelled over a wider extent of the countries described than we have. Some may have gone farther to the west, but then they have never been so far east as we have; again, others may have been farther east, but not so far west; and the same with respect to north and south. However, in the main, both we and they have availed ourselves of the reports of others, from which to describe the form, size, and other peculiarities of the country.
He mentions having been in Egypt, the island Gyarus, Populonium near Elba, Comana in Cappadocia, Ephesus, Mylasa, Nysa, and Hierapolis in Phrygia. He visited Corinth, Argos, Athens, and Megara; but, on the whole, he does not appear to have seen more of Greece than in passing through it on his way to Brundusium, while proceeding to Rome. Populonium and Luna in Italy were the limit of his travels northwards. It is probable he obtained his information as to Spain, France, Britain, and Germany, while staying at Rome.
The first systematic writer on geography was Eratosthenes, who died at the age of 80, about B. C.
There is no ground for considering the Geography of Strabo an improved edition of that of Eratosthenes. Strabo's work was intended for the information of persons in the higher departments of administration, and contains such geographical and historical information as those engaged in political em-
Strabo's authorities are for the most part Greek, and he seems to have neglected the Latin memoirs and historical narratives of the campaigns of the Romans, which might have furnished him with many valuable geographical facts for the countries as well of Asia as of Europe. He made some use of Cæsar's description of France, the Alps, and Britain; he alludes to the voyage of Publius Crassus in speaking of the Cassiterides, and also the writings of Asinius Pollio, Fabius Pictor, and an anonymous writer whom he calls the Chorographer; but he might have obtained much additional inform-
Strabo considered that mathematical and astronomical knowledge was indispensable to the science of geography; he says in book i.,our gnomons are, among other things, evidence of the revolution of the heavenly bodies, and common sense at once shows us that if the depth of the earth were infinite, such a revolution could not take place.
With regard to the lost continent of Atlantis, Strabo is very cautious in criticisinghe did well, too, in citing the opinion of Plato, that the tradition concerning the island of Atlantis might be received as something more than a mere fiction, it having been related by Solon, on the authority of the Egyptian priests, that this island, almost as large as a continent, was formerly in existence, although now it had disappeared,
and remarks that Poseidonius thought it better to quote this than to say, He who brought it into existence can also cause it to disappear, as the poet did the wall of the Achivi.
The measure adopted by Strabo was the stadium. In book From Apollonia to Macedonia is the Egnatian Way; its direction is towards the east, and the distance is measured by pillars at every mile, as far as Cypsela and the river Hebrus. The whole distance is 535 miles. But reckoning, as the generality of persons do, a mile at eight stadia, there may be 4280 stadia. And, according to Polybius, who adds two plethra, which are a third of a stadium, to every eight stadia we must add 178 stadia more,—a third part of the number of miles.
In book xi. chap. xi. § 5, he compares the parasang with the stadium, and states that some writers reckoned it at 60, others at 40, and others at 30 stadia.
Dr. Smith, in his Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, says, We think that Ukert has satisfactorily shown an accurate description of a place should be particular to add its astronomical and geometrical relations, explaining care fully its extent, distance, degrees of latitude, and temperature of atmosphere. He says likewise, as the size of the earth has been demonstrated by other writers, we shall take for granted that the Greeks had not different standards of length, but always used the Olympic stadium and the foot corresponding to it. He states that the stadium was equal to 600 Greek, or 625 Roman feet, or to 125 Roman paces, and the Roman mile contained 8 stadia. Hence the stadium contained 606 feet 9 inches, English. This standard prevailed throughout Greece under the name of the Olympic stadium, because it was the exact length of the stadium or foot-race course at Olympia, measured between the pillars at the two extremities of the course.
Still Dr. Smith further observes, But although the stadium and the foot connected with it were single definite measures throughout Greece, yet we find in the eastern countries, Babylon, Syria, and Egypt, and in some neighboring Greek states, feet longer than the Olympic, the origin of which is to be explained by the coëxistence, in the Babylonian system, of a
We may conclude that Strabo's stadium varied considerably, as he sometimes received his distance from personal observation or credible report, and often quoted other writers, and reduced other standards, as the mile, the parasang, and the
Siebenkees and Heeren (De Fontibus Geographicorum Strabonis) have examined the authorities to which Strabo had, or might have had, access, and Groskurd has availed himself of their researches.
+The following is a short summary of the seventeen books from these sources, but for a more detailed account of their contents the translation itself must be referred to.
+The first two books may be considered as an independent treatise, and by themselves form a remarkable contrast with the rest of the work, in the manner of treating the subjects, and in the difficulties which they present both of language and matter.
+In the 1st book, the author enters into a long discussion on the merits of Homer, whom he considers to have been the earliest geographer, and defends him against the errors and misconceptions of Eratosthenes. He corrects some faults of Eratosthenes, and, in his inquiry concerning the natural changes of the earth's surface defends Eratosthenes against Hipparchus. In conclusion, he again corrects Eratosthenes as regards the magnitude and divisions of the inhabited world. The most remarkable passage in this book is that in which he conjectures the existence of the great Western Continents.
The 2nd book is chiefly occupied with some accounts of mathematical geography, and the Author defends against Hipparchus the division of the inhabited world adopted by Eratosthenes into sections. Then follows a criticism of the division of the earth into six zones, as taught by Poseidonius and Polybius. The pretended circumnavigation of Africa by Eudoxus is referred to, as well as some geographical errors of Polybius. He makes observations of his own on the form and size of the earth in general, as well as of the inhabited portion of it, describing the method of representing it on a spherical or plane surface. A short outline is given of seas, countries,
The 3rd book commences with Iberia, and the subject of Europe is continued to the end of the 10th book. His references are the Periplus of Artemidorus, Polybius, and Poseidonius; all three of whom wrote as eye-witnesses. For descriptions and measurement of distances, Artemidorus is chiefly depended upon. The information possessed by Eratosthenes of these countries was meagre and uncertain. For the nations of southern Iberia, he adopts the account of Asclepiades of Myrlea, who had lived and been educated there. Some statements also are borrowed from Roman authors.
+The 4th book contains Gallia, according to the four divisions then existing, viz. Gallia Narbonensis, Acquitanensis, Lugdunensis, and the Belgæ; also Britain, with Ierne, and Thule; and lastly, the Alps.
+Here Eratosthenes and Ephorus are of little service. His chief guide is Julius Caesar, whom he frequently quotes
The 5th book commences with a general sketch of Italy, and refers principally to northern Italy. Dividing its history into ancient and modern, his chief reference for the former is Polybius, and for the latter we are indebted to the observations of the author himself, or to accounts received from others. Still the description of Upper Italy is poor and unsatisfactory, from the author not sufficiently availing himself of Roman resources. Then follows some account of Etruria with its neighbouring islands, Umbria, Samnium, Latium, and Rome, chiefly the result of the author's own researches and observations. The book concludes with some remarks on the inhabitants of the mountainous districts of Samnium and Campania.
+The 6th book is a continuation of the same subject. Magna Græcia, Sicily, and the adjacent islands, are noticed, and the author concludes with a short discussion on the extent of the Roman Empire. Descriptions of some places are from his own observations; but the sources whence he takes his
The 7th book relates, first, to the people north of the Danube, —the Germans, Cimbri, Getæ, Dacians (particularly the European Scythians), and the Crimea; secondly, to the people south of the Danube, viz. those inhabiting Illyricum, Pannonia, Dalmatia, the eastern coast of Thrace to the Euxine, Epirus, Macedonia, Thrace, and the Hellespont. The latter part of this book is not preserved entire in any manuscript, but Kramer has, in his own opinion, succeeded in restoring from the epitomes left to us the greater part of what was wanting. Of Germany, Strabo had tolerable information, but he nowhere states whence it is derived; he may have been partly indebted to Asinius Pollio, whose work he had already examined for the Rhine. For the remaining northern countries, he had Poseidonius and the historians of the Mithridatic war. For the southern countries, he had a lost work of Aristotle on forms of government, Polybius, Poseidonius, and his chief disciples, Theopompus and Ephorus. Incidentally also he quotes Homer and his interpreters, and Philochorus.
+The three following books are dedicated to the description of Greece, with the adjacent islands. The 8th comprises the Peloponnesus and its well-known seven provinces, Elis, Messenia, Laconia, Argolis, Corinthia with Sicyonia, Achaia, and Arcadia: the 9th, Attica, with Megaris, Bœotia, Phocis, both Locri and Thessaly: the 10th, Eubœa, Ætolia, and Acarnania, with the islands. After a long digression on the subject of the Curetes, the description of Europe closes with some account of Crete and the islands of the Ægean Sea. The design and construction of these three books differ considerably from the preceding. Homer is adopted as the foundation of his geographical descriptions; some things Strabo must have learnt as an eye-witness, but more from
The 11th book commences with the description of the countries separated from Europe by the Tanaïs or Don. Asia is divided by our author (who here follows Eratosthenes) into two parts by the Taurus, which runs in a direction east and west. The northern part of Asia (or this side Taurus) is divided into four parts. The first part comprises the countries lying between the Don, the Sea of Azoff, the Euxine, and the Caspian; the second, the countries east of the Caspian; and the third, the countries south of Caucasus. These three parts of the first or northern division of Asia are contained in the 10th book; the remaining fourth part occupies the 12th, 13th, and 14th books.
+The chief authorities for the first part are, besides information obtained from travellers and merchants at Amasia, Herodotus for the Don; Artemidorus and Eratosthenes for distances; Poseidonius and Theophanes of Mitylene, historians, of the Mithridatic war; Metrodorus of Skepsis; Hypsicrates of Amisus; and Cleitarchus for the digression on the Amazons.
+For the second part, are principally Patrocles and Aristobulus, historians of the Asiatic campaigns of Alexander. For the third part, or Media and Armenia, are, Dellius, who wrote a history of the war against the Parthians, in which he had served under Antony; Apollonides of Nicæa, who wrote a Periplus of Europe; and other writers before mentioned.
+The 12th book commences with a detailed account of Anatolia, and contains the northern part. It was to have been expected that Strabo would have described most of these countries as an eye-witness, lying, as they do, so near his native country, Cappadocia. But this expectation vanishes, when we discover the meagreness of his account. With the exception of Pontus and Cappadocia, he had seen little of the rest, and depends upon historians and oral information. For earlier times, his authorities are Herodotus, Hellanicus, Theopompus, Ephorus, Artemidorus, Apollodorus, and Demetrius of Skepsis; for later times, historians of the wars of Mithridates and Pompey. For the ancient history of the Mysians and Phrygians, he is indebted to the celebrated Lydian historian Xanthus, and Menecrates.
The 13th book continues the description of Anatolia. The greater part of the book is occupied with a dissertation on the Troad. Strabo had travelled over the country himself, but his great authority is Homer and Demetrius of Skepsis, the author of a work in twenty-six books, containing an historical and geographical commentary on that part of the second book of the Iliad, in which the forces of the Trojans are enumerated. A learned digression on the Leleges, Cilices, and Pelasgi, who preceded the Æolians and Ionians in the occupation of the country, is principally taken from Menecrates and Demetrius of Skepsis. The description then turns to the interior, and the account of the Æolian cities is probably due to Poseidonius. Throughout this book are evidences of great care and desire for accuracy.
+The 14th book continues with the remainder of Anatolia, and an account of the islands Samos, Chios, Rhodes, and Cyprus. The authorities followed are, on the whole, the same as in the previous book—Herodotus, Thucydides, Ephorus, Artemidorus, Eratosthenes, and Poseidonius; besides Pherecydes of Syros who wrote on the Ionian migration, and Anaximenes of Lampsacus, the author of a history in Greek of the Milesian colonies. For Caria, he had the historians of Alexander and an author named Philip, who wrote on the Leleges and Carians. For Cyprus he had Damastes and Eratosthenes.
+The 15th and 16th books contain a description of the second portion of Asia, namely, the southern or the other side of Taurus. In the 15th book, Strabo describes India and Persia, the latter in two chief divisions, viz. Ariana or East Persia, and Persis or West Persia. These countries Strabo never saw; his description, therefore, is founded on the authority of travellers and historians. The topography of India is meagre, and limited to a few towns and rivers; but his account of the people of the country is more copious, he being supplied with materials from the historians of Alexander and of the campaigns of Seleucus in India. He looks on Megasthenes, Onesicritus, Deimachus, and Cleitarchus as fabulous writers: but his confidence rests chiefly on Patrocles, Aristobulus (one of the companions and historians of Alexander), and Nearchus, the chief commander of Alexander's fleet. Artemidorus and Nicolaus of Damascus are occasionally consulted. For Ariana or East Persia, he had for his principal authority Era-
In the 16th book, he describes the westerly half of south Asia, viz. Assyria with Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine, the Persian and Arabian Gulfs, the coast of Ethiopia, and lastly, Arabia. For the three first countries (the old Assyrian kingdom), his chief authorities are, besides some of Alexander's historians, Eratosthenes, Poseidonius, and Herodotus; for the remainder he had, in addition to the same writers, Artemidorus, and probably also Nicolaus of Damascus. The account of Moses and the Jews, Heeren surmises, comes from Poseidonius, but it probably proceeds from oral communication had in Egypt; of these countries our author could describe nothing as an eye-witness, except the northwest of Syria. The accounts of Arabia, the Indian and the Red Seas, are from Agatharchides; and much that he describes of Arabia was obtained from his friends, Ælius Gallus and the Stoic, Athenodorus.
+The 17th book concludes the work with the description of Egypt, Ethiopia, and the north coast of Africa. Strabo had travelled through the whole of Egypt, as far as Syene and Philæ, and writes with the decided tone of an eye-witness. Much verbal information, also, he collected at Alexandria. His most important written authorities are, for the Nile, Eratosthenes (who borrowed from Aristotle), Eudoxus, and Aristo. For the most remarkable events of Egyptian history, he had Polybius, and for later times probably Poseidonius, besides
For the oracle at Ammon, he had the historians of Alexander; for Ethiopia, the accounts of Petronius, who had carried on war there, Agatharchides, and Herodotus. Of Libya or Africa Proper he had nothing new or authentic to say. Besides Eratosthenes, Artemidorus, and Poseidonius, his chief authorities, he had Iphicrates, who wrote on the plants and animals of Libya. The whole concludes with a short notice of the Roman Empire.
+The dates at which particular books were written, as attempted to be given by Groskurd and Coraÿ, must be received with caution.
+In book iv. c. vi. § 9, Strabo says that the Carni and Tau-
In book vi. c. iv. § 2, Cæsar Germanicus is spoken of as still living. He died in Syria, A. D.
In book xii. c. viii. § 11, Strabo says that Cyzicus was still a free state. It lost its liberty A. D.
The codices or manuscripts which exist of Strabo's work appear to be copies of a single manuscript existing in the middle ages, but now lost. From the striking agreement of errors and omissions in all now extant (with such differences only as can be accounted for, arising from the want of ability or carelessness of the copyist), it appears most probable that to this single manuscript we are indebted for the preservation of the work. Strabo himself describes the carelessness of bad scribes both at Rome and Alexandria,Some vendors of books, also, employed bad scribes and neglected to compare the copies with the originals. This happens in the case of other books, which are copied for sale both here and at Alexandria.
After what Kramer has done for the text, we can hope for little improvement, unless, what is beyond all expectation, some other manuscript should be discovered which is either derived from another source, or is a more correct copy.
The following is some account of those in existence:—
+Codices in the Imperial Library, Paris:
+No.
No.
No.
No.
No. the gift of Antony the Eparch to Francis the great and illustrious king of France.
Partly collated by Kramer.
No.
No.
Codices in the Vatican:
+No.
No. 174 is of the 15th century, and contains the seventeen books: the first nine books are written by one transcriber, the list eight by another hand. The first nine books have been collated by Kramer.
+No. 173 contains the first ten books, and is of the middle of the 15th century. It is badly and incorrectly written. The last seven books, which would complete the codex, are, as Kramer conjectures from the paper and handwriting, in the Library of the Grand Duchy of Parma. From a note in Greek at the end of the 10th book, it appears to have been brought to Rome A. D.
No. 81 is tolerably well and correctly written. It contains the last eight books, and is of the end of the 15th century. It appears to be a copy of, or served as a copy to, the codex in the Laurentian Library, No. 19. Partially collated by Kramer.
+Medicean Codices, in the Laurentian Library, Florence:
+Codex 5 is elegantly and correctly written; it is of the beginning, probably, of the 15th century, and contains the first ten books. The 8th and 9th books are not entire; passages are curtailed, and much is omitted, to which the attention is not drawn, the lines being run on without spaces left to mark omissions. Errors of the first transcriber are corrected by a later hand, and noticed in the margin or between the lines. Collated by Bandini for Falconer, and almost the whole by Kramer.
+Codex 40 contains the first ten books; a copy, probably, of the former. It was written after the middle of the 15th century
+Codex 15 is of the middle of the 15th century, and contains the last seven books. It is not in any way remarkable.
+Codex 19, written at the end of the 15th century. It contains the last eight books, and resembles No. 81 of the Vatican. Collated by Bandini for Falconer.
Venetian Codices:
+No. 377 of the catalogue contains the first twelve books, and is written in the 15th century. Formerly the property of Cardinal Bessarion.
+No. 378 contains the seventeen books, of which the first twelve are apparently copies of the above, No. 377; the remaining five are transcribed from some other codex. This was, also, formerly the property of Cardinal Bessarion.
+No. 640 contains the last eight books. It was written, as appears from a note A. D.
No. 379 is of the 15th century. It contains the Epitome of Gemistus Pletho of the first ten books, and the whole of the last seven books. It is the codex which served for the copy, No.
No. 606 contains the last eight books, and was written towards the end of the 15th century. It contains nothing which is not to be found in other manuscripts.
+Codices in the Ambrosian Library, Milan:
+Codex M. 53 contains all but book ii., and is of the 15th century. The books are not written on paper of the same size, nor in consecutive order, although by the same hand. Book ii. is to be found in Codex N. 289, together with portions of other authors, written by a different transcriber, no doubt with the intention of completing this codex. According to Kramer, the first ten books are copied from Codex 5 of the Medici MS. The 13th, 14th, 12th books (the order in which they stand) from the Medici MS. 19, and the 11th, 15th, 16th, 17th, from the Medici MS. 15. Partly collated by Kramer.
+Codex G. 53 contains the seventeen books, and is of the end of the 15th century. Five leaves at the beginning, and two at the end, are destroyed by damp, traces of which are to be seen throughout. Partly collated by Kramer.
+In the Library of Eton College is a codex containing the first ten books; it was written at Constantinople. Kramer,
In the Library of the Escurial is a codex completed, as we are informed by a note at the end, A. D.
The Madrid Library possesses a codex written in the latter part of the 15th century, containing the seventeen books.
+In the Library at Moscow is a codex containing the seventeen books; it was written at the end of the 15th or beginning of the 16th century. The first nine books resemble the Paris Codex, No.
A codex also is yet to be found in one of the monasteries of Mount Athos. From the accounts of learned travellers (Zacharias,
Besides the above codices, there exist four epitomes of the Geography of Strabo, of which,
+The Epitome Palatina, in the Heidelberg Library, is the oldest of all MSS. of this work. It is probably of the beginning of the 10th century, although Dodwell places it between 976 and 996. The codex from which it was copied appears to have been perfect, and contained the whole of the 7th book, which is imperfect in all other codices. It is, however, to be regretted that the author did not confine himself to following the text of Strabo; he has not only indulged in curtailing, transposing, and changing the words and sentences of the original, but has sometimes also added expressions of his own.
+The Vatican Epitome is of more value than the preceding; the extracts are more copious, the author seldom wanders from the text of Strabo, and in no instance inserts language of his own. The codex which served as the basis for the Epitome contained the 7th book entire, and from this
The Parisian Epitome, on which no great value is placed by Kramer.
+The Epitome of Gemistus Pletho, referred to above, is of great value, and held in the highest estimation by all editors.
+The first appearance of Strabo's work in print was a Latin translation by Guarini, of Verona, and Gregorio of Tiferno. Of this, thirteen editions were printed, the first in
The first edition of the Greek text was printed at Venice by Aldus in
The seventh edition was that of Thomas Falconer of Ches- It has everything that is valuable in Casaubon's edition, besides having corrected numberless typographical errors. In the account given of it, the public are as much wronged as we are abused; for no view whatever is laid before them of its nature or its merits.
A Reply to the Calumnies of the Edinburgh Review against Oxford,
page 98, by Dr. Copleston, late Bishop of Landaff. Oxford,
The eighth edition was that of Professor J. P. Siebenkees, of which great expectations were formed. The deficiencies of his performance are strongly commented on by Kramer. Siebenkees lived to complete only the first six books; the remainder of the work was undertaken by Tzchucke, and conducted with greater skill and ability than by his predecessor. It was published in
The ninth edition is that by Coraÿ, Paris,
The tenth edition is that by Professor Gustavus Kramer, in 3 vols. 8vo, the first of which appeared in
A. Meineke published at Leipsic, in 3 vols., Vindiciarum Straboniarum Liber.
Berlin,
C. Miller and F. Dübner have also published the first vol., Paris,
In modern languages, we have a translation by Alfonso Buonacciuoli, of Ferrara, in Italian, 2 vols. 8vo, Venice,
A translation in French was published at Paris in five vols. 4to, from the year
A translation by F. Ambrosoli, forming part of the Collana degli Antichi Storici Greci,
was published in
In conclusion, I have to acknowledge considerable obligations to the notes and prefaces of Groskurd, Kramer, the French translators, and others.
+The part of the translation for which I am responsible commences at chap. iv. book vii., vol. i. p. 473, to the end of the work, and is partly based on an incomplete translation in MS. by my late father, the Rev. Dr. T. Falconer. The previous portion is the work of Hans C. Hamilton, Esq., F. S. A., to whom I am indebted for his continued interest in the translation throughout, for his care in correcting the press, and for valuable suggestions.
+A complete index, which concludes the third volume, has been compiled with the greatest regard to accuracy, by a gentleman of tried skill and ability. It contains every geographical name mentioned by Strabo; and the modern names, printed in italics, are also added, as far as can be ascertained: they are not given with perfect confidence in all cases; discussion on doubtful points would have exceeded the limits of this work; and reference may be advantageously made, where more minute detail is required, to the able articles in Dr. W. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography.
It is remarkable that of his father and his father's family he
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-is totally silent, but of his mother and her connexions he has left
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-us some notices. She was of a distinguished family who had
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-settled at
Dorylaüs, her great grandfather, was a distinguished officer,
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-and friend of Euergetes; but the latter being assassinated at
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-the mother of my
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-mother.
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Mithridates Eupator, who succeeded to the kingdom of
Dorylaüs made overtures to Lucullus for the revolt of the
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-kingdom of Pontus to the Romans, and in return received great
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-promises of reward, which were never fulfilled. Lucullus ceased
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-to command in the war, and was succeeded by Pompey, who,
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-through enmity and jealousy, prevailed on the senate not to
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-confirm the conditions entered into by his predecessor. As
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-before observed, there is no mention of Strabo's father in the
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-works which have come down to us. Malte-Brun, in his Life
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-of Strabo in the Biographie Universelle, collects several passages tending to show that he was a Roman. The name of
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-Strabo, or squinting,
originally Greek, was used by the
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-Romans, and applied to the father of Pompey the Great, among
-
-others. How the geographer acquired this name is not related.
-
When a very young man, he received instruction in grammar and rhetoric from Aristodemus, at Nysa in Caria.
Strabo also attended the lessons of Tyrannio of Amisus,
In book xvi., SUMMARY. That geographical investigation is not inconsistent with philosophy.—That Homer gives proof of it throughout his poems.—That they who first wrote on the science have omitted much, or given disjointed, defective, false, or inconsistent accounts.—Proofs and demonstrations of the correctness of this statement, with general heads containing a summary description of the disposition of the whole habitable earth.—Credit to be attached to the probabilities and evident proofs that in many regions the land and sea have been shifted, and exchanged places with each other. Nor is the great learning, through which alone this subject can be approached, possessed by any but a person acquainted with both human and divine things, Admitting this, let us examine more in detail the points we have advanced. And first, [we maintain,] that both we and our predecessors, amongst whom is Hipparchus, do justly regard Homer as the founder of geographical science, for he not only excelled all, ancient as well as modern, in the sublimity of his poetry, but also in his experience of social life. Thus it was that he not only exerted himself to become familiar with as many historic facts as possible, and transmit them to posterity, but also with the various regions of the inhabited land and sea, some intimately, others in a more general manner. For otherwise he would not have reached the utmost limits of the earth, traversing it in his imagination. First, he stated that the earth was entirely encompassed by the ocean, as in truth it is; afterwards he described the countries, specifying some by name, others more generally by various indications, explicitly defining Libya, He portrays the happiness of the people of the West, and the salubrity of their climate, having no doubt heard of the abundance of Iberia, The Isles of the Blest He tells us also, that the Ethiopians are far removed, and bounded by the ocean: far removed,— By the Bear, then, which he elsewhere calls the Wain, and describes as pursuing Orion, Homer means us to under- stand the Arctic Circle; and by the ocean, that horizon into which, and out of which, the stars rise and set. When he says that the Bear turns round and is deprived of the ocean, he was aware that the Arctic Circle [always] extended to the sign opposite the most northern point of the horizon. Adapting the words of the poet to this view, by that part of the earth nearest to the ocean we must understand the horizon, and by the Arctic Circle that which extends to the signs which seem to our senses to touch in succession the most northern point of the horizon. Thus, according to him, this portion of the earth is washed by the ocean. With the nations of the North he was well acquainted, although he does not mention them by name, and indeed at the present day there is no regular title by which they are all distinguished. He informs us of their mode of life, describing them as In the following speech of Juno, he states that the ocean surrounds the earth. Does he not here assert that ocean bounds all its extremities, and does it not surround these extremities? Again, in the Gosselin remarks, Perception and experience alike inform us, that the earth we inhabit is an island: since wherever men have approached the termination of the land, the sea, which we designate ocean, has been met with: and reason assures us of the similarity of those places which our senses have not been permitted to survey. For in the east We must not credit Hipparchus, who combats this opinion, denying that the ocean is every where similarly affected; or that even if it were, it would not follow that the Atlantic flowed in a circle, and thus continually returned into itself. Seleucus, the Babylonian, is his authority for this assertion. For a further investigation of the ocean and its tides we refer to Posidonius and Athenodorus, who have fully discussed this subject: we will now only remark that this view agrees better with the uniformity of the phenomenon; and that the greater the amount of moisture surrounding the earth, the easier would the heavenly bodies be supplied with vapours from thence. Homer, besides the boundaries of the earth, which he fully describes, was likewise well acquainted with the Mediterranean. Starting from the Pillars, "Eratosthenes of Cyrene was, according to Suidas, the son of Aglaus, according to others, the son of Ambrosius, and was born B. C. "It is supposed that Eratosthenes suggested to Ptolemy Euergetes the construction of the large "We still possess under the name of Eratosthenes a work, entitled "The greatest work of Eratosthenes, and that which must always make his name conspicuous in scientific history, is the attempt which he made to measure the magnitude of the earth, in which he brought forward and used the method which is employed to this day. Whether or no he was successful cannot be told, as we shall see; but it is not the less true that he was the originator of the process by which we now know, very nearly indeed, the magnitude of our own planet. Delambre says that if it were he who advised the erection of the circular instruments above alluded to, he must be considered as the founder of astronomy: to which it may be added, that he was the founder of geodesy without any "At Syene in Upper Egypt, which is supposed to be the same as, or near to, the town of Assouan, (Lat. 24° 10′ N., Long. 32° 59′ E. of Greenwich,) Eratosthenes was told (that he observed is very doubtful) that deep wells were enlightened to the bottom on the day of the summer solstice, and that vertical objects cast no shadows. He concluded therefore, that Syene was on the tropic, and its latitude equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic, which, as we have seen, he had determined: he presumed that it was in the same longitude as Alexandria, in which he was out about 3°, which is not enough to produce what would at that time have been a sensible error. By observations made at Alexandria, he determined the zenith of that place to be distant by the fiftieth part of the circumference from the solstice, which was equivalent to saying that the arc of the meridian between the two places is 7° 12′. Cleomedes says that he used the What we have already advanced is sufficient to prove that poet the father of geography. Those who followed in Many have testified to the amount of knowledge which this subject requires, and Hipparchus, in his Strictures on Eratosthenes, well observes, Every one who undertakes to give an accurate description of a place, should be particular to add its astronomical and geometrical relations, explaining carefully its extent, distance, degrees of latitude, and The [motions] of the sun and stars, and the centripetal He who has thus elevated his mind, will he be satisfied with any thing less than the whole world? If in his anxiety accurately to portray the inhabited earth, he has dared to survey heaven, and make use thereof for purposes of instruction, would it not seem childish were he to refrain from examining the whole earth, of which the inhabited is but a part, its size, its features, and its position in the universe; whether other portions are inhabited besides those on which we dwell, and if so, their amount? What is the extent of the regions not peopled? what their peculiarities, and the cause of their remaining as they are? Thus it appears that the knowledge of geography is connected with meteorology To the various subjects which it embraces let us add natural history, or the history of the animals, plants, and other different productions of the earth and sea, whether serviceable or useless, and my original statement will, I think, carry perfect conviction with it. That he who should undertake this work would be a benefactor to mankind, reason and the voice of antiquity agree. The poets feign that they were the wisest heroes who travelled and wandered most in foreign climes: and to be familiar with many countries, and the disposition of the inhabitants, is, according to them, of vast importance. Nestor prides him- So does Menelaus:— Strabo, by omitting the word Such information greatly enlarges our sphere of knowledge, by informing us of the nature of the country, its botanical and zoological peculiarities. To these should be added its marine history; for we are in a certain sense amphibious, not exclusively connected with the land, but with the sea as well. Hercules, on account of his vast experience and observation, was described as All that we have previously stated is confirmed both by the testimony of antiquity and by reason. One consideration however appears to bear in a peculiar manner on the case in point; viz. the importance of geography in a political view. For the sea and the earth in which we dwell furnish theatres Even if we descend to the consideration of such trivial matters as hunting, the case is still the same; for he will be most successful in the chase who is acquainted with the size and nature of the wood, and one familiar with the locality will be the most competent to superintend an encampment, an ambush, or a march. But it is in great undertakings that the truth shines out in all its brilliancy, for here, while the success resulting from knowledge is grand, the consequences of ignorance are disastrous. The fleet of Agamemnon, for instance, ravaging Mysia, as if it had been the Trojan territory, was compelled to a shameful retreat. Likewise the Persians and Libyans, As we have said, this science has an especial reference to the occupations and requirements of statesmen, with whom also political and ethical philosophy is mainly concerned; and here is an evidence. We distinguish the different kinds of civil government by the office of their chief men, denominating one government a monarchy, or kingdom, another an aristocracy, a third a democracy; for so many we consider are the forms of government, and we designate them by these names, because from them they derive their primary characteristic. For the laws which emanate from the sovereign, from the aristocracy, and from the people all are different. The law is in fact a type of the form of government. It is on this account that some define right to be the interest of the strongest. If, therefore, political philosophy is advantageous to the ruler, and geography in the actual government of the country, this latter seems to possess some little superiority. This superiority is most observable in real service. But even the theoretical portion of geography is by no means contemptible. On the one hand, it embraces the arts, mathematics, and natural science; on the other, history and fable. Not that this latter can have any distinct advantage: for instance, if any one should relate to us the wanderings of Ulysses, Menelaus, and Jason, he would not seem to have added directly to our fund of practical knowledge thereby, (which is the only thing men of the world are interested in,) unless he should convey useful examples of what those wanderers were compelled to suffer, and at the same time afford matter of rational amusement to those who interest themselves in the places which gave birth to such fables. Practical men interest themselves in these pursuits, since they are at once commendable, and afford them pleasure; but yet not to any great extent. In this class, too, will be found those whose main object in life is pleasure and respectability: but these Geometry and astronomy, as we before remarked, seem absolutely indispensable in this science. This, in fact, is evident, that without some such assistance, it would be impossible to be accurately acquainted with the configuration of the earth; its climata, As the size of the earth has been demonstrated by other writers, we shall here take for granted and receive as accurate what they have advanced. We shall also assume that the earth is spheroidal, that its surface is likewise spheroidal, and above all, that bodies have a tendency towards its centre, which latter point is clear to the perception of the most average understanding. However we may show summarily that the earth is spheroidal, from the consideration that all things however distant tend to its centre, and that every body is attracted towards its centre of gravity; this is more distinctly proved from observations of the sea and sky, for here the evidence of the senses, and common observation, is alone requisite. The convexity of the sea is a further proof of this to those who have sailed; for they cannot perceive lights at a distance when placed at the same level as their eyes, but if raised on high, they at once become perceptible to vision, though at the same time further removed. So, when the eye is raised, it sees what before was utterly imperceptible. Homer speaks of this when he says, Every information respecting the climata Now there are some facts which we take to be established, viz. those with which every politician and general should be familiar. For on no account should they be so uninformed as to the heavens and the position of the earth, The present undertaking is composed in a lucid style, suitable alike to the statesman and the general reader, after the fashion of my History. Having already compiled our Historical Memoirs, which, as we conceive, are a valuable addition both to political and moral philosophy, we have now determined to follow it up with the present work, which has been prepared on the same system as the former, and for the same class of readers, but more particularly for those who are in high stations of life. And as our former production contains only the most striking events in the lives of distinguished men, omitting trifling and unimportant incidents; so here it will be proper to dismiss small and doubtful particulars, and merely call attention to great and remarkable transactions, such in fact as are use- We now think we have demonstrated that our present undertaking is one that requires great care, and is well worthy of a philosopher. No one can [justly] blame us for having undertaken to write on a subject already often treated of, unless it appears that we have done nothing more than copy the works of former writers. In our opinion, though they may have perfectly treated some subjects, in others they have still left much to be completed; and we shall be justified in our performance, if we can add to their information even in a trifling degree. At the present moment the conquests of the Romans and Parthians have added much to our knowledge, which (as was well observed by Eratosthenes) had been considerably increased by the expedition of Alexander. This prince laid open to our view the greater part of Asia, and the whole north of Europe as far as the Danube. And the Romans [have discovered to us] the entire west of Europe as far as the river Elbe, which divides Germany, and the country beyond the Ister to the river Dniester. The country beyond this to the Mæotis, Let us first examine Eratosthenes, reviewing at the same time what Hipparchus has advanced against him. Eratosthenes is much too creditable an historian for us to believe what Polemon endeavours to charge against him, that he had not even seen Athens. At the same time he does not merit that unbounded confidence which some seem to repose in him, although, as he himself tells us, he passed much of his time with first-rate [characters]. Never, says he, at one period, and in one city, were there so many philosophers flourishing together as in my time. In their number was Ariston and Arcesilaus. This, however, it seems is not sufficient, but you must also be able to choose who are the real guides whom it is your interest to follow. He considers Arcesilaus and Ariston to be the coryphæi of the philosophers who flourished in his time, and is ceaseless in his eulogies of Apelles and Bion, Although at Athens he became a disciple of Zeno First, then, let us return to the point which we lately deferred. Eratosthenes says that the poet directs his whole attention to the amusement of the mind, and not at all to its instruction. In opposition to his idea, the ancients define poesy as a primitive philosophy, guiding our life from infancy, and pleasantly regulating our morals, our tastes, and our actions. The [Stoics] of our day affirm that the only wise man is the poet. On this account the earliest lessons which the citizens of Greece convey to their children are from the poets; cer- Of this number was the guardian of Clytemnestra, But apart from all such considerations, Eratosthenes contradicts himself; for a little previously to the sentence which we have quoted, at the commencement of his Essay on Geography, he says, that As far as this goes, Eratosthenes, you are right enough; not so, however, when you not only deny that Homer was possessed of these vast acquirements, but represent poetry in general as a tissue of old wives' fables, where, to use your own expression, every thing thought likely to amuse is cooked up. I ask, is it of no value to the auditors One thing is certain, that the poet has bestowed all these gifts upon Ulysses, whom beyond any of his other [heroes] he loves to adorn with every virtue. He says of him, that he That eloquence is regarded as the wisdom of speech, Ulysses manifests throughout the whole poem, both in the Trial, Are we not all agreed that the chief merit of a poet consists in his accurate representation of the affairs of life? Can this be done by a mere driveller, unacquainted with the world? The excellence of a poet is not to be measured by the same standard as that of a mechanic or a blacksmith, where honour and virtue have nothing to do with our estimate. But the poet and the individual are connected, and he only can become a good poet, who is in the first instance a worthy man. To deny that our poet possesses the graces of oratory is using us hardly indeed. What is so befitting an orator, what so poetical as eloquence, and who so sweetly eloquent as Homer? But, by heaven! you'll say, there are other styles of eloquence than those peculiar to poetry. Of course [I admit this]; in poetry itself there is the tragic and the comic style; in prose, the historic and the forensic. But is not language Homer accurately describes many distant countries, and not only Greece and the neighbouring places, as Eratosthenes asserts. His romance, too, is in better style than that of his successors. He does not make up wondrous tales on every occasion, To begin. The poets were by no means the first to avail themselves of myths. States and lawgivers had taken advantage of them long before, having observed the constitutional bias of mankind. Man is eager after knowledge, and the love of legend is but the prelude thereto. This is why children begin to listen [to fables], and are acquainted with them before any other kind of knowledge; the cause of this is that the myth introduces them to a new train of ideas, relating not to every-day occurrences, but something in addition to these. A charm hangs round whatever is new and hitherto unknown, inspiring us with a desire to become acquainted with it, but when the wonderful and the marvellous are likewise present, our delight is increased until at last it becomes a philtre of study. To children we are obliged to hold out such enticements, in order that in riper years, when the mind is powerful, and no longer needs such stimulants, it may be prepared to enter on the study of actual realities. Every illiterate and uninstructed man is yet a child, and takes delight in fable. With the partially informed it is much the same; reason is not all-powerful within him, and he still possesses the tastes of a child. But the marvellous, which is capable of exciting fear as well as pleasure, influences not childhood only, but age as well. As we relate to children pleasing tales to incite them [to any course] of action, and frightful ones to deter them, such as those of Lamia, Such was mythology; and when our ancestors found it capable of subserving the purposes of social and political life, and even contributing to the knowledge of truth, they continued the education of childhood to maturer years, and maintained that poetry was sufficient to form the understanding of every age. In course of time history and our present philosophy were introduced; these, however, suffice but for the chosen few, and to the present day poetry is the main agent which instructs our people and crowds our theatres. Homer here stands pre-eminent, but in truth all the early historians and natural philosophers were mythologists as well. Thus it is that our poet, though he sometimes employs fiction for the purposes of instruction, always gives the preference to truth; he makes use of what is false, merely tolerating it in order the more easily to lead and govern the multitude. As a man Being acquainted with Colchis, and the voyage of Jason to Æa, and also with the historical and fabulous relations concerning Circe and Medea, their enchantments and their various other points of resemblance, he feigns there was a relationship between them, notwithstanding the vast distance by which they were separated, the one dwelling in an inland creek of the Euxine, and the other in Italy, and both of them beyond the ocean. It is possible that Jason himself wandered as far as Italy, for traces of the Argonautic expedition are pointed out near the Ceraunian It is probable he took his account of the one-eyed Cyclopæ from Scythian history, for the Arimaspi, whom Aristæus of Proconnesus describes in his Tales of the Arimaspi, are said to be distinguished by this peculiarity. Having premised thus much, we must now take into consideration the reasons of those who assert that Homer Eratosthenes, though on no sufficient grounds for so doing, rejects both these opinions, endeavouring in his attack on the latter, to refute by lengthened arguments what is manifestly absurd and unworthy of consideration, and in regard to the former, maintaining a poet to be a mere gossip, to whose worth an acquaintance with science or geography could not add in the least degree: since the scenes of certain of Homer's fables are cast in actual localities, as Ilium, Further, if those who describe the geography of certain places do not agree in every particular, are we justified in at once rejecting their whole narration? Frequently this is a reason why it should receive the greater credit. For example, in the investigation whether the scene of Ulysses' wanderings were Sicily or Italy, and the proper position of the Sirenes, they differ in so far that one places them at Pelorus, and the other at Sirenussæ, but neither of them dissents from the idea that it was some where near Sicily or Italy. They add thereby strength to this view, inasmuch as though they are not agreed as to the exact locality, neither of them makes any question but that it was some where contiguous to Italy or Sicily. If a third party should add, that the monument of Parthenope, who was one of the Sirens, is shown at Naples, this only confirms us the more in our belief, for though a third place is introduced to our notice, still as Naples is situated in the gulf called by Eratosthenes the Cumæan, and That the poet did not search for accuracy in every minor detail we admit, but neither ought we to expect this of him; at the same time we are not to believe that he composed his poem without inquiring into the history of the Wandering, nor where and how it occurred. Eratosthenes The conjecture of Polybius in regard to the particulars of the wandering of Ulysses is excellent. He says that Æolus instructed sailors how to navigate the strait, a difficult matter on account of the currents occasioned by the ebb and flow. and was therefore called the dispenser of the winds, and reputed their king. In like manner Danaus for pointing out the springs of water that were in Argos, and Atreus for showing the retrograde movement of the sun in the heavens, from being mere soothsayers and diviners, were raised to the dignity of kings. And the priests of the Egyptians, the Chaldeans, and Magi, distinguished for their wisdom above those around them, obtained from our predecessors honour and authority; Having thus introduced his subject, he does not allow us to consider the account of Æolus, nor yet the rest of the Odyssey, as altogether mythical. There is a spice of the fabulous here, as well as in the Trojan War, He then goes on to describe the manner in which they catch the sword-fish at Scyllæum. One look-out directs the whole body of fishers, who are in a vast number of small boats, each furnished with two oars, and two men to each boat. One man rows, the other stands on the prow, spear in hand, while the look-out has to signal the appearance of a sword-fish. (This fish, when swimming, has about a third of its body above water.) As it passes the boat, the fisher darts the spear from his hand, and when this is withdrawn, it leaves the sharp point with which it is furnished sticking in the flesh The customs of the inhabitants of Meninx It is most probable that the line Such are the sentiments of Polybius; and in many respects they are correct enough; but when he discusses the voyage beyond the ocean, and enters on minute calculations of the proportion borne by the distance to the number of days, he is greatly mistaken. He alleges perpetually the words of the poet, These passages clearly refer to the Atlantic Ocean, Eratosthenes seems to have had something like this view of the case himself, when he says, On the whole, however, it is not proper to place the works of Homer in the common catalogue of other poets, without challenging for him a superiority both in respect of his other [excellences] and also for the geography on which our attention is now engaged. If any one were to do no more than merely read through the Triptolemus of Sophocles, or the prologue to the Bacchæ of Euripides, and then compare them with the care taken by Homer in his geographical descriptions, he would at once perceive both the difference and superiority of the latter, for wherever there is necessity for arrangement in the localities he has immortalized, he is careful to preserve it as well in regard to Greece, as to foreign countries. Further, in respect to the winds and climates, Homer shows the wide extent of his geographical knowledge, for in his Some writers tell us there are but two principal winds, the north and south, and that the other winds are only a slight difference in the direction of these two. That is, (supposing only two winds, the north and south,) the south wind from the commencement of the summer quarter blows in a south-easterly direction; and from the commencement of the winter quarter from the east. The north wind from the decline of the summer, blows in a westerly direction, and from the decline of the winter, in a north-westerly direction. In support of this opinion of the two winds they adduce Thrasyalces and our poet himself, forasmuch as he mentions the north-west with the south, But Posidonius remarks that none of those who are really acquainted with these subjects, such as Aristotle, Timosthenes, When our poet makes use of the expression The statements made by Eratosthenes in the first book of his Geography, require some such correction as this. Persisting in his false views in relation to Homer, he goes on to say, Again, they are entirely wrong when they allege as a mark of Homer's ignorance, that he describes the island of Pharos They are again mistaken when they say that he was not aware of the isthmus between the sea of Egypt and the Arabian Gulf, and that his description is false, He (Crates) adopted this version, because he considered it the more astronomical. But it would have maintained his opinion of the division of the Ethiopians into two parts, and To refute Crates would require a lengthened argument, which here perhaps may be considered out of place. Aristarchus we commend for rejecting the hypothesis of Crates, which is open to many objections, and for referring the expression of the poet to our Ethiopia. But the remainder of his statement we must discuss. First, his minute examination of the reading is altogether fruitless, for whichever way it may have been written, his interpretation is equally applicable to both; for what difference is there whether you say thus—In our opinion there are two Ethiopias, one towards the east, the other to the west; or thus—For they are as well towards the east as the west? Secondly, He makes false assumptions. For admitting that the poet was ignorant of the isthmus, Ethiopia runs in the same direction as Egypt, and resembles it both in its position with respect to the Nile, and in its other geographical circumstances. It is narrow, long, and subject to inundation; beyond the reach of this inundation it is desolate and parched, and unfitted for the habitation of man; some districts lying to the east and some to the west of [the river]. How then can we deny that it is separated into two divisions? Shall the Nile, which is looked upon by some people as the proper boundary line between Asia and Libya, But besides these there is another method of dividing Ethiopia. All those who have sailed along the coasts of Libya, whether starting from the Arabian Gulf, These and other more stringent arguments may be urged against Aristarchus and those of his school, to clear our poet from the charge of such gross ignorance. I assert that the ancient Greeks, in the same way as they classed all the northern nations with which they were familiar under the one name of Scythians, or, according to Homer, Nomades, and And Euripides in his Phaeton Ephorus likewise shows us the opinion of the ancients respecting Ethiopia, in his Treatise on Europe. He says, When therefore he says, It is quite irrational to suppose that he could be accurately acquainted with Egyptian Thebes, These Egyptians and Syrians Our poet applies to rivers the epithet of It is clear that Homer was only acquainted with the rising and deposit of the river in a general way, and concluding from what he heard that the island had been further removed in the time of Menelaus from the mainland, than it was in his own, he magnified the distance, simply that he might heighten the fiction. Fictions however are not the offspring of ignorance, as is sufficiently plain from those concerning Proteus, the Pygmies, the efficacy of charms, and many others similar to these fabricated by the poets. They narrate these things not through ignorance of the localities, but for the sake of giving pleasure and enjoyment. But [some one may in- quire], how could he describe [Pharos], which is without water as possessed of that necessary? As his description of the wanderings of Menelaus may seem to authenticate the charge of ignorance made against him in respect to those regions, it will perhaps be best to point out the difficulties of the narrative, and their explanation, and at the same time enter into a fuller defence of our poet. Menelaus thus addresses Telemachus, who is admiring the splendour of his palace: It is asked, What Ethiopians could he have met with on his voyage from Egypt? None are to be found dwelling by our sea, As to the navigation of the isthmus, or one of the canals, if it had been related by Homer himself, we should have counted it a myth; but as he does not relate it, we regard it as entirely extravagant and unworthy of belief. We say unworthy of belief, because at the time of the Trojan war no canal was in existence. It is recorded that Sesostris, who had planned the formation of one, apprehending that the level of the sea was too high to admit of it, desisted from the undertaking. Moreover the isthmus itself was not passable for ships, and Eratosthenes is unfortunate in his conjecture, for he considers that the strait at the Pillars was not then formed, But what account have we of the formation of this strait, supposing it were not in existence prior to the Trojan war? Is it likely that our poet would make Ulysses sail out through the Strait [of Gibraltar] into the Atlantic Ocean, as if that strait already existed, and at the same time describe Menelaus conducting his ships from Egypt to the Red Sea, as if it did not exist. Further, the poet introduces Proteus as saying to him, But if our poet speaks of the Isthmus of Suez as ever having been the strait of confluence between the Mediterranean and the Red Seas, how much more credit may we attribute to his division of the Ethiopians into two portions, being thus separated by so grand a strait! And what commerce could he have carried on with the Ethiopians who dwelt by the shores of the exterior sea and the ocean? Telemachus and his companions admire the multitude of ornaments that were in the palace, But [we reply], Homer was not acquainted with India, or he would have described it. And though he knew of the Arabia which is now named Felix, at that time it was by no means wealthy, but a wild country, the inhabitants of which dwelt for the most part in tents. It is only a small district which produces the aromatics from which the whole territory afterwards received its name, When, after mentioning Phoenicia, he talks of Sidon, its metropolis, he merely employs a common form of expression, for example, But he had some other cause besides this for mentioning Sidon immediately after having spoken of the Phoenicians: for had he merely desired to recount the nations in order, it would have been quite sufficient to say, But that he might record his sojourn amongst the Sidonians, which was considerably prolonged, he thought it well to refer to it repeatedly. Thus he praises their prosperity and skill in the arts, and alludes to the hospitality the citizens had shown to Helen and Alexander. Thus he tells us of the many [treasures]of this nature laid up in store by Alexander. Many conjectures have been hazarded as to who the Erembi were: they who suppose the Arabs are intended, seem to deserve the most credit. Our Zeno reads the passage thus:— But there is no occasion to tamper with the text, which is of great antiquity; it is a far preferable course to suppose a change in the name itself, which is of frequent and ordinary occurrence in every nation: and in fact certain grammarians establish this view by a comparison of the radical letters. Posidonius seems to me to adopt the better plan after all, in looking for the etymology of names in nations of one stock and community; thus between the Armenians, Syrians, and Arabians there is a strong affinity both in regard to dialect, mode of life, peculiarities of physical conformation, and above all in the contiguity of the countries. Mesopotamia, which is a motley of the three nations, is a proof of this; for the similarity amongst these three is very remarkable. And though in consequence of the various latitudes there may be some difference between those who dwell in the north There are many who would make the Erembi a tribe of the Ethiopians, or of the Cephenes, or again of the Pygmies, and a thousand other fancies. These ought to be regarded with little trust; since their opinion is not only incredible, but they evidently labour under a certain confusion as to the Some again would transport Ethiopia into our Phœnicia, and make Joppa the scene of the adventures of Andromeda; Homer has described to us the phenomena of the ocean under the form of a myth; this [art] is very desirable in a poet; the idea of his Charybdis was taken from the ebb and flow of the tide, and was by no means a pure invention of his own, but derived from what he knew concerning the Strait of Sicily. So the poet, Every word of this indicates a considerable length of time, especially when he prolongs it to the evening, not merely saying at that time when the judge has risen, but having adjudicated on a vast number of cases, and therefore detained longer than usual. Otherwise his account of the return of the wreck would not have appeared likely, if he had brought it back again with the return of the wave, before it had been first carried a long way off. Apollodorus, who agrees with Eratosthenes, throws much blame upon Callimachus for asserting, in spite of his This criticism is just if we suppose the wandering to have never actually occurred, and to be merely the result of Homer's imagination; but if it did take place, although in other regions, Apollodorus ought plainly to have stated which they were, and thus set right the mistake of Callimachus. Since, however, after such evidence as we have produced, we cannot believe the whole account to be a fiction, and since no other more likely places have as yet been named, we hold that the grammarian is absolved from blame. Demetrius of Skepsis is also wrong, and, in fact, the cause of some of the mistakes of Apollodorus. He eagerly objects to the statement of Neanthes of Cyzicus, that the Argonauts, when they sailed to the Phasis, If, however, the expedition to the Phasis, fitted out by Pelias, its return, and the conquest of several islands, have at the bottom any truth whatever, as all say they have, so also has the account of their wanderings, no less than those of Ulysses and Menelaus; monuments of the actual occurrence of which remain to this day elsewhere than in the writings of Homer. The city of Æa, close by the Phasis, is still pointed Out Æetes is generally believed to have reigned in Colchis, the name is still common throughout the country, tales of the sorceress Medea are yet abroad, and the riches of the country in gold, silver, and iron, proclaim the motive of Jason's expedition, as well as of that which Phrixus had formerly undertaken. Traces both of one and the other still remain. Such is Phrixium, Some writers assert that Jason and his companions sailed high up the Ister, others say he sailed only so far as to be able to gain the Adriatic: the first statement results altogether from ignorance; the second, which supposes there is a second Ister having its source from the larger river of the same name, and discharging its waters into the Adriatic, is neither incredible nor even improbable. Starting from these premises, the poet, in conformity both with general custom and his own practice, narrates some circumstances as they actually occurred, and paints others in the colours of fiction. He follows history when he tells us of Æetes and Jason also, when he talks of Argo, and on the authority of [the actual city of Æa], feigns his city of Ææa, when he settles Euneos in Lemnos, and makes that island friendly to Achilles, and when, in imitation of Medea, he makes the sorceress Circe [Here follow the words of Demetrius.] ERATOSTHENES is guilty of another fault in so frequently referring to the works of men beneath his notice, sometimes for the purpose of refuting them; at others, when he agrees with them, in order to cite them as authorities. I allude to Damastes, and such as him, who even when they speak the truth, are utterly unworthy of being appealed to as authorities, or vouchers for the credibility of a statement. For such purposes the writings of trustworthy men should only be employed, who have accurately described much; and though perhaps they may have omitted many points altogether, and barely touched on others, are yet never guilty of wilfully falsifying their statements. To cite Damastes as an authority is little better than to quote the Bergæan, However, this is not all we have to say against him. Of many places he tells us that nothing is known, when in fact they have every one been accurately described. Then he warns us to be very cautious in believing what we are told on such matters, and endeavours by long and tedious arguments to show the value of his advice; swallowing at the same time the most ridiculous absurdities himself concerning the Euxine and Adriatic. Thus he believed the Bay of Issus Having remarked that the ancients, whether out on piratical Again, having discoursed on the advance of knowledge respecting the Geography of the inhabited earth, between the time of Alexander and the period when he was writing, Eratosthenes goes into a description of the figure of the earth; not merely of the habitable earth, an account of which would have been very suitable, but of the whole earth, which should certainly have been given too, but not in this disorderly manner. He proceeds to tell us that the earth is spheroidal, not however perfectly so, inasmuch as it has certain irregularities, he then enlarges on the successive changes of its form, occasioned by water, fire, earthquakes, eruptions, and the like; all of which is entirely out of place, for the spheroidal form of the whole earth is the result of the system of the universe, and the phenomena which he mentions do not in the least change its general form; such little matters being entirely lost in the great mass of the earth. Still they cause various peculiarities in different parts of our globe, and result from a variety of causes. He points out as a most interesting subject for disquisition the fact of our finding, often quite inland, two or three thousand stadia from the sea, vast numbers of muscle, oyster, and scallop-shells, and salt-water lakes. In regard to Strato, however, we must remark that, leaving out of the question the many arguments he has properly stated, some of those which he has brought forward are quite inadmissible. For first he is inaccurate in stating that the beds of the interior and the exterior seas have not the same level, and that the depth of those two seas is different: whereas the cause why the sea is at one time raised, at another depressed, that it inundates certain places and again retreats, is not that the beds have different levels, some higher and some lower, but simply this, that the same beds are at one time raised, at another depressed, causing the sea to rise or subside with them; for having risen they cause an inundation, and when they subside the waters return to their former places. For if it is so, an inundation will of course accompany every sudden increase of the waters of the sea, [as in the spring-tides,] or the periodical swelling of rivers, in the one instance the waters being brought together from distant parts of the ocean, in the other, their volume being increased. But the risings of rivers are not violent and sudden, nor do the tides continue any length of time, nor occur irregularly; nor yet along the coasts of our sea do they cause inundations, nor any where else. Consequently we must seek for an explanation of the cause either in the stratum composing the bed of the sea, or in that which is overflowed; we prefer to look for it in the former, since by reason of its humidity it is more liable to shiftings and sudden changes of position, and we shall find that in these matters the wind is the great agent after all. But, I repeat it, the immediate cause of these phenomena, is not in the fact of one part of the bed of the ocean being higher or lower than another, but in the upheaving or depression of the strata on which the waters rest. Strato's hypothesis evidently originated in the belief that that which occurs in rivers is also the case in regard to the sea; viz. that there is a flow of water from the higher places. Otherwise he would not have attempted to account for the current he observed at the Strait of Byzantium in the manner he does, attributing it to the bed of the Euxine being I rather make this inquiry:—If there were any reason why, before the outlet was opened at Byzantium, the bed of the Euxine (being deeper than either that of the Propontis We would apply the same arguments to the whole of the Mediterranean and Atlantic, and account for the efflux of the former, not by any [supposed] difference between the elevation and inclination of its bed and of that of the Atlantic, but at- These river deposits are prevented from advancing further into the sea by the regularity of the ebb and flow, which continually drive them back. For after the manner of living creatures, which go on inhaling and exhaling their breath continually, so the sea in a like way keeps up a constant motion in and out of itself. Any one may observe who stands on the sea-shore when the waves are in motion, the regularity with which they cover, then leave bare, and then again cover up his feet. This agitation of the sea produces a continual movement on its surface, which even when it is most tranquil has considerable force, and so throws all extraneous matters on to the land, and The wave, as it advances, possesses a kind of power, which some call the purging of the sea, to eject all foreign substances. It is by this force that dead bodies and wrecks are cast on shore. But on retiring it does not possess sufficient power to carry back into the sea either dead bodies, wood, or even the lightest substances, such as cork, which may have been cast out by the waves. And by this means when places next the sea fall down, being undermined by the wave, the earth and the water charged with it are cast back again; and the weight [of the mud] working at the same time in conjunction with the force of the advancing tide, it is the sooner brought to settle at the bottom, instead of being Some, however, may be disinclined to admit this explanation, and would rather have proof from things more manifest to the senses, and which seem to meet us at every turn. Now deluges, earthquakes, eruptions of wind, and risings in the bed of the sea, these things cause the rising of the ocean, as sinking of the bottom causes it to become lower. It is not the case that small volcanic or other islands can be raised up from the sea, and not large ones, nor that all islands can, but not continents, since extensive sinkings of the land no less than small ones have been known; witness the yawning of those chasms which have ingulfed whole districts no less than their cities, as is said to have happened to Bura, However, so nice a fellow is Eratosthenes, that though The nature of the ebb and flow has been sufficiently treated of by Posidonius and Athenodorus. Concerning the flux and reflux of the currents, which also may be explained by physics, it will suffice our present purpose to observe, that in the various straits these do not resemble each other, but each strait has its own peculiar current. Were they to resemble each other,. the current at the Strait of Sicily To what we cited before concerning the temple of Ammon and Egypt, Eratosthenes adds, that to judge from appearances, Mount Casius On the other hand, Hipparchus understands by the term Hipparchus rejects as false the [account] of the inscription on the dolphins In order to lessen surprise at such changes as we have mentioned as causes of the inundations and other similar phenomena which are supposed to have produced Sicily, the islands of Æolus, Many writers have recorded similar occurrences, but it will suffice us to narrate those which have been collected by Demetrius of Skepsis. Apropos of that passage of Homer:— During my stay at Alexandria in Egypt the sea rose so high near Pelusium At the commencement of this work will be found some other narrations of a similar kind, which should be considered at the same time, and which will greatly tend to strengthen our belief both in these works of nature and also in its other changes. The Piræus having been formerly an island, and lying Myrsilus tells us that Antissa Demetrius of Callatis, speaking of the earthquakes which formerly occurred throughout the whole of Greece, states that a great portion of the Lichadian Islands and of Kenæum Those who desire to instil into us that more perfect freedom from [ignorant] wonder, which Democritus and all other philosophers so highly extol, should add the changes which have been produced by the migrations of various tribes: we should thus be inspired with courage, steadiness, and composure. For instance, the Western Iberians, We must now return to the point whence we digressed. Herodotus having observed that there could be no such people as Hyperborean, inasmuch as there were no Hypernotii, It would indeed be strange, since winds blow under every latitude, and especially the southern wind called Notus, if any region could be found where this latter was not felt. On the contrary, not only does Ethiopia experience our Notus, but also the whole country which lies above as far as the equator. If Herodotus must be blamed at all, it is for supposing that the Hyperboreans were so named in consequence of Boreas, or the north wind, not blowing upon them. The poets are allowed much licence in their modes of expression; but their commentators, who endeavour always to give us the correct view, tell us that the people who dwelt in the extreme north, were styled Hyperboreans. The pole is the boundary of the northern Eratosthenes next finds fault with the writers who fill their narrative with stories evidently feigned and impossible; some as mere fable, but others as history, which did not deserve mention. In the discussion of a subject like his, he should not have wasted his time about such trifles. Such is the way in which this writer completes the First Book of his Memoirs. IN his Second Book Eratosthenes endeavours to correct some errors in geography, and offers his own views on the subject, any mistakes in which we shall endeavour in our turn to set right. He is correct in saying that the inductions of mathematics and natural philosophy should be employed, and that if the earth is spheroidal like the universe, it is inhabited in all parts; together with some other things of this nature. Later writers do not agree with him as to the size of the earth, After this he proceeds to determine the breadth of the habitable earth: he tells us, that measuring from the meridian of Meroe We will let pass the rest of his distances, since they are something near,—but that the Dnieper is under the same parallel as Thule, what man in his senses could ever agree to this? Pytheas, who has given us the history of Thule, is known to be a man upon whom no reliance can be placed, and other writers who have seen Britain and Ierne, Further, Hipparchus and many others are of opinion that the parallel of latitude of the Dnieper does not differ Eratosthenes being mistaken as to the breadth [of the habitable earth], is necessarily wrong as to its length. The most accurate observers, both ancient and modern, agree that the known length of the habitable earth is more than twice its breadth. Its length I take to be from the [eastern] extremity of India Further, endeavouring to support the opinion that it is in accordance with natural philosophy to reckon the greatest dimension of the habitable earth from east to west, he says that, according to the laws of natural philosophy, the habitable earth ought to occupy a greater length from east to west, than its breadth from north to south. The temperate zone, which we have already designated as the longest zone, is that which the mathematicians denominate a continuous circle returning upon itself. So that if the extent of the Atlantic Ocean were not an obstacle, we might easily pass by sea from Iberia to India, I take this last part first, and (to use Eratosthenes' own words, not those of Democritus) willing to pick my bone of contention, inquire, whether they who first made the division of the three continents were the same persons as those who first desired to distinguish their own land from that of the Carians opposite, or whether they were only acquainted with Greece, Caria, and some few other adjoining countries, and not with Europe, Asia, or Africa; but that others who followed them, and were able to write a description of the habitable earth, were the real authors of the division into three continents. How did he know that these were not the men who made this division of the habitable earth? And he who divided the earth into three parts, giving to each portion the name of The reasoning of Eratosthenes, however, is still more absurd, when he declares that he sees no advantage in being acquainted with the exact boundaries of countries, and then cites the example of Colyttus and Melitè, which prove just the contrary of his assertion. Surely if a want of certainty respecting the boundaries of Thyrea and Oropus gave rise to war, a knowledge of the limits of different districts must be of practical importance. Will he tell us that the boundaries of districts, or the limits of kingdoms, may be of some service, but when applied to continents it is carrying the matter too far. We reply, it is of equal consequence here. Suppose a dispute between two powerful princes, one claiming the possession of Asia and the other of Africa, to which of these should Egypt, I mean the country called Lower Egypt, appertain. Will any one paws over such cases on account of their rarity? By no means. It is acknowledged by every one that the limits of each continent ought to be defined by some notable boundary, indicated by the configuration of the whole habitable earth. In following out this principle, we should not be At the close of the book Eratosthenes blames the system of those who would divide all mankind into Greeks and Barbarians, and likewise those who recommended Alexander to treat the Greeks as friends, but the Barbarians as enemies. SUMMARY. In the Second Book, having proposed for discussion the [opinions] of Eratosthenes, he examines and refutes whatever that writer may have incorrectly said, determined, or laid down. He likewise brings forward many statements of Hipparchus, which he disproves, and finishes with a short exposition or synopsis of the whole subject, namely, geographical knowledge. IN the Third Book of his Geography Eratosthenes furnishes us with a chart of the habitable earth. This he divides into two portions, by a line running from east to west parallel to the equator. He makes the Pillars of Hercules the boundary of this line to the west, and to the east the farthest ridges of those mountains which bound India on the north. From the Pillars he draws the line through the Strait of Sicily, He then declares that the ancient geographical chart wants revision; that in it the eastern portion of the Taurus But there is another method (says Eratosthenes) of proving this. The distance from the Gulf of Issus to the Euxine, proceeding in a northerly direction towards Amisus Hipparchus tries to invalidate this view of Eratosthenes, by sneering at the proofs on which it rests. Patrocles, he says, merits little credit, being contradicted by the two writers This argument, I think, is in many instances unfounded. Eratosthenes availed himself of the statements of many writers, although Hipparchus alleges he was solely led by Patrocles. Who then are the authors of the statement that the southern extremity of India is under the same parallel as Meroe; and who are they who estimate Besides, the credibility of Patrocles can be proved by a variety of evidence—the princes Again, in the second volume of his Commentaries, Hipparchus accuses Eratosthenes of himself throwing discredit on the statement of Patrocles, on account of his differing with Megasthenes, as to the length of India on its northern side; We reply, that [Eratosthenes] did not object [to the statement of Patrocles] merely because it differed [from that of Megasthenes], but because the statement of this latter as to the stadia was confirmed by the Itinerary, an authority of no mean importance. There is nothing wonderful in this, that though a certain statement may be credible, another may be more credible; and that while in some instances we follow the former, in others we may dissent from it on finding a more trust-worthy guide. It is ridiculous to say that the greater the difference of one writer from others, the less he should be trusted. On the contrary, such a rule would be more applicable in regard to small differences; for in little particulars the ordinary observer and the man of great ability are equally liable to err. On the other hand, in great matters, the ordinary run of men are more like to be deceived than the man of superior talent, to whom consequently in such cases greater deference is paid. Generally speaking, the men who hitherto have written on the affairs of India, were a set of liars. Deimachus holds the first place in the list, Megasthenes comes next, while In like manner, that the voyage from Amisus to Colchis, and the route to the Caspian, and thence on to Bactra, are both due east, is proved by the winds, the seasons, the fruits, and even the sun-risings. Frequently evidence such as this, and general agreement, are more to be relied on than the measurement taken by means of instruments. Hipparchus himself was not wholly indebted to instruments and geometrical calculations for his statement that the Pillars and Cilicia lie in a direct line due east. For But the system of Hipparchus altogether teems with difficulties. Reflect for an instant on the following absurdity; after admitting that the southern extremity of India is under the same degree of latitude as Meroe, and that the distance from Meroe to the Strait of Byzantium is about 18,000 Again, we know that the Cinnamon Country is the most southerly point of the habitable earth. According to Hipparchus's own statement, the latitude of this country, which marks the commencement of the temperate zone, and likewise of the habitable earth, is distant from the equator about 8800 stadia. Let us then transport ourselves to the land opposite the Cinnamon Country, and lying to the east under the same parallel of latitude; we shall there find the country named Taprobane. That there are cold regions in the high and mountainous parts of these countries is not to be wondered at; since in the [more] southern climates the mountains, and even the tablelands, are cold. The districts next the Euxine, in Cappadocia, are much farther north than those adjoining the Taurus. Bagadania, a vast plain, situated between the mountains of Argæus The Oxus, Can one find any fertility to compare with this near to the Dnieper, or that part of Keltica next the ocean, Since therefore the provinces we have just enumerated [are so superior in climate, that they] cannot be compared with the countries surrounding the Bosphorus, nor even the regions of Amisus and Sinope, (for every one will admit that they are much superior to these latter,) it would be idle to compare them with the districts near the Borysthenes and the north of Keltica; for we have shown that their temperature is not so low as Amisus, Sinope, Byzantium, and Marseilles, which are universally acknowledged to be 3700 stadia south of the Dnieper and Keltica. If the followers of Deimachus add to the 30.000 stadia the distance to Taprobane and the boundaries of the torrid zone, which cannot be reckoned less than 4000 stadia, The great fertility of Bactriana, according to Strabo, appeared to be inconsistent with a position so far towards the north. In this he was correct. Hipparchus narrates that at the Dnieper and [the north of] Keltica, during the whole of the summer nights there is one continued twilight from sun-set to sun-rise, but at the winter solstice the sun never rises more than nine cubits above the horizon. Again, Eratosthenes wished to show the ignorance of Deimachus, and his want of information concerning such matters, as proved by his assertion that India lies between the autumnal equinox It is by assuming as a fact that the southern extremity of India is under the same parallel as Meroe, a thing affirmed and believed by most writers, that we shall be best able to show the absurdities of the system of Hipparchus. In the first book of his Commentaries he does not object to this hypothesis, but in the second book he no longer admits it; we must examine his reasons for this. He says, In the instances which follow, Hipparchus, treating of these subjects, either asserts things similar to those which we have already refuted, or takes for granted matters which are not so, or draws improper sequences. For instance, from the computation [of Eratosthenes] that the distance from Babylon to Thapsacus Again, Hipparchus, ever anxious to defend the [accuracy of the] ancient charts, instead of fairly stating the words of Eratosthenes concerning his third section of the habitable earth, wilfully makes him the author of an assertion easy of disproof. For Eratosthenes, following the opinion we before mentioned, that a line drawn from the Pillars of Hercules across the Mediterranean, and the length of the Taurus, would Having in this manner but imperfectly traced the outlines of his second section, the third section, for various reasons, is still less exact. The first cause has been already explained, viz. that the line from the Caspian Gates to Carmania is not clearly defined, as the side of the section is common both to the third and second sections. Secondly, on account of the Persian Gulf interrupting the continuity of It is in this general kind of description of the third section that Eratosthenes supposes 10,000 stadia from the Caspian Gates to the Euphrates. This he again divides according to former admeasurements which he found preserved. Starting from the point where the Euphrates passes near to Thapsacus, he computes from thence to the place where Alexander crossed the Tigris 2400 stadia. The route Thus, says Eratosthenes, we have given you a description of the northern side; as for the southern, we cannot take its measure along the sea, on account of the Persian Gulf, which intercepts [its continuity], but from Babylon through Susa and Persepolis to the confines of Persia and Carmania there are 9200 stadia. This he calls the southern side, but he does not say it is parallel to the northern. The difference of length between the northern and southern sides is caused, he tells us, by the Euphrates, which after running south some distance shifts its course almost due east. Of the two remaining sides, he describes the western first, but whether we are to regard it as one single straight line, or two, seems to be undecided. He says,—From Thapsacus to Babylon, following the course of the Euphrates, there are 4800 stadia; from thence to the mouth of the Euphrates In the Third Section it is true he does make some mistakes, which we shall take into consideration; but they are nothing like the amount which Hipparchus attributes to him. However, we will examine his objections. [In the first place,] he would have the ancient charts left just as they are, and by no means India brought more to the south, as Eratosthenes thinks proper. Indeed, he asserts that the very arguments adduced by that writer only confirm him the more in his opinion. He says, We answer, that if the Caspian Gates and the boundary line of Carmania and Persia were exactly under the same meridian, and if right lines drawn in the direction of Thapsacus and Babylon would intersect such meridian at right angles, But taking this for granted, and proving, as he imagines, that, according to Eratosthenes, Babylon is east of Thapsacus rather more than 1000 stadia, he draws from this false hypothesis a new argument, which he uses to the following purpose; and says, If we suppose a right line drawn from Thapsacus towards the south, and another from Babylon perpendicular thereto, a right-angled triangle would be the result; whose sides should be, 1. A line drawn from Thapsacus to Babylon; 2. A perpendicular drawn from Babylon to the meridian of Thapsacus; 3. The meridian line of Thapsacus. The hypotenuse of this triangle would be a right line drawn from Thapsacus to Babylon, which he estimates at 4800 stadia. The perpendicular drawn from Babylon to the meridian of Thapsacus is scarcely more than 1000 stadia; the same amount by which the line drawn [from the Caspian Gates] to But here, for the formation of his right-angled triangle, Hipparchus not only makes use of propositions already overturned, but assumes what was never granted, namely, that the hypotenuse subtending his right angle, which is the straight line from Thapsacus to Babylon, is 4800 stadia in length. What Eratosthenes says is, that this route follows the course of the Euphrates, and adds, that Mesopotamia and Babylon are encompassed as it were by a great circle formed by the Euphrates and Tigris, but principally by the former of these rivers. So that a straight line from Thapsacus to Babylon would neither follow the course of the Euphrates, nor yet be near so many stadia in length. Thus the argument [of Hipparchus] is overturned. We have stated before, that supposing two lines drawn from There, however, are some instances in which one may justly accuse Eratosthenes. There is a difference in dissecting [In the system of Eratosthenes], the habitable earth has been admirably divided into two parts by the Taurus and the Mediterranean Sea, which reaches to the Pillars. On the southern side, the limits of India have been described by a variety of methods; by its mountains, The fourth section would consist of Arabia Felix, the Arabian Gulf, and the whole of Egypt and Ethiopia. Its length bounded by two meridians, one drawn through its most western point, the other through its most eastern; and its breadth by two parallels through its most northern and southern points. For this is the best way to describe the extent of irregular figures, whose length and breadth cannot be determined by their sides. In general it is to be observed, that length and breadth are to be understood in different ways, according as you speak of the whole or a part. Of a whole, the greater distance is called its length, and the lesser its breadth; of a part, that is to be considered the length which is parallel to the length of the whole, without any regard whether it, or that which is left for the breadth, be the greater distance. The length of the whole habitable earth is measured from east to west by a line drawn parallel to the equator, and its breadth from north to south in the direction of the meridian; consequently, the length of any of the parts ought to be portions of a line drawn parallel to the length of the whole, and their breadth to the breadth of the whole. For, in the first place, by this means the size of the whole habitable earth will be best described; and secondly, the disposition and configuration of its parts, and the manner in which one may be said to be greater or less than another, will be made manifest by thus comparing them. Eratosthenes, however, measures the length of the habitable earth by a line which he considers straight, drawn from the Pillars of Hercules, in the direction of the Caspian Gates and the Caucasus. The length of the third section, by a line drawn from the Caspian Gates to Thapsacus, and of the fourth, by one running from Thapsacus through Heroopolis to the country surrounded by the Nile: this must necessarily be deflected to Canopus and Alexandria, for there is the last mouth of the Nile, which goes by the name of the Canopic We will now return at once to Hipparchus, and see what comes next. Continuing to palm assumptions of his own [upon Eratosthenes], he goes on to refute, with geometrical accuracy, statements which that author had made in a mere general way. To this we reply, that the line drawn from Babylon to Carmania was never intended as a parallel, nor yet that which divides the two sections as a meridian, and that therefore nothing has been laid to his charge, at all events with any just foundation. In fact, Eratosthenes having stated the number of stadia from the Caspian Gates to Babylon as above given, These arguments may be very geometrical, but they are not convincing. After having himself invented these various difficulties, he dismisses them, saying, The fourth section Hipparchus certainly manages better, though he still maintains the same censorious tone, and obstinacy in sticking to his first hypotheses, or others similar. He properly objects to Eratosthenes giving as the length of this section a line drawn from Thapsacus to Egypt, as being similar to the case of a man who should tell us that the diagonal of a parallelogram was its length. For Thapsacus and the coasts of Egypt are by no means under the same parallel of latitude, but under parallels considerably distant from each other, Eratosthenes In another respect also we have to complain of Hipparchus, because, as he had given a category of the statements of Eratosthenes, he ought to have corrected his mistakes, in the same way that we have done; but whenever he has any thing particular to remark, he tells us to follow the ancient charts, which, to say the least, need correction infinitely more than the map of Eratosthenes. The argument which follows is equally objectionable, being founded on the consequences of a proposition which, as we have shown, is inadmissible, namely, that Babylon was not more than 1000 stadia east of Thapsacus; when it was quite clear, from Eratosthenes' own words, that Babylon was above 2400 stadia east of that place; since from Thapsacus to the passage of the Euphrates where it was crossed by Alexander, the shortest route is 2400 stadia, and the Tigris and Euphrates, having encompassed Mesopotamia, flow towards the east, and afterwards take a southerly direction and approach nearer to each other and to Babylon at the same time: nothing appears absurd in this statement of Eratosthenes. The next objection of Hipparchus is likewise false. He attempts to prove that Eratosthenes, in his statement that the route from Thapsacus to the Caspian Gates is 10,000 stadia, gives this as the distance taken in a straight line; such not being the case, as in that instance the distance would be much shorter. His mode of reasoning is after this fashion. He says, To this we reply, that Eratosthenes, as is usual in Geography, speaks of right lines, meridians, and parallels to the equator, with considerable latitude, whereas Hipparchus criticizes him with geometrical nicety, as if every line had been measured with rule and compass. Hipparchus at the same time himself frequently deciding as to right lines and parallels, not by actual measurement, but mere conjecture. Such is the first error of this writer. A second is, that he never lays down the distances as Eratosthenes has given them, nor yet reasons on the data furnished by that writer, but from mere assumptions of his own coinage. Thus, where Eratosthenes states that the distance from the mouth of the [Thracian Bosphorus] to the Phasis is 8000 stadia, from thence to Dioscurias In the second book of his Commentaries, Hipparchus, having again mooted the question concerning the mountains of the Taurus, of which we have spoken sufficiently, proceeds with the northern parts of the habitable earth. He then notices the statement of Eratosthenes concerning the countries situated west of the Euxine, It is doubtless permissible in very great distances to consider as under one and the same meridian places which are not more east and west of each other than Carthage is west of the Strait; Since Hipparchus does not furnish a Geography of his own, but merely reviews what is said in that of Eratosthenes, he ought to have gone farther, and corrected the whole of that writer's mistakes. As for ourselves, it is only in those particulars where Eratosthenes is correct (and we acknowledge that he frequently errs) that we have thought it our duty to quote his own words, in order to reinstate them in their position, and to defend him when he could be acquitted of the charges of Hipparchus; never failing to break a lance with the latter writer whenever his objections seemed to be the result of a mere propensity to find fault. But when Eratosthenes is grossly mistaken, and the animadversions of Hipparchus are just, we have thought it sufficient in our Geography to set him (Eratosthenes) right by merely stating facts as they are. As the mistakes were so continual and numerous, it was better not to mention them except in a sparse and general manner. This principle in the details we shall strive to carry out. In the present instance we shall only remark, that Timosthenes, Eratosthenes, and those who preceded them, were but ill acquainted with Iberia and Keltica, WE will now proceed to examine the statements made by Posidonius in his Treatise on the Ocean. This Treatise contains much geographical information, sometimes given in a manner conformable to the subject, at others too mathematical. It will not, therefore, be amiss to look into some of his statements, both now and afterwards, as opportunity occurs, taking care to confine ourselves within bounds. He deals simply with geography, when he tells us that the earth is spheroidal and the universe too, and admits the necessary consequences of this hypothesis, one of which is, that the earth contains five zones. Posidonius informs us that Parmenides was the first to make this division of the earth into five zones, but that he almost doubled the size of the torrid zone, which is situated between the tropics, by bringing it beyond these into the temperate zones. If of the more recent measurements we prefer those which diminish the size of the earth, such as that adopted by Posidonius, which is about 180,000 stadia, Posidonius, who himself divides the earth into zones, tells us that POLYBIUS supposes six zones: two situated between the poles and the arctic circles; two between the arctic circles and the tropics; and two between the tropics which are divided by the equator. However, it appears to me that the The propriety of this division in regard to geography is equally apparent; the object of this science being to determine the limits of that one of the temperate zones which we in- habit. To the east and west, it is true, the boundaries are formed by the sea, but to the north and south they are indicated by the atmosphere; which in the middle is of a grate- ful temperature both to animals and plants, but on either side is rendered intemperate either through excess or defect of heat. To manifest this threefold difference, the division of tile globe into five zones becomes necessary. In fact, the division of the globe, by means of the equator, into two hemispheres, the one northern, wherein we dwell, and the other southern, points to this threefold division, for the regions next the equator and torrid zone are uninhabitable on account of the heat, those next the poles on account of the cold, but those in the middle are mild, and fitted for the habitation of man. Posidonius, in placing two zones under the tropics, pays no regard to the reasons which influenced the division into five zones, nor is his division equally appropriate. It is no more than if he were to form his division into zones merely according to the [countries inhabited] by different nations, calling one Polybius, indeed, is wrong in bounding certain of his zones by the arctic circles, Posidonius blames Polybius for asserting that the region of the earth, situated under the equator, is the highest, since a spherical body being equal all round, no part can be described as high; and as to mountainous districts, there are none under the equator, it is on the contrary a flat country, about the same level as the sea; as for the rains which swell the Nile, they descend from the mountains of Ethiopia. Although advancing this, he afterwards seems to adopt the other opinion, for he says that he fancies there may be mountains under the equator, around which the clouds assembling from both of the temperate zones, produce violent rains. Here is one manifest contradiction; again, in stating that the land under the equator is mountainous, another contradiction ap- pears. For they say that the ocean is confluent, how then can they place mountains in the midst of it? unless they mean to say that there are islands. However, whether such be the fact does not lie within the province of geography to determine, the inquiry would better be left to him who makes the ocean in particular his study. Posidonius, in speaking of those who have sailed round Africa, tells us that Herodotus was of opinion that some of those sent out by Darius actually performed this enterprise; [He fancied that he had made his fortune], however, he was greatly deceived, for Euergetes took possession of the whole treasure. On the death of that prince, his widow, Cleopatra, However, he carried the prow into the market-place, and exhibited it to the pilots, who recognised it as being come from Gades. From this Eudoxus drew the conclusion, that it was possible to circumnavigate Libya; he therefore returned home, and having collected together the whole of his substance, set out on his travels. First he visited Dicæarchia, This, however, was prevented on account of the fear of the [king's] advisers, lest the district should chance to expose then to treachery, by making known a route by which foreigners might come to attack them. Eudoxus, however, became aware, that although it was given out that he was himself to be sent on this proposed expedition, the real intent was to aban- don him on some desert island. He therefore fled to the Roman territory, and passed thence into Iberia. Again, he equipped two vessels, one round and the other long, furnished with fifty oars, the latter framed for voyaging in the high seas. the other for coasting along the shores. He placed on board agricultural implements, seed, and builders, and hastened on the same voyage, determined, if it should prove too long, to winter on the island he had before observed, sow his seed. However, he is right in attributing to earthquakes and other similar causes, which we also have enumerated, the risings, slips, and changes which at various periods come over the earth. He did well, too, in citing the opinion of Plato, Next he undertakes to find fault with those who gave In praising the division of the continents as it now stands, he advances as an argument the difference between the Indians and the Ethiopians of Libya, the former being more robust, and less dried by the heat of the climate. It is on this account that Homer, who includes them all under the title of Ethiopians, describes them as being separated into two divisions, First, then, the Ethiopians next Egypt are actually separated into two divisions; one part being in Asia, the other in Libya, otherwise there is no distinction between them. But it was not on this account that Homer divided the Ethiopians, nor yet because he was acquainted with the physical superiority of the Indians, (for it is not probable that Homer had the slightest idea of the Indians, since, according to the assertion of Eudoxus, Euergetes was both ignorant of India, and of the voyage thither,) but his division rather resulted from the cause we formerly mentioned. We have shown that as for the alteration of Crates, it makes no difference whether it be read so or not. Posidonius, however, says that it does make a difference, and would be better altered into POLYBIUS, in his Chorography of Europe, tells us that it is not his intention to examine the writings of the ancient geographers, but the statements of those who have criticised them, Polybius asks, This argument, The ignorance of Eratosthenes respecting the western and northern portions of Europe, we have before remarked. But both he and Dicæarchus must be pardoned for this, as neither of them were personally familiar with those localities. But how can one excuse Polybius and Posidonius? especially Polybius, who treats as mere hearsay what Eratosthenes and Dicæarchus report concerning the distances of various places; and many other matters, about which, though he blames them, he is not himself free from error. Dicæarchus states that there are 10,000 stadia from the Peloponnesus to the Pillars, and something above this number from the Peloponnesus to the recess of the Adriatic. True, dear Polybius, (one might say,) this error [of Dicæarchus] is manifested by the proof which you yourself have given when you inform us that from the Peloponnesus to Leucas In addition to this, the perpendicular After this Polybius proceeds to set right the mistakes of' Eratosthenes. In this he is sometimes successful; at others his corrections are for the worse. For example, Eratosthenes gives 300 stadia from Ithaca to Corcyra; Polybius makes it above 900. From Epidamnus to Thessa- lonica Eratosthenes allows 900 stadia; Polybius says above 2000. In these instances he is correct. But where Era- tosthenes states that from Marseilles to the Pillars there are 7000 stadia, and from the Pyrenees [to the same place] 6000, and Polybius alters this to more than 9000 from Mar- seilles, and little less than 8000 from the Pyrenees, Again, however, Polybius makes an incorrect assertion, in stating that the whole length of Europe is unequal to that of Africa and Asia taken together. He tells us "that the en- Equally unworthy of credit is the statement of those who tell us, that the Don rises in the vicinity of the Danube, and flows from the west; they do not remember that between these are the Dniester, the Dnieper, and the Bog, all great rivers, which flow [into the Euxine Sea]; one runs parallel to the Danube, the other two to the Don. Now if at the present day we are ignorant of the sources both of the Dniester, and also of the Dnieper and Bog, the regions farther north must certainly be still less known. It is therefore a fictitious and idle assertion, that the Don crosses these rivers, and then turns northward on its way to discharge itself into the Mæbtis, it being well known that the outlets to this river are in the most northern and eastern portions of the lake. No less idle is the statement which has also been advanced. that the Don, after crossing the Caucasus, flows northward and then turns towards the Mæotis. Further, the length of the inhabited earth is measured on a line parallel with the equator, as it is in this direction that its greatest length lies: in the same way with respect to each of the continents, we must take their length as it lies between two meridians. The measure of these lengths consists of a certain number of stadia, which we obtain either by going over the places themselves, or roads or ways parallel thereto. Polybius abandons this method, and adopts the new way of taking the segment of the northern semicircle comprised between the summer rising and the equinoctial rising. But no one ought to calculate by variable rules or measures in determining the length of fixed distances: nor yet should he make use of the phenomena of the heavens, which appear different when observed from different points, for distances which have their length determined by themselves and remain unchanged. The length of a country never varies, but depends upon itself; whereas, the equinoctial rising and setting, and the summer and winter rising and setting, depend not on themselves, but on our position [with respect to them]. As we shift from place to place, the equinoctial rising and setting, and the winter and summer rising and setting, shift with us; but the length of a continent always- remains the same. To make the Don and the Nile the bounds of -these continents, is nothing out of the way, but it is something strange to employ for this purpose the equinoctial rising and the summer rising. Of the many promontories formed by Europe, a better description is given by Polybius than by Eratosthenes; but even his is not sufficient. Eratosthenes only names three; one at the Pillars of Hercules, where Iberia is situated; a second at the Strait of Sicily, and containing Italy; the third terminated by the Cape of Malea, However, we will set to rights each of these errors separately, as we meet with them, as well as the other blunders into which he has fallen in his description of Europe, and the journey round Africa. For the present we think that we have sufficiently dwelt on those of our predecessors whom we have thought proper to introduce as testimonies in our behalf, that both in the matter of correction and addition we had ample cause to undertake the present work. AFTER these criticisms on the writers who have preceded us, we must now confine our attention to the ful- filment of our promise. We start with a maxim we laid down at the commencement, that whoever undertakes to write a Chorography, should receive as axioms certain physical and mathematical propositions, and frame the rest of his work in accordance with, and in full reliance on, these principles. We have already stated [our opinion], that neither builder nor architect could build house or city properly and as it ought to be, unless acquainted with the Represent to the mind on one and the same plane-surface Iberia and India with the intermediate countries, and define likewise the west, the east, and the south, which are common to every country. To a man already acquainted with the arrangement and motions of the heavens, and aware that in reality the surface of the earth is spherical, although here for the sake of illustration represented as a plane, this will give a sufficiently exact idea of the geographical [position of the various countries], but not to one who is unacquainted with those matters. The tourist travelling over vast plains like those of Babylon, or journeying by sea, may fancy that the whole country stretched before, behind, and on either side of him is a plane-surface; he may be unacquainted with the counter- indications of the celestial phenomena, and with the motions and appearance of the sun and stars, in respect to us. But such facts as these should ever be present to the mind of those who compose Geographies The traveller, whether by sea or land, is directed by certain common appearances, which answer equally for the direction both of the unlearned and of the man of the world. Ignorant of astronomy, and unacquainted with the varied aspect of the heavens, he be- Those who write on the science of Geography should trust entirely for the arrangement of the subject they are engaged on to the geometers, who have measured the whole earth; they in their turn to astronomers; and these again to natural philosophers. Now natural philosophy is one of the perfect sciences. The The earth and heavens are spheroidal. The tendency of all bodies having weight, is to a centre. Further, the earth being spheroidal, and having the same The heavens and the earth must be supposed to be divided each into five zones, and the celestial zones to possess the same names as those below. The motives for such a division into zones we have already detailed. These zones may be distinguished by circles drawn parallel to the equator, on either side of it. Two of these will separate the torrid from the temperate zones, and the remaining two, the temperate from the frigid. To each celestial circle there shall be one corresponding on earth, and bearing the same name, and likewise zone for zone. The [two] zones capable of being inhabited, are styled temperate. The remaining [three] are uninhabitable, one on account of the heat, the others because of the extreme cold. The same is the case with regard to the tropical, and also to the arctic circles, in respect of those countries for which arctic circles can be said to exist. Circles on the earth are supposed, corresponding to those in the heavens, and bearing the same name, one for one. As the whole heaven is separated into two parts by its equator, it follows that the earth must, by its equator, be similarly divided. The two hemispheres, both celestial and It is clear that we are in one or other of these hemi- spheres, namely, the north; we cannot be in both: Assuming these data, and availing himself likewise of astronomical observations, by which the position of every place is properly determined, whether with respect to the circles parallel to the equator, or to those which cut these latter at right angles, in the direction of the poles, the geometer measures the region in which he dwells, and [judges of the extent of] others by comparing the distance [between the corresponding celestial signs]. By this means he discovers the distance from the equator to the pole, which is a quarter of the largest circle of the earth; having obtained this, he has only to multiply by four, the result is the [measure of the] perimeter of the globe. In the same manner as he who takes the measures of the earth, borrows the foundation of his calculations from the astronomer, who himself is indebted to the natural philosopher, so in like manner the geographer adopts certain facts laid down as established by the geometer, before setting forth his Let it be supposed that the earth and sea together form a spheroidal body, and preserve one and the same level in all the seas. For though some portions of the earth may be higher, yet this bears so small a relation to the size of the whole mass, as need not be noticed. The spheroid in consequence is not so minutely exact as one might be made by the aid of a turner's instrument, or as would answer the definition of a geometer, still in general appearance, and looked at roughly, it is a spheroid. Let the earth be supposed to consist of five zones, with (1.) the equatorial circle described round it, (2.) another parallel to this, Each of these [quarters] should be supposed to contain a four-sided district, its northern side being composed of one half of the parallel next the pole; its southern, by the half of the equator; and its remaining sides, by [two] segments of the circle drawn through the poles, opposite to each other, and equal in length. In one of these quadrilaterals (which of them is of no consequence) the earth that we inhabit is situated, surrounded by sea, and similar to an island. This, as we said before, is evident both to our senses and to our reason. But should any one doubt thereof, it makes no difference so far as Geography is concerned, whether you suppose the portion of the earth we inhabit to be an island, or only admit what we know from experience, viz. that whether you start Let it be supposed that this island is contained in one of the above quadrilaterals; we must obtain its apparent magnitude by subtracting our hemisphere from the whole extent of the earth, from this take the half, and from this again the quadrilateral, in which we state our earth to be situated. We may judge also by analogy of the figure of the whole earth, by supposing that it accords with those parts with which we are acquainted. Now as the portion of the northern hemisphere, between the equator and the parallel next the [north] pole, resembles a vertebre or joint of the back-bone in shape, and as the circle which passes through the pole divides at the same time the hemisphere and the vertebre into two halves, thus forming the quadrilateral; it is clear that this quadrilateral to which the Atlantic is adjacent, is but the half of the vertebre; while at the same time the inhabited earth, which is an island in this, and shaped like a chlamys or soldier's cloak, occupies less than the half of the quadrilateral. This is evident from geometry, also These calculations are nearly synonymous with those furnished by Hipparchus, who tells us, that supposing the size of the globe as stated by Eratosthenes to be correct, we can then subtract from it the extent of the inhabited earth, since in noting the celestial appearances [as they are seen] in different countries, it is not of much importance whether we make use of this measure, or that furnished by later writers. Now as the whole circle of the equator according to Eratosthenes contains 252,000 stadia, the quarter of this would be 63,000, that is, the space from the equator to the pole contains fifteen of the sixty divisions It is evident that Syene is under the tropic, from the fact that during the summer solstice the gnomon at mid-day casts no shadow there. As for the meridian of Syene, it follows very nearly the course of the Nile from Meroe to Alexandria, a distance of about 10,000 stadia. Syene itself is situated about mid-way between these places, consequently from thence to Meroe is a distance of 5000 stadia. Advancing 3000 stadia southward in a right line, we come to lands unfitted for habitation on account of the heat. Consequently the parallel which bounds these places, and which is the same as that of the Cinnamon Country, is to be regarded as the boundary and commencement of the habitable earth on the south. If, then, 3000 stadia be added to the 5000 between Syene and Meroe, there will be altogether 8000 stadia [from Syene] to the [southern] extremity of the habitable earth. But from Syene to the equator there are 16,800 stadia, (for such is the amount of the four-sixtieths, each sixtieth being equivalent to 4200 stadia,) and consequently from the [southern] boundaries of the habitable earth to the equator there are 8800 stadia, and from Alexandria 21,800. Taking therefore these distances, which have been ascertained by voyages, we have only to find out how far beyond the Dnieper the land is habitable, (being careful always to continue in the same straight line,) and we shall arrive at a knowledge of the northern boundaries of our earth. Beyond the Dnieper dwell the Roxolani, It is true that Pytheas of Marseilles affirms that the farthest country north of the British islands is Thule; for which place he says the summer tropic and the arctic circle is all one. But he records no other particulars concerning it; [he does not say] whether Thule is an island, or whether it continues habitable up to the point where the summer tropic becomes one with the arctic circle. If on the one hand the parallels of Byzantium and Marseilles are the same, as Hipparchus asserts on the faith of Pytheas, (for he It is generally admitted that a line drawn from the Pillars of Hercules, and passing over the Strait [of Messina], Athens, and Rhodes, would lie under the same parallel of latitude. The Pillars of Hercules, or Strait of Gibraltar, 360. The Strait of Messina, 38° 12′. Athens, 38° 5′. The middle of the Isle of Rhodes, 36° 18′; and the city, 36° 28′ 30″. If, then, to the distance between Rhodes and the Dnieper be added four thousand stadia north of the latter place, the whole would come to 12,700 stadia; and since from Rhodes to the southern limit of the habitable earth there are 16,600 stadia, its total breadth from north to south would be under 30,000 stadia. We have now been tracing upon a spherical surface the region which we state to be occupied by the habitable earth; and whoever would represent the real earth as near as possible by artificial means, should make a globe like that of Crates, and upon this describe the quadrilateral within which his chart of geography is to be placed. For this purpose, however, a large globe is necessary, since the section mentioned, though but a very small portion of the entire sphere, must be capable of properly containing all the regions of the habitable earth, and presenting an accurate view of them to all those who wish to consult it. Any one who is able will certainly do well to obtain such a globe. But it should have a diameter of not less than ten feet: those who cannot obtain a globe of this size, or one nearly as large, had better draw their chart on a plane- surface, of not less than seven feet. Draw straight lines, some parallel, for the parallels [of latitude], and others at right angles to these; we may easily imagine how the eye can transfer the figure and extent [of these lines] from a plane-surface to one that is spherical. What we have just observed of the circles in general, may be said with equal truth touching the oblique circles. On the globe it is true that the meridians of each country passing the pole have a tendency to unite in a single point, nevertheless on the plane- surface of the map, there would be no advantage if the right lines alone which should represent the meridians were drawn slightly to converge. The necessity for such a proceeding would scarcely ever be really felt. Even on our globe itself In what follows we shall suppose the chart drawn on a plane-surface; and our descriptions shall consist of what we ourselves have observed in our travels by land and sea, and of what we conceive to be credible in the statements and writings of others. For ourselves, in a westerly direction we In the same way, the generals perform every thing, nevertheless, they are not present every where, but most of their success depends on others, since they are obliged to trust to messengers, and issue their commands in accordance with the reports of others. To pretend that those only can know who have themselves seen, is to deprive hearing of all confidence, which, after all, is a better servant of knowledge than sight itself. Writers of the present day can describe with more certainty [than formerly] the Britons, the Germans, and the dwellers on either side of the Danube, the Getæ, The entrance of a Roman army into Arabia Felix under the command of my friend and companion Ælius Gallus, Our first and most imperative duty In its figure the habitable earth resembles a chlamys, or soldier's cloak, the greatest breadth of which would be indicated by a line drawn in the direction of the Nile, commencing from the parallel of the Cinnamon Country, and the Island of the Egyptian Exiles, and terminating at the parallel of Ierna; and its length by a line drawn from the west at right angles to the former, passing by the Pillars of Hercules and the Strait of Sicily to Rhodes and the Gulf of Issus, We must therefore fancy to ourselves a parallelogram, and within it a chlamys-shaped figure, described in such a manner that the length of the one figure may correspond to the length and size of the other, and likewise breadth to breadth. The habitable earth will therefore be represented by this kind of chlamys. We have before said that its breadth is marked out by parallels bounding its sides, and separating on either side the portions that are habitable from those that are not. On the north [these parallels] pass over Ierna, Posidonius relates, that from the top of a high house in a town about 400 stadia distant from the places mentioned, he perceived a star which he believed to be Canopus, both in consequence of the testimony of those who having proceeded a little to the south of Iberia affirmed that they could perceive it, and also of the tradition preserved at Cnidus; for the observatory of Eudoxus, from whence he is reported to have viewed Canopus, is not much higher than these houses; and Cnidus is under the same parallel as Rhodes, which is likewise that of Gades and its sea-coast. Sailing thence, Libya lies to the south. Its most western portions project a little beyond Gades; it afterwards Such being the configuration of the whole earth, it will be convenient to take two straight lines, cutting each other at right angles, and running the one through its greatest length, and the other through its breadth. The former of these lines will represent one of the parallels, and the latter one of the meridians. The ocean it is which principally divides the earth into various countries, and moulds its form. It creates bays, seas, straits, isthmuses, peninsulas, and capes; while rivers and mountains serve to the same purpose. It is by these means that continents, nations, and the position of cities are capable of being clearly distinguished, together with those various other details of which a chorographical chart is full. Amongst these latter are the multitude of islands scattered throughout the seas, and along every coast; each of them distinguished by some good or bad quality, by certain advantages or disadvantages, due either to nature or to art. The natural advantages [of a place] should always be mentioned, since they are permanent. Advantages which are adventitious are liable to change, although the majority of those which have continued for any length of time should not be passed over, nor even those which, although but recent, have yet acquired some note and celebrity. For those which continue, come to be regarded by posterity not as works of art, but as the natural advantages of the place; these therefore it is evident we must notice. True it is, that to many a city we may apply the reflection of Demosthenes Still we are gratified by visiting these and similar localities, being desirous of beholding the traces of such celebrated places, and the tombs of famous men. In like manner we should record laws and forms of government no longer in existence, since these are serviceable to have in mind, equally with the remembrance of actions, whether for the sake of imitating or avoiding the like. Continuing our former sketch, we now state that the earth which we inhabit contains numerous gulfs, formed by the exterior sea or ocean which surrounds it. Of these there are four principal. The northern, called the Caspian, by others designated the Hyrcanian Sea, the Persian and Arabian Gulfs, formed by the [Southern] Sea, the one being nearly opposite to the Caspian, the other to the Euxine; the fourth, which in size is much more considerable than the others, is called the Internal and Our Sea. This gulf, The portion of the sea which washes Libya is called the Libyan Sea; that surrounding the land opposite is designated by the respective names of the Iberian, the Ligurian, After Sicily and the straits on either side of it, The Lesser Syrtes The Sea of Sicily washes Italy, from the Strait of Rhegium The Ionian Gulf forms part of what we now call the Adriatic. The Adriatic stretches north and west; it is long and narrow, being in length about 6000 stadia, and its greatest breadth Next to the Sea of Sicily, are the Cretan, Saronic, Here too is the strait, seven stadia in length, which is between Sestos To the north of the eastern Gulf of the Pontus, is the Lake Mæotis, whose perimeter is 9000 stadia or rather more. It communicates with the Euxine by means of the Cimmerian Bosphorus, Such and so great is the extent of the Ægæan Sea towards the north. That part of the Mediterranean Sea which washes the coasts of Cilicia and Pamphylia together with the right side of the Euxine, the Propontis, and the sea-coast beyond this as far as Pamphylia, form a kind of extensive Chersonesus, the isthmus of which is also large, and reaches from the sea near Tarsus To speak shortly, the southernmost point of Our Sea is the recess of the Greater Syrtes; We must now describe the countries which surround it; and here we will begin from the same point, whence we commenced our description of the sea itself. Entering the Strait at the Pillars, Libya, as far as the river Nile, is on the right hand, and to the left, on the other side of the Strait, is Europe, as far as the Don. Asia bounds both these continents. We will commence with Europe, both because its figure is more varied, and also because it is the quarter most favourable to the mental and social ennoblement of man, and produces a greater portion of comforts than the other continents. Now the whole of Europe is habitable with the exception of a small part, which cannot be dwelt in, on account of the severity of the cold, and which borders on the Hamaxœci, Europe has thus within itself resources both for war [and peace]. It is amply supplied with warriors, and also with men fitted for the labours of agriculture, and the life of the towns. It is likewise distinguished for producing in perfection those fruits of the earth necessary to life, and all the useful metals. Perfumes and precious stones must be imported from abroad, but as far as the comfort of life is concerned, the want or the possession of these can make no difference. The country like- wise abounds in cattle, while of wild beasts the number is but small. Such is the general nature of this continent. We will now describe separately the various countries into which it is divided. The first of these on the west is Iberia, which resembles the hide of an ox [spread out]; the eastern portions, which correspond to the neck, adjoining the neighbouring country of Gaul. The two countries are divided on this side by the chain of mountains called the Pyrenees; on all its other sides it is surrounded by sea; on the south, as far as the Pillars, by Our Sea; and thence to the northern extremity of the Pyrenees by the Atlantic. The greatest length of this country is about 6000 stadia, its breadth 5000. East of this is Keltica, which extends as far as the Rhine. Its northern side is washed by the entire of the British Channel, for this island lies opposite and parallel to it throughout, extending as much as 5000 stadia in length. Its eastern side is bounded by the river Rhine, whose stream runs parallel with the Pyrenees; and its southern side commencing from the Rhine, [is bounded] partly by the Alps, and partly by Our Sea; where what is called the Galatic Gulf The Alps are inhabited by numerous nations, but all Keltic with the exception of the Ligurians, and these, though of a different race, closely resemble them in their manner of life. They inhabit that portion of the Alps which is next the Apennines, and also a part of the Apennines themselves. This latter mountain ridge traverses the whole length of Italy from north to south, and terminates at the Strait of Sicily. The first parts of Italy are the plains situated under the Alps, as far as the recess of the Adriatic and the neighbouring places. After Italy and Keltica, the remainder of Europe extends towards the east, and is divided into two by the Danube. This river flows from west to east, and discharges itself into the Euxine Sea, leaving on its left the entire of Germany commencing from the Rhine, as well as the whole of the Getæ, Fronting Europe lie the islands which we have mentioned. Without the Pillars, Gadeira, From the Don and the Mæotis Secondly, but still on this side the Taurus, are the countries above the Sea of Hyrcania as far as the Indians and Next these on this side the Taurus are the mountaineers of Paropamisus, and various tribes of Parthians, Medes, Armenians, Cilicians, with After Asia comes Libya, which adjoins Egypt and Ethiopia. The coast next us, from Alexandria almost to the Pillars, is in a straight line, with the exception of the Syrtes, the sinuosities of some moderately sized bays, and the projection of the promontories by which they are formed. The side next the ocean from Ethiopia up to a certain point is almost parallel to the former; but after this the southern portions become narrowed into a sharp peak, extending a little beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and giving to the country something the figure of a trapezium. Its appearance, both by the accounts of other writers, and also the description given to ourselves by Cnæus Piso, who was governor of this province, is that of a panther's skin, being dotted over with habitations surrounded by parched and desert land: these habitations the Egyptians call Auases. It now remains for us to speak of the climata. To enter fully into this subject is the duty of astronomers. This has been done by Hipparchus, who has noted down (as he says) the differences of the heavenly appearances for every degree of that quarter of the globe in which our habitable earth is situated, namely, from the equator to the north pole. What is beyond our habitable earth it is not however the business of the geographer to consider. Nor yet even in regard to the various parts of the habitable earth must too minute and numerous differences be noticed, since to the man of the world they are perplexing; it will suffice to give the most striking and simple of the statements of Hipparchus. Assuming, as he does himself after the assertion of Eratos- thenes, that the circumference of the earth is 252,000 stadia, the differences of the [celestial] phenomena will not be great for each [degree] within the limits between which the habitable earth is contained. Supposing we cut the grand circle of the earth into 360 divisions, each of these divisions will consist of 700 stadia. This is the calculation adopted by [Hipparchus] to fix the distances, which [as we said] should be taken under the before-mentioned meridian of Meroe. He commences at the regions situated under the equator, and stopping from time to time at every 700 stadia along the whole length of the meridian above mentioned, proceeds to describe the celestial phenomena as they appear from each. But the equator is not the place for us to start from. For even if there be there a habitable region, as some suppose, it forms a habitable earth to itself, a narrow slip enclosed by the regions uninhabitable on account of the heat; and can be no part of our habitable earth. Now the geographer should attend to none but our own habitable earth, which is confined by certain boundaries; on the south by the parallel which passes over the Cinnamon Country; He tells us that the people who dwell under the parallel of the Cinnamon Country, which he places at 3000 stadia south of Meroe, The Arabian Gulf lies eastward parallel to the said meridian. Its egress At Meroe and Ptolemais In all the countries situated between the tropic and the equatorial circle, the shadows fall [alternately] on either side, north and south. In those which are north of Syene and beyond the summer tropic the shadows at mid-day fall to the north. The former are called amphiscii, the latter heteroscii. There is also another method of determining what places are under the tropic, which we spoke of in our observations on the zones. The soil is sandy, arid, and produces nothing but silphium, while more to the south the land is well irrigated and fertile. In the countries situated about 400 stadia south of the parallel of Alexandria and Cyrene, where the longest day consists of fourteen equinoctial hours, Arcturus passes the zenith, slightly declining towards the south. At Alexandria at the time of the equinox the proportion which the gnomon bears to the shadow is as five to seven. At Ptolemais in Phœnicia, In the parts of the Troad next Alexandria About Byzantium the longest day consists of fifteen and a quarter equinoctial hours; the proportion borne by the gnomon to the shadow at the summer solstice, is as 120 to 42, minus one-fifth. These places are distant In regions 3800 stadia north of Byzantium the longest day consists of sixteen equinoctial hours; the constellation Cassiopeia being brought within the arctic circle. These regions are situated around [the mouth of] the Dnieper and the southern parts of the Mæotis, at a distance from the equator of 34,100 stadia; and the northern part of the horizon during almost all the summer nights is illuminated by the light of the sun; a certain degree of light continuing from sunset to sunrise. For the summer tropic is distant from the The countries beyond this which border upon the regions uninhabitable on account of their cold, have no interest to the geographer. He who desires to learn about them, and the celestial phenomena which Hipparchus has described, but which we pass over as being too much in detail for our present undertaking, must seek for them in that author. The statements of Posidonius concerning the periscii, the amphiscii, and the heteroscii are likewise too detailed. Still we must touch on these points sufficiently to explain his view, and to point out how far such matters are serviceable in geography, and how far not. The terms made use of refer to the shadows cast from the sun. The sun appears to the senses to describe a circle parallel to that of the earth. HAVING thus given a general view of Geography, it will now be proper to describe each separate country in detail, as we engaged to do. We fancy that the method which we have adopted in the division of our subject, up to this point, has been correct; and we now re-commence with Europe and the various countries into which it is divided, on the same principles as formerly, and induced by the same reasons. The first division of this continent towards the west is Iberia, as we before stated. The greater part of this country is but little fitted for habitation; consisting chiefly of mountains, woods, and plains covered with a light meagre soil, the irrigation of which is likewise uncertain The part next the north, which borders on the ocean, is extremely cold, and besides its rugged character, has no communication or intercourse with other [countries], and thus to dwell there is attended with peculiar hardship. Such is the character of this portion; on the other hand, almost the whole of the south is fertile, especially what is beyond the Pillars [of Hercules]. This however will be shown more in detail, but we must first describe the figure and extent [of the country]. In shape it resembles a hide stretched out in length from west to east, the forepart CAS. 137. We will now commence our detailed account, beginning from the Sacred Promontory. This is the most western point not only of Europe, but of the whole habitable earth. For the habitable earth is bounded to the west by two continents, namely, the extremities of Europe and Libya, It is quite possible that these things are so, and we ought not to disbelieve them. Not so however with regard to the other common and vulgar reports; for Posidonius tells us the common people say that in the countries next the ocean the sun appears larger as he sets, and makes a noise resembling the sound of hot metal in cold water, as though the sea were hissing as the sun was submerged in its depths. The statement [of Artemidorus] is also false, that night follows immediately on the setting of the sun: it does not follow immediately, although certainly the interval is short, as in other great seas. For when he sets behind mountains the agency of the false light continues the day for a long period; over the sea the twilight is shorter, still darkness does not immediately supervene. The same thing may be remarked in large plains. The image of the sun is enlarged on the seas at its rising as well as at its setting, because at these times a larger mass of The sea-coast next the Sacred Promontory forms on one side the commencement of the western coast of Spain as far as the outlet of the river Tagus; and on the other forms the southern coast as far as the outlet of another river, named the Guadiana. From this river Between this coast, where the Guadalquiver and Guadiana discharge themselves, and the extremities of Maurusia, the Atlantic Ocean forms the strait at the Pillars [of Hercules] by which it is connected with the Mediterranean. Here is situated Calpe, Next to these is Mellaria, Next after [Cadiz] is the port of Menestheus, It was no doubt a temple to Diana, who was named TURDETANIA lies above the coast on this side the Guadiana, After this city and that of the Gaditanians, Hispalis After these are Italica, A vast number of people dwell along the Guadalquiver; and you may sail up it almost There is much silver found in the parts about Ilipas and Sisapo, both in that which is called the old town and the new. There are copper and gold about the Cotinæ. Turdetania, on the other hand, is marvellously fertile, and abounds in every species of produce. The value of its productions is doubled by means of exportation, the surplus products finding a ready sale amongst the numerous ship-owners. This results from its rivers and estuaries, which, as we have said, resemble rivers, and by which you may sail from the sea to the inland towns, not only in small, but even in large-sized skiffs. For the whole country above the coast, and situated between the Sacred Promontory The men [of the country], being well acquainted with the nature of these places, and that the estuaries would very well answer the same purpose as rivers, founded cities and other settlements along them the same as along rivers. Of this number are Asta, Nebrissa, Large quantities of corn and wine are exported from Turdetania, besides much oil, which is of the first quality; Such is the wealth of the inland part of Turdetania, and its maritime portions are found fully to equal it in the richness of their sea-productions. In fact, oysters and every variety of shell-fish, remarkable both for their number and size, are found along the whole of the exterior sea, but here in particular. It is probable that the flow and ebb tides, which are particularly strong here, contribute both to their quantity and size, on count of the great number of pools and standing waters which they form. Of the various riches of the aforenamed country, Posidonius, in praising the amount and excellence of the metals, cannot refrain from his accustomed rhetoric, and becomes quite enthusiastic in exaggeration. He tells us we are not to disbelieve the fable, that formerly the forests having been set on fire, the earth, which was loaded with silver and gold, melted, and threw up these metals to the surface, forasmuch as every mountain and wooded hill seemed to be heaped up with money by a lavish fortune. Altogether (he remarks) any one seeing these places, could only describe them as the inexhaustible treasuries of nature, or the unfailing ex- chequer of some potentate; for not only, he tells us, is this land rich itself, but riches abound beneath it. So that amongst these people the subterraneous regions should not be regarded as the realms of Pluto, but of Plutus. Such is the flourished style in which he speaks on this subject, that you would fancy Polybius, speaking of the silver mines of New Carthage, Not far from Castlon is the mountain in which they report that the [river] Guadalquiver Our poet [Homer] being very explicit, and possessing great experience, gives one cause to believe that he was not unfamiliar with these localities. Of this any one may be convinced who will examine carefully what has been written on these points, both the incorrect [comments], and likewise those which are better and more truthful. One amongst these incorrect ideas is, that he considered [Tartessis] to be the farthest country towards the west, where, as he himself expresses it, Of these facts, notwithstanding, there are better proofs. For instance, the expeditions of Hercules and the Phoenicians to this country were evidence to him of the wealth and luxury of the people. They fell so entirely under the dominion of the Phoenicians, that at the present day almost the whole of the cities of Turdetania and the neighbouring places are inhabited by them. It also seems to me that the expedition of Ulysses hither, as it took place and was recorded, was the foundation both of his Odyssey and Iliad, which he framed upon facts collected into a poem, and embellished as usual with poetical mythology. It is not only in Italy, Sicily, and a few other places that vestiges of these [events] occur; even in Iberia a city is shown named Ulyssea, I repeat that the Phœnicians were the discoverers [of these countries], for they possessed the better part of Iberia and Libya before the time of Homer, and continued masters of those places until their empire was overthrown by the Romans. This also is an evidence of the wealth of Iberia: in the expedition of the Carthaginians under Barcas, The Turdetani not only enjoy a salubrious climate, but their manners are polished and urbane, as also are those of the people of Keltica, by reason of their vicinity [to the Turdetani], or, according to Polybius, on account of their STARTING again from the Sacred Promontory, Of those who dwell above the aforesaid mountains, the Oretani are the most southern, extending in part as far as the sea-coast on this side the Pillars. Next these towards the north are the Carpetani, then the Vettones and Vaccæi, through whose [country] the Douro North of the Tagus is Lusitania, the principal of the nations of Iberia, and the one which has most frequently encountered the arms of the Romans. On the southern side To the east the Gallicians border on the nation of the Asturians and Keltiberians, the others [border] on the Keltiberians. In length Lusitania is 3000 The country which we are describing is fertile, and irrigated by rivers both large and small, all of which flow from the eastern parts parallel with the Tagus: most of them are navigable and full of gold dust. After the Tagus, the most noted rivers are the Mondego The Artabri are the last of the people [on this coast]. They inhabit the promontory called Nerium, The Lusitanians are reported to be clever in laying ambushes, sharp, swift of foot, light, All the mountaineers are frugal, their beverage is water, they sleep on the ground, and wear a profuse quantity of long hair after the fashion of women, which they bind around the forehead when they go to battle. In Bastetania the women dance promiscuously with the men, each holding the other's hand. They all dress in black, the majority of them in cloaks called saga, in which they sleep on beds of straw. They make use of wooden vessels like the Kelts. The women wear dresses and embroidered garments. Instead of money, those who dwell far in the interior exchange merchandise, or give pieces of silver cut off The rough and savage manners of these people is not alone owing to their wars, but likewise to their isolated position, it being a long distance to reach them, whether by sea or land. Thus the difficulty of communication has deprived WHAT remains [to be described] of Iberia, is the seacoast of the Mediterranean from the Pillars to the Pyrenees, and the whole of the inland country which lies above. The breadth of this is irregular, its length a little above 4000 stadia. It has been remarked that the sea-coast Commencing our particular description from Calpe, there is [first] the mountain-chain of Bastetania and the Oretani. This is covered with thick woods and gigantic trees, and separates the sea-coast from the interior. In many places it also contains gold and other mines. The first city along the coast is Malaca, After these comes Abdera, No one should be surprised that the poet, in his fiction descriptive of the wanderings of Ulysses, should have located the majority of the scenes which he narrates without the Pillars, in the Atlantic. For historical events of a similar char- acter did actually occur near to the places, so that the other circumstances which he feigned did not make his fiction incredible; nor [should any one be surprised] if certain persons, putting faith in the historical accuracy and extensive knowledge of the poet, should have attempted to explain the poem of Homer on scientific principles; a proceeding undertaken by Crates of Mallos, The settlement of the Grecians amongst these barbarous nations may be regarded as the result of the division of these latter into small tribes and sovereignties, having on account of their moroseness no union amongst themselves, and therefore powerless against attacks from without. This moroseness is remarkably prevalent amongst the Iberians, who are After Abdera The first city between the windings of the Ebro and the extremities of the Pyrenees, near to where the Trophies of Pompey are erected, is Tarraco; The whole coast from the Pillars up to this place wants harbours, but all the way from here to Emporium, A river Such is the whole sea-coast from the Pillars to the confines of the Iberians and Kelts. The interior of the country lying above, and included between the mountains of the Pyrenees and the northern side [of Iberia], as far as the Astures, is principally divided by two mountain chains; the one of these is parallel to the Pyrenees, and takes its commencement from the country of the Cantabri, terminating at the Mediterranean. This is called the Idubeda. The side of the Pyrenees next Iberia is covered with forests containing numerous kinds of trees and evergreens, whilst the side next Keltica is bare: in the midst [the mountains] enclose valleys admirably fitted for the habitation of Immediately after passing Idubeda, you enter on Keltiberia, a large and irregular country. It is for the most part rugged, and watered by rivers, being traversed by the Guadiana, Of the four divisions into which the Keltiberians are separated, the most powerful are the Aruaci, situated to the east and south, near to the Carpetani and the sources of the Tagus. Their most renowned city is Numantia. They showed their valour in the war of twenty years, waged by the Keltiberians against the Romans; for many armies of the Romans, together with their generals, were destroyed; and in the end the Numantians, besieged within their city, endured the famine with constancy, till, reduced to a very small number, they were compelled to surrender the place. The Lusones are also situated to the east, and likewise border on the sources of the Tagus. Segeda and Pallantia Beyond the Keltiberians to the south are the inhabit- All the Iberians, so to speak, were peltastæ, furnished with light arms for the purposes of robbery, and, as we described the Lusitanians, using the javelin, the sling, and the sword. They have some cavalry interspersed amongst the foot-soldiers, the horses are trained to traverse the mountains, and to sink down on their knees at the word of command, in case of necessity. Iberia produces abundance of antelopes and wild horses. In many places the lakes are stocked. They have fowl, swans, and birds of similar kind, and vast numbers of bustards. Beavers are found in the rivers, but the castor does not possess the same virtue as that from the Euxine, Iberia produces a large quantity of roots used in dyeing. In olives, vines, figs, and every kind of similar fruit- trees, the Iberian coast next the Mediterranean abounds, they are likewise plentiful beyond. Of the coasts next the ocean, that towards the north is destitute of them, on account of the cold, and the remaining portion generally on account of the apathy of the men, and because they do not lead a civilized life, but pass their days in poverty, only acting on the animal What Artemidorus relates concerning the adornment of certain of their women, must likewise be attributed to their barbarous customs. He says that they wear iron collars having crows fixed to them which bend over the head, and fall forward considerably over the forehead. When they wish they draw their veil over these crows, so as to shade the whole face: this they consider an ornament. Others wear a tympanium Another practice, not restricted to the Iberians alone, is for two to mount on one horse, so that in the event of a conflict, one may be there to fight on foot. Neither are they the only sufferers in being tormented with vast swarms of mice, from which pestilential diseases have frequently ensued. This occurred to the Romans in Cantabria, so that they caused it to be proclaimed, that whoever would catch the mice should receive rewards according to the number taken, and [even with this] they were scarcely preserved, as they were suffering besides from want of corn and other necessaries, it being difficult to get supplies of corn from Aquitaine on account of Some, as I have said, state that this country is separated into four divisions; others, into five. It is not easy to state any thing precisely on these points, both on account of the changes which the places have undergone, and by reason of their obscurity. In well-known and notable countries both the migrations are known, and the divisions of the land, and the changes of their names, and every thing else of the same kind. Such matters being the common topics with everybody, and especially with the Greeks, who are more talkative than any other people. But in barbarous and out-of-the-way countries, and such as are cut up into small divisions, and lie scattered, the remembrance of such occurrences is not nearly so certain, nor yet so full. If these countries are far removed from the Greeks [our] ignorance is increased. For although the Roman historians imitate the Greeks, they fall far short of them. What they relate is taken from the Greeks, very little being the result of their own ardour in acquiring information. So that whenever any thing has been omitted by the former there is not much supplied by the latter. Add to this, that the names most celebrated are generally Grecian. Formerly the name of Iberia was given to the whole country between the Rhone and the isthmus formed by the two Galatic gulfs; whereas now they make the Pyrenees its boundary, and call it indifferently Iberia or Hispania; others have restricted Iberia to the country on this side the Ebro. At the present time some of the provinces having been assigned to the people and senate of the Romans, and the others to the emperor, Bætica appertains to the people, and a prætor has been sent into the country, having under him a quæstor and a lieutenant. Its eastern boundary has been fixed near to Castlon. OF the islands which are situated in front of Iberia, two named the Pityussæ, and two the Gymnasiæ, (also called the Baleares,) are situated on the sea-coast between Tarraco and [the river] Xucar, on which Saguntum In addition to the fruitfulness of the land, noxious animals are rarely to be met with. Even the rabbits, they say, were not indigenous, but that a male and female having been introduced by some one from the opposite continent, from thence the whole stock sprung, which formerly was so great a nuisance that even houses and trees were overturned, [being undermined] by their warrens, and the inhabitants Near to them are two small islands, one of which is called the Island of Juno: some call these the Pillars. Beyond the Pillars is Gades, Pherecydes appears to have given to Gades the name of Erythia, the locality of the myths concerning Geryon: others suppose it to have been the island situated near to this city, and separated from it by a strait of merely one stadium. This they do on account of the excellence of its pasturage. Concerning the foundation of Gades, the Gaditanians report that a certain oracle commanded the Tyrians to found a colony by the Pillars of Hercules. Those who were sent out for the purpose of exploring, when they had arrived at the strait by Calpe, imagined that the capes which form the strait were the boundaries of the habitable earth, as well as of the expedition of Hercules, and consequently they were what the oracle termed the Pillars. They landed on the inside of the straits, at a place where the city of the Exitani now stands. Here they offered sacrifices, which however not being favourable, they returned. After a time others were sent, who advanced about It is probable that the places themselves took the same name [as the monuments], especially after time had destroyed the boundary marks which had been placed there. For instance, at the present day the altars of the Philæni no longer exist, but the place itself bears that designation. Similarly they say that in India neither the pillars of Hercules or Bacchus are to be seen, nevertheless certain localities being described and pointed out to the Macedonians, they believed that those places were the pillars in which they discovered any trace either of the adventures of Bacchus or Hercules. In the instance before us, it is not improbable that they who first [visited these regions], set up boundary marks fashioned by the hand of man, such as altars, towers, and pillars, in the most remarkable situations, to indicate the farthest distance they had reached, (and straits, the surrounding mountains, and little islands, are indubitably the most remarkable situations for pointing out the termination or commencement of places,) and that after these human monuments had decayed, their names descended to the places [where they had stood]; whether that were the little islands or the capes forming the strait. This latter point it would not be easy now to determine; the name would suit either place, as they both bear some resemblance to pillars; I say bear some resemblance, because they are placed in such situations as might well indicate boundaries. Now this strait is styled a mouth, as well as many others, but the mouth is at the beginning to those sailing into the strait, and to those who are quitting it at the end. The little islands at the mouth having a contour easy to describe, and being remarkable, one might not improperly compare to pillars. In like manner the mountains overlooking the strait are promi- Polybius relates that there is a spring within the temple of Hercules at Gades, having a descent of a few steps to fresh water, which is affected in a manner the reverse of the sea- tides, subsiding at the flow of the tide, and springing at the ebb. He assigns as the cause of this phenomenon, that air rises from the interior to the surface of the earth; when this surface is covered by the waves, at the rising of the sea, the air is deprived of its ordinary vents, and returns to the interior, stopping up the passages of the spring, and causing a want of water, but when the surface is again laid bare, the air having a direct exit liberates the channels which feed the spring, so that it gushes freely. Artemidorus rejects this explanation, and substitutes one of his own, recording at the same time the opinion of the historian Silanus; but neither one or other of their views seems to me worth relating, since both he and Silanus were ignorant in regard to these matters. Posidonius asserts that the entire account is false, and adds that there are two wells in the temple of Hercules, and a third in the city. That the smaller of the two in the temple of Hercules, if drawn from frequently, will become for a time exhausted, but that on ceasing to draw from it, it fills again: while in regard to the larger, it may be drawn from during the whole day; that it is true it becomes lower, like all other wells, but that it fills again during the night when drawing ceases. [He adds] that the ebb tide frequently happening to occur during the period of its re-filling, gave rise I cannot tell how it is that Posidonius, who describes the Phœnicians as sagacious in other things, should here attribute Posidonius tells us that Seleucus, a native of the country next the Erythræan Sea, The same writer mentions a tree at Gades, which had boughs reaching to the ground; its sword-shaped leaves often measuring a cubit long, and four fingers broad. Also that about Carthagena there was a tree whose thorns produced a bark from which most beautiful stuffs were woven. As for the tree [he saw] at Gades, we ourselves have observed a similar in Egypt, so far as the inclination of the boughs is concerned, but with a differently shaped leaf, and producing no fruit, which according to him the other did. In Cappadocia there are stuffs made from thorns, but it is not a tree which produces the thorn from which the bark is taken, but a low plant; he also tells us of a tree at Gades, from which if a branch be broken off a milk will flow, and if the root be cut a red fluid runs. Thus much for Gades. The Cassiterides are ten in number, and lie near each other in the ocean towards the north from the haven of the Artabri. One of them is desert, but the others are inhabited by men in black cloaks, clad in tunics reaching to the feet, girt about the breast, and walking with staves, thus resembling the Furies we see in tragic representations. SUMMARY. The Fourth Book contains a description of the regions about Gaul, Spain, and the Alps on this side, towards Italy. Likewise of Britain, and of certain islands in the ocean which are habitable, together with the country of the barbarians, and the nations dwelling beyond the Danube. NEXT in order [after Iberia] comes Keltica beyond the Alps, The whole of this country is irrigated by rivers descending from the Alps, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees, some of which discharge themselves into the ocean, others into the Mediterranean. The districts through which they flow are mostly plains interspersed with hills, and having navigable streams. The course of these rivers is so happily disposed in relation to each other, that you may traffic from one sea to the other, The configuration of this country resembles a parallelogram, the western side of which is traced by the Pyrenees, the north by the Cevennes; as for the other two sides, the south is bounded by the sea between the Pyrenees and Marseilles, and the east partly by the Alps, Marseilles, founded by the Phocæans, The Massilians live under a well-regulated aristocracy. They have a council composed of 600 persons called timuchi, The mountains of the Salyes incline gently from west to north in proportion as they retire from the sea. The coast runs west, and extending a short distance, about 100 stadia, from Marseilles, it begins to assume the character of a gulf at a considerable promontory near to certain stone quarries, and extending to the Aphrodisium, the headland which terminates the Pyrenees, Of one marvel of this sea-coast, namely the Posidonius asks, would it not have been better to have As to the mouths of the Rhone, Polybius asserts that there are but two, and blames Timæus The [coast] which extends from this [last city] to the river Var, and the Ligurians who dwell near it, contains the Massilian cities of Tauroentium, Lying off this narrow pass along the coast, as you commence your journey from Marseilles, are the Stœchades islands. The country above this is bounded principally by the surrounding mountains and rivers. Of these the Rhone is the most remarkable, being both the largest, and capable of being navigated farther than any of the others, and also receiving into it a greater number of tributaries; of these we must speak in order. Commencing at Marseilles, and proceeding to the country between the Alps and the Rhone, to the river Durance, dwell the Salyes for a space of 500 stadia. From thence you proceed in a ferry-boat to the city of Caballio; The main part of the country on the other side of the Rhone is inhabited by the Volcæ, surnamed Arecomisci. Their naval station is Narbonne, which may justly be called the emporium of all Gaul, as it far surpasses every other in the multitude of those who resort But the Tectosages dwell near to the Pyrenees, bordering for a small space the northern side of the Cevennes; Toulouse is situated upon the narrowest part of the isthmus which separates the ocean from the sea of Narbonne; the breadth of the [isthmus], according to Posidonius, being less than 3000 stadia. The perfect similarity maintained throughout this country both in respect to its rivers, and to the exterior and interior sea, WE must now speak of the Aquitani and the fourteen Galatic nations pertaining to them, situated between the Garonne and the Loire, some of which extend to the river Rhone and the plains of the Narbonnaise. Generally speaking, the Aquitani may be said to differ from the Galatic race, both as to form of body and language, resembling more nearly the Iberians. They are bounded by the Garonne, and dwell between this river and the Pyrenees. There are above twenty nations which bear the name of Aquitani, small and obscure, the major part of them dwelling by the ocean, and the remainder in the interior and by the extremities of the Cevennes, as far as the Tectosages. This district, however, being too small, they added to it the territory between the Garonne and the Loire. These rivers are nearly parallel with the Pyrenees, and form with them two parallelograms, bounded on the remaining sides by the ocean and the mountains of the Cevennes. The Bituriges are the only foreign people who dwell among the Aquitani without forming a part of them. Their emporium is Burdegala, The nations between the Garonne and the Loire annexed to the Aquitani, are the Elui, The Arverni are situated along the Loire. Nemossus, their metropolis, is built on the same river. NEXT in order after Aquitaine and the Narbonnaise, is that portion [of Gaul] extending as far as the Rhine from Lugdunum itself, situated on This is the principal city of the nation of the Segusiani who lie between the Rhone and the Doubs. The first of all the nations dwelling on the Rhine are the Helvetii, amongst whom are the sources of that river in Mount Adula, After the Helvetii, the Sequani The Senones, the Remi, the Atrebates, and the Eburones dwell west of the Treviri and Nervii. AFTER the nations mentioned come those of the Belgæ, who dwell next the ocean. Of their number are the Veneti, The entire race which now goes by the name of Gallic, or Galatic, Of these they say that the Belgæ are the bravest. They are divided into fifteen nations, and dwell near the ocean between the Rhine and the Loire, and have therefore sustained themselves single-handed against the incursions of the Germans, the Cimbri, Amongst [the Gauls] there are generally three divisions of' men especially reverenced, the Bards, the Vates, and the Druids. The Bards composed and chanted hymns; the Vates occupied themselves with the sacrifices and the study of nature; while the Druids joined to the study of nature that of moral philosophy. The belief in the justice [of the Druids] is so great that the decision both of public and private disputes is referred to them; and they have before now, by their decision, prevented armies from engaging when drawn up in battle-array against each other. All cases of murder are particularly referred to them. When there is plenty of these they imagine there will likewise be a plentiful harvest. Both these and the others To their simplicity and vehemence, the Gauls join much folly, arrogance, and love of ornament. They wear golden collars round their necks, and bracelets on their arms and wrists, and those who are of any dignity have garments dyed and worked with gold. This lightness of character makes them intolerable when they conquer, and throws them into consternation when worsted. In addition to their folly, they have a barbarous and absurd custom, common however with many nations of the north, of suspending the heads of their enemies from their horses' necks on their return from tattle, and when they have arrived nailing them as a spectacle to their gates. Posidonius says he witnessed this in many different places, and was at first shocked, but became familiar with it in time on account of its frequency. The They say that in the ocean, not far from the coast, there is a small island lying opposite to the outlet of the river Loire, inhabited by Samnite women who are Bacchantes, and conciliate and appease that god by mysteries and sacrifices. No man is permitted to land on the island; and when the women desire to have intercourse with the other sex, they cross the sea, and afterwards return again. They have a custom of once a year unroofing the whole of the temple, and roofing it again the same day before sun-set, each one bringing some of the materials. If any one lets her burden fall, she is torn in pieces by the others, and her limbs carried round the temple with wild shouts, which they never cease until their rage is exhausted. [They say] it always happens that some one drops her burden, and is thus sacrificed. But what Artenmidorus tells us concerning the crows, partakes still more of fiction. He narrates that on the coast, washed by the ocean, there is a harbour named the Port of Two Crows, and that here two crows may be seen with their right wings white. Those who have any dispute come here, and each one having placed a plank for himself on a lofty eminence, sprinkles crumbs thereupon; the birds fly to these, eat up the one and scatter the other, and he whose crumbs are scattered gains the cause. This narration has decidedly too much the air of fiction. What he narrates concerning Ceres and Proserpine is more credible. He says that there is an island near Britain in which they perform sacrifices to Such is our account of Keltica beyond the Alps. BRITAIN is triangular in form; its longest side lies parallel to Keltica, in length neither exceeding nor falling short of it; for each of then extends as much as 4300 or 4400 stadia: the side of Keltica extending from the mouths of the Rhine to the northern extremities of the Pyrenees towards Aquitaine; and that of Britain, which commences at Kent, its most eastern point, opposite the mouths of the Rhine, extending to the western extremity of the island, which lies over against Aquitaine and the Pyrenees. This is the shortest line from the Pyrenees to the Rhine; the longest is said to be 5000 stadia; but it is likely that there is some There are four passages commonly used from the continent to the island, namely, from the mouths of the rivers Rhine, Seine, Loire, and Garonne; but to such as set sail from the parts about the Rhine, the passage is not exactly from its mouths, but from the Morini, Divus Cæsar twice passed over to the island, but quickly returned, having effected nothing of consequence, nor proceeded far into the country, as well on account of some commotions in Keltica, both among his own soldiers and among the barbarians, as because of the loss of many of his ships at the time of the full moon, when both the ebb and flow of the tides were greatly increased. There are also other small islands around Britain; but one, of great extent, Ierna, The account of Thulè is still more uncertain, on account of its secluded situation; for they consider it to be the northernmost of all lands of which the names are known. The falsity of what Pytheas has related concerning this and neighbouring places, is proved by what he has asserted of well- known countries. For if, as we have shown, his description of these is in the main incorrect, what he says of far distant countries is still more likely to be false. HAVING described Keltica beyond the Alps, The Alps do not commence at Monœci Portus, Now since the Ligurians were divided into Ingauri and Intemelii, it was natural that their maritime colonies should be distinguished, one by the name of Albium Intemelium, Alpine as it were, and the other by the more concise form Albingaunum. The Monœci Portus is merely a roadstead, not capable of containing either many or large vessels. Here is a temple dedicated to Hercules Monœcus. After the Salyes, the Albienses, the Albiœci, After the Vocontii, are the Iconii, the Tricorii, and the Medulli; who inhabit the loftiest ridges of the mountains, for they say that some of them have an almost perpendicular ascent of 100 stadia, and a similar descent to the frontiers of Italy. In these high-lands there is a great lake; there are also two springs not far distant from each other; one of these gives rise to the Durance, which flows like a torrent into the Rhone, and to the Durias, On the opposite side of the mountains, sloping towards Italy, dwell the Taurini, A great part of the country of the Salassi lies in a deep valley, formed by a chain of mountains which encloses the district on either side; a part of them however inhabit the Beyond, both the eastern parts of the mountains, and those likewise inclining to the south, are possessed by the Rhæti and Vindelici, who adjoin the Helvetii and Boii, and press upon their plains. The Rhæti extend as far as Italy above Verona and Como. The Rhætian wine, which is esteemed not inferior to the finest wines of Italy, is produced [from vines which grow] at the foot of the mountains. These people extend also as far as the districts through which the Rhine flows. The Lepontii and Camuni are of their nation. The Vindelici and Norici possess, for the most part, the opposite side of the mountains together with the Breuni and Genauni, who form part of the Illyrians. After these come certain of the Norici, and the Carni, who inhabit the country about the Adriatic Gulf and Aquileia. The Taurisci belong to the Norici. Tiberius and his brother Drusus in one summer put a stop to their lawless incursions, so that now for three and thirty years Near to these regions dwell the Iapodes, (a nation now mixed with the Illyrians, and Kelts,) close to them is [the Mount] Ocra. One of the passages over the mountains from Italy into Transalpine and northern Keltica is that which passes through the country of the Salassi, and leads to Lugdunum. Polybius tells us that in his time the gold mines were so rich about Aquileia, but particularly in the countries of the Taurisci Norici, that if you dug but two feet below the surface you found gold, and that the diggings [generally] were not deeper than fifteen feet. In some instances the gold was found pure in lumps about the size of a bean or lupin, and which diminished in the fire only about one eighth; and in others, though requiring more fusion, was still very profitable. Certain Italians SUMMARY. The Fifth Book contains a description of Italy from the roots of the Alps to the Strait of Sicily, the Gulf of Taranto, and the region about Posidonium; likewise of Venetia, Liguria, Agro Piceno, Tuscany, Rome, Campania, Lucania, Apulia, and the islands lying in the sea between Genoa and Sicily. AT the foot of the Alps commences the region now known as Italy. The ancients by Italy merely understood Œnotria, which reached from the Strait of Sicily to the Gulf of Taranto, and the region about Posidonium, It is not easy to describe the whole of Italy under any one geometrical figure; although some say that it is a promontory of triangular form, extending towards the south and winter rising, with its apex towards the Strait of Sicily, and [Italy], however, may be described in the following manner. The roots of the Alps are curved, and in the form of a gulf, the head turned towards Italy; the middle of the gulf in the country of the Salassi, and its extremities turned, the one towards Ocra and the head of the Adriatic, the other towards the coast of Liguria as far as Genoa, a mercantile city of the Ligurians, where the Apennines fall in with the Alps. Immediately under [the Alps] there is a considerable plain, of about an equal extent of 2100 stadia both in breadth and length; its southern side is closed by the coast of the Heneti This is a superb plain variegated with fruitful hills. The Po divides it almost through its midst, one side being denominated Cispadana, and the other Transpadana. Cispadana comprehends that part next the Apennines and Liguria, and Transpadana the remainder. The former [division] is inhabited by Ligurian and Keltic nations, the former inhabiting the mountains and the latter the plains; and the latter [division] by Kelts and Heneti. These Kelts are of the same race as the Transalpine Kelts. Concerning the Heneti there are two traditions, some saying that they are a colony of those Kelts of the same name who dwell by the ocean. The whole of this country Formerly, as we have said, the district next this river was chiefly inhabited by Kelts. The principal nations of these Kelts were the Boii, the Insubri, and the Senones and Gæsatæ, who in one of their incursions took possession of Rome. The Romans afterwards entirely extirpated these latter, and expelled the Boii from their country, who then migrated to the land about the Danube, where they dwelt with the Taurisci, and warred against the Dacians until the whole nation was destroyed; and they left to the surrounding tribes this sheep-pasturing district of Illyria. The Insubri still exist; their metropolis is Mediolanum, These cities are situated high above the marshes; near to them is Patavium, Opitergium, That Diomedes did hold sovereignty over the country around this sea, After the Timavum Cispadana comprehends all that country enclosed be- Both in Cispadana and around the Po there are some fine cities. Placentia The fertility of this country is proved by its population, the size of its cities, and its wealth, in all of which the Romans of this country surpass the rest of Italy. The cultivated land produces fruits in abundance and of every kind, and the woods contain such abundance of mast, that Rome is principally supplied from the swine fed there. Being well supplied with water, millet grows there in perfection. This affords the greatest security against famine, inasmuch as millet resists any inclemency of the atmosphere, and never fails, even when there is scarcity of other kinds of grain. Their pitch-works are amazing, and their casks give evidence of the abundance of wine: these are made of wood, and are larger than houses, and the great supply of pitch allows them to be sold cheap. The soft wool and by far the best is produced in the country round Mutina IN the second place, we shall treat of that portion of Liguria situated in the Apennines, between the Keltica The third division contains the Tyrrhenians, who dwell next the former, and inhabit the plains extending to the Tiber, which river, as far as its outlet, washes the side towards the east, the opposite side being washed by the Tyrrhenian and Sardinian sea. The Tiber flows from the Apennines, and is swelled by many rivers; it flows partly through Tyrrhenia, dividing it in the first instance from Ombrica, The Tyrrheni have now received from the Romans the surname of Etrusci and Tusci. The Greeks thus named them from Tyrrhenus the son of Atys, as they say, who sent hither a colony from Lydia. Atys, who was one of the descendants of Hercules and Omphale, and had two sons, in a time of famine and scarcity determined by lot that Lydus should remain in the country, but that Tyrrhenus, with the greater part of the people, should depart. Arriving here, he named the country after himself, Tyrrhenia, and founded twelve cities, having appointed as their governor Tarcon, from whom the city of Tarquinia [received its name], and who, on account of the sagacity which he had displayed from childhood, was feigned to have been born with hoary hair. Placed originally under one authority, they became flourishing; but it seems that in after-times, their confederation being broken up and each city separated, they yielded to the violence of the neighbouring tribes. Otherwise they would never have abandoned a fertile country for a life of piracy on the sea. roving from one ocean to another; since, when united they were able not only to repel those who assailed them, but to act on the offensive, and undertake long campaigns. After the foundation of Rome, Demaratus arrived here, bringing with him people from Corinth. Such are the facts concerning the celebrity of the Tyrrheni, to which may be added the exploits of the Cæretani, Almost every one is agreed that the Pelasgi were an ancient race spread throughout the whole of Greece, but especially in the country of the Æolians near to Thessaly. Ephorus, however, says that he considers they were originally Arcadians, who had taken up a warlike mode of life; and having persuaded many others to the same course, imparted their own name to the whole, and became famous both among the Greeks, and in every other country where they chanced to come. Homer informs us that there were colonies of them in Crete, for he makes Ulysses say to Penelope— They say that the greatest length of Tyrrhenia, which is along the coast from Luna to Ostia, is about 2500 stadia; and that its breadth in the direction of the mountains is less than half that number. Then from Luna to Pisa there are more than 400 stadia; from thence to Volaterræ The country of the Volaterrani Cyrnus is called by the Romans Corsica; it is poorly inhabited, being both rugged and in many parts entirely inaccessible, so that the mountaineers, who live by plunder, are more savage than wild beasts. Whenever any Roman general invades the country, and, penetrating into the wilds, seizes a vast number of slaves, it is a marvel to behold in Rome how savage and bestial they appear. For they either scorn to live, or if they do live, aggravate their purchasers by their apathy and insensibility, causing them to regret the purchase-money, however small. Along the whole coast between Poplonium and Pisa these islands are clearly visible; they are oblong, and all three nearly parallel, In the interior of the country, besides the cities already mentioned, there are Arretium, Ombrica lies along the eastern boundary of Tyrrhenia, and commencing from the Apennines, or rather beyond those mountains, [extends] as far as the Adriatic. For com- THE Sabini occupy a narrow country, its length from the Tiber and the small city of Nomentum Beyond Sabina is Latium, wherein the city of Rome is situated. It comprises many places which formed no part of ancient Latium. For the Æqui, the Volsci, the Hernici, the aborigines around Rome, the Rutuli who possessed ancient Ardea, and many other nations, some larger, some smaller, formed so many separate states around Rome, when that city was first built. Some of these nations, who dwelt in villages, were governed by their own laws, and subjected to no common tribe. They say The office of the Fratres Arvales was for life, and was not taken away even from an exile or captive. They wore, as a badge of office, a chaplet of ears of corn fastened on their heads with a white band. The number given on inscriptions varies, but it is never more than nine; though, according to the legend and general belief, it amounted to twelve. One of their annual duties was to celebrate a three days' festival in honour of Dea Dia, supposed to be Ceres . . . . Of this the master of the college, appointed annually, gave public notice from the temple of Concord on the Capitol. On the first and last of these days, the college met at the house of their president, to make offerings to the Dea Dia; on the second day they assembled in the grove of the same goddess, about five miles south of Rome, and there offered sacrifices for the fertility of the earth. An account of the different ceremonies of this festival is preserved in an inscription, which was written in the first year of the emperor Heliogabalus, (A. D. Besides this festival of the Dea Dia, the Fratres Arvales were required on various occasions under the emperors to make vows and offer up thanksgivings, an enumeration of which is given in Forcellini. Strabo indeed informs us that, in the reign of Tiberius, these priests performed sacrifices called the The private Ambarvalia were certainly of a different nature to those mentioned by Strabo, and were so called from the victim There is, however, a still greater resemblance to the rites we have been describing, in the ceremonies of the Rogation or gang-week of the Latin church. These consisted of processions through the fields, accompained with prayers ( However, there also exists another more ancient and mythical account, to the effect that Rome was an Arcadian colony planted by Evander. He entertained Hercules when driving the oxen of Geryon, and being informed by his mother Nicostrata, (who was skilled in the art of prophecy,) that when Hercules should have completed his labours it was fore-ordained that he should be enrolled amongst the gods; he informed him of the matter, consecrated to him a grove, and offered sacrifice to him after the Grecian mode; a sacrifice which is continued in honour of Hercules to this day. The Roman historian Cœlius is of opinion that this is a proof that Rome is a Grecian colony, the sacrifice to Hercules after the Grecian mode having been brought over from their fatherland. The Romans also worship the mother of Evander under the name of Carmentis, Thus then the Latini originally were few in number, and for the most part under no subjection to the Romans; but afterwards, being struck by the valour of Romulus and the kings who succeeded him, they all submitted. But the Æqui, The whole [of Latium] is fertile, and abounding in every production, with the exception of a few districts along the coast, which are marshy and unhealthy; such as the country of Ardea, the lands between Antium and Lanuvium as far as Pometia, and certain of the districts of Setia, At 290 stadia from Antium is Mount Circæum, insulated by the sea and marshes. They say that it contains numerous roots, but this perhaps is only to harmonize with the myth relating to Circe. It has a small city, together with a temple to Circe and an altar to Minerva; they likewise say that a cup is shown which belonged to Ulysses. Between [Antium and Circæum] is the river Stura, In the interior, the first city above Ostia is Rome; it is the only city built on the Tiber. It has been remarked above, that its position was fixed, not by choice, but necessity; to this must be added, that those who afterwards enlarged it, were not at liberty to select a better site, being prevented by what was already built. The first [kings] fortified the Capitol, the Palatium, and the Collis Quirinalis, which was so easy of access, that when Titus Tatius came to avenge the rape of the [Sabine] virgins, he took it on the first assault. Ancus Marcius, who added Mount Cælius and the Aventine Mount with the intermediate plain, separated as these places were both from each other and from what had been formerly fortified, was compelled to do this of necessity; since he did not consider it proper to leave outside his walls, heights so well protected by nature, to whomsoever might have a mind to fortify themselves upon them, while at the same time he was not capable of enclosing the whole as far as Mount Quirinus. Servius perceived this defect, and added the Esquiline and Viminal hills. As these were both of easy access from without, a deep trench was dug outside them and the earth thrown up on the inside, thus forming a terrace of 6 stadia in length along the inner side of the trench. This terrace he surmounted with a wall flanked with towers, and extending from the Colline These advantages accrued to the city from the nature of the country; but the foresight of the Romans added others Of the other cities of Latium, some are distinguished by a variety of remarkable objects, others by the celebrated roads which intersect Latium, being situated either upon, or near to, or between these roads, the most celebrated of which are the Via Appia, the Via Latina, and the Via Valeria. The former of these bounds the maritime portion of Latium, as far as Sinuessa, the latter extends along Sabina as far as the Marsi, whilst between these is the Via Latina, which falls in with the Via Appia near to Casilinum, As to the places situated on either side of the Via Latina, those on the right are between it and the Via Appia; of their number are Setia The Via Valeria, commencing from Tibura, But within-side the chain of mountains, [where these cities are situated,] there is another ridge, leaving a valley between it and Mount Algidus; it is lofty, and extends as far as Mount Albanus. Near to these localities is Mount Albanus, AFTER having commenced with the nations about the Alps, and the Apennine mountains which are near to these, we proceeded from thence and passed through that portion of the hither country lying between the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Apennine mountains, which incline towards the Adriatic, as far as the Samnites and the Campani. We will now return again, and describe the mountaineers, and those who dwell at the foot of the mountains; whether on the coast of the Adriatic, or in the interior. Thus, we must recommence from the boundaries of Keltica. After the cities of the Ombrici, which are comprised between Ariminum Sulmo mihi patria est gelidis uberrimus undis. We must place this city, with Holstenius, at San Benedetto, on the eastern shore of the lake, where inscriptions have been found which leave no doubt on the subject. The coins of Marruvium have MARUB on the reverse and a head of Pluto. Next in order after Latium is Campania, which extends along the [Tyrrhenian] Sea; above it is Samnium, in the interior, extending as far as the Frentani and Daunii; and beyond are the Daunii, and the other nations as far as the Strait of Sicily. We shall in the first place speak of Campania. From Sinuessa The maritime cities [of Campania], after Sinuessa, are Liternum, Near to Cumæ is the promontory of Misenum, The Lucrine gulf extends in breadth as far as Baïæ; it is separated from the sea by a bank eight stadia in length, and the breadth of a carriage-way; this they say was constructed by Hercules when he drove away the oxen of Geryon. But as the wave covered its surface in stormy weather, rendering it difficult to pass on foot, Agrippa has repaired it. Small vessels can put into it, but it is useless as a harbour. After Dicæarchia is Neapolis, Following this is the fortress of Heraclæum, In front of Misenum lies the island of Prochyta, In the interior is the metropolis, Capua, being, as the etymon of the name signifies, the head; for in regard to it all the other cities appear small, excepting Teanum-Sidicinum, In addition to those just spoken of, there are these Campanian cities which we have already mentioned, viz. Cales, The following is the tradition concerning the [origin of the] Samnites. The Sabines having been engaged for The fertility of their country has been productive to the Campanians of as much evil as good. Their luxury ran to such a height, that they would invite to supper, in order to exhibit pairs of fighting gladiators, the exact number of pairs being regulated according to the distinction of the guests. When, on their voluntary submission to Hannibal, they received his soldiers into winter quarters, SUMMARY. The Sixth Book contains the remainder of Italy, and the regions within the Adriatic, as far as Macedonia; likewise a description of Apulia, Calabria, the country by the Ionian Gulf, together with the adjacent islands, from Sicily to the Ceraunian mountains, and on the other side as far as Carthage, and the small islands lying near to it. AFTER the mouth of the Silaro, Such, along the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea, are the possessions of the Leucani, which at first did not reach to the other sea; We will narrate in a general manner what we have gathered concerning the Leucani, who dwell in the interior, without too much care in distinguishing them from their neighbours, the Samnites. Petilia The Bruttii occupy the remainder of the coast as far as the Strait of Sicily, extending about From the Lao the first city is the Temesa Rhegium Antiochus asserts that anciently the whole of this district was inhabited by Sicilians and Morgetes; and that they Sailing 50 stadia from Rhegium towards the east, we meet the cape called Leucopetra, from the colour of the rock, where they say the range of the Apennines terminates. The Locri are believed to have been the first who committed their laws to writing, but after they had enjoyed the advantage of these good laws for a very considerable time, Dionysius [the younger], having been expelled There is a certain singular circumstance, respecting grasshoppers, worthy of note. The river Alece After the Locri is the [river] Sagras, After Scylletium is the region of Crotona, and the The first is Crotona, 150 stadia from Lacinium and the river Esaro; Thou pursuest only misfortune: it is right to accept that which is proffered to thee: Beyond this, at the distance of 200 stadia, is situated Sybaris, After Thurii is Lagaria, Next in order is Metapontium, Next adjoining is Tarentum and lapygia, which we will describe when we shall have first gone through the islands which lie off Italy, according to our original purpose; for we have always given the adjacent islands with every nation we have hitherto described, and since we have gone through Œnotria, which only, the people of ancient times named Italy we feel justified in keeping to the same arrangement, and shall pass on to Sicily and the surrounding islands. SICILY is triangular in form, and on this account was at first called Trinacria, but afterwards the name was softened and it was changed into Thrinacia. The cities situated on the side which forms the Strait are, first Messana, then Tauromenium, The first of the cities which at present remain on the aforesaid side is Messana, built at the head of the gulf of Pelorias, which is curved very considerably towards the east, and forms a bay. The passage across to Rhegium Ætna lies the highest of any part of Catana, and participates the most in the inconveniences occasioned by the mouths of the volcano, for the streams of lava flowing down in Catanæa Archaism, sailing from Corinth, founded Syracuse about the same period One of the remaining sides, that stretching from Pachynus to Lilybæum, is entirely deserted; still it preserves a few traces of the ancient inhabitants, one of whose cities was Camarina. In the interior of the island a few inhabitants possess Enna, The fertility of the country is so generally extolled by every one, as nothing inferior to Italy, that there is a question as to what we should say of it. Indeed, for wheat, honey, saffron, and some other commodities, it even surpasses that country. In addition to this, its proximity renders the island like a part of Italy itself, so that it supplies the Roman market with produce both commodiously and without trouble. Indeed they call it the granary of Rome, for all the produce of the island is carried thither, except a few things required for home consumption. It consists not only of the fruits of the earth, but of cattle, skins, wool, and the like. Posidonius says that Syracuse and Eryx are situated on the sea like two citadels, and that Enna in the midst, between Syracuse and Eryx, commands the surrounding plains. † The Near to Centoripa is the town we have a little before mentioned, Ætna, which serves as a place for travellers about to ascend Mount Ætna, to halt and refresh themselves for the expedition. For here commences the region in which is situated the summit of the mountain. The districts above are barren and covered with ashes, which are surmounted by the snows in winter: all below it however is filled with woods and plantations of all kinds. It seems that the summits of the mountain take many changes by the ravages of the fire, which sometimes is brought together into one crater, and at another is divided; at one time again it heaves forth streams of lava, and at another flames and thick smoke: at other times again ejecting red-hot masses of fire-stone. In such violent commotions as these the subterraneous passages must necessarily undergo a corresponding change, and at times the orifices on the surface around be considerably increased. Some who have very recently ascended the mountain, reported The Nebrodes mountains The Palici Phenomena, similar to these, and such as take place throughout Sicily, We have noticed the islands of Lipari and Thermessa. As for Strongyle, HAVING previously passed over the regions of ancient Italy as far as Metapontium, we must now proceed to describe the rest. After it Iapygia Antiochus, speaking of the foundation of this city, says that after the Messenian war Ephorus gives the following account of the foundation. The Lacedæmonians waged war against the Messenians, who had murdered their king, Teleclus, Thus then did they destroy Messenia, but returning home, they neglected to honour the Partheniæ like other youths, and treated them as though they had been born out of wedlock. The Partheniæ, leaguing with the Helots, conspired against the Lacedæmonians, and agreed to raise a Laconic felt hat At one time, when the government of the Tarentines had assumed a democratic form, they rose to great importance; for they possessed the greatest fleet of any state in those parts, and could bring into the field an army of 30,000 foot and 3000 horse, exclusive of a select body of 1000 cavalry called Hipparchi. The remainder of the country of the Iapygii is very fair, notwithstanding unfavourable appearances; for although, for the most part, it appears rugged, yet when it is broken up the soil is found to be deep; and although it lacks water, yet it appears well-suited for pasture, and is furnished with trees. At one time it was thickly inhabited throughout its whole extent, and possessed thirteen cities, but now it is so depopulated that, with the exception of Tarentum and Brentesium, In the inland are Rudiæ and Lupiæ, and at a short distance from the sea Aletia; Further, the course for passengers from Greece and Asia is most direct to Brentesium, and in fact all who are journeying to Rome disembark here. Hence there are two ways to Rome; one, which is only walked by mules, through the Peucetii, who are called Pœdicli, the Daunii, and the Samnites, as far as Beneventum, on which road is the city Egnatia, There is a third way from Rhegium, through the Bruttii, Lucani, and Samnites, along the chain of the Apennines, into From Brentesium the sea is traversed by two passages to the opposite coast, one crossing to the Ceraunian From Barium to the river Ofanto, The chorographer indeed gives only 165 miles from Brentesium Immediately beyond the Garganum comes a deep bay. So great indeed is Italy, and much as we have described it; we will now advert to the chief of the many things that have been described, which have conduced to raise the Romans to so great a height of prosperity. One point is its insular position, by which it is securely guarded, the seas forming a natural protection around it with the exception of a very inconsiderable frontier, which too is fortified by almost impassable mountains. A second is, that there are but few harbours, and those few capacious and admirably situated. These are of great service both for enterprises against foreign places, and also in case of invasions undertaken against the country, and the reception of abundant merchandise. And a third, that it is situated so as to possess many advantages of atmosphere and temperature of climate, in which both animals and plants, and in fact all things available for sustaining life, may be accommodated with every variety both of mild and severe temperature; its length stretches in a direction north and south. Sicily, which is extensive, may be looked upon as an addition to its length, for we cannot consider it in any other light than as a part of it. The salubrity or severity of the atmosphere of different countries, is estimated by the amount of cold or heat, or the degrees of temperature between those extremes; in this way we shall find that Italy, which is situated in the medium of both the extremes, and having so great a length, largely participates in a salubrious atmosphere, and that in many respects. This advantage is still secured to it in another way, for the chain of the Apennines extending through its whole length, and leaving on each side plains and fruitful hills, there is no district which does not participate in the advantages of the best productions both of hill and plain. We must also enumerate the magnitude and number of its rivers and lakes, and the springs of hot and cold waters supplied by nature in various localities for the restoration of health; and in addition to these, its great wealth in mines of all the metals, abundance of timber, and excellent food both for man and for beasts of all kinds. Italy, likewise, being situated in the very midst of the greatest nations, I allude to Greece and the best provinces of Asia, is naturally in a posi- If, in addition to our description of Italy, a few words should be summarily added about the Romans who have possessed themselves of it, and prepared it as a centre from whence to enforce their universal dominion, we would offer the following.—The Romans, after the foundation of their state, discreetly existed as a kingdom for many years, till Tarquin, the last [Roman king], abused his power, when they expelled him, and established a mixed form of government, being a modification both of the monarchical and aristocratical systems; they admitted both the Sabines SUMMARY. In the Seventh Book Strabo describes the remaining portions of Europe. That on the east is the country beyond the Rhine, as far as the Don WE have described Spain and the Keltic nations, together with Italy and the islands adjacent, and must now speak of the remaining portions of Europe, dividing it in the best way we can. That which remains is, on the east, all the country beyond the Rhine, as far as the Don and the mouth of the Sea of Azof; and, on the south, that which the Danube bounds, lying between the Adriatic and the left shores of the Euxine, as far as Greece and the Sea of Marmora, for the Danube, which is the largest of the rivers of Europe, divides the whole territory of which we have spoken, into two portions. This river from its commencement flows southwards, then, making a sudden turn, continues its course from west to east, which [terminates] in the Euxine Sea. It takes its rise in the western confines of Germany, not far from the head of the Adriatic, being distant from it about 1000 stadia, We will first speak of those nations to the north of the Danube, for their history is less involved than that of the tribes situated on the other side of the river. Next after the Keltic nations come the Germans who inhabit the country to the east beyond the Rhine; and these differ but little from the Keltic race, except in their being more fierce, of a larger stature, and more ruddy in countenance; but in every other respect, their figure, their customs and manners of life, are such as we have related of the Kelts. The first division of this country is the land extending along the Rhine from its source to its embouchure. Indeed, the valley of that river extends nearly as far as the whole breadth of Germany on the west. Of the people who occupied this country, some have been transplanted by the Romans into Keltica, the others have retired to the interior, as the Marsi; In the same direction with the Ems, All these nations became known through their wars with The Sicambri inhabiting the country next the Rhine were the first to commence the war, under the conduct of their leader, Melon; other nations afterwards followed their example, at one time being victorious, at another defeated, and again recommencing hostilities, without regard to hostages or the faith of treaties. Against these people mistrust was the surest defence; for those who were trusted effected the most mischief. For example, the Cherusci, and those who were subject to them, amongst whom three Roman legions with their general, Quintilius Varus, perished by ambush, in violation of the truce; nevertheless all have received punishment for this perfidy, which furnished to Germanicus the Younger the opportunity of a most brilliant triumph, he leading publicly as his captives the most illustrious persons, both men and women, amongst whom were Segimuntus, The Rhine is distant from the Elbe about 3000 stadia, if one could travel in a direct line; but we are compelled to go a circuitous route, on account of the windings of the marshes and the woods. The Hercynian Forest The territory of the Rhæti SOME of the accounts which we receive respecting the Cimbri are not worthy of credit, while others seem likely enough: for instance, no one could accept the reason given for their wandering life and piracy, that, dwelling on a peninsula, they were driven out of their settlements by a very high tide; For such fables as these, Posidonius justly blames these writers, and not inaptly conjectures that the Cimbri, on account of their wandering life and habits of piracy, might have made an expedition as far as the countries around the Palus Mæotis, and that from them has been derived the name of the Cimmerian Bosphorus, or what we should more correctly denominate the Cimbrian Bosphorus, for the Greeks call the Cimbri Cimmerii. He likewise tells us that the Boii formerly inhabited the Hercynian Forest, and that the Cimbri, having made an incursion into those parts, were repulsed by them, and driven towards the Danube, and the country occupied by the Scordisci, a Galatic tribe, and from thence to the Tauristæ, or Taurisci, a people likewise of Galatic origin, and farther to the Helvetii, who were at that time a rich and peaceful people; but, perceiving that the wealth of these freebooters far exceeded their own, the Helvetii, and more especially the Tigureni and the Toygeni, associated themselves with their expeditions. But both the Cimbri and their auxiliaries were vanquished by the Romans, the one part when they crossed the Alps and came down upon Italy, the others on the other side of the Alps. It is reported that the Cimbri had a peculiar custom. They were accompanied in their expeditions by their wives; these were followed by hoary-headed priestesses, As we have before stated, the northernmost of the Germans inhabit a country bordering on the ocean; but we are only acquainted with those situated between the mouths of the Rhine and the Elbe, of which the Sicambri The same uncertainty prevails with regard to the other As to the southern part of Germany beyond the Elbe, the country which adjoins the bank of that river is now occupied by the Suevi. Next lies the country of the Getæ, at first narrow, its southern side extends along the Danube, and the opposite side along the mountains of the Hercynian Forest, even including part of those mountains, it then becomes broader towards the north, and extends as far as the Tyregetæ; however, we are unable to declare its boundaries with accuracy; and it is on account of our ignorance of these places that those who relate fables of the Riphæan mountains and the Hyperboreans have received credit; as also that which Pytheas of Marseilles has forged concerning the countries bordering on the Northern Ocean, making use of his acquaintance with astronomy and mathematics to fabricate his false narration: let us therefore pass over them; as also what Sophocles, speaking of Orithya in one of his tragedies, says, that she, being snatched by the north wind, was carried The Greeks indeed considered the Getæ to be Thracians. They occupied either bank of the Danube, as also did the Mysians, likewise a Thracian people, now called the Moesi, from whom are descended the Mysians, settled between the Lydians, the Phrygians, and the inhabitants of the Troad. Even the Phrygians themselves are the same as the Briges, a people of Thrace, as also are the Mygdones, the Bebryces, the Mædobithyni, the Bithyni, the Thyni, and, as I consider, also are the Mariandyni. All these people quitted Europe entirely, the Mysians alone remaining. Posidonius appears to me to have rightly conjectured that it is the Mysians of Europe (or as I should say of Thrace) that Homer designates when he says, Posidonius relates that the Mysians religiously abstain from eating any thing that had life, and consequently, from cattle; but that they lived in a quiet way on honey, milk, and cheese; wherefore they are considered a religious people, and called Capnobatæ. Nevertheless it would perhaps be superfluous to change the text [of Homer], which has stood the test of so many years. For it appears more probable to suppose that the people were anciently called Mysians, but that their name is now altered. Further, any one would suppose that the Abii For it is said that one of the nation of the Getæ, named Zamolxis, Any one may well entertain such questions as these touching the localities mentioned by the poet [Homer], and with regard to the Mysians and the illustrious Hippemolgi: but what Apollodorus has advanced in his preface to the Catalogue of Ships in the Second Book [of the Iliad] is by no means to be adopted. For he praises the opinions of Eratosthenes, who says that Homer and the rest of the ancients were well versed in every thing that related to Greece, but were in a state of considerable ignorance as to places at a distance, in consequence of the impossibility of' their making long journeys by land or voyages by sea. In support of this he asserts, It has been our wish, while discoursing of the Thracians, and Those however who lived before our time, and more especially those who lived near to the times of Homer, were such as he describes them, and so they were esteemed to be by the Greeks. Take for instance what Herodotus relates concerning the king In like manner Dromichætes, who was king of the Getæ in the times of the successors of Alexander, having taken captive Lysimachus, who had come to wage war against him, showed him his poverty and that of his people, and likewise their great frugality, bade him not to make war on such, but rather seek them as friends; after which he received him as a guest, made a treaty of friendship, and suffered him to depart. Ephorus, in the fourth book of his History, which is entitled It is but just too that Apollodorus should give some explanation respecting the Mysians mentioned in the Epic poems of Homer, whether he takes them to be but people of his feigning, when the poet says, Let us pass over the early history of the Getæ, and occupy ourselves with their actual condition. Bœrebistas, one of the Getæ, having taken the command of his tribe, reanimated the men who were disheartened by frequent wars, and raised them to such a degree of training, sobriety, and a habit of obedience to orders, that he established a powerful dominion within a few years, and brought most of the neighbouring states into subjection to the Getæ. He at length became formidable even to the Romans, fearlessly crossing the Danube, and laying waste Thrace as far as Macedonia and Illyria; he also subdued the Kelts who live among the Thracians and Illyrians, and thoroughly annihilated the Boii who were subject to Critasirus and the Taurisci. In order to There was, from ancient times, another division of these people which still exists; thus, some they call Dacians and others Getæ: the Getæ extend towards the Euxine and the east, but the Dacians are situated on the opposite side towards Germany and the sources of the Danube, The river Maros Between [the Getæ and] the Black Sea, from the Danube to the Dniester, Near the mouths of the Danube is the large island called Peuce. At the mouth of the Dniester there is a tower called the Tower of Neoptolemus, and a village called Hermōnax. Next is the Dnieper, The whole of this country, which reaches to the seacoast extending from the Dnieper It appears that Ateas, After the island AT the bottom of the bay (Carcinites) commences the isthmus On the left in sailing out of the bay [Carcinites] there is a small town and another harbour It was formerly governed by its own laws, but after it was ravaged by barbarous nations, the inhabitants were obliged to elect as their protector, Mithridates Eupator, who was anxious to direct his forces against the barbarians who lived above the isthmus, and occupied the country as far as the Dnieper and the Adriatic, and thus to prepare himself against war with the Romans. Mithridates, with these views, readily despatched an expedition into the Chersonesus, and carried on war at the same time against the Scythians, Scilurus, and the sons of Scilurus, namely, Palacus and his brothers, whom Posidonius reckons to have been fifty, and Apollonides eighty, in number. By the subjugation of these enemies he became at once master of the Bosporus, which Pairisades, who held the command of it, voluntarily surrendered. From that time to the present the city of the Chersonitæ has been subject to the princes of the Bosporus. Ctenus is equally distant from the city of the Chersonitæ, and from Symbolon Limen. From Symbolon Limen the Tauric coast extends 1000 stadia to the city Theodosia. In the mountainous district of the Tauri there is a hill called Trapezus, After leaving the above-mentioned mountainous district, is the city Theodosia, situated on a plain; the soil is fertile, and there is a harbour capable of containing a hundred vessels. This formerly was the boundary of the territory of the Bosporians and of the Tauri. Then follows a fertile country extending to Panticapæum, Panticæpsum is a hill inhabited all round for a circuit of 20 stadia. To the east it has a harbour, and docks capable of containing about thirty vessels; there is also an acropolis. It was founded by the Milesians. Both this place and the neighbouring settlements on each side of the mouth of the Palus Mæotis were for a long period under the monarchical dynasty of Leucon, and Satyrus, and Pairisades, till the latter surrendered the sovereignty to Mithridates. They had the The mouth of the [Palus] Mæotis is called the Kimmerian Bosporus. The entrance, which at the broadest part is about 70 stadia across, where there is a passage from the neighbourhood On sailing into the Kimmerian Bosporus, The Great Chersonesus resembles Peloponnesus both in figure and size. The kings of the Bosporus possess it, but the whole country has been devastated by continual wars. They formerly possessed a small tract only at the mouth of the [Palus] Mæotis near Panticapæum, extending as far as Theodosia. The largest part of the territory, as far as the isthmus and the Gulf Carcinites, was in possession of the Tauri, a Scythian nation. The whole of this country, comprehending also a portion on the other side of the isthmus as far as the Dnieper, was called Little Scythia. In consequence of the number of people who passed from thence across the Dniester and the Danube, and settled there, no small part of that country also bore the name of Little Scythia. The Thracians surrendered a part of it to superior force, and a part was abandoned on account of the bad quality of the ground, a large portion of which is marshy. Except the mountainous tract of the Chersonesus on the sea-coast, extending as far as Theodosia, all the rest consist of plains, the soil of which is rich, and remarkably fertile in corn. It yields thirty-fold, when turned up by the most ordinary implements of husbandry. The tribute paid to Mithridates by the inhabitants, including that from the neighbourhood of Sindace in Asia, amounted to 180,000 medimni of corn, and 200 talents of silver. The Greeks in former times imported from this country corn, and the cured fish of Palus Mæotis. Leucon is said to have sent to the Athenians 2,100,000 medimni of corn from Theodosia. The nomades are more disposed to war than to robbery. The occasion of their contests was to enforce the payment of tribute. They permit those to have land who are willing to cultivate it. In return for the use of the land, they are satisfied with receiving a settled and moderate tribute, not such as will furnish superfluities, but the daily necessaries of life. If this tribute is not paid, the nomades declare war. Hence the poet calls these people both just, and miserable, (Abii,) The Georgi (husbandmen) are considered to be more civilized and mild in their manners than the other tribes in this quarter, but they are addicted to gain. They navigate the sea, and do not abstain from piracy, nor from similar acts of injustice and rapacity. Besides the places in the Chersonesus already enumerated, there are the fortresses Palacium, and Chabum, and Neapolis, There was also a fortress called Eupatorium, built by Diophantus, one of the generals of Mithridates. It is a custom peculiar to all the Scythian and Sarmatian tribes, to castrate their horses, in order to make them more tractable, for although they are small, yet they are spirited, and difficult to manage. Stags and wild boars are hunted in the marshes, and wild asses and roes Such is the nature of the whole of the country beyond the Danube, lying between the Rhine and the Don, and extending as far as the Pontic Sea and the Palus Mæotis. THERE remains to be described that part of Europe included between the Danube and the sea which surrounds it, This part contains Greece, Macedonia, Epirus, and the people who live above them, extending to the Danube and to the two seas (the Adriatic and the Euxine Sea) on each side. On the Adriatic are the Illyrians; on the Euxine Sea, as far as the Propontis These may be divided into two parts. For the mountains of Illyria, Pæonia, and Thrace, may be considered as forming, as it were, a single line, parallel to the Danube, and extending from the Adriatic to the Euxine. To the north of this line is the country included between the Danube and the mountains. To the south is Greece and the barbarous tract contiguous to these mountains. Near the Euxine Sea is Mount Hæmus, Almost the whole of Ardia I shall first describe Illyria, which approaches close to the Danube, and to the Alps which lie between Italy and Germany, The Daci depopulated a part of this country in their wars with the Boii and Taurisci, Keltic tribes whose chief was Critasirus. The Daci claimed the country, although it was separated from them by the river Parisus, The rest of the country as far as Segestica, The Breuci, Andizetii, Ditiones, Peirustæ, Mazæi, Daisitiatæ, whose chief was Baton, and other small obscure communities, which extend to Dalmatia, and almost to the Ardiæi to the south, are Pannonians. The whole mountainous tract from the recess of the Adriatic bay to the Rhizonic gulf, Here perhaps we ought to begin an uninterrupted account of these places, after a short repetition. In describing Italy we said, that the Istri were the first nation on the Illyrian coast, contiguous to Italy and to the Carni, and that the present government had advanced the limits of Italy to Pola, Next is the voyage along the coast of the Iapodes, 1000 stadia in extent. The Iapodes are situated on Mount Albius, which is the termination of the Alps, and is of very great height. They reach in one direction to the Pannonii and the Danube, and in another to the Adriatic. They are a warlike people, but were completely subdued by Augustus. Their cities are Metulum, Arupinum, Monetium, Vendum. Islands are scattered along the whole of the above-mentioned coast; among them are the Apsyrtides, where Medea is said to have killed her brother Apsyrtus, who was pursuing her. Near the Iapodes is Cyrictica, It is a custom peculiar to the Dalmatæ to make a partition of their lands every eighth year. They do not use money, which is a peculiarity also when compared with the habits of the other inhabitants of this coast; but this is common among many other tribes of barbarians. The mountain Adrion divides Dalmatia into two parts, one of which is on the sea, the other forms the opposite side of the mountain. Then follow the river Naron, and the people in the neighbourhood, the Daorizi, Ardiæi, and Pleræi. Later writers call the Ardiæi, Vard$sei. After the termination of the coast of the Ardiæi and Pleræi is the bay of the Rhizæi, a city Rhizon, The Dardanii are entirely a savage people, so much so that they dig caves beneath dungheaps, in which they dwell; yet they are fond of music, and are much occupied in playing upon pipes and on stringed instruments. They inhabit the inland parts of the country, and we shall mention them again in another place. After the bay of Rhizon In the territory of the Apolloniatæ there is what is called a Nymphæum. It is a rock which emits fire. Below it are springs flowing with hot water and asphaltus. The earth containing the asphaltus is probably in a state of combustion. The asphaltus is dug out of a neighbouring hill; the parts excavated are replaced by fresh earth, which after a time are converted into asphaltus. This account is given by Posidonius, who says also, that the ampelitis, an asphaltic earth found in the Pierian Seleucia, Next to Apollonia is Bylliace (Bullis) and Oricum, The mouth is common to both; but this difference is to be observed, that the name Ionian From the Liburni to the Ceraunian mountains is a distance of a little more than 2000 stadia. But Theopompus says, that it is six days' sail from the farthest recess of the bay, but a journey of thirty days by land along the length of Ilyria. This appears to me an exaggeration, but he makes many incredible statements. Among other instances, he pretends that there is a subterraneous passage between the Adriatic and the Ægæan Seas, grounding his opinion on the discovery of Chian and Thasian pottery in the river Naron. On the coast of Illyria, along its whole extent, and in the neighbouring islands, there are numerous excellent harbours, contrary to what occurs on the opposite Italian coast, where there are none. As in Italy, however, the climate is warm, and the soil productive of fruits; olives also and vines grow readily, except in some few excessively rugged places. Although Illyria possesses these advantages, it was formerly neglected, through ignorance, perhaps, of its fertility; but it was principally avoided on account of the savage manners of the inhabitants, and their piratical habits. The region situated above the sea-coast is mountainous, cold, and at times covered with snow. The northern part is still colder, so that vines are rarely to be met with either in the hills or in the plains lower down. These mountain-plains are in the possession of the Pannonians, and extend towards the south as far as the Dalmatians and Ardiæi. They terminate towards the north at the Ister, and approach towards The Autariatæ were the most populous and the bravest tribe of the Illyrians. Formerly, there were continual disputes between them and the Ardiæi respecting the salt which was spontaneously formed on the confines of their respective territories, in the spring season, from water which flows through a valley. The salt concreted five days after the water was drawn and deposited in reservoirs. The right of collecting salt was, by agreement, to be exercised alternately by each party, but the compact was broken and war was the consequence. After the Autariatæ had subdued the Triballi, a people whose territory extended a journey of fifteen days, from the Agrianæ to the Danube, they became masters of the Thracians and Illyrians. The Autariatæ were first conquered by the Scordisci, and afterwards by the Romans, who overpowered the Scordisci, for a long time a powerful nation. This people inhabited the country on the banks of the Danube, and were divided into two tribes, the Great and the Little Scordisci. Next to the territory of the Scordisci, lying along the banks of the Danube, is the country of the Triballi and Mysi, whom we have before mentioned; we have also spoken of the OF the country situated between the Danube and the mountains on each side of Pæonia, there remains to be described the Pontic coast, which reaches from the Sacred mouth of the Danube to the mountainous district about Hæ- mus, and to the mouth of the Pontus at Byzantium. As in describing the Illyrian coast we had proceeded as far as the Ceraunian mountains, which, although they stretch beyond the mountainous district of Illyria, yet constitute a sort of proper boundary, we determined by means of these mountains the limits of the nations in the inland parts, considering, that such separating lines would be better marks both for our present and future use; so here also the coast, although it may fall beyond the mountainous line, will still end at a proper kind of limit, the mouth of the Pontus, which will be useful both for our present and our future descriptions. If we set out from the Sacred mouth of the Danube, having on the right hand the continuous line of coast, we find at the On this coast is the promontory Tirizis, a place naturally strong, which Lysimachus formerly used as a treasury. Again, from Apollonia to the Cyanetæ are about The Cyaneæ From the promontory, then, that reduces the strait to 5 stadia, to the Port under the Fig-tree, as it is called, are 35 stadia; thence to the Horn of the Byzantines, 5 stadia. This Horn, close to the walls of Byzantium, is a bay, extending westwards 60 stadia, and resembling a stag's horn, for it is divided into a great many bays, like so many branches. The Pelamides After the foundation of Chalcedon, Apollo is said to have We have continued our description to Byzantium, because this celebrated city, Above Byzantium is the nation of the Asti, in whose territory is the city Calybe, which Philip the son of Amyntas made a settlement for criminals. THESE are the nations, bounded by the Danube and by the Illyrian and Thracian mountains, which are worthy of record. They occupy the whole coast of the Adriatic Sea, beginning from the recess of the gulf, and the left side, as it is called, of the Euxine Sea, from the river Danube to Byzantium. The southern parts of the above-mentioned mountainous tract, and the countries which follow, lying below it, remain to be described. Among these are Greece, and the contiguous barbarous country extending to the mountains. Hecatæus of Miletus says of the Peloponnesus, that, before the time of the Greeks, it was inhabited by barbarians. Perhaps even the whole of Greece was, anciently, a settlement of barbarians, if we judge from former accounts. For Pelops brought colonists from Phrygia into the Peloponnesus, which We have already spoken of the Pelasgi. The whole country called Ionia was formerly inhabited by Carians and Leleges; these were expelled by the Ionians, who themselves took possession of the country. In still ear- The fact of the association of these people with the Carians may be regarded as a proof of their being barbarians, and Aristotle, in his Politics, shows that they were a wandering nation, sometimes in company with the Carians, sometimes alone, and that from ancient times; for, in speaking of the polity of the Acarnanians, he says that the Curetes occupied a part of the country, and the Leleges (and after them the Teleboæ) the western side. On the subject of the Ætolian polity, he calls the present Locri, Leleges, and observes that they occupy Bœotia. He repeats the same remark on the subject of the polity of the Opuntians and Megareans. In speaking of the polity of the Leucadians, he mentions an aboriginal by name, Leleges, and a grandson by his daughter of the name of Teleboas, and besides two and twenty of his sons of the name of Teleboas, some of whom inhabited Lucas. But we should chiefly rely upon Hesiod, who thus speaks of them: Although Greece was formerly composed of small nations, many in number, and obscure; nevertheless their valour, and their separate government by kings, prevented any difficulty in defining their boundaries. As the greatest part of the country, however, is at present uninhabited, and the settlements, especially the cities, have been destroyed, it would be of no service, even if it were possible, to ascertain the names of cities and regions occupied by obscure and extinct people. This destruction, which began a long time since, still continues in many parts in consequence of rebellion. It has been checked by the Romans, who accepted the supreme authority from the inhabitants and lodged soldiers in their houses. The first parts of this coast are those about Epidamnus and Apollonia. From Apollonia to Macedonia is the Egnatian Way; its direction is towards the east, and the distance is measured by pillars at every mile, as far as Cypselus The country, from the commencement of the Macedonian and Pæonian mountains, as far as the river Strymon, The Ægean Sea waters two sides of Greece; first, the eastern side, extending from the promontory Sunium From Sunium to the Peloponnesus are the Myrtoan, the Cretan, and the Libyan Seas, together with the Gulfs, as far as the Sicilian Sea, which consist of the Gulfs of Ambracia, of Corinth, and of Crissa. Theopompus says, that there are fourteen Epirotic nations. Of these, the most celebrated are the Chaones and Molotti, because the whole of Epirus was at one time subject, first to Chaones, afterwards to Molotti. Their power was greatly strengthened by the family of their kings being descended from the Æacidæ, and because the ancient and famous oracle of Dodona The voyage commencing from the Chaones eastward towards the Gulfs of Ambracia and Corinth, and having the Ausonian Sea on the right, and Epirus on the left, comprises Next is the promontory Chimerium, and a harbour called Glycys-Limen, [or Sweet Harbour,] where the river Acheron, which receives several other rivers, empties itself and renders fresh the water of the gulf. The Thyamus Then follows the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf, On the left hand are Nicopolis, Nicopolis is well peopled, and is improving every day. It has a large territory, and is adorned with the spoils of war. In the suburbs is a sacred enclosure; part of it is a grove, containing a gymnasium and a stadium, intended for the celebration of quinquennial games; the other part, on a rising ground overhanging the grove, is sacred to Apollo. The Olympian game, called the Actia, After Ambracia follows the Amphilochian Argos, founded by Alcmæon and his sons. According to Ephorus, Alcmæon, after the expedition of the Epigoni The Amphilochians are Epirotæ, as also are those nations who inhabit a rugged country situated above and close to the Illyrian mountains, the Molotti, Athamanes, Æthices, Tymphæi, Orestæ Paroræi, and Atintanes, some of whom approach nearer to Macedonia, others to the Ionian Gulf. It is said that Orestes possessed the territory Orestias at the time of his flight, after the murder of his mother, and left the country Somewhere near are the silver mines of Damastium. Here the Perisadyes had established their sway, and Enchelii, who are also called Sesarethii. Then come the Lyncestæ, the territory Deuriopus, Pelagonia-Tripolitis, the Eordi, Elimia, and Eratyra. Formerly each of these nations was under its own prince. The chiefs of the Enchelii were descendants of Cadmus and Harmonia, and scenes of the fables respecting these persons are shown in the territory. This nation, therefore, was not governed by native princes. The Lyncestæ were under Arrhabæus, who was of the race of the Bacchiadæ. Irra was his daughter, and his grand-daughter was Eurydice, the mother of Philip Amyntas. The Molotti also were Epirotæ, and were subjects of Pyrrhus Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, and of his descendants, who were Thessalians. The rest were governed by native princes. Some tribes were continually endeavouring to obtain the mastery over the others, but all were finally subdued by the Macedonians, except a few situated above the Ionian Gulf. They gave the name of Upper Macedonia to the country about Lyncestis, Pelagonia, Orestias, and Elimia. Later writers called it Macedonia the Free, and some extend the name of Macedonia to all the country as far as Corcyra, at the same time assigning as their reasons, the mode of cutting their hair, their language, the use of the chlamys, and similar things in which they resemble the Macedonians; some of them, however, speak two languages. On the dissolution of the Macedonian empire, they fell under the power of the Romans. The Egnatian Way, from Epidamnus and Apollonia, passes through the territory of these people. Near the road to Candavia are the lakes about Lychnidus, which furnish large supplies of fish for salting, and rivers, some of which empty There were formerly cities among these nations. The district Pelagonia-Tripolitis contained (as the name signifies) three cities, of which Azorus was one. All the cities of the Deuriopes were situated on the banks of the Erigon; among which were Bryanium, Alalcomenæ, On the banks of the river Ion is Oxynia, a city distant from Azorus in the Tripolitis 120 stadia. Near Oxynia are Alalcomenæ, Æginium, Europus, and the confluence of the Ion with the Peneus. At that time then, as I said before, the whole of Epirus and Illyria were well peopled, although the country is rugged and full of mountains, such as Tomarus, and Polyanus, and many others. At present the greater part is uninhabited, and the inhabited parts are left in the state of villages, or in ruins. Even the oracle at Dodona has almost been deserted, like the rest. This oracle, according to Ephorus, was established by Pelasgi, who are said to be the most ancient people that were sovereigns in Greece. Thus the poet speaks, With respect to Dodona, Homer clearly intimates that the people who lived about the temple were barbarians, from their mode of life, describing them as persons who do not wash their feet, and who sleep on the ground. Whether we should read Helli, with Pindar, or Selli, as it is conjectured the word existed in Homer, the ambiguity of the writing does not permit us to affirm confidently. Philochorus says, that the country about Dodona was called, like Eubœa, Hellopia; for these are the words of Hesiod, Dodona was formerly subject to the Thesproti, as was the mountain Tomarus, or Tmarus, (both names are in use,) be low which the temple is situated. The tragic writers and Pindar give the epithet of Thesprotis to Dodona. It was said to be subject, in later times, to the Molotti. Those called by the poet Jove's interpreters, Odyssey containing the advice of Amphinomus to the suitors In Homer, however, we must understand The first prophets were men, and this the poet perhaps indicates, for he calls the persons interpreters, Suidas, in order to court the favour of the Thessalians by fabulous stories, says, that the temple was transported from Scotussa of the Thessalian Pelasgiotis, accompanied by a great multitude, chiefly of women, whose descendants are the present prophetesses, and that hence Jupiter had the epithet Pelasgic. Cineas relates what is still more fabulous * * * * * * * * * * THE oracle was formerly at Scotussa, a city of Pelasgiotis, but was transferred to Dodona by the command of Apollo, after some persons had burnt down the tree. The oracular answers were not conveyed by words, but by certain signs, as at the oracle of Ammon in Libya. Probably the three doves made some peculiar flight, which, observed by the priestesses, suggested the oracular answer. Some say that, in the language of the Molotti and Thesprote, old women are called Among the Thesprotæ and Molotti old women are called The proverb, Pæonia is to the east of these nations, and to the west of the Thracian mountains; on the north it lies above Macedonia. Through the city Gortynium and Stobi it admits of a passage to * * * (through which the Axius flows, and renders the access difficult from Pæonia into Macedonia, as The Haliacmon Orestis is of considerable extent; there is in it a large mountain which reaches to Corax Corcyra, humbled by many wars, became a subject of ridicule, and passed into a proverb. E. Corcyra was formerly a flourishing place, and possessed a considerable naval force, but went into decay through war and the oppression of its rulers. In later times, although restored to liberty by the Romans, it acquired no renown, but the taunting proverb was applied to it, Of Europe, there remains Macedonia, and the parts of Thrace contiguous to it, extending to Byzantium, Greece also, and the adjacent islands: indeed, Macedonia is a part of Greece. Following, however, the natural character of the country and its form, we have determined to separate it from Greece, and to unite it with Thrace, which borders upon it.——Strabo, after a few remarks, mentions Cypsela Macedonia is bounded on the west by the sea-coast of the Adriatic; on the east by a meridian line parallel to this coast, passing through the mouth of the river Hebrus, and the city Cypsela; on the north by an imaginary straight line passing through the mountains Bertiscus, Scardus, The country now called Macedonia was formerly called Emathia. It acquired this name from Macedon, one of its ancient princes. There was also a city Emathia near the sea. The country was occupied by some of the Epirotæ and Illyrians, but the greatest part by Bottiæi and Thracians. The Bottiæi were of Cretan origin, and came under the command of Botton; the Pieres, who were Thracians, inhabited Pieria and the parts about Olympus; the Pæonians, the borders of the river Axius, from whence the region was called Amphaxitis; the Edoni and Bisalti, the rest of the country as far as the Strymon. The Bisalti retained their name, but the Edoni went under the various names of Mygdones, Edoni, (Odones?) and Sithones. Of all these people, the Argeadæ and the Chalcidenses of Eubœa became the chief. The Chalcidenses came from Eubœa into the territory of the Sithones, and there founded about thirty cities. They were subsequently driven out by the Sithones, but the greater part of them collected together into a single city, namely, Olynthus. The Peneus separates Lower Macedonia and the seaboard from Thessaly and Magnesia. The Haliacmon is the boundary of Upper Macedonia; and the Haliacmon, the Erigon, the Axius, and other rivers, form the boundary between Macedonia and the Epirotæ and the Pæonians. E. If a line is drawn from the recess of the Thermaic Gulf, on the sea-coast of Macedonia, and from Thessalonica, southwards, to Sunium, and another eastwards, towards the Thracian Chersonese, an angle will be made in the recess. Macedonia extends in both directions, and we must begin with the line first mentioned. The first part of it has beyond it Attica with Megaris to the Crissæan Bay. Next succeeds the sea-coast of Bœotia near Eubea. Above Eubœa an the From these reefs, says Strabo, we shall first mark the boundaries of those who live about the river Peneus and Haliacmon near the sea. The Peneus flows from Mount Pindus through the middle of Thrace eastwards; passing through the cities of the Lapithæ and some of the cities of the Perrhæbi, it arrives at the vale of Tempe, having in its course received the waters of several rivers: of these, the Europus (Eurotas) is one, called by the poet Titaresius. It rises from Titarius, (Titarus,) a mountain continuous with Olympus, which at this point first begins to mark the boundary between Macedonia and Thessaly. Tempe is a narrow valley between Olympus and Ossa. The Peneus continues its course from this narrow pass 40 stadia, having Olympus, the highest of the Macedonian mountains, on the left, [and Ossa on the right, near] the mouth of the river. At the mouth of the Peneus on the right is situated Gyrton, a city of the Perrhæbi, and Magnetis, where Pirithous and Ixion were kings. The city Crannon is 100 stadia distant from Gyrton. Some assert, that in the lines of Homer, The Peneus, rising in Mount Pindus, flows through Tempe, the middle of Thessaly, the Lapithæ, and the Perrhæbi. It receives the Europus, (Eurotas,) which Homer calls Titaresius, in its course, and forms on the north the boundary of Macedonia, and on the south that of Thessaly. The sources of the river Europus are in Mount Titarius, which is contiguous to Olympus. Olympus itself is in Macedonia; Ossa and Pelion in Thessaly. EPIT. At the roots of Olympus, and on the banks of the Peneus, is Gyrton, a Perrhæbic city, and Magnetis, where Pirithous and Ixion ruled. [The city] Crannon is [100 stadia] distant [from Gyrton]; and it is said that when the poet writes The city Dium is not on the sea-shore of the Ther- mæan Gulf, at the roots of Olympus, but is about 7 stadia Beneath Olympus is Dium; near it is a village, Pimplea, where it is said Orpheus lived. He was a Cicon (of the tribe of the Cicones) and was a diviner. At first he drew people about him by the practice of music and witchcraft, and by the introduction of mysterious ceremonies in religious worship. After a time, obtaining a greater degree of self- importance, he collected a multitude of followers, and acquired influence. He had many willing followers, but becoming suspected by a few of entertaining secret designs, and of an intention of taking forcible possession of power, he was attacked by them and put to death. Near this place is Libethra. E. Anciently diviners practised the art of music. EPIT. After Dium follow the mouths of the Haliacmon; then Pydna, Methone, Alorus, and the rivers Erigon and Ludias. The Ludias flows from Triclari, through the Oresti and the Pellæan country (Pelagonia): leaving the city on the left it falls into the Axius. The Ludias is navigable up the stream to Pella 120 stadia. Methone is situated in the middle, about 40 stadia distant from Pydna, and 70 stadia from Alorus. Alorus is situated in the farthest recess of the Thermæan Gulf. It was called Thessalonica on account of the splendid [victory obtained over the Thessalians]. Alorus is considered as belonging to Bottiæa and Pydna to Pieria. Pella is in Lower Macedonia, which was in possession of the Bottiæi. Here was formerly the Macedonian Treasury. Philip, who was brought up in this place, raised it from an inconsiderable city to some importance. It has a citadel situated on a lake called Ludias. From this lake issues the river Ludias, which is filled by a branch of the Axius. The Axius discharges itself between Chalastra and Therma. Near this river is a fortified place, now called Abydos; Homer calls it Amydon, and says that the Pæonians came from hence to assist the Trojans during the siege of Troy. The water of the Axius is turbid. Homer, however, says that the water is After the city Drium is the river Haliacmon, which discharges itself into the Thermæan Gulf. From hence to the river Axius the sea-coast on the north of the gulf bears the name of Pieria, on which is situated the city Pydna, now called Citrum. Then follow Methone and the river Alorus; then the rivers Erigon and Ludias. From Ludias to the city Pella the river is navigated upwards to the distance of 20 stadia. Methone is distant from Pydna 40 stadia, and 70 stadia from Alorus. Pydna is a Pierian, Alorus a Bottiæan city. In the plain of Pydna the Romans defeated Perseus, and put an end to the Macedonian empire. In the plain of Methone, during the siege of the city, Philip Amyntas accidentally lost his right eye by an arrow discharged from a catapult. EPIT. Philip, who was brought up at Pella, formerly a small city, much improved it. In front of the city is a lake, out of which flows the river Ludias. The lake is supplied by a branch of the river Axius. Next follows the Axius, which separates the territory of Bottiæa and Amphaxitis, and after receiving the river Erigon, issues out between Chalestra and Therme. On the river Axius is a place which Homer calls Amydon, and says that the Pæones set out thence as auxiliaries to Troy: After the river Axius is the city Thessalonica, formerly called Therma. It was founded by Cassander, who called it after the name of his wife, a daughter of Philip Amyntas. He transferred to it the small surrounding cities, Chalastra, Ænea, Cissus, and some others. Probably from this Cissus came Iphidamas, mentioned in Homer, Somewhere in this neighbourhood is the mountain Bermius, The city Berœa Pallene is a peninsula. On the isthmus of Pallene lies what was once Potidæa, but now Cassandra. It was formerly called Phlegra, and was inhabited by the fabulous giants, an impious and lawless race, who were destroyed by Hercules. It has upon it four cities, Aphytis, Mende, Scione, and Sana. EPIT. Olynthus is distant from Potidæa 70 stadia. E. The arsenal of Olynthus is Mecyberna, on the Toronæan Gulf. EPIT. Near Olynthus is a hollow tract called Cantharolethron, from an accidental circumstance. The Cantharus, (the beetle,) which is bred in the surrounding country, dies as soon as it touches this tract. EPIT. Next after Cassandria is the remaining part of the seacoast of the Toronæan Gulf, as far as Derris. It is a promontory opposite the district of Canastrum, and forms a gulf. Opposite to Derris, to the east, are the promontories of Athos; between them is the Singitic Gulf, which receives its name from an ancient city in it, Singus, now destroyed. Next is the city Acanthus, situated on the isthmus of Athos, Opposite to Canastrum, a promontory of Pallene, is the promontory Derris, near Cophus-Limen [or Deaf Harbour]: The city Acanthus, on the Singitic Gulf, is a maritime city near the Canal of Xerxes. There are five cities in Athos; Dium, Cleonæ, Thyssos, Olophyxis, Acrothoi, which is situated near the summit of Athos. Mount Athos is pap-shaped, very pointed, and of very great height. Those who live upon the summit see the sun rise three hours before it is visible on the sea-shore. The voyage round the peninsula, from the city Acanthus to the city Stagirus, the birth-place of Aristotle, is 400 stadia. It has a harbour called Caprus, and a small island of the same name. Then follow the mouths of the Strymon; then Phagres, Galepsus, and Apollonia, all of them cities; then the mouth of the Nestus, which is the boundary of Macedonia and Thrace, as settled, in their own times, by Philip and Alexander his son. There are about the Strymonic Gulf other cities also, as Myrcinus, Argilus, Drabescus, and Datum, which has an excellent and most productive soil, dock-yards for ship-building, and gold mines; whence the proverb, There are numerous gold mines among the Crenides, where the city of Philip now stands, near Mount Pangæus. Pangæus itself, and the country on the east of the Strymon, and on the west as far as Pæonia, contains gold and silver Mount Athos is pap-shaped, and so lofty that the husbandmen on the summit are already weary of their labour, the sun having long since risen to them, when to the inhabitants of the shore it is the beginning of cockcrowing. Thamyris, the Thracian, was king of this coast, and followed the same practices as Orpheus. Here also, at Acanthus, is seen the canal, which Xerxes is said to have made, and through which he is said to have brought the sea from the Strymonic Gulf, across the isthmus. Demetrius of Skepsis is of opinion that this canal was not navigable; for, says he, the ground is composed of deep earth, and admits of being dug for a distance of 10 stadia only: the canal is a plethrum in width; then follows a high, broad, and flat rock, nearly a stadium in length, which prevents excavation throughout the whole distance to the sea. And even if the work could be carried on so far across, yet it could not be continued to a sufficient depth, so as to present a navigable passage. Here Alexarchus, the son of Antipater, built the city Uranopolis, 30 stadia in circumference. This peninsula was inhabited by Pelasgi from Lemnos; they were distributed into five small cities, Cleonæ, Olophyxis, Acrothoi, Dium, Thyssos. After Athos comes the Strymonic Gulf, extending to the river Nestus, which forms the boundary of Macedonia, as settled by Philip and Alexander. Accurately speaking, there is a promontory forming a gulf with Athos, on which is the city Apollonia. First in the gulf, after the harbour of Acanthus, is Stagira, now deserted: it was one of the Chalcidic cities, and the birth-place of Aristotle. Caprus was the harbour, and there is a small island of the same name. Then comes the Strymon, and Amphipolis, at the distance of 20 stadia up the river. In this part is situated an Athenian colony, called Ennea-Odoi (the Nine-Ways). Then Galepsus and Apollonia, which were destroyed by Philip. E. He says, it is 120 stadia (300?) from the Peneus to Pydna. On the sea-coast of the Strymon and of the Dateni is Neapolis, and Datum also, which has fruitful plains, a lake, rivers, dockyards, and valuable gold mines. Hence the proverb, The source of the river Strymon is among the Agrianes near Rhodope. EPIT. The Pæonians, according to some, were a dependent colony of the Phrygians; according to others, they were an independent settlement. Pænonia, it is said, extended to Pelagonia and Pieria; Pelagonia is said to have been formerly called Orestia; and Asteropæus, one of the chiefs from Pæonia who went to Troy, to have been called, with great probability, the son of Pelagon, and the Pæonians themselves to have been called Pelagones. E. The Asteropæus in Homer, son of Pelegon, we are told, was of Pæonia in Macedonia: whence As the Anciently, as at present, the Pæonians appear to have been masters of so much of what is now called Macedonia as to be able to besiege Perinthus, and subject to their power Crestonia, the whole of Mygdonia, and the territory of the Agrianes as far as Mount Pangæus. Above the sea-coast of the Strymonic Gulf, extending from Galepsus to Nestus, are situated Philippi and the surrounding country. Philippi was formerly called Crenides; it was a small settlement, but increased after the defeat of Brutus and Cassius. E. In front of this coast lie two islands, Lemnos and Thasos. Beyond the strait at Thasos is Abdera, with its fables. It was inhabited by Bistones, over whom ruled Diomed. The Nestus does not always keep within its banks, but frequently inundates the country. Then Dicæa, a city on the gulf, with a harbour. Above it is the lake Bistonis, 200 stadia in circumference. They say that Hercules, when he came to seize upon the horses of Diomed, cut a canal through the sea-shore and turned the water of the sea upon the plain, which is situated in a hollow, and is lower than the level of the sea, and thus vanquished his opponents. The royal residence of Diomed is shown, called, from a local peculiarity, its natural strength, Cartera-Come [Strong-Village]. Beyond the inland lake are Xanthia, Maronia, and Ismarus, cities of the Cicones. Ismarus is now called Ismara-near-Maronia. Near it is the outlet of the lake Ismaris. The stream is called sweet * * * * * * At this place are what are called the heads of the Thasii. The Sapæi are situated above. E. Topeira is situated near Abdera and Maronia. E. The Sinti, a Thracian tribe, inhabit the island of Lemnos; whence Homer calls them Sinties, thus, After the river Nestus to the west is the city Abdera, named after Abderus, who was eaten by the horses of Diomed; then, near, Dicæa, a city, above which is situated a large lake, the Bistonis; then the city Maronia. EPIT. The whole of Thrace is composed of twenty-two nations. Although greatly exhausted, it is capable of equipping The river in Thrace now called Rhiginia (Rhegina?) was formerly called Erigon (Erginus?). EPIT. Samothrace was inhabited by the brothers Jasion and Dardanus. Jasion was killed by lightning, for his crime against Ceres; Dardanus moved away from Samothrace, and built a city, to which he gave the name of Dardania, at the foot of Mount Ida. He taught the Trojans the Samothracian mysteries. Samothrace was formerly called Samos. EPIT. The gods worshipped in Samothrace, the Curbantes and Corybantes, the Curetes and the Idæan Dactyli, are said by many persons to be the same as the Cabiri, although they are unable to explain who the Cabiri were. E. At the mouth of the Hebrus, which discharges itself by two channels, in the Gulf of Melas, is a city Ænos, founded by the Mitylenæans and Cumæans; its first founders, however, were Alopeconnesi; then the promontory Sarpedon; The Thracian Chersonesus forms three seas, the Propontis to the north, the Hellespont to the east, and the Gulf Melas to the south, where the river Melas, of the same name as the gulf, discharges itself. EPIT. In the isthmus of the Chersonesus are three cities, Cardia on the Gulf of Melas, Pactya on the Propontis, Lysimachia in the interior; the breadth of the isthmus is 40 stadia. EPIT. The name of the city Eleus is of the masculine gender, perhaps that of Trapezus is also masculine. EPIT. In the voyage round of which we have been speaking; beyond Eleus, first, is the entrance into the Propontis through the straits, where they say the Hellespont begins. There is a promontory here by some called Dog's Monument, by others the Monument of Hecuba, for on doubling the pro- From Perinthus to Byzantium it is 630 stadia; from the Hebrus and Cypseli to Byzantium and the Cyanean rocks it is, according to Artemidorus, 3100 stadia. The whole distance from Apollonia on the Ionian Gulf to Byzantium is 7320 stadia; Polybius makes this distance 180 stadia more, by the addition of a third of a stadium to the sum of 8 stadia, which compose a mile. Demetrius of Skepsis, in his account of the disposition of the Trojan forces, says that it is 700 stadia from Perinthus to Byzantium, and the same distance to Parium. He makes the length of the Propontis to be All writers do not agree in their description of the Hellespont, and many opinions are advanced on the subject. Some describe the Propontis to be the Hellespont; others, that part of the Propontis which is to the south of Perinthus; others include a part of the exterior sea which opens to the Ægæan and the Gulf Melas, each assigning different limits. Some make their measurement from Sigeum to Lampsacus, and Cyzicus, and Parium, and Priapus; and one is to be found who measures from Singrium, a promontory of Lesbos. Some do not hesitate to give the name of Hellespont to the whole distance as far as the Myrtoan Sea, because (as in the Odes SUMMARY. The remaining parts of Macedonia are considered, and the whole of Greece; on this the author dwells some time on account of the great reputation of the country. He corrects minutely, and clears up, the confused and vague accounts respecting the cities contained therein, given by poets and historians, and especially in the Catalogue and in many other parts of the Poem. AFTER having described as much of the western parts of Europe as is comprised within the interior and exterior seas, and surveyed all the barbarous nations which it contains, as far as the Don It is easy to form an opinion of the other writers, but the poems of Homer require critical consideration, both because he speaks as a poet, and because he describes things not as We must however undertake this inquiry as far as we are able, beginning from the point where our description ended. It ended with an account of the Epirotic and Illyrian nations on the west and north, and of Macedonia as far as Byzantium on the east. After the Epirotæ and Illyrii follow the Acarnanes, There are many Greek tribes, but the chief people are equal in number to the Greek dialects with which we are acquainted, namely, four. Of these, the Ionic is the same as the ancient Attic; (for Iones was the former name of the inhabitants of Attica; from thence came the Iones who settled in Asia, It was not in the parts only on the other side of the isthmus, that the Æolian nation was powerful, but those on this side also were formerly Æolians. They were afterwards intermixed first with Ionians who came from Attica, and got possession of Ægialus, Such then is the number of the Grecian nations, and thus in general are they distinguished from each other. I shall resume my account of them, and describe each nation in their proper order. According to Ephorus, Acarnania is the commencement of Greece on the west, for it is the first country which lies contiguous to the Epirotic nations. As this author follows the coast in his measurements, and begins from thence, considering the sea the most important guide of topographical description, (for otherwise he might have placed the beginning of Greece in Macedonia and Thessaly,) so ought I, observing The sea coming from Sicily spreads itself on one side towards the Corinthian Gulf, and on the other forms a large peninsula, the Peloponnesus, united to the main-land by a narrow isthmus. The two largest bodies of country in Greece are that within the isthmus, and that without the isthmus, [extending to the mouths of the river Peneius]. That within the isthmas is however larger, and more celebrated. The Peloponnesus is, as it were, the acropolis or citadel of all Greece; and all Greece in a manner holds the chief or leading position in Europe. For independently of the fame and power of the nations which inhabited it, the position itself of the places in it suggests this superiority. One site succeeds another diversified with numerous most remarkable bays, and large peninsulas. The first of these peninsulas is the Peloponnesus, closed in by an isthmus of forty stadia in extent. The second comprehends the first, and has an isthmus reaching from Pagæ in Megaris to Nisæa, which is the naval arsenal of the Megareans; the passage across the isthmus from sea to sea is 120 stadia. The third peninsula also comprises the latter. Its isthmus extends from the farthest recess of the Crissæan Gulf to Thermopylæ. The line supposed to be drawn between these is about 508 stadia in length, including within it the whole of Bœotia, and cutting Phocis and the country of the Epicnemidii obliquely. The fourth peninsula has the isthmus extending from the Ambracian Gulf through Mount Œta and Traclinia to the Maliac Gulf and Thermopylæ, about 800 stadia. There is another isthmus of more than 1000 stadia reaching from the same Gulf of Ambracia, and passing through the country of the Thessalians and Macedonians to the recess of the Thermæan Gulf. The succession of peninsulas furnishes a convenient order to be followed in describing the country. We must begin from the smallest, as being also the most famous of these peninsulas. THE Peloponnesus resembles in figure the leaf of a plane tree. The circumference, according to Polybius, exclusive of the circuit of the bays, is 4000 stadia. Artemidorus however adds to this 400 stadia, and if we include the measure of the bays, it exceeds 5600 stadia. We have already said that the isthmus at the road where they draw vessels over-land from one sea to the other is 40 stadia across. Eleians and Messenians occupy the western side of this peninsula. Their territory is washed by the Sicilian Sea. They possess the coast also on each side. Elis bends towards the north and the commencement of the Corinthian Gulf as far as the promontory Araxus, Next to Elis, is the nation of the Achæi looking towards the north, and stretching along the Corinthian Gulf they terminate at Sicyonia. Then follow Sicyon The bays of the Peloponnesus are the Messeniac, The Corinthian Gulf begins from the mouths of the Evenus, Rhium is a promontory of Achaia, it is low, and bends inwards like a sickle, (indeed it has the name of Drepanum, or the Sickle,) and lies between Patræ The Corinthian Gulf is 2230 stadia in circuit from the river Evenus to the promontory Araxus; and if we reckon from the Achelous, it would be increased by about 100 stadia. The tract from the Achelous to the Evenus is occupied by Acarnanians; next are the Ætoli, reaching to the Cape Antirrhium. The remainder of the country, as far as the isthmus, is occupied by Phocis, Bœotia, and by Megaris, it extends The sea from Cape Antirrhium as far as the isthmus is [the Crissæan Gulf, but from the city Creusa it is called the Sea of] Alcyonis, and is a portion of the Crissæan Gulf. Such in general then is the nature and extent of the Peloponnesus, and of the country on the other side of the strait up to the farther recess of the gulf. Such also is the nature of the gulf between both. We shall next describe each country in particular, beginning with Elis. AT present the whole sea-coast lying between the Achæi and Messenii is called Eleia, it stretches into the inland parts towards Arcadia at Pholoe, and the Azanes, and Parrhasii. Anciently it was divided into several states; afterwards into two, Elis of the Epeii, and Elis under Nestor, the son of Neleus. As Homer says, who mentions Elis of the Epeii by name, Elis, the present city, was not yet founded in the time of Homer, but the inhabitants of the country lived in villages. It was called Cœle [or Hollow] Elis, from the accident of its locality, for the largest and best part of it is situated in a hollow. It was at a late period, and after the Persian war, that the people collected together out of many demi, or These were the Pisatis, of which Olympia is a part, and Triphylia, and the territory of the Caucones. The Triphylii had their name from the accident of the union of three tribes; of the Epeii, the original inhabitants; of the Minyæ, who afterwards settled there; and last of all of the Eleii, who made themselves masters of the country. Instead of the Minyæ some writers substitute Arcadians, who had frequently disputed the possession of the territory, whence Pylus had the epithet Arcadian as well as Triphylian. Homer calls all this tract as far as Messene by the name of Pylus, the name of the city. The names of the chiefs, and of their abodes in the Catalogue of the Ships, show that Cœle Elis, or the Hollow Elis, was distinct from the country subject to Nestor. I say this on comparing the present places with Homer's description of them, for we must compare one with the other in consideration of the fame of the poet, and our being bred up in an acquaintance with his writings; and every one will conclude that our present inquiry is rightly conducted, if nothing is found repugnant to his accounts of places, which have been received with the fullest reliance on their credibility and his veracity. We must describe these places as they exist at present, and as they are represented by the poet, comparing them together as far as is required by the design of this work. The Araxus is a promontory of Eleia situated on the north, 60 stadia from Dyme, an Achæan city. This promontory Between the Chelonatas and Cyllene the river Peneius empties itself, and that also called by the poet Selleis, which flows from the mountain Pholoe. On this river is situated Ephyra, a city to be distinguished from the Thesprotian, Thessalian, and Corinthian Ephyras; being a fourth city of this name, situated on the road leading to the Lasion seacoast, and which may be either the same place as Bœonoa, (for it is the custom to call Œnoe by this name,) or a city near this, distant from Elis 120 stadia. This Ephyra seems to be the reputed birth-place of Astyochea, the mother of Tlepolemus, the son of Hercules, There is also near Sicyon a river, Selleis, and a village of the name of Ephyra near it; and a village Ephyra in the territory of Agræa in Ætolia, the people of which are called Ephyri. There are also other Ephyri among the Perrhæbi near Macedonia, who are Crannonians, Apollodorus, when he informs us in what manner the poet usually distinguishes places with the same names, as Orchomenus for instance, designating that in Arcadia by the epithet, What he says also about Œchalia requires examination, where he asserts that the city of Eurytus of Œchalia is the only city, when there is more than one city of that name. It is therefore evident that he means the Thessalian city mentioned by Homer: There existed between the mouths of the Peneius and the Selleis near Scollis, a Pylus, not the city of Nestor, but another of that name, having nothing in common with that on the Alpheius, nor even with that on the Pamisus, or, if we must so call it, the Amathus. Some writers, through their solicitude for the fame and noble descent of Nestor, give a forced meaning to these words. Since there are three places in Peloponnesus of the name of Pylus, (whence the saying originated, The greater number of other writers, both historians and poets, say, that Nestor was a Messenian, assigning as his birthplace the Pylus, which continued to exist to their times. Those, however, who adhere to Homer and follow his poem as their guide, say, that the Pylus of Nestor is where the territory is traversed by the Alpheius. Now this river passes through the Pisatis and Triphylia. The inhabitants of the Hollow Elis were emulous of the same honour respecting the Pylus in their own country, and point out distinctive marks, as a place called Gerenus, and a river Geron, and another river Geranius, and endeavour to confirm this opinion by pretending that Nestor had the epithet Gerenius from these places. The Messenians argue in the very same manner, but ap- Such then is the present state of the Hollow Elis. The poet however, after having divided the country into four parts, and mentioned the four chiefs, does not clearly express himself, when he says: Buprasium, it is probable, was a considerable settlement in Eleia, which does not exist at present. But the territory only has this name, which lies on the road to Dyme from Elis the present city. It might be supposed that Buprasium had at that time some superiority over Elis, as the Epeii had over the Eleii, but afterwards they had the name of Eleii instead of Epeii. Buprasium then was a part of Elis, and they say, that Homer, by a poetical figure, speaks of the whole and of the part together, as in these lines: If Homer has not called the Buprasii by the name of Eleii, we shall reply, nor has he mentioned many other places and things which exist. For this is not a proof that they did not exist, but only that he has not mentioned them. But Hecatæus of Miletus says, that the Epeii are a different people from the Eleii; that the Epeii accompanied Hercules in his expedition against Augeas, and joined him in destroying Elis, and defeating Augeas. He also says, that Dyme was both an Epeian and an Achæan city. The ancient historians, accustomed from childhood to falsehood through the tales of mythologists, speak of many things that never existed. Hence they do not even agree with one another, in their accounts of the same things. Not that it is improbable that the Epeii, although a different people and at variance with the Eleii, when they had gained the ascendency, united together, forming a com- mon state, and their power extended even as far as Dyme. The poet does not mention Dyme, but it is not improbable that at that time it was subject to the Epeii, and afterwards to the ones, or perhaps not even to this people, but to the Achsæi, who were in possession of the country of the Iones. Of the four portions, which include Buprasium, Hyrminē and Myrsinus belong to the territory of Eleia. The rest, according to the opinion of some writers, are situated close on the borders of the Pisatis. Hyrminë was a small town, which exists no longer, but there is a mountainous promontory near Cyllene, called Hormina or Hyrmina. Myrsinus is the present Myrtuntium, a settlement extending to the sea, and situated on the road from Dyme to Elis, at the distance of 70 stadia from the city of the Eleii. It is conjectured that the Olenian rock is the present Scollis. For we might mention probable conjectures, since both places and names have undergone changes, and the poet himself does not explain his meaning clearly in many passages. Aleisium is the present Alesiæum, a place near Amphidolis, where the neighbouring people hold a market every month. It is situated upon the mountain road leading from Elis to Olympia. Formerly, it was a city of the Pisatis, the boundaries of the country being different at different times on account of the change of masters. The poet also calls Aleisium, the hill of Aleisius, when he says, Since a tribe of Caucones is mentioned in Triphylia near Messenia, and as Dyme is called by some writers Cauconis, and since between Dyme and Tritæa in the Dymæan district there is also a river called Caucon, a question arises respecting the Caucones, whether there are two nations of this name, one situate about Triphylia, and another about Dyme, Elis, and Caucon. This river empties itself into another which is called Teutheas, in the masculine gender, and is the name of a small town that was one of those that composed Dyme; except that the town is of the feminine gender, and is pronounced Teuthea, without the s, and the last syllable is long. There is a temple of Diana Nemydia (Nemeæma?). The Teutheas discharges itself into the Achelous, which runs by Dyme, and has the same name as that in Acarnania, and the name also of Peirus. In the lines of Hesiod, Next to the Chelonatas is the long tract of coast of the Pisatæ; then follows a promontory, Pheia; there was also a small town of this name; Some writers say, that Pheia is the commencement of the Pisatis. In front of Pheia is a small island and a harbour; thence to Olympia by sea, which is the shortest way, is 120 stadia. Then immediately follows another promontory, [Icthys,] projecting very far towards the west, like the Chelonatas; from this promontory to Cephallenia are 120 stadia. Next the Alpheius discharges itself, at the distance from the Chelonatas of 280, and from the Araxus of 545, stadia. It flows from the same places as the Eurotas. There is a village of the name of Asea in the Megalopolitis, where the two sources, whence the above-mentioned rivers issue, are near to one another. After running under the earth the distance of many stadia, they then rise to the surface, when one takes its course to Laconia, the other to the Pisatis. The Eurotas reappears at the commencement of the district Bleminates, flowing close beside Sparta, and passing through a long valley near Helos, which the poet mentions, empties itself between Gythium, the naval arsenal of Sparta, and Acræa. But the Alpheius, after receiving the Celadon, (Ladon?) and Erymanthus, and other obscure streams, pursues its course through Phrixa, and the Pisatis, and Triphylia, close to Olympia, Next is the mountain, which separates Macistia in Triphylia from the Pisatis; then follows another river Chalcis, and a spring called Cruni, and Chalcis a village, and next to these the Samicum, where is the temple of the Samian Neptune, which is held in the highest honour. There is also a grove full of wild olive trees. It was intrusted to the care of the Macistii, whose business it was to announce the Samian truce as it is called. All the Triphylii contribute to the temple. [The temple of the Scilluntian Minerva at Scillus in the neighbourhood of Olympia, opposite the Phellon, is among the celebrated temples.] Near these temples, at the distance of 30 stadia, or a little more, above the sea-coast, is situated the Triphyliac, or Lepreatic, Pylus, which the poet calls Emathoeis, or Sandy, and transmits to us as the native country of Nestor, as may be collected from his poetry. It had the epithet Emathoeis either from the river, which flows by the city towards the north, and was formerly called Amathus, but now Mamaus, or Arcadicus; or because this river was called Pamisus, the same name as that of two rivers in Messenia, while with respect to the city, the epithet Emathoeis, or sandy, is of uncertain origin, since it is not the fact, it is said, that either the river or the country abounds with sand. Towards the north there were two small Triphyliac towns, Hypana and Typaneæ, bordering upon Pylus; the former of which was incorporated with Elis, the other remained separate. Two rivers flow near, the Dalion and the Acheron, and empty themselves into the Alpheius. The Acheron has its name from its relation to Hades. For at that place were held in extraordinary reverence the temples of Ceres, Proserpine, and Hades, perhaps on account of the contrariety of the properties of the country, which Demetrius of Scepsis mentions. For Triphylia is fertile, but the soil is subject to mildew, and produces rushes, Towards the south of Pylus is Lepreum. This also was a city, situated 40 stadia above the sea-coast. Between the Lepreum and the Annius (Anigrus? Alphæus?) is the temple of the Samian Neptune. These places are distant 100 stadia from each other. This is the temple in which the poet says that the Pylii were found by Telemachus engaged in offering sacrifice: The Lepreatæ possessed a fertile country, on the confines of which were situated the Cyparissenses. But Caucones were masters of both these tracts, and even of the Macistus, which some call Platanistus. The town has the same name as the territory. It is said, that in the Lepreatis there is even a monument of a Caucon, who had the name of the nation, either because he was a chief, or for some other reason. There are many accounts respecting the Caucones. They are said to be an Arcadian tribe, like the Pelasgi, and also, like them, a wandering people. Thus the poet relates, that they came as auxiliaries to the Trojans, but from what country he does not mention, but it is supposed from Paphlagonia. For in that country there is a tribe of the name of Cauconiatæ, that border upon the Mariandyni, who are themselves Paphlagonians. We shall say more of them when we describe that country. At present I must add some remarks concerning the Caucones in Triphylia. For some writers say, that the whole of the present Elis, from Messenia to Dyme, was called Cauconia. Antimachus calls them all Epeii and Caucones. But some writers say that they did not possess the whole country, but inhabited it when they were divided into two bodies, one of which settled in Triphylia towards Messenia, the other in the Buprasian district towards Dyme, and in the Hollow Elis. And there, and not in any other place, Aristotle considered them to be situated. The last opinion agrees better with the language of Homer, and the preceding question is resolved. For Nestor is supposed to have lived at the Triphyliac Pylus, the parts of which towards the south and the east (and these coincide towards Messenia and Laconia) was the country subject to Nestor, but the Caucones now occupy it, so that those who are going from Pylus to Lacedæmon must necessarily take the road through the Caucones. The temple of the Samian Neptune, and the naval station near it, where Telemachus landed, incline to the west and to the north. If then the Caucones lived there only, the account of the poet must be erroneous. If therefore the Caucones are to be found in one situation only, these absurdities would follow. But if one division of this tribe occupied the places in Elis near Dymë, Minerva might be said to direct her journey thither, and even the return to the ship would not be absurd, nor the separation from the company of Telemachus, when her road was in an opposite direction. The question respecting Pylus may perhaps be resolved in a similar manner, when we come, as we proceed, to the description of the Messenian Pylus. There is also, it is said, a nation, the Paroreatæ, who occupy, in the hilly district of Triphylia, the mountains, which extend from about Lepreum and Macistum to the sea near the Samian grove sacred to Neptune. Below these people on the coast are two caves; one, of the nymphs Anigriades; the other, the scene of the adventures of the Atlantides, Samicum is a fortress. Formerly there was a city of the name of Samos, which perhaps had its designation from its Since then the sluggishness of the Anigrus, and the recoil of the waters of the sea, produce a state of rest rather than a current, they say, that its former name was Minyeïus, but that some persons perverted the name and altered it to Minteïus. The etymology of the name may be derived from other sources; either from those who accompanied Chloris, the mother of Nestor, from the Minyeian Orchomenus; or, Some of these people, with Theras the son of Autesion, who was a descendant of Polynices, having set sail to the country between Cyrenæa and the island of Crete, Between the Anigrus and the mountain from which the Jardanes rises, a meadow and a sepulchre are shown, and the Achææ, which are rocks broken off from the same mountain, above which was situated, as I have said, the city Samos. Samos is not mentioned by any of the authors of Peripli, or Circumnavigations; because perhaps it had been long since destroyed, and perhaps also on account of its position. For the Poseidium is a grove, as I have said, near the sea, a lofty eminence rises above it, situated in front of the present Samicum, where Samos once stood, so that it cannot be seen from the sea. Here also is the plain called Samicus, from which we may further conjecture that there was once a city Samos. According to the poem Rhadinē, of which Stesichorus seems to have been the author, and which begins in this manner, From this Pylus and the Lepreum to the Messenian Pylus On the Triphylian Sea are situated Cyparissia, and Pyrgi, and the rivers Acidon and Neda. At present the boundary of Triphylia towards Messenia is the impetuous stream of the Neda descending from the Lycæus, a mountain of Arcadia, and rising from a source which, according to the fable, burst forth to furnish water in which Rhea was to wash herself after the birth of Jupiter. It flows near Phigalia, and empties itself into the sea where the Pyrgitæ, the extreme tribe of the Triphylii, approach the Cyparissenses, the first of tile Messenian nation. But, anciently, the country had other boundaries, so that the dominions of Nestor included some places on the other side of the Neda, as the Cyparisseïs, and some others beyond that tract, in the same manner as the poet extends the Pylian sea as far as the seven cities, which Agamemnon promised to Achilles, Next in order to the Cyparisseis in traversing the coast towards the Messenian Pylus and the Coryphasium, we meet with Erana, (Eranna,) which some writers incorrectly suppose was formerly called Arene, by the same name as the Pylian city, and the promontory Platamodes, from which to the Coryphasium, and to the place at present called Pylus, are We ought not perhaps to carry our inquiries so far into antiquity, and it might be sufficient to describe the present state of each place, if certain reports about them had not been delivered down to us in childhood; but as different writers give different accounts, it is necessary to examine them. The most famous and the most ancient writers being the first in point of personal knowledge of the places, are, in general, persons of the most credit. Now as Homer surpasses all others in these respects, we must examine what he says, and compare his descriptions with the present state of places, as we have just said. We have already considered his description of the Hollow Elis and of Buprasium. He describes the dominions of Nestor in these words: With respect to Thryum, or Thryoessa, they say, is Epitalium, because all the country is Cyparisseïs is near the old Macistia, which then extended even to the other side of the Neda, but it is not inhabited, as neither is Macistum. There is also another, the Messenian Cyparissia, not having quite the same name, but one like it. The city of Macistia is at present called Cyparissia, in the singular number, and feminine gender, but the name of the river is Cyparisseis. Amphigeneia, also belonging to Macistia, is near Hypsoeis, where is the temple of Latona. Pteleum was founded by the colony that came from Pteleum in Thessaly, for it is mentioned in this line, Some writers say, that Helos was some spot near the Alpheius; others, that it was a city like that in Laconia, Dorium is said by some authors to be a mountain, by others a plain, but nothing is now to be seen; yet it is alleged, that tile present Oluris, or Olura, situated in the Aulon, as it is called, of Messenia, is Dorium. Somewhere there also is Œchalia of Eurytus, the present Andania, a small Arcadian town of the same name as those in Thessaly and Eubœa, whence the poet says, Thamyris, the Thracian, came to Dorium, and was deprived by the Muses of the power of song. Hence it is evident that the country under the command of Nestor is on each side of the Alpheius, all of which tract It is in this district that we have the native country of Nestor, which we call the Triphylian, the Arcadian, and the Lepreatic Pylus. For we know that other places of the name of Pylus are pointed out, situated upon the sea, but this is distant more than 30 stadia from it, as appears from the poem. A messenger is sent to the vessel, to the companions of Telemachus,—to invite them to a hospitable entertainment. Telemachus, upon his return from Sparta, does not permit Peisistratus to go to the city, but diverts him from it, and prevails upon him to hasten to the ship, whence it appears that the same road did not lead both to the city and to the haven. The departure of Telemachus may in this manner be aptly understood: "In the strait between Ithaca and Samos, And from thence he directed the vessel to the sharp-pointed islands, If any one therefore should suppose that the Eleian Pylus is the Pylus of Nestor, the ship would not properly be said, after setting off thence, to take its course along Cruni and Chalcis, as far as the west, then to arrive by night at Pheæ, and afterwards to sail along the territory of Eleia, for Besides, Nestor's account of the war between the Pylians and Eleians, which he relates to Patroclus, agrees with our arguments, if any one examines the lines. For he says there, that Hercules laid waste Pylus, and that all the youth were exterminated; that out of twelve sons of Neleus, lie himself alone survived, and was a very young man, and that the Epeii, despising Neleus on account of his old age and destitute state, treated the Pylians with haughtiness and insult. Nestor therefore, in order to avenge this wrong, collected as large a body of his people as he was able, made an inroad into Eleia, and carried away a large quantity of booty; From these verses how can it be supposed that Eleian or Messenian Pylus is meant. I say the Eleian, because when this was destroyed by Hercules, the country of the Epeii also was ravaged at the same time, that is, Eleia. How then could those, who were of the same tribe, and who had been plundered at that time, show such pride and insult to persons, who were suffering under the same injuries? How could they overrun and ravage their own country? How could Augeas and Neleus be kings of the same people, and yet be mutual enemies; for to Neleus Since, however, Messenia was entirely under the dominion of Menelaus, to whom Laconia also was subject, as will be evident from what will be said hereafter, and since the rivers, the Pamisus and the Nedon, flow through this country, and not the Alpheius at all, which runs in a straight line through the country of the Pylians, of which Nestor was ruler, can that account be credible, by which it appears that one man takes possession by force of the dominion of another, and deprives him of the cities, which are said to be his property in the Catalogue of the Ships, and makes others subject to the usurper. It remains that we speak of Olympia, and of the manner in which everything fell into the power of the Eleii. The temple is in the district Pisatis, at the distance of less than 300 stadia from Elis. In front of it is a grove of wild olive trees, where is the stadium. The Alpheius flows beside it, taking its course out of Arcadia to the Triphylian Sea between the west and the south. The fame of the temple was originally owing to the oracle of the Olympian Jove; yet after that had ceased, the renown of the temple continued, and increased, as we know, to a high degree of celebrity, both on account of the assembly of the people of Greece, There are exhibited also many and admirable pictures around the temple, the work of this painter. It is recorded of Phidias, that to Panænus, who was inquiring after what model he intended to form the figure of Jupiter, he replied, that it would be from that of Homer delineated in these words; After the twenty-sixth Olympiad, the Pisatæ, having recovered their territory, instituted games themselves, when they perceived that these games were obtaining celebrity. But in after-times, when the territory of the Pisatis reverted to the Eleii, the presidency and celebration of the games reverted to them also. The Lacedæmonians too, after the last defeat of the Messenians, co-operated with the Eleii as allies, contrary to the conduct of the descendants of Nestor and of the Arcadians, who were allies of the Messenians. And they assisted them so effectually that all the country as far as Messene was called Eleia, and the name continues even to the present time. But of the Pisatæ, and Triphylii, and Caucones, not even the names remain. They united also Pylus Emathoeis itself with Lepreum in order to gratify the Lepreatæ, who had taken no part in the war. They razed many other towns, and imposed a tribute upon as many as were inclined to maintain their independence. The Pisatis obtained the highest celebrity from the great power of its sovereigns, Œnomaus and his successor Pelops, and the number of their children. Salmoneus is said to have reigned there, and one of the eight cities, into which the Pisatis is divided, has the name of Salmone. For these reasons, and on account of the temple at Olympia, the fame of the country spread everywhere. We must however receive ancient histories, as not entirely agreeing with one another, for modern writers, entertaining different opinions, are accustomed to contradict them frequently; as for example, according to some writers, Augeas was king of the Pisatis, and Œnomaus and Salmoneus kings of Eleia, while others consider the two nations as one. Still we ought to follow in general what is received as true, since writers are not agreed even upon the derivation of the word Pisatis. Some derive it from Pisa, ( Salmonē is near the fountain of the same name, the source of the Enipeus. It discharges itself into the Alpheius, [and at present it is called Barnichius. Near Olympia is Arpina, which also is one of the eight cities. The river Parthenius runs through it in the direction of the road to Pheræa. Pheræa belongs to Arcadia. [It is situated above Dymæa, Buprasium, and Elis, which lie to the north of the Pisatis. Above and so very near Olympia, is Pholoe, an Arcadian mountain, that the country at its foot belongs to the Pisatis. Indeed the whole of the Pisatis and a great part of Triphylia border upon Arcadia. For this reason, most of the places, which have the name of Pylian in the Catalogue of the Ships, seem to be Arcadian. Persons, however, who are well informed, say, that the river Erymanthus, one of those that empty themselves into the Alpheius, is the boundary of Arcadia, and that the places called Pylian are beyond the Erymanthus. According to Ephorus, "Ætolus, being banished by Salmoneus, king of the Epeii, and the Pisatæ, from Eleia to Ætolia, called the country after his own name, and settled the cities there. His descendant Oxylus was the friend of Temenus, and the Heracleidæ his companions, and was their guide on their journey to Peloponnesus; he divided among them the hostile territory, and suggested instructions relative to the acquisition of the country. In return for these services he was to be requited by the restoration of Elis, which had belonged to his ancestors. He returned with an army collected out of Ætolia, for the purpose of attacking the Epeii, who occupied Elis. On the approach of the Epeii in arms, when the forces were drawn up in array against each other, there advanced in front, and engaged in single combat according to an ancient custom of the Greeks, Pyrechmes, an Ætolian, and Degmenus, an Epeian: the latter was lightly armed with a bow, and thought to vanquish easily from a distance a heavy- armed soldier; the former, when he perceived the stratagem of his adversary, provided himself with a sling, and a scrip filled with stones. The kind of sling also happened to have been lately invented by the Ætolians. As a sling reaches its object at a greater distance than a bow, Degmenus fell; the Ætolians took possession of the country, and ejected the Epeii. They assumed also the superintendence of the temple at Olympia, which the Epeii exercised; and on account of the friendship which subsisted between Oxylus and the Heracleidæ, it was generally agreed upon, and confirmed by an oath, that the Eleian territory was sacred to Jupiter, and that any one who invaded that country with an army, was a sacrilegious person: he also was to be accounted sacrilegious, who did not Pheidon the Argive was the tenth in descent from Temenus, and the most powerful prince of his age; he was the inventor of the weights and measures called Pheidonian, and stamped money, silver in particular. He recovered the whole inheritance of Temenus, which had been severed into many portions. He attacked also the cities which Hercules had formerly taken, and claimed the privilege of celebrating the games which Hercules had established, and among these the Olympian games. He entered their country by force and celebrated the games, for the Eleians had no army to prevent it, as they were in a state of peace, and the rest were oppressed by his power. The Eleians however did not solemnly inscribe in their records this celebration of the games, but on this occasion procured arms, and began to defend themselves. The Lacedæmonians also afforded assistance, either because they were jealous of the prosperity, which was the effect of the peaceful state of the Eleians, or because they supposed that they should have the aid of the Eleians in destroying the power of Pheidon, who had deprived them of the sovereignty ( The whole of the coasting voyage along the present Eleian territory comprises, with the exception of the bays, So much then respecting the Eleian territory. MESSENIA is continuous with the Eleian territory, incline. ing for the most part towards the south, and the Libyan Sea. Being part of Laconia, it was subject in the Trojan times to Menelaus. The name of the country was Messene. But the present city called Messene, the acropolis of which was Ithome, was not then founded. After the death of Menelaus, when the power of those who succeeded to the possession of Laconia was altogether weakened, the Neleidæ governed Messenia. At the time of the return of the Heracleidæ, and according to the partition of the country at that time, Melanthus was king of the Messenians, who were a separate community, but formerly subject to Menelaus. As a proof of this, in the space from the Messenian Gulf and the continuous gulf, (called the Asinæan from the Messenian Asine,) were situated the seven cities which Agamemnon promised to Achilles; Messene follows next to Triphylia. The promontory, after which are the Coryphasium and Cyparissia, is common to both. At the distance of 7 stadia is a mountain, the Ægaleum, situated above Coryphasium and the sea. The ancient Messenian Pylus was a city lying below the Ægaleum, and after it was razed, some of the inhabitants settled under the Coryphasium. But the Athenians in their second expedition against Sicily, under the command of Eurymedon and Stratocles, got possession of it, and used it as a stronghold against the Lacedæmonians. Two islands, called Strophades, Next is Methone. Continuous with Methone is Acritas, This is the commencement of the gulf towards the west. Towards the east are the Thyrides, In the intervening distance, if we begin from the Thyrides, we meet with Œtylus, With respect to the seven cities promised to Achilles, we have already spoken of Cardamyle, and Pheræ, and Pedasus. Enope, some say is Pellana; others, some place near Cardamyle; others, Gerenia. Near Corone, about the middle of the gulf, the river Pamisus I have before said that some persons called the Pamisus, Amathus. Ephorus relates that Cresphontes, after he had taken Messene, divided it into five cities, and chose Stenyclarus, situated in the middle of this district, to be the royal seat of his kingdom. To the other cities, Pylus, Rhium, (Mesola,) and Hyameitis, he appointed kings, and put all the Messenians on an equal footing with the Dorians as to rights and privileges. The Dorians, however, taking offence, he changed his intention, and determined that Stenyclarus alone should have the rank of a city, and here he assembled all the Dorians. The city of the Messenians The temple of Diana in Limnæ (in the Marshes), where the Messenians are supposed to have violated the virgins who came there to offer sacrifice, is on the confines of Laconia and Messenia, where the inhabitants of both countries usually celebrated a common festival, and performed sacrifices; but after the violation of the virgins, the Messenians did not make any reparation, and war, it is said, ensued. The Limnæan temple of Diana at Sparta is said to have its name from the Limnæ here. There were frequent wars (between the Lacedæmonians and Messenians) on account of the revolts of the Messenians. Tyrtæus mentions, in his poems, that their first subjugation was in the time of their grandfathers; The second war then occurred in the time of Tyrtæus. But they mention a third, and even a fourth war, in which the Messenians were destroyed. I have exceeded the limits of moderation in this description, by attending to the multitude of facts which are related of a country, the greatest part of which is deserted. Even Laconia itself is deficient in population, if we compare its present state with its ancient populousness. For, with the exception of Sparta, the remaining small cities are about thirty; but, anciently, Laconia had the name of Hecatompolis, and that for this reason hecatombs were annually sacrificed. NEXT after the Messenian is the Laconian Gulf, situated between Tænarum and Maleæ, declining a little from the south to the east. Thyrides, a precipitous rock, beaten by the waves, is in the Messenian Gulf, and distant from Tænarum 100 stadia. Above is Taÿgetum, a lofty and perpendicular mountain, at a short distance from the sea, approaching on the northern side close to the Arcadian mountains, so as to leave between them a valley, where Messenia is continuous with Laconia. At the foot of Taÿgetum, in the inland parts, lie Sparta and Amyclæ, In the bay on the coast is Tænarum, a promontory projecting into the sea. Next to Tænarum on the voyage to Onugnathus and to Maleæ Among the places enumerated by Homer in the Catalogue of the Ships, Messa, they say, is no longer to be found; and that Messoa is not a part of Laconia, but a part of Sparta itself, as was the Limnæum near Thornax. Some understand Of the rest of the places mentioned by the poet, some are extinct; of others traces remain, and of others the names are changed, as Augeiæ into Ægææ: [the city] of that name in Locris exists no longer. With respect to Las, the Dioscuri are said to have taken it by siege formerly, whence they had the name of Lapersæ, (Destroyers of Las,) and Sophocles says somewhere, Ephorus says that the Heracleidæ, Eurysthenes and Procles, having obtained possession of Laconia, divided it into six parts, and founded cities throughout the country, and assigned Amyclæ to him who betrayed to them Laconia, and who prevailed upon the person that occupied it to retire, on certain conditions, with the Achæi, into Ionia. Sparta they retained themselves as the royal seat of the kingdom. To the other cities they sent kings, permitting them to receive whatever strangers might be disposed to settle there, on account of the scarcity of inhabitants. Las was used as a naval station, because it had a convenient harbour; Ægys, as a stronghold, from whence to attack surrounding enemies; Pheræa, as a place to deposit treasure, because it afforded security from With respect to the government of the Lacones, and the changes which have taken place among them, many things, as being well known, may be passed over, but some it may be worth while to relate. It is said that the Achæan Phthiotæ, who, with Pelops, made an irruption into Peloponnesus, settled in Laconia, and were so much distinguished for their valour, that Peloponnesus, which for a long period up to this time had the name of Argos, was then called Achæan Argos; and not Peloponnesus alone had this name, but Laconia also was thus peculiarly designated. Some even understand the words of the poet, Those who were in possession of Laconia, at first conducted themselves with moderation, but after they had intrusted to Lycurgus the formation of a political constitution, they acquired such a superiority over the other Greeks, that they alone obtained the sovereignty both by sea and land, and continued to be the chiefs of the Greeks, till the Thebans, and soon afterwards the Macedonians, deprived them of this ascendency. They did not however entirely submit even to these, but, preserving their independence, were continually disputing the sovereignty both with the other Greeks and with the Macedonian kings. After the overthrow of the latter by the Romans, the Lacones living under a bad government at that time, and under the power of tyrants, had given some slight offence to the generals whom the Romans sent into the province. They however recovered themselves, and were held in very great honour. They remained free, and performed no other services but those expected from allies. Lately however Eurycles Hellanicus says that Eurysthenes and Procles regulated the form of government, but Ephorus reproaches him with not mentioning Lycurgus at all, and with ascribing the acts of the latter to persons who had no concern in them; to Lycurgus only is a temple erected, and sacrifices are annually performed in his honour, but to Eurysthenes and Procles, although they were the founders of Sparta, yet not even these honours were paid to them, that their descendants should bear the respective appellations of Eurysthenidæ and Procleidæ. But we cannot admit that Laconia and Messenia are bounded, as Euripides says, Nor does he give the right boundaries of Elis; As some persons write the epithet applied by Homer to Lacedæmon, Laconia contains also quarries of valuable marble. Those of the Tænarian marble in Tænarum It appears from Homer, that both the country and the city had the name of Lacedæmon; I mean the country together with Messenia. When he speaks of the bow and quiver of Ulysses, he says, AFTER Malæ follow the Argolic and Hermionic Gulfs; the former extends as far as Scyllæum, To the Argives belong Prasiæ, Next to Temenium is Nauplia, the naval station of the Argives. Its name is derived from its being accessible to ships. Here they say the fiction of the moderns originated respecting Nauplius and his sons, for Homer would not have omitted to mention them, if Palamedes displayed so much wisdom and intelligence, and was unjustly put to death; and if Nauplius had destroyed so many people at Caphareus. Next to Nauplia are caves, and labyrinths constructed in them, which caves they call Cyclopeia. Then follows the Saronic Gulf; some call it a Pontus or sea, others a Porus or passage, whence it is also termed the Saronic pelagos or deep. The whole of the passage, or Porus, extending from the Hermionic Sea, and the sea about the Isthmus (of Corinth) to the Myrtoan and Cretan Seas, has this name. To the Saronic Gulf belong Epidaurus, At Schœnus is the Diolcus, or place where they draw the vessels across the Isthmus: it is the narrowest part of it. Near Schœnus is the temple of the Isthmian Neptune. At present, however, I shall not proceed with the description of these places, for they are not situated within the Argive territory, but resume the account of those which it contains. And first, we may observe how frequently Argos is mentioned by the poet, both by itself and with the epithet designating it as Achæan Argos, Argos Jasum, Argos Hippium, or Hippoboton, or Pelasgicum. The city, too, is called Argos, He calls also the Peloponnesus, Argos Jasum; There is a controversy about the names Hellas and Hellenes. Thucydides But others oppose to this, that Homer does mention Barbarians, when he says of the Carians, that they spoke a barbarous language, and that all the Hellenes were comprised in the term Hellas; The greater part of the city of the Argives is situated in a plain. It has a citadel called Larisa, a hill moderately fortified, and upon it a temple of Jupiter. Near it flows the Inachus, a torrent river; its source is in Lyrceium [the Arcadian mountain near Cynuria]. We have said before that the fabulous stories about its sources are the inventions of poets; it is a fiction also that Argos is without water— They attribute the mistake to this verse, Besides, he does not mean the city Argos, for it was not thither that he was about to return, but he meant Peloponnesus, which, certainly, is not a thirsty land. With respect to the letter The Inachus Another river of the same name flows out of Arcadia to the coast near Buras. There is another Erasinus also in Eretria, and one in Attica near Brauron. Near Lerna a fountain is shown, called Amymone. The lake Lerna, the haunt of the Hydra, according to the fable, belongs to the Argive and Messenian districts. The expiatory purifications performed at this place by persons guilty of crimes gave rise to the proverb, It is allowed that, although the city itself lies in a spot where there are no running streams of water, there is an abundance of wells, which are attributed to the Danaides as their inven- tion; hence the line, Danaus is said to have built the citadel of the Argives. He seems to have possessed so much more power than the former rulers of the country, that, according to Euripides, Modern writers speak of Iasidæ, and Argos Iasum, and Apia, and Apidones. Homer does not mention Apidones, and uses the word apia only to express distance. That he means Peloponnesus by Argos we may conclude from these lines, After the descendants of Danaus had succeeded to the sovereignty at Argos, and the Amythaonidæ, who came from Pisatis and Triphylia, were intermixed with them by marriages, it is not surprising that, being allied to one another, they at first divided the country into two kingdoms, in such a manner that the two cities, the intended capitals, Argos and Mycenæ, were not distant from each other more than 50 stadia, and that the Heræum at Mycenæ should be a temple common to both. In this temple were the statues the workmanship of Polycletus. In display of art they surpassed all others, but in magnitude and cost they were inferior to those of Pheidias. At first Argos was the most powerful of the two cities. Afterwards Mycenæ received a great increase of inhabitants in consequence of the migration thither of the Pelopidæ. For when everything had fallen under the power of the sons of Atreus, Agamemnon, the elder, assumed the sovereign authority, and by good fortune and valour annexed to his possessions a large tract of country. He also added the Laconian to the Mycenæan district. After the Trojan war, when the dominion of Agamemnon was at an end, the declension of Mycenæ ensued, and particularly after the return of the Heracleidæ. Prœtus seems to have used Tiryns as a stronghold, and to have fortified it by means of the Cyclopes. There were seven of them, and were called Gasterocheires, Prosylmna borders upon Midéa; it has also a temple of Juno. The Argives have depopulated most of these for their refusal to submit to their authority. Of the inhabitants some went from Tiryns to Epidaurus; others from Hermione to the Ialieis (the Fishermen), as they are called; others were transferred by the Lacedæmonians to Messenia from Asine, (which is itself a village in the Argive territory near Nauplia,) and they built a small city of the same name as the Argolic Asine. For the Lacedæmonians, according to Theopompus, got possession of a large tract of country belonging to other nations, and settled there whatever fugitives they had received, who had taken refuge among them; and it was to this country the Nauplians had retreated. Hermione is one of the cities, not undistinguished. The coast is occupied by Halieis, as they are called, a tribe who subsist by being employed on the sea in fishing. There is a general opinion among the Hermionenses that there is a short descent from their country to Hades, and hence they do not place in the mouths of the dead the fare for crossing the Styx. It is said that Asine as well as Hermione was inhabited by Dryopes; either Dryops the Arcadian having transferred them thither from the places near the Spercheius, according to Aristotle; or, Hercules expelled them from Doris near Parnassus. Scyllæum near Hermione has its name, it is said, from Scylla, daughter of Nisus. According to report, she was enamoured of Minos, and betrayed to him Nisæa. She was drowned by order of' her father, and her body was thrown upon the shore, and buried here. Eïones was a kind of village which the Mycenæi depopulated, and converted into a station for vessels. It was afterwards destroyed, and is no longer a naval station. Trœzen is sacred to Neptune, There was a sort of Amphictyonic body to whom the concerns of this temple belonged, consisting of seven cities, which performed sacrifices in common. These were Hermon, Epidaurus, Ægina, Athenæ, Prasiæ, Nauplia, and Orchomenus Minyeius. The Argives contributed in behalf of Nauplia, and the Lacedæmonians in behalf of Prasiæ. The veneration for this god prevailed so strongly among the Greeks, that the Macedonians, even when masters of the country, nevertheless preserved even to the present time the privilege of the asylum, and were restrained by shame from dragging away the suppliants who took refuge at Calauria. Archias even, with a body of soldiers, did not dare to use force to De- Troezen and Pittheus, the sons of Pelops, having set out from Pisatis to Argos, the former left behind him a city of his own name; Pittheus succeeded him, and became king. Anthes, who occupied the territory before, set sail, and founded Halicarnassus. We shall speak of him in our account of Caria and the Troad. Epidaurus was called Epitaurus [Epicarus?]. Aristotle says, that Carians occupied both this place and Hermione, but upon the return of the Heracleidæ those Ionians, who had accompanied them from the Athenian Tetrapolis to Argos, settled there together with the Carians. Epidaurus Between Trœzen and Epidaurus, there was a fortress Methana, Ægina is a place in the territory of Epidaurus. There is in front of this continent, an island, of which the poet means to speak in the lines before cited. Wherefore some write, It is unnecessary to remark, that this island is among the most celebrated. It was the country of Æacus and his descendants. It was this island which once possessed so much power at sea, and formerly disputed the superiority with the Athenians in the sea-fight at Salamis during the Persian war. Its ancient name was Œnone, which is the name of two of the demi in Attica, one near Eleuthera; The Æginetæ sent out colonists to Cydonia The poet frequently speaks of places in succession as they are situated; Homer does not mention Thyreæ, but other writers speak of it as well known. It was the occasion of a contest between the three hundred Argives against the same number of Lacedæmonians; the latter were conquerors by means of a stratagem of Othryadas. Thucydides places Thyreæ in Cynuria, on the confines of Argia and Laconia. Hysiæ also is a celebrated place in Argolica; and Cenchreæ, which lies on the road from Tegea to Argos, over the mountain Parthenius, and the Creopolus. Anciently, Argos was the most celebrated, but afterwards the Lacedæmonians obtained the superiority, and continued to maintain their independence, except during some short interval, when they experienced a reverse of fortune. The Argives did not admit Pyrrhus within the city. He fell before the walls, an old woman having let a tile drop from a house upon his head. They were, however, under the sway of other kings. When they belonged to the Achæan league they were subjected, together with the other members of that confederacy, to the power of the Romans. The city subsists at present, and is second in rank to Sparta. We shall next speak of those places which are said, in the Catalogue of the Ships, to be under the government of Mycenæ and Agamemnon: the lines are these: Mycenæ exists no longer. It was founded by Perseus. Sthenelus succeeded Perseus; and Eurystheus, Sthenelus. These same persons were kings of Argos also. It is said that Eurystheus, having engaged, with the assistance of the Athenians, in an expedition to Marathon against the descendants of Hercules and Iolaus, fell in battle, and that the remainder of his body was buried at Gargettus, but his head apart from it at Tricorythus Mycenæ then passed into the possession of the Pelopidæ who had left the Pisatis, then into that of the Heracleidaæ, Cleonæ is a town situated upon the road leading from Argos to Corinth, on an eminence, which is surrounded on all sides by dwellings, and well fortified, whence, in my opinion, Cleonæ was properly described as Corinth is said to be opulent from its mart. It is situated upon the isthmus. It commands two harbours, one near Asia, the other near Italy, and facilitates, by reason of so short a distance between them, an exchange of commodities on each side. As the Sicilian strait, so formerly these seas were of difficult navigation, and particularly the sea above Maleæ, on account of the prevalence of contrary winds; whence the common proverb, Demaratus, one of those who had been tyrant at Corinth, flying from the seditions which prevailed there, carried with him from his home to Tyrrhenia so much wealth, that he became sovereign of the city which had received him, and his son became even king of the Romans. The temple of Venus at Corinth was so rich, that it had more than a thousand women consecrated to the service of the goddess, courtesans, whom both men and women had dedi- cated as offerings to the goddess. The city was frequented and enriched by the multitudes who resorted thither on ac- count of these women. Masters of ships freely squandered all their money, and hence the proverb, The position of the city as it is described by Hieronymus, and Eudoxus, and others, and from our own observation, since its restoration by the Romans, is as follows. That which is called the Acrocorinthus is a lofty mountain, perpendicular, and about three stadia and a half in height. There is an ascent of 30 stadia, and it terminates in a sharp point. The steepest part is towards the north. Below it lies the city in a plain of the form of a trapezium, at the very foot of the Acrocorinthus. The compass of the city itself was 40 stadia, and all that part which was not protected by the mountain was fortified by a wall. Even the mountain itself, the Acrocorinthus, was comprehended within this wall, wherever it would admit of fortification. As I ascended it, the ruins of the circuit of the foundation were apparent, which gave a circumference of about 85 stadia. The other sides of the mountain are less steep; hence, however, it stretches on- Below Peirene is the Sisypheium, which preserves a large portion of the ruins of a temple, or palace, built of white marble. From the summit towards the north are seen Parnassus and Helicon, lofty mountains covered with snow; then the Crissæan Gulf, Above all these are situated the Oneia Lechæum is the commencement of the coast on one side; and on the other, Cenchreæ, a village with a harbour, distant from the city about 70 stadia. The latter serves for the trade with Asia, and Lechæum for that with Italy. Lechæum is situated below the city, and is not well in- Between Lechæum and Pagæ, anciently, there was the oracle of the Acræan Juno, and Olmiæ, the promontory that forms the gulf, on which are situated Œnoe, and Page; the former is a fortress of the Megarians; and Œnoe is a fortress of the Corinthians. Next to Cenchreæ Crommyon Tenea is a village of the Corinthian territory, where there was a temple of Apollo Teneates. It is said that Archias, who equipped a colony for Syracuse, was accompanied by a great number of settlers from this place; and that this settlement afterwards flourished more than any others, and at length had an independent form of government of its own. When they revolted from the Corinthians, they attached themselves to the Romans, and continued to subsist when Corinth was destroyed. An answer of an oracle is circulated, which was returned to an Asiatic, who inquired whether it was better to migrate to Corinth; There seems to be some affinity between the Tenedii and these people, through Tennus, the son of Cycnus, according to Aristotle; the similarity, too, of the divine honours paid by both to Apollo affords no slight proof of this relationship. The Corinthians, when subject to Philip, espoused his party very zealously, and individually conducted themselves so contemptuously towards the Romans, that persons ventured to throw down filth upon their ambassadors, when passing by their houses. They were immediately punished for these and other offences and insults. A large army was sent out under the commaud of Lucius Mummius, who razed the city. Polybius relates with regret what occurred at the capture of the city, and speaks of the indifference the soldiers showed for works of art, and the sacred offerings of the temples. He says, that he was present, and saw pictures thrown upon the ground, and soldiers playing at dice upon them. Among others, he specifies by name the picture of Bacchus Corinth remained a long time deserted, till at length it was restored on account of its natural advantages by divus Cæsar, who sent colonists thither, who consisted, for the most part, of the descendants of free-men. On moving the ruins, and digging open the sepulchres, an abundance of works in pottery with figures on them, and many in brass, were found. The workmanship was admired, and all the sepulchres were examined with the greatest care. Thus was obtained a large quantity of things, which were disposed of at a great price, and Rome filled with Necro- Corinthia, by which name were distinguished the articles taken out of the sepulchres, and particularly the pottery. At first these latter were held in as much esteem as the works of the Corinthian artists in brass, but this desire to have them did not continue, not only because the supply failed, but because the greatest part of them were not well executed. The city of Corinth was large and opulent at all periods, and produced a great number of statesmen and artists. For here in particular, and at Sicyon, flourished painting, and modelling, and every art of this kind. The soil was not very fertile; its surface was uneven and Orneæ has the same name as the river which flows beside it. At present it is deserted; formerly, it was well inhabited, and contained a temple of Priapus, held in veneration. It is from this place that Euphronius, (Euphorius?) the author of a poem, the Priapeia, applies the epithet Orneates to the god. It was situated above the plain of the Sicyonians, but the Argives were masters of the country. Aræthyrea Phlius is situated in the middle of a circle formed by Sicyonia, Argeia, Cleonæ, and Stymphalus. At Phlius and at Sicyon the temple of Dia, a name given to Hebe, is held in veneration. Sicyon was formerly called Mecone, and at a still earlier period, Ægiali. It was rebuilt high up in the country about 20, others say, about 12, stadia from the sea, upon an eminences naturally strong, which is sacred to Ceres. The buildings anciently consisted of a naval arsenal and a harbour. Sicyonia is separated by the river Nemea from the Corinthian territory. It was formerly governed for a very long pe- riod by tyrants, but they were always persons of mild and moderate disposition. Of these, the most illustrious was Aratus, who made the city free, and was the chief of the Achæans, who voluntarily conferred upon him that power; Hyperesia, and the cities next in order in the Catalogue of the poet, and Ægialus, THE Ionians, who were descendants of the Athenians, were, anciently, masters of this country. It was formerly called Ægialeia, and the inhabitants Ægialeans, but in later times, Ionia, from the former people, as Attica had the name of Ionia, from Ion the son of Xuthus. It is said, that Hellen was the son of Deucalion, and that he governed the country about Phthia between the Peneins and Asopus, and transmitted to his eldest son these dominions, sending the others out of their native country to seek a settlement each of them for himself. Dorus, one of them, settled the Dorians about Parnassus, and when he left them, they bore his name. Xuthus, another, married the daughter of Erechtheus, and was the founder of the Tetrapolis of Attica, which consisted of Œnoe, Marathon, Probalinthus, and Tricorythus. Achæus, one of the sons of Xuthus, having committed an accidental murder, fled to Lacedæmon, and occasioned the inhabitants to take the name of Achæans. Ion, the other son, having vanquished the Thracian army with their leader Eumolpus, obtained so much renown, that the Athenians intrusted him with the government of their state. It was he who first distributed the mass of the people into four tribes, and these again into four classes according to their occupations, husbandmen, artificers, priests, and the fourth, military guards; after having made many more regulations of this kind, he left to the country his own name. After the return of the Heracleidæ, these Ionians, being expelled by the Achæans, returned to Athens, whence, in con- junction with the Codridæ, (descendants of Codrus,) they sent cut the Ionian colonists to Asia. The Achæans were Phthiotæ by descent, and were settled at Lacedæmon, but when the Heracleidæ became masters of the country, having recovered their power under Tisamenus, the son of Orestes, they attacked the Ionians, as I said before, and defeated them. They drove the Ionians out of the country, and took possession of the territory, but retained the same partition of it which they found existing there. They became so powerful, that, although the Heracleidæ, from whom they had revolted, occupied the rest of Peloponnesus, yet they defended themselves against them all, and called their own country Achæa. From Tisamenus to Ogyges they continued to be governed by kings. Afterwards they established a democracy, and acquired so great renown for their political wisdom, that the Italian Greeks, after their dissensions with the Pythagoreans, adopted most of the laws and institutions of the Achæans. After the battle of Leuctra the Thebans For the sea was raised to a great height by an earthquake, and overwhelmed both Helice and the temple of the Heliconian Neptune, whom the Ionians still hold in great veneration, and offer sacrifices to his honour. They celebrate at that spot the Panionian festival. Others deny this, and transfer to Helice the proofs alleged of the bull and the sacrifice, asserting that these things were done there by established custom, and that the poet drew his comparison from the festival celebrated there. Helice According to Heracleides, the inundation took place in his time, and during the night. The city was at the distance of 12 stadia from the sea, which overwhelmed the whole intermediate country as well as the city. Two thousand men were sent by the Achæans to collect the dead bodies, but in vain. The territory was divided among the bordering people. This calamity happened in consequence of the anger of Neptune, for the Ionians, who were driven from Helice, sent particularly to request the people of Helice to give them the image of Neptune, or if they were unwilling to give that, to furnish them with the model of the temple. On their refusal, the Ionians sent to the Achæan body, who decreed, that they should comply with the request, but they would not obey even this injunction. The disaster occurred in the following winter, and after this the Achæans gave the Ionians the model of the temple. Hesiod mentions another Helice in Thessaly. The Achæans, during a period of five and twenty years, elected, annually, a common secretary, and two military chiefs. Their common assembly of the council met at one place, called Arnarium, (Homarium, or Amarium,) where these persons, and, before their time, the Ionians, consulted on public affairs. They afterwards resolved to elect one military chief. When Aratus held this post, he took the Acrocorinthus from Antigonus, and annexed the city as well as his own country to the Achæan league. The order of the places which the Achæans inhabited, according to the distribution into twelve parts, is as follows. Next to Sicyon is Pellene; Ægeira, the second; the third, Ægæ, with a temple of Neptune; Bura, the fourth; then Helice, where the Ionians took refuge after their defeat by the Achæans, and from which place they were at last banished; after Helice are Ægium, Rhypes, Patræ, and Phara; then Olenus, beside which runs the large river [Peirus?]; then Dyme, and Tritsæis. The Ionians dwelt in villages, but the Achæans founded cities, to some of which they afterwards united others transferred from other quarters, as Ægæ to Ægeira, (the inhabitants, however, were called Ægæi,) and Olenus to Dyme. Traces of the ancient settlement of the Olenii are to be seen between Patræ and Dyme: there also is the famous temple of Æsculapius, distant from Dyme 40, and from Patræ 80 stadia. In Eubœa there is a place of the same name with the The poet does not mention the Olenus in Achaia, nor many other people living near Ægialus, but speaks in general terms; Close to the Achæn Ægæ flows the river Crathis, Each of these twelve portions contained seven or eight demi, so great was the population of the country. Pellene, Ægeira Æga (for this is the name by which Ægæ is called) is not now inhabited, but the Ægienses occupy the territory. Ægium, however, is well inhabited. It was here, it is said, that Jupiter was suckled by a goat, as Aratus also says, The river Selinus flows through the city of the Ægienses. It has the same name as that which was beside Artemisium at Ephesus, and that in Elis, which has its course along the spot, that Xenophon Of the remaining Achæan cities, or portions, Rhypes is not inhabited, but the territory called Rhypis was occupied by Ægienses and Pharians. Æschylus also says somewhere, Myscellus, the founder of Croton, was a native of Rhypes. Leuctrum, belonging to the district Rhypis, was a demus of Rhypes. Between these was Patræ, a considerable city, and in the intervening country, at the distance of 40 stadia from Patræ, are Rhium, Antimachus having called Dyme Cauconis, some writers suppose that the latter word is used as an epithet derived from the Caucones, who extended as far as this quarter, as I have said before. Others think that it is derived from a river Caucon, in the same way as Thebes has the appellation of Dircæan, and Asopian; and as Argos is called Inachian, and Troy, Simuntis. A little before our time, Dyme had received a colony consisting of a mixed body of people, a remnant of the piratical bands, whose haunts Pompey had destroyed. Some he settled at Soli in Cilicia, and others in other places, and some in this spot. Phara borders upon the Dymæan territory. The inhabitants of this Phara are called Pharenses; those of the Messenian Phara, Pharatæ. In the territory of Phara there is a fountain Dirce, of the same name as that at Thebes. Olenus is deserted. It lies between Patræ and Dyme. The territory is occupied by the Dymæi. Next is Araxus, ARCADIA is situated in the middle of Peloponnesus, and contains the greatest portion of the mountainous tract in that The Arcadian nations, as the Azanes, and Parrhasii, and other similar tribes, seem to be the most ancient people of Greece. In consequence of the complete devastation of this country, it is unnecessary to give a long description of it. The cities, although formerly celebrated, have been destroyed by continual wars; and the husbandmen abandoned the country at the time that most of the cities were united in that called Megalopolis (the Great City). At present Megalopolis itself has undergone the fate expressed by the comic poet; Mantinea owes its fame to Epaminondas, who conquered the Lacedæmonians there in a second battle, in which he lost his life. This city, together with Orchomenus, Heræa, Cleitor, Pheneus, Stymphalus, Mænalus, Methydrium, Caphyeis, and Cynætha, either exist no longer, or traces and signs only of their existence are visible. There are still some remains of Tegea, and the temple of the Alæan Minerva remains. The latter is yet held in some little veneration, as well as the temple of the Lycæan Jupiter on the Lycæan mountain. But the places mentioned by the poet, as The mountains of note, besides Cyllene, are Pholoë, We have spoken of the extraordinary circumstances relative to the Alpheius, Eurotas, and the Erasinus, which issues out of the lake Stymphalis, and now flows into the Argive country. Formerly, the Erasinus had no efflux, for the Berethra, which the Arcadians call Zerethra, The contrary was the case with the Ladon, which was at one time prevented running in a continuous stream by the obstruction of its sources. For the Berethra near Pheneum, through which it now passes, fell in in consequence of an earthquake, which stopped the waters of the river, and affected far down the veins which supplied its source. This is the account of some writers. Eratosthenes says, that about the Pheneus, the river called Anias forms a lake, and then sinks under-ground into certain openings, which they call Zerethra. When these are obstructed, the water sometimes overflows into the plains, and when they are again open the water escapes in a body from the plains, and is discharged into the Ladon Near the Pheneus there is also the water of the Styx, as it is called, a dripping spring of poisonous water, which was esteemed to be sacred. So much then respecting Arcadia. It is not, perhaps, out of place to add the founders mentioned by Ephorus, who settled colonies in Peloponnesus after the return of the Heracleidæ; as Aletes, the founder of Corinth; Phalces, of Sicyon; Tisamenus, of cities in Achæa; Oxylus, of Elis, Cresphontes, of Messene; Eurysthenes and Procles, of Lacedæmon; Temenus and Cissus, of Argos; and Agræus and Deiphontes, of the towns about Acte. SUMMARY. Continuation of the geography of Greece. A panegyrical account of Athens. A description of Bœotia and Thessaly, with the sea-coast. HAVING completed the description of Peloponnesus, which we said was the first and least of the peninsulas of which Greece consists, we must next proceed to those which are continuous with it. 1. The Peloponnesus, properly so called, bounded by the Isthmus of Corinth. 2. The peninsula bounded by a line drawn from Pagæ to Nisæa, and including the above. 3. The peninsula bounded by a line drawn from the recess of the Crissæan Gulf, properly so called, (the Bay of Salona,) to Thermopylæ, and includes the two first. 4. The peninsula bounded by a line drawn from the Ambracic Gulf to Thermopylæ and the Maliac Gulf, and includes the three former. 5. The peninsula bounded by a line drawn from the Ambracic Gulf to the recess of the Thermaic Gulf, and contains the former four peninsulas. We described the second to be that which joins Megaris to the Peloponnesus [so that Crommyon belongs to Megaris, and not to the Corinthians]; Eudoxus says, that if we imagine a straight line to be drawn towards the east from the Ceraunian Mountains to Sunium, the promontory of Attica, it would leave, on the right hand, to the south, the whole of Peloponnesus, and on the left, to the north, the continuous coast from the Ceraunian As this is the description given by Eudoxus, a mathematician, skilled in the delineations of figures and the inclinations of places, acquainted also with the places themselves, we must consider the sides of Attica and Megaris, extending from Sunium as far as the Isthmus, to be curved, although slightly so. About the middle of the above-men- tioned line Acte (Attica) is washed by two seas; it is at first narrow, then it widens towards the middle, yet it, nevertheless, takes a lunated bend towards Oropus in Bœotia, having the convex side towards the sea. This is the second, the eastern side of Attica. The remaining side is that to the north, extending from the territory of Oropus towards the west, as far as Megaris, and consists of the mountainous tract of Attica, having a variety of names, and dividing Bœotia from Attica; so that, as I have before remarked, Bœotia, by being connected with After Crommyon, rising above Attica, are the rocks called Scironides, which afford no passage along the sea-side. Over them, however, is a road which leads to Megara and Attica from the Isthmus. The road approaches so near the rocks that in many places it runs along the edge of precipices, for the overhanging mountain is of great height, and impassable. Here is laid the scene of the fable of Sciron, and the Pityocamptes, or the pine-breaker, one of those who infested with their robberies the above-mentioned mountainous tract. They were slain by Theseus. The wind Argestes, After the rocks Scironides there projects the promontory Minoa, forming the harbour of Nisæa. Nisæa is the arsenal of Megara, and distant 18 stadia from the city; it is joined to it by walls on each side. In former times the Ionians occupied this country, and were also in possession of Attica, before the time of the building of Megara, wherefore the poet does not mention these places by any appropriate name, but when he calls all those dwelling in Attica, Athenians, he comprehends these also in the common appellation, regarding them as Athenians; so when, in the Catalogue of the Ships, he says, Besides, the Peloponnesians and Ionians having had frequent disputes respecting their boundaries, on which Crommyonia also was situated, assembled and agreed upon a spot of the Isthmus itself, on which they erected a pillar having an inscription on the part towards Peloponnesus, Since, then, different writers give different accounts of the division of the country into four parts, it is enough to adduce these lines from Sophocles where Ægeus says, After the return of the Heraclidæ, and the partition of the country, many of the former possessors were banished from their own land by the Heraclidæ, and by the Dorians, who came with them, and migrated to Attica. Among these was Melanthus, the king of Messene. He was voluntarily ap- The city of the Megarenses, after having experienced many changes, still subsists. It once had schools of philosophers, who had the name of the Megaric sect. They succeeded Euclides, the Socratic philosopher, who was by birth a Megarensian, in the same manner as the Eleiaci, among whom was Pyrrhon, who succeeded Phædon, the Eleian, who was also a Socratic philosopher, and as the Eretriaci succeeded Menedemus the Eretrean. Megaris, like Attica, is very sterile, and the greater part of it is occupied by what are called the Oneii mountains, a kind of ridge, which, extending from the Scironides rocks to Bœotia and to Cithæron, separates the sea at Nisæa from that near Page, called the Alcyonian Sea. In sailing from Nisæa to Attica there lie, in the course of the voyage, five small islands. Then succeeds Salamis, which is about 70, and according to others, 80, stadia in length. It has two cities of the same name. The ancient city, which looked towards Ægina, and to the south, as Æschylus has described it; At present the Athenians possess the island Salamis. In former times they disputed the possession of it with the Megarians. Some allege, that Pisistratus, others that Solon, inserted in the Catalogue of Ships immediately after this verse, Some say, that Salamis is unconnected with Attica, because the priestess of Minerva Polias, who may not eat the new cheese of Attica, but the produce only of a foreign land, yet uses the Salaminian cheese. But this is a mistake, for she uses that which is brought from other islands, that are confessedly near Attica, for the authors of this custom considered all produce as foreign which was brought over sea. It seems as if anciently the present Salamis was a separate state, and that Megara was a part of Attica. On the sea-coast, opposite to Salamis, the boundaries of Megara and Attica are two mountains called Cerata, or Horns. Next is the city Eleusis, Then follows the Thriasian plain, and the coast, a demus of the same name, There also are the Pharmacussæ, Above this coast is a mountain called Corydallus, and the demus Corydalleis: then the harbour of Phoron, (Robbers,) and Psyttalia, a small rocky desert island, which, according to some writers, is the eye-sore of the Piræus. Near it is Atalanta, of the same name as that between Eubœa and the Locri; and another small island similar to Psyttalia; then the Piræus, which is also reckoned among the demi, and the Munychia. The Munychia is a hill in the shape of a peninsula, hollow, and a great part of it excavated both by nature and art, so as to serve for dwellings, with an entrance by a nar- row opening. Beneath it are three harbours. Formerly the Munychia was surrounded by a wall, and occupied by dwellings, nearly in the same manner as the city of the Rhodians, comprehending within the circuit of the walls the Piræus and the harbours full of materials for ship-building; here also was the armoury, the work of Philon. The naval station was capable of receiving the four hundred vessels; which was the smallest number the Athenians were in the habit of keeping in readiness for sea. With this wall were connected the legs, that stretched out from the Asty. These were the long walls, 40 stadia in length, joining the Asty What is properly the Asty is a rock, situated in a plain, with dwellings around it. Upon the rock is the temple When, however, I consider the multitude of objects, so celebrated and far-famed, belonging to this city, I am reluctant to enlarge upon them, lest what I write should depart too far from the proposed design of this work. Many, if not all the demi, have various fabulous tales and histories connected with them: with Aphidna is connected the rape of Helen by Theseus, the sack of the place by the Dioscuri, and the recovery of their sister; with Mara- The account would be much longer if we were to in- quire who were the founders of the city from the time of Cecrops, for writers do not agree, as is evident from the names of persons and of places. For example, Attica, In proportion as an earnest desire is excited to ascertain the truth about remarkable places and events, and in proportion as writers, on these subjects, are more numerous, so much the more is an author exposed to censure, who does not make himself master of what has been written. For example, in In subjects, however, which are so numerous, we cannot enter into detail; yet they are not so entirely to be passed over in silence as to abstain from giving a condensed account of some of them. It will suffice then to add, that, according to Philochorus, when the country was devastated on the side of the sea by the Carians, and by land by the Bœotians, whom they called Aones, Cecrops first settled a large body of people in twelve cities, the names of which were Cecropia, Tetrapolis, Epacria, Deceleia, Eleusis, Aplhidnæ, (although some persons write it in the plural number, Aphidnæ,) Thoricus, Brauron, Cytherus, Sphettus, Cephisia [Phalerus]. Again, at a subsequent period, Theseus is said to have collected the inhabitants of the twelve cities into one, the present city. Formerly, the Athenians were governed by kings; they afterwards changed the government to a democracy; then tyrants were their masters, as Pisistratus and his sons; afterwards there was an oligarchy both of the four hundred and of the thirty tyrants, whom the Lacedæmonii set over them; these were expelled by the Athenians, who retained the form of a democracy, till the Romans established their empire. For, although they were somewhat oppressed by the Macedonian kings, so as to be compelled to obey them, yet they preserved entire the same form of government. Some say, that the government was very well administered during a period of ten years, at the time that Casander was king of the Macedonians. For this person, although in other respects he was disposed to be tyrannical, yet, when lie was master of the city, treated the Athenians with kindness and generosity. He placed at the head of the citizens Demetrius the Phalerean, a disciple of Theophrastus the philosopher, who, far from dissolving, restored the democracy. This appears from his Next to the Piræus is the demus Phalereis, on the succeeding line of coast, then Halimusii, Æxoneis, Alæeis, the Æxonici, Anagyrasii; then Theoris, Lampesis; Ægilieis, Anaphlystii, Azenieis; these extend as far as the promontory Sunium. Between the above-mentioned demi is a long promontory, Zoster, On doubling the promontory at Sunium, we meet with Sunium, a considerable demus; then Thoricus, next a demus called Potamus, from which the inhabitants are called Potamii; next Prasia, Next to Marathon is Tricorynthus, then Rhamnus, where is the temple of Nemesis; then Psaphis, a city of the Oropii. Somewhere about this spot is the Amphiaræum, an oracle once in repute, to which Amphiareus fled, as Sophocles says, Oropus has frequently been a subject of contention, for it is situated on the confines of Attica and Bœotia. In front of this coast, before Thoricum and Sunium, is the island Helena; it is rocky and uninhabited, extending in length about 60 stadia, which, they say, the poet mentions in the words, in which Alexander addresses Helen, It would be tedious to recite the names of the Demi of Attica in the inland parts, on account of their number. Among the mountains which are most celebrated, are the Hymettus, Brilessus, Ly$cabettus, Parnes, and Corydallus. Although the Attic is the best of all the kinds of honey, yet by far the best of the Attic honey is that found in the country of the silver mines, Among the rivers is the Cephissus, having its source from the Trinemeis, it flows through the plain (where are the Gephyra, and the Gephyrismi) between the legs or walls extending from the Asty to the Piræus, and empties itself into the Plalericum. Its character is chiefly that of a winter torrent, for in the summer time it fails altogether. Such also, for the most part, is the Ilissus, which flows from the other side of the Asty to the same coast, from the parts above Agra, and the Lyceium, and the fountain celebrated by Plato in the Phædrus. So much then respecting Attica. NEXT in order is Bœotia. When I speak of this country, and of the contiguous nations, I must, for the sake of perspicuity, repeat what I have said before. We have said, that the sea-coast stretches from Sunium to the north as far as Thessalonica, inclining a little toward the west, and having the sea on the east, that parts situated above this shore towards the west extend like belts The second belt is Bœotia, stretching from east to west from the Eubœan sea to the Crisæan Gulf, nearly of equal length with Attica, or perhaps somewhat less; in quality of soil however it greatly surpasses Attica. Ephorus declares the superiority of Bœotia over the bordering nations not only in this respect, but also because it alone has three seas adjoining it, and a great number of harbours. At the Criss$ean and Corinthian Gulfs it received the commodities of Italy, Sicily, and Africa. Towards Eubœa the sea-coast branches off on each side of the Euripus; in one direction towards Aulis and Tanagrica, in the other, to Salganeus and Anthedon; on one side there is an open sea to Egypt, and Cyprus, and the islands; on the other to Macedonia, the Propontis, and the Hellespont. He adds also that Eubœa is almost a part of Bœotia, because the Euripus is very narrow, and the opposite shores are brought into communication by a bridge of two plethra in length. For these reasons he praises the country, and says, that it has natural advantages for obtaining supreme command, but that from want of careful education and learning, even those who were from time to time at the head of affairs did not long maintain the ascendency they had acquired, as appears from the example of Epaminondas; at his death the Thebans immediately lost the supremacy they had just acquired. This is to be attributed, says Ephorus, to their neglect of learning, and of intercourse with mankind, and to their exclusive cultivation of military virtues. It must be added also, that learning and knowledge are peculiarly useful in dealing with Greeks, but in the case of Barbarians, force is preferable to reason. In fact the Romans in early times, when carrying on war with savage nations, did not require such accomplishments, but from the time that they began to be concerned in transactions with more civilized people, they applied themselves to learning, and so established universal dominion. Ephorus relates that the Thracians, after making treaty with the Bœotians, attacked them by night, when encamped in a careless manner during a time of peace. The Thracians when reproached, and accused of breaking the treaty, replied, that they had not broken it, for the conditions were The Pelasgi and the Bœotians also went during the war to consult the oracle. He cannot tell, he says, what answer was given to the Pelasgi, but the prophetess replied to the Bœotians that they would prosper by committing some act of impiety. The messengers sent to consult the oracle suspecting the prophetess of favouring the Pelasgi on account of their relationship, (for the temple had originally belonged to the Pelasgi,) seized the woman, and threw her upon a burning pile, considering, that whether her conduct bad been right or After this they assisted Penthilus in sending out the Æolian colony, and despatched a large body of their own people with him, so that it was called the Bœotian colony. A long time afterwards the country was devastated during the war with the Persians at Platææ. They afterwards so far recovered their power, that the Thebans, having vanquished the Lacedæmonians in two battles, We are next to make a circuit of the country, beginning at the sea-coast, opposite Eubœa, which is continuous with that of Attica. We begin this circuit from Oropus, and the Sacred Harbour, Next is Delium, To this place the Athenians, after their defeat in battle, fled in disorder. Then follows a great harbour, which is called Bathys (or deep harbour): then Aulis, Salganeus is a place situated near the Euripus, upon a height. It has its name from Salganeus, a Bœotian, who was buried there. He was guide to the Persians, when they sailed into this passage from the Maliac Gulf. It is said, that he was put to death before they reached the Euripus, by the commander of the fleet, Megabates, as a traitor, for conducting the fleet deceitfully into a narrow opening of the sea, having no outlet. The Barbarian, however, perceived his mistake, and regretting what he had done, thought him worthy of burial, because he had been unjustly put to death. Near Oropus Mycalessus is a village in the Tanagrian district. It lies upon the road from Thebes to Chalcis. It is called in the Bœotian dialect Mycalettus. Harma, also, an uninhabited village in the Tanagrian territory, derives its name from the On going from Thebes to Argos, After Salganeus is Anthedon, a city with a harbour, the last on the Bœotian coast towards Eubœa, as the poet says, Near Anthedon is a place called Isus, and esteemed sacred, belonging to Bœotia; it contains remains of a city, and the first syllable of Isus is short. Some persons are of opinion, that the verse ought to be written, Such then is the description of the sea-coast opposite Eubœa. The places next in order, in the inland parts, are hollow plains, surrounded everywhere on the east and west by mountains; on the south by the mountains of Attica, on the north by those of Phocis: on the west, Cithæron inclines, obliquely, a little above the Crisæan Sea; it begins contiguous to the mountains of Megaris and Attica, and then makes a bend towards the plains, and terminates near the Theban territory. Some of these plains become lakes, by rivers spreading over or falling into them and then flowing off. Some are dried up, and being very fertile, are cultivated in every possible way. But as the ground underneath is full of caverns and fissures, it has frequently happened, that violent earthquakes have obstructed some passages, and formed others under-ground, or on the surface, the water being carried off, either by subterranean channels, or by the formation of lakes and rivers on the surface. If the deep subterranean passages are stopped up, the waters of the lakes increase, so as to inundate and cover cities and whole districts, which become uncovered, if the same or other passages are again opened. The same regions are thus traversed in boats or on foot, according One of two things took place. The cities either retained their sites, when the rise of the water was insufficient to overflow the houses, or they were deserted and rebuilt in some other place, when the inhabitants, being frequently exposed to danger from their vicinity to the lake, released themselves from further apprehension, by changing to a more distant or higher situation. It followed that the cities thus rebuilt retained the same name. Formerly, they might have had a name derived from some accidental local circumstance, but now the site does not correspond with the derivation of the name. For example, it is probable that Platææ was so called, from This is exemplified particularly in the Cephissus, These rivers descend from the Phocian mountains, and among them the Cephissus, Among the neighbouring lakes are Trephea Schœnusis Scolus The name of Eteonus was changed to that of Scarphe, which belongs to Parasopia. [Parasopia belongs to the Thebais,] for the Asopus and the Ismenus flow through the plain in front of Thebes. There is the fountain Dirce, and also Potniæ, where is laid the fable of Glaucus of Potniæ, who was torn in pieces near the city by Potnian mares. The Cithæron He calls the present place Thespiæ Helicon, not far distant from Parnassus, rivals it in height It has been remarked, that the Thracians, (having expelled the Bœotians by force,) and the Pelasgi, and other barbarous people, settled in this part of Bœotia. Thespiæ was formerly celebrated for a statue of Cupid by Praxiteles. Glycera the courtesan, a native of Thespiæ, received it as a present from the artist, and dedicated it as a public offering to her fellow-citizens. Persons formerly used to repair thither to see the Cupid, where there was nothing else worth seeing. This city, and Tanagra, alone of the Bœotian cities exist at present, while of others there remain nothing but ruins and names. After Thespiæ the poet enumerates Graia and Mycalessus, of which we have before spoken. He proceeds as before, Homer afterwards names, After Copæ, the poet mentions Eutresis, a small village of the Thespians. Thisbē is now called Thisbē. The place is situated a little above the sea-coast on the confines of the Thespienses, and the territory of Coroneia; on the south it lies at the foot of Cithæron. It has an arsenal in a rocky situation abounding with doves, whence the poet terms it He next recites the names of Coroneia, Haliartus, Pla- tææ, and Glissas. Coroneia Haliartus Platææ, which the poet uses in the singular number, lies at the foot of Cithæron, between this mountain and Thebes, on the road to Athens and Megara; it is on the borders of Attica and Bœotia, for Eleutheræ is near, which some say belongs to Attica, others to Bœotia. We have said that the Asopus flows beside Plateæ. There the army of the Greeks entirely destroyed Mardonius and three hundred thousand Persians. They dedicated there a temple to Jupiter Eleutherius, and instituted gymnastic games, called Eleutheria, in which the victor was crowned. The tombs erected at the public expense, in honour of those who died in the battle, are to be seen there. In the Sicyonian district is a demus called Platææ, where the poet Mnasalces was born: The Amphictyonic council usually assembled at Onchestus, in the territory of Haliartus, near the lake Copais, and the Teneric plain. It is situated on a height, devoid of trees, where is a temple of Neptune also without trees. For the poets, for the sake of ornament, called all sacred places groves, although they were without trees. Such is the language of Pindar, when speaking of Apollo: The Teneric plain has its name from Tenerus. According to mythology, he was the son of Apollo and Melia, and declared the answers of the oracle at the mountain Ptoum, Both the oracle and the mountain belonged to the Thebans. Acrsephium Some say that Arnē and Mideia were swallowed up by the lake. Zenodotus, however, when he writes the verse thus, The poet mentions Alalcomenæ, Chæroneia At Lebadeia Leuctra The poet next mentions the Orchomenians in the Catalogue, and distinguishes them from the Bœotian nation. He gives to Orchomenus the epithet Minyeian from the nation of the Minyæ. They say that a colony of the Minyeians went hence to Iolcus, [For one who was inclined thus to honour these goddesses, must have been naturally disposed to be a benefactor, and he must have possessed the power. But for this purpose wealth is required. For he who has not much cannot give much, nor can he who does not receive much possess much; but when giving and receiving unite, then there is a just exchange. For a vessel which is simultaneously emptied and filled is always full; but he who gives and does not receive cannot succeed in either giving or receiving, for the giver must desist from giving from failure of means. Givers also will desist from giving to him who receives only, and confers no benefits, so that he must fail in receiving. The same may be said of power. For independently of the common saying, Some persons use the word Aspledon It is distant from Orchomenus Panopeus, a Phocian city, and Hyampolis The writers on the Catalogue of Ships [in Homer], have furnished us with these materials, and they have been followed, wherever they introduced anything adapted to the design of this work. NEXT to Bœotia and Orchomenus is Phocis, lying along the side of Bœotia to the north, and, anciently, nearly from sea In the same manner as Phocis lies along the side of Bœotia, so are both the divisions of Locris situated with respect to Phocis, for Locris is composed of two parts, being divided by Parnassus. The western part lies along the side of Parnassus, occupies a portion of it, and extends to the Crisæan Gulf; the eastern part terminates at the sea near Eubœa. The inhabitants of the former are called Locri Hesperii, or Locri Ozolæs, and have engraven on their public seal the star Hesperus. The rest are again divided into two bodies: one, the Opuntii, who have their name from the chief city, and border upon the Phocæans and Bœotians; the other, the Epicnemidii, who have their name from the mountain Cnemis; The whole of Parnassus is esteemed sacred, it contains caves, and other places, which are regarded with honour and The two most celebrated cities of this country are Delphi and Elateia. Delphi is renowned for the temple of the Pythian Apollo, and the antiquity of its oracle; since Agamemnon is said by the poet to have consulted it; for the minstrel is introduced singing of the We have remarked, that Parnassus itself is situated on the western boundaries of Phocis. The western side of this mountain is occupied by the Locri Ozolæ; on the southern is Delphi, a rocky spot, resembling in shape a theatre; on its summit is the oracle, and also the city, which comprehends a circle of 16 stadia. Above it lies Lycoreia; here the Delphians were formerly settled above the temple. At present they live close to it around the Castalian fountain. In front of the city, on the southern part, is Cirphis, a precipitous hill, leaving in the intermediate space a wooded ravine, through which the river Pleistus flows. Below Cirphis near the sea is Cirrha, an ancient city, from which there is an ascent to Delphi of about 80 stadia. It is situated opposite to Sicyon. Adjoining to Cirrha is the fertile Crisæan plain. Again, next in order follows another city Crisa, from which the Crissæan Gulf has its name; then Anticyra, Anticyra still remains, but Cirrha and Crisa The place where the oracle is delivered, is said to be a deep hollow cavern, the entrance to which is not very wide. From it rises up an exhalation which inspires a divine frenzy: over the mouth is placed a lofty tripod on which the Pythian priestess ascends to receive the exhalation, after which she gives the prophetic response in verse or prose. The prose is adapted to measure by poets who are in the service of the temple. Phemonoë is said to have been the first Pythian prophetess, and both the prophetess and the city obtained their appellation from the word Pythesthai, to inquire, ( Although the highest honour was paid to this temple on account of the oracle, (for it was the most exempt of any from deception,) yet its reputation was owing in part to its situation in the centre of all Greece, both within and without the isthmus. It was also supposed to be the centre of the habitable As the situation of Delphi is convenient, persons easily assembled there, particularly those from the neighbourhood, of whom the Amphictyonic body is composed. It is the business of this body to deliberate on public affairs, and to it is more particularly intrusted the guardianship of the temple for the common good; for large sums of money were deposited there, and votive offerings, which required great vigilance and religious care. The early history of this body is unknown, but among the names which are recorded, Acrisius appears to have been the first who regulated its constitution, to have determined what cities were to have votes in the council, and to have assigned the number of votes and mode of voting. To some cities he gave a single vote each, or a vote to two cities, or to several cities conjointly. He also defined the class of questions which might arise between the different cities, which were to be submitted to the decision of the Amphictyonic tribunal; and subsequently many other regulations were made, but this body, like that of the Achæans, was finally dissolved. At first twelve cities are said to have assembled, each of which sent a Pylagoras. The convention was held twice a year, in spring and autumn. But latterly a greater number of cities assembled. They called both the vernal and the autumnal convention Pylæan, because it was held at Pyle, which has the name also of Thermopylæ. The Pylagoræ sacrificed to Ceres. In the beginning, the persons in the neighbourhood only assembled, or consulted the oracle, but afterwards people repaired thither from a distance for this purpose, sent gifts, and constructed treasuries, as Crœsus, and his father Alyattes, some of the Italians also, and the Siceli (Sicilians). But the wealth, being an object of cupidity, was guarded with difficulty, although dedicated to sacred uses. At present, however, whatever it might have been, the temple at Some persons, however, understanding the word Aphetor to signify treasure, and the threshold of the aphetor the repository of the treasure under-ground, say, that this wealth was buried beneath the temple, and that Onomarchus and his companions attempted to dig it up by night; violent shocks of an earthquake caused them to fly out of the temple, and desist from their excavation; thus others were impressed with a dread of making similar attempts. Of the shrines, the winged shrine There was anciently a contest held at Delphi, of players on the cithara, who executed a pæan in honour of the god. It was instituted by Delphians. But after the Crisæan war the Amphictyons, in the time of Eurylochus, established contests for horses, and gymnastic sports, in which the victor was crowned. These were called Pythian games. The players Ephorus, whom we generally follow, on account of his exactness in these matters, (as Polybius, a writer of repute, testifies,) seems to proceed contrary to his proposed plan, and to the promise which he made at the beginning of his work. For after having censured those writers who are fond of intermixing fable with history, and after having spoken in praise of truth, he introduces, with reference to this oracle, a grave declaration, that he considers truth preferable at all And lower down, when speaking of the Delphians and their origin, he says, that certain persons, called Parnassii, an indigenous tribe, anciently inhabited Parnassus, about which time Apollo, traversing the country, reclaimed men from their savage state, by inducing them to adopt a more civilized mode of life and subsistence; that, setting out from Athens on his way to Delphi, he took the same road along which the Athenians at present conduct the procession of the Pythias; that when he arrived at the Panopeis, he put to death Tityus, who was master of the district, a violent and lawless man; that the Parnassii having joined him informed him of Python, another desperate man, surnamed the Dragon. Whilst he was despatching this man with his arrows, they shouted, Hie Paian; I now return to the Phocians. Immediately on the sea-coast, next after Anticyra, Nor is Abæ, In the inland parts, next after Delphi, towards the east is Daulis, Panopeus, the present Phanoteus, the country of Epeius, is on the confines of the district of Lebadeia. Here the fable places the abode of Tityus. But Homer says, that the Phæacians conducted Rhadamanthus to Eubœa, Near Lebadeia is Trachin, having the same name as that in Œtæ; it is a small Phocian town. The inhabitants are called Trachinii. Anemoreia Some call the place Anemoleia; it was afterwards called by others Hyampolis, Elateia Parapotamii is a settlement on the Cephissus, in the neighbourhood of Phanoteus, Chæroneia, and Elateia. This place, according to Theopompus, is distant from Chæroneia about 40 stadia, and is the boundary between the Ambryseis, Panopeis, and Daulieis. It is situated at the entrance from Bœotia to the Phocians, upon an eminence of moderate height, between Parnassus and the mountain [Hadylium, where there is an open space] of 5 stadia in extent, through which runs the Cephissus, affording on each side a narrow pass. This river has its source at Lila, a Phocian city, as Homer testifies; The narrow pass near Parapotamii, or Parapotamia, (for the name is written both ways,) was disputed in [the Phocian war,] for this is the only entrance [into Phocis]. There is a Cephissus in Phocis, another at Athens, and another at Salamis. There is a fourth and a fifth at Sicyon and at Scyrus; [a sixth at Argos, having its source in the Lyrceium]. Daphnus On the subject of Phocis, this may suffice. LOCRIS, which we are now to describe, follows next in order. It is divided into two parts, one of which is occupied by the Locri opposite Eubœa, and, as we have already said, formerly consisted of two bodies, situated one on each side of Daphnus. The Locri Opuntii had their surname from Opus, Immediately after Halæ, where the Bœotian coast opposite Eubœa terminates, is the Opuntian bay. Opus is the capital, as the inscription intimates, which is engraved on the first of the five pillars at Thermopylæ, near the Polyandrium: Next after Cynus is Alopē Next to Daphnus, at the distance of about 20 stadia by sea, is Cnemides, a strong place, opposite to which in Eubœa is Cenæum, a promontory, looking towards the west and the Maliac Gulf, and separated by a strait of nearly 20 stadia. At Cnemides we are in the territory of the Locri Epicnemidii. Here are the Lichades, as they are called, three islands, having their name from Lichas; they lie in front of Cnemides. Other islands also are met with in sailing along this coast, which we purposely pass over. At the distance of 20 stadia from Cnemides is a harbour, above which at the same distance, in the interior, is situated Thronium. Then after these is Scarpheia, at a distance of 10 stadia It is not worth while to speak of any of the other cities. Of those mentioned by Homer, Calliarus is no longer inhabited, it is now a well-cultivated plain. Bessa, a sort of plain, does not now exist. It has its name from an accidental quality, for it abounds with woods. Tarphe is situated upon a height, at the distance of 20 stadia from [Thronium]. It has a territory, productive and well wooded; for this place also has its name from its being thickly wooded. It is now called Pharygæ. A temple of Juno Pharygæa is there, called so from the Argive Juno at Pharygæ; and the inhabitants assert that they are of Argive origin. Homer does not mention, at least not in express words the Locri Hesperii, but only seems to distinguish them from the people of whom we have spoken; There also is Chalcis, mentioned by the poet Amphissa is situated at the extremity of the Crissæan plain. It was razed, as we have said before, by the Amphictyons. Œanthia and Eupalium belong to the Locri. The whole voyage along the coast of the Locri is a little more than 200 stadia. There is an Alopē Ætolians are continuous with the Locri Hesperii, and the Ænianes, who occupy Œta with the Epicnemidii, and between them Dorians. These last are the people who inhabited the Tetrapolis, which is called the capital of all the Dorians. They possessed the cities Erineus, Bœum, Pindus, Cytinium. Pindus is situated above Erineus. A river of the same name flows beside it, and empties itself into the Cephissus, not far from Lilæa. Some writers call Pindus, Acyphas. Ægimius, king of these Dorians, when an exile from his kingdom, was restored, as they relate, by Hercules. He requited this favour after the death of Hercules at Œta by adopting Hyllus, the eldest of the sons of Hercules, and both he and his descendants succeeded him in the kingdom. It was from this place that the Heracleidæ set out on their return to Peloponnesus. These cities were for some time of importance, although they were small, and their territory not fruitful. They were afterwards neglected. After what they suffered in the Phocian war and under the dominion of the Macedonians, Ætolians, and Athamanes, it is surprising that even a vestige of them should have remained to the time of the Romans. It was the same with the Ænianes, who were exterminated by Ætolians and Athamanes. The Ætolians were a very powerful people, and carried on war together with the Acarnanians. The Athamanes were the last of the Epeirotæ, who attained distinction when the rest were declining, and acquired power by the assistance of their king Amynander. The Ænianes, however, kept possession of Œta. This passage is called Pylæ, or gates, straits, and Thermopylæ, because near the straits are hot springs, which are held in honour as sacred to Hercules. The mountain above is called Callidromus; but some writers call by the name of Callidromus the remaining part of the range extending through Ætolia and Acarnania to the Ambracian Gulf. At Thermopylæ within the straits are strongholds, as Nicæa, on the sea of the Locri, Teichius and Heracleia above it, formerly called Trachin, founded by the Lacedæmonians. Heracleia is distant from the ancient Trachin about 6 stadia. Next follows Rhoduntia, strong by its position. These places are rendered difficult of access by a rocky country, and by bodies of water, forming ravines through which they pass. For besides the Spercheius, These places were of the greatest celebrity when they formed the keys of the straits. There were frequent contests for the ascendency between the inhabitants without and those within the straits. Philip used to call Chalcis and Corinth the fetters of Greece with reference to the opportunity which they afforded for invasions from Macedonia; and persons in It was at these straits that Leonidas and his companions, together with a small body of persons from the neighbourhood, resisted the numerous forces of the Persians, until the Barbarians, making a circuit of the mountains along narrow paths, surrounded and cut them to pieces. Their place of burial, the Polyandrium, is still to be seen there, and the celebrated inscription sculptured on the Lacedæmonian pillar; There is also a large harbour here and a temple of Ceres, in which the Amphictyons at the time of every Pylæan assembly offered sacrifice. From the harbour to the Heracleian Trachin are 40 stadia by land, but by sea to Cenæum The Thessalians form the largest and most ancient community. One part of them has been mentioned by Homer, and the rest by many other writers. Homer constantly mentions the Ætolians under one name; he places cities, and not nations dependent upon them, if we except the Curetes, whom we must place in the division of Ætolians. We must begin our account with the Thessalians, omitting very ancient and fabulous stories, and what is not generally admitted, (as we have done in other instances,) but propose to mention what appears suited to our purpose. THE sea-coast, extending from Thermopylæ to the mouths of the Peneius, These are the middle parts of Thessaly, a district of very fertile country, except that part of it which is overflowed by rivers. The Peneius flows through the middle of the country, and receiving many rivers, frequently overflows. Formerly, according to report, the plain was a lake; it is enclosed on all sides inland by mountains, and the sea-coast is more elevated than the plains. When a chasm was formed, at the place now called Tempe, by shocks of an earthquake, and Ossa was riven from Olympus, the Peneius flowed out through it to the sea, and drained this tract of country. Still there remained the large lake Nessonis, and the lake Bœbeis; which is of less extent than the Nessonis, and nearer to the sea-coast. Phthiotis comprises the southern parts, extending along Œta from the Maliac and (or) Pylaïc Gulf Hestiæotis comprises the western parts and those between Pindus and Upper Macedonia; the rest is occupied by the inhabitants of the plains below Hestiæotis, who are called Pelasgiotæ, and approach close to the Lower Macedonians; by the [Thessalians] also, who possess the country next in order, as far as the coast of Magnesia. The names of many cities might here be enumerated, which are celebrated on other accounts, but particularly as being mentioned by Homer; few of them, however, but most of all Larisa, preserve their ancient importance. The poet having divided the whole of the country, which we call Thessaly, into ten The poet first enumerates the Thessalians subject to Achilles, who occupied the southern side, and adjoined Œta, and the Locri Epicnemidii; From this it appears that Homer considered the forces under Achilles and Phœnix as constituting one body; but the places mentioned as being under the authority of Achilles, are subjects of controversy. Some have understood Pelasgic Argos to be a Thessalian city, formerly situated near Larisa, but now no longer in existence. Others do not understand a city to be meant by this name, but the Thessalian plain, and to have been so called by Abas, who established a colony there from Argos. With respect to Phthia, some suppose it to be the same as Hellas and Achaia, and that these countries form the southern portion in the division of Thessaly into two parts. But others distinguish Phthia and Hellas. The poet seems to distinguish them in these verses; Thus much, then, respecting the Hellenes. The people under the command of Achilles, Protesilaus, and Philoctetes, are called Phthii. The poet furnishes evidence of this. Having recited in the Catalogue of those under the command of Achilles, Perhaps the people with Eurypylus were called Phthii, as they bordered upon the country of the latter. At present, however, historians assign to Magnesia the country about Ormenium, which was subject to Eurypylus, and the whole of that subject to Philoctetes; but they regard the country un- They entertain doubts respecting Halus and Alope, whether Homer means the places which are now comprised in the Phthiotic government, or those among the Locri, since the dominion of Achilles extended hither as well as to Trachin and the Œtæan territory. For Halus and Halius, as well as Alope, are on the coast of the Locri. But some substitute Halius for Alope, and write the verse in this manner; As Homer frequently mentions the Spercheius as a river of the country, having its source in the Typhrestus, a Dryopian mountain, formerly called [Tymphrestus], and emptying itself near Thermopylæ, between Trachin and Lamia, The Spercheius is distant about 30 stadia from Lamia, which lies above a plain, extending to the Maliac Gulf. That the Spercheius is a river of the country [subject to Achilles], appears from the words of Achilles, who says, that he had devoted his hair to the Spercheius; and from the circumstance, that Menesthius, one of his commanders, was said to be the son of Spercheius and the sister of Achilles. It is probable that all the people under the command of Achilles and Patroclus, and who had accompanied Peleus in his banishment from Ægina, had the name of Myrmidons, but all the Phthiotæ were called Achæcans. They reckon in the Phthiotic district, which was subject to Achilles, beginning from the Malienses, a considerable number of towns, and among them Thebæ Phthiotides, Echinus, Lamia, near which the war was carried on between the Macedonians and Antipater, against the Athenians. In this war Leosthenes, the Athenian general, was killed, [and Leonnatus,] one of the companions of Alexander the king. Besides the above-mentioned towns, we must add [Narthac]ium, Erineus, Coroneia, of the same name as the town in Bœotia, Melitæa, Thaumaci, Proerna, Pharsalus, Eretria, of the same name as the Euboic town, Paracheloïtæ, of the same name as those in Ætolia; for here also, near Lamia, is a river Achelous, on the banks of which live the Paracheloïtæ. This district, lying to the north, extended to the northwestern territory of the Asclepiadæ, and to the territory of Eurypylus and Protesilaus, inclining to the east; on the south it adjoined the Œtæan territory, which was divided into fourteen demi, and contained Heracleia and Dryopis, which was once a community of four cities, (a Tetrapolis,) like Doris, and accounted the capital of the Dryopes in Peloponnesus. To the Œtæan district belong also the Acyphas, Parasopias, The poet with sufficient clearness describes the situation of the Dolopes, as at the extremity of Phthia, and says that both they and the Phthiotæ were under the command of the same chief, Peleus; This region is close to Pindus, and the places about it, most of which belong to the Thessalians. For in consequence of the renown and ascendency of the Thessalians and Macedonians, those Epeirotæ, who bordered nearest upon them, became, some voluntarily, others by force, incorporated among the Macedonians and Thessalians. In this manner the Athamanes, Æthices, and Talares were joined to the Thessalians, and the Orestæ, Pelagones, and Elimiotæ to the Macedonians. Pindus is a large mountain, having on the north Macedonia, on the west Perrhæbi, settlers from another country, on the south Dolopes, [and on the east Hestiæotis] which belongs to Thessaly. Close upon Pindus dwelt Talares, a tribe of Molotti, detached from the Molotti about Mount Tomarus, and Æthices, among whom the poet says the Centaurs took refuge when expelled by Peirithous. It remains for us to describe the tract of sea-coast subject to Achilles: we begin from Thermopylæ, for we have spoken of the coast of Locris, and of the interior. Thermopylæ is separated from the Cenæum by a strait 70 stadia across. Coasting beyond the Pylæ, it is at a distance from the Spercheius of about 10, (60?) and thence to Phalara Then follows a small island, Myonnesus; next Antron; which was subject to Protesilaus. Thus much concerning the territory subject to Achilles. As the poet, in naming the chiefs, and cities under their rule, has divided the country into numerous well-known parts, and has given an accurate account of the whole circuit of Thessaly, we shall follow him, as before, in completing the description of this region. Next to the people under the command of Achilles, he enumerates those under the command of Protesilaus. They were situated, next, along the sea-coast which was subject to Achilles, as far as Antron. The boundary of the country under the command of Protesilaus, is determined by its being situated without the Maliac Gulf, yet still in Phthiotis, though not within Phthiotis subject to Achilles. Phylacē The Demetrium he speaks of These places are in Thessaliotis, one of the four divisions of all Thessaly, in which were the possessions of Eurypylus. Phyllus, where is a temple of the Phyllæan Apollo, Ichnæ, where the Ichnæan Themis is worshipped, Cierus, and [all the places as far as] Athamania, are included in Thessaliotis. At Antron, in the strait near Eubœa, is a sunk rock, called The poet next mentions the people under Eumelus, and the continuous tract of coast which now belongs to Magnesia, and the Pelasgiotis. Pheræ is the termination of the Pelasgic plains towards Magnesia, which plains extend as far as Pelion, a distance of 160 stadia. Pagasæ is the naval arsenal of Pheræ, from which it is distant 90 stadia, and 20 from Iolcus. Iolcus has been razed from ancient times. It was from this place that Pelias despatched Jason and the ship Argo. Pagasæ had its name, The lake Bœbeis As civil dissensions and usurpations reduced the flourishing condition of Iolcus, formerly so powerful, so they affected Pheræ in the same manner, which was raised to prosperity, and was destroyed by tyrants. Near Demetrias flows the Anaurus. The continuous line Artemidorus places the Gulf of Pagasæ farther from Demetrias, near the places subject to Philoctetes. In the gulf he says is the island Cicynethus, The poet next enumerates the cities subject to Philoctetes. Methone is not the Thracian Methone razed by Philip. We have already noticed the change of name these places and others in the Peloponnesus have undergone. Other places enumerated as subject to Philoctetes, are Thaumacia, Olizon, and Melibœa, all along the shore next adjacent. In front of the Magnetes lie clusters of islands; the most celebrated are Sciathus, Scyrus however is particularly celebrated in ancient histories. It is also highly reputed for the excellence of its goats, and the quarries of variegated marble, such as the Carystian, the Deucallian, (Docimæan?) the Synnadic, and the Hierapolitic kinds. For there may be seen at Rome columns, consisting of a single stone, and large slabs of variegated marble, (from Scyrus,) with which the city is embellished both at the public charge and at the expense of individuals, which has caused works of white marble to be little esteemed. Tricca, Ithome, which has the same name as the Messenian Ithome, ought not, they say, to be pronounced in this manner, but should be pronounced without the first syllable, Thome, for this was its former name. At present, it is changed to [Thumæum]. It is a spot strong by nature, and in reality rocky. It lies between four strong-holds, which form a square, Tricca, Metropolis, Pelinnæum, and Gomphi. The Peneius itself rises in Mount Pindus, as I have before said. It leaves Tricca, Pelinnæum, and Pharcadon on the left hand, and takes its course beside Atrax and Larisa. After having received the rivers of the Thessaliotis it flows onwards through Tempe, and it empties itself into the sea. Historians speak of Œchalia, the city of Eurytus, as existing in these parts, in Eubœa also, and in Arcadia; but some give it one name, others another, as I have said in the description of Peloponnesus. They inquire particularly, which of these was the city taken by Hercules, and which was the city intended by the author of the poem, The places, however, were subject to the Asclepiadæ. The poet next mentions the country which was under the dominion of Eurypylus; Ormenium is now called Orminium. It is a village situated below Pelion, near the Pagasitic Gulf, but was one of the cities which contributed to form the settlement of Demetrias, as I have before said. The lake Bœbeis must be near, because both Bœbe and Ormenium belonged to the cities lying around Demetrias. Ormenium is distant by land 27 stadia from Demetrias. The site of Iolcus, which is on the road, is distant 7 stadia from Demetrias, and the remaining 20 from Ormenium. Demetrius of Scepsis says, that Phoenix came from Ormenium, and that he fled thence from his father Amyntor, the son of Ormenus, to Phthia, to king Peleus. For this place was founded by Ormenus, the son of Cercaphus, the son of Æolus. The sons of Ormenus were Amyntor and Eumæmon; the son of the former was Phœnix, and of the latter, Eurypylus. The succession to his possessions was preserved secure for Eurypylus, after the departure of Phœnix from his home, and we ought to write the verse of the poet in this manner: But Crates makes Phœnix a Phocæan, conjecturing this from the helmet of Meges, which Ulysses wore on the night expedition; of which helmet the poet says, Now Eleon was a small city on Parnassus, and by Amyntor, the son of Ormenus, he could not mean any other person than the father of Phœnix, and that Autolycus, who lived on Parnassus, was in the habit of digging through the houses of his neighbours, which is the common practice of every housebreaker, and not of persons living at a distance. But Demetrius the Scepsian says, that there is no such place on Parnassus as Eleon, but Neon, which was built after the Trojan war, and that digging through houses was not confined to robbers of the neighbourhood. Other things might be advanced, but I am unwilling to insist long on this subject. Others write the words Hypereia is a spring in the middle of the city of the Pheræi [subject to Eumelus]. It would therefore be absurd [to assign it to Eurypylus]. Titanus Continuous with this portion of Thessaly are the people subject to Polypœtes. Argissa, the present Argura, is situated upon the banks of the Peneius. Atrax lies above it at the distance of 40 stadia, close to the river. The intermediate country along the side of the river was occupied by Perrhæbi. Some call Orthe the citadel of the Phalannæi. Phalanna is a Perrhæbic city on the Peneius, near Tempe. The Perrhæbi, oppressed by the Lapithæ, retreated in great numbers to the mountainous country about Pindus, and to the Athamanes and Dolopes; but the Larisæi became masters of the country and of the Perrhæbi who remained there. The Larisæi lived near the Peneius, but in the neighbourhood of the Perrhæbi. They occupied the most fertile portion of the plains, except some of the very deep valleys near the lake Nessonis, into which the river, when it overflowed, usually carried away a portion of the arable ground belonging to the Larisæ, who afterwards remedied this by making embankments. These people were in possession of Perrhæbia, and levied imposts until Philip became master of the country. Larisa is a place situated on Ossa, and there is Larisa Cremaste, by some called Pelasgia. In Crete also is a city Larisa, the inhabitants of which were embodied with those of Hierapytna; and from this place the plain below is called the Larisian plain. In Peloponnesus the citadel of the Argives is Oloosson, called the White, from its chalky soil, Elone, and Gonnus are Perrhæbic cities. The name of Elone was changed to that of Leimone. It is now in ruins. Both lie at the foot of Olympus, not very far from the river Eurotas, which the poet calls Titaresius. The poet speaks both of this river and of the Perrhæbi in the subsequent verses, when he says, He mentions therefore these places as belonging to the Perrhæbi, which comprised a part of the Hestiæotis. The water of the Peneius is clear, that of the Titaresius is unctuous; a property arising from some matter, which prevents the streams mingling with each other, Because the Perrhæbi and Lapithæ lived intermingled together, Simonides calls all those people Pelasgiotæ, who occupy the eastern parts about Gyrton and the mouths of the Peneius, Ossa, Pelion, and the country about Demetrias, and the places in the plain, Larisa, Crannon, Scotussa, Mopsium, Atrax, and the parts near the lakes Nessonis and Bœbeis. The poet mentions a few only of these places, either because they were not inhabited at all, or badly inhabited on account of the inundations which had happened at various times. For the poet does not mention even the lake Nessonis, but the Bœbeis only, which is much smaller, for its water remained constant, and this alone remains, while the former probably was at one time filled irregularly to excess, and at another contained no water. We have mentioned Scotussa in our accounts of Dodona, and of the oracle, in Thessaly, when we observed that it was near Scotussa. Near Scotussa is a tract called Cynoscephalæ. It was here that the Romans with their allies the Ætolians, and their general Titus Quintius, defeated in a great battle Philip, son of Demetrius, king of Macedon. Something of the same kind has happened in the territory of Magnetis. For Homer having enumerated many places of this country, calls none of them Magnetes, but those only whom he indicates in terms obscure, and not easily understood; Formerly they called the Gyrtonians Phlegyæ, from Phlegyas, the brother of Ixion; and the Crannonii, Ephyri, so that there is a doubt, when the poet says, The same is the case with the Perrhæbi and Ænianes, for Homer joins them together, as if they dwelt near each other; and it is said by later writers, that, for a long period, the settlement of the Ænianes was in the Dotian plain. Now this plain is near Perrhæbia, which we have just mentioned, Ossa, and the lake Bœbeis: it is situated about the middle of Thessaly, but enclosed by itself within hills. Hesiod speaks of it in this manner; The Magnetes, who are mentioned last in the Thessalian catalogue of the poet, must be understood to be those situated within Tempe, extending from the Peneius and Ossa to Pelion, and bordering upon the Pieriotæ in Macedonia, who occupy the country on the other side the Peneius as far as the sea. Homolium, or Homolē, (for both words are in use,) must If we are to extend their possessions as far as the sea-coast, which is very near Homolium, there is reason for assigning to them Rhizus, and Erymnæ, which lies on the sea-coast in the tract subject to Philoctetes and Eumelus. Let this however remain unsettled. For the order in which the places as far as the Peneius follow one another, is not clearly expressed, and as the places are not of any note, we need not consider that uncertainty as very important. The coast of Sepias, however, is mentioned by tragic writers, and was chaunted in songs on account of the destruction of the Persian fleet. It consists of a chain of rocks. Between Sepias and Casthanæa, a village situated below Pelion, is the sea-shore, where the fleet of Xerxes was lying, when an east wind began to blow violently; some of the vessels were forced on shore, and immediately went to pieces; others were driven on Hipnus, a rocky spot near Pelion, others were lost at Melibœa, others at Casthanæa. The whole of the coasting voyage along Pelion, to the extent of about 80 stadia, is among rocks. That along Ossa is of the same kind and to the same extent. Between them is a bay of more than 200 stadia in extent, upon which is situated Melibœa. The whole voyage from Demetrias, including the winding of the bays, to the Peneius is more than 1000 stadia, from the Spercheius 800 stadia more, and from the Euripus 2350 stadia. Hieronymus assigns a circuit of 3000 stadia to the plain country in Thessaly and Magnesia, and says, that it was inhabited by Pelasgi, but that these people were driven into Italy by Lapithæ, and that the present Pelasgic plain is that in which are situated Larisa, Gyrton, Pheræ, Mopsium, Bœbeis, Ossa, Homole, Pelion, and Magnetis. Mopsium has not its name from Mopsus, the son of Manto the daughter of Teiresias, but from Mopsus, one of the Lapithæ, who sailed with the Argonauts. Mopsopus, from whom Attica is called Mopsopia, is a different person. This then is the account of the several parts of Thes- saly. In general we say, that it was formerly called Pyrrhæa, from Pyrrha, the wife of Deucalion; Hæmonia, from Hæmon; and Thettalia, from Thettalus, the son of Hæmon. But some writers, after dividing it into two portions, say, that Deucalion obtained by lot the southern part, and called it Pandora, from his mother; that the other fell to the share of Hæmon, from whom it was called Hæmonia; that the name of one part was changed to Hellas, from Hellen, the son of Deucalion, and of the other to Thettalia, from Thettalus, the son of Hæmon. But, according to some writers, it was the descendants of Antiphus and Pheidippus, sons of Thettalus, descended from Hercules, who invaded the country from Ephyra in Thesprotia, and called it after the name of Thettalus their progenitor. It has been already said that once it had the name of Nessonis, as well as the lake, from Nesson, the son of Thettalus. SUMMARY. The Tenth Book contains Ætolia and the neighbouring islands; also the whole of Crete, on which the author dwells some time in narrating the institutions of the islanders and of the Curetes. He describes at length the origin of the Idæan Dactyli in Crete, their customs and religious rites. Strabo mentions the connexion of his own family with Crete. The Book contains an account of the numerous islands about Crete, including the Sporades and some of the Cyclades. SINCE Eubœa The island is oblong, and extends nearly Eubœa then fronts It approaches nearest to the continent at Chalcis. It projects with a convex bend towards the places in Bœotia near Aulis, and forms the Euripus, And first, the parts lying between Aulis (Chalcis?) and the places about Geræstus are called the Hollows of Eubœa, for the sea-coast swells into bays, and, as it approaches Chalcis, juts out again towards the continent. The island had the name not of Macris only, but of Abantis also. The poet in speaking of Eubœa never calls the inhabitants from the name of the island, Eubœans, but always Abantes; It was also called Oché, which is the name of one of the largest mountains It had the name of Ellopia, from Ellops, the son of Ion; according to others, he was the brother of Æclus, and Cothus, who is said to have founded Ellopia, The Ellopians, after the battle of Leuctra, were compelled by the tyrant Philistides to remove to the city Histiea, and augmented the number of its inhabitants. Demosthenes It is situated below Mount Telethrius, at a place called Drymus, near the river Callas, on a lofty rock; As Ellopia induced us to commence our description with Histiæa and Oreus, we shall proceed with the places continuous with these. The promontory Cenæum is near Oreus, and on the promontory is situated Dium, Carystus Geræstus Next to Geræstus is Eretria, which, after Chalcis, is the largest city in Eubœa. Next follows Chalcis, the capital as it were of the island, situated immediately on the Euripus. Both these cities are said to have been founded by Athenians before the Trojan war; [but it is also said that] after the Trojan war, Æclus and Cothus took their departure from Athens; the former to found Eretria, and Cothus, Chalcis. A body of Æolians who belonged to the expedition of Penthilus remained in the island. Anciently, even Arabians These cities, Eretria and Chalcis, when their population was greatly augmented, sent out considerable colonies to Macedonia, for Eretria founded cities about Pallene and Mount Athos; Chalcis founded some near Olynthus, which Philip destroyed. There are also many settlements in Italy and Sicily, founded by Chalcidians. These colonies were sent out, according to Aristotle, Above the city of the Chalcidians is the plain called Lelantum, in which are hot springs, adapted to the cure of diseases, and which were used by Cornelius Sylla, the Roman general. There was also an extraordinary mine which produced both copper and iron; such, writers say, is not to be found elsewhere. At present, however, both are exhausted. There is also in Ætolia a town of the name of Chalcis, Some say, that the Eretrians were a colony from Macistus in Triphylia, under the conduct of Eretrieus; others, that they came from Eretria, in Attica, where now a market is held. There is an Eretria also near Pharsalus. In the Eretrian district there was a city, Tamynæ, sacred to Apollo. The temple (which was near the strait) is said to have been built by Admetus, whom the god, according to report, served a year Eretria, The Persians razed the ancient city, having enclosed with multitudes the inhabitants, according to the expression of Herodotus, The power which the Eretrians once possessed, is evinced by a pillar which was placed in the temple of Diana Amarynthia. There is an inscription on it to this effect, that their processions upon their public festivals consisted of three thousand heavy-armed soldiers, six hundred horsemen, and
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+ At present the rivers of Eubœa are the Cereus and Neleus. The cattle which drink of the water of the former become white, and those that drink of the water of the latter become black. We have said that a similar effect is produced by the water of the Crathis. As some of the Eubœans, on their return from Troy, were driven out of their course among the Illyrians; pursued their journey homewards through Macedonia, and stopped in the neighbourhood of Edessa; having assisted the people in a war, who had received them hospitably; they founded a city, We have said, that Ætolians, Acarnanians, and Athamanes are situated to the west of the Thessalians and Œtæans, if indeed we must call the Athamanes, ÆTOLIANS and Acarnanians border on one another, having between them the river Achelous, Acarnanians occupy the western side of the river as far as the Ambracian Gulf, Amphilochians are situated above the Acarnanians in the interior towards the north; above the Amphilochians are situated Dolopes, and Mount Pindus; above the Ætolians are Perrhæbi, Athamanes, and a body of the Ænianes who occupy Œta. The southern side, as well the Acarnanian as the Ætolian, is washed by the sea, forming the Corinthian Gulf, into which the Achelous empties itself. This river (at its mouth) is the boundary of the Ætolian and the Acarnanian coast. The Achelous was formerly called Thoas. There is a river of this name near Dyme, The cities of the Acarnanians are, Anactorium, situated upon a peninsula There are also other cities, Palærus, Stratus lies half-way between Alyzia and Anactorium. To the Ætolians belong both Calydon Ætolia was divided into two portions, one called the Old, the other the Epictetus (the Acquired). The Old comprised the sea-coast from the Achelous as far as Calydon, extending far into the inland parts, which are fertile, and consist of plains. Here are situated Stratus and Trichonium, which has an excellent soil. The Epictetus, that reaches close to the Locri in the direction of Naupactus There is in Ætolia a very large mountain, the Corax, Above Molycreia The river Evenus rises in the country of the Bomianses, a nation situated among the Ophienses, and an Ætolian tribe like the Eurytanes, Agræi, Curetes, and others. It does not flow, at its commencement, through the territory of the Curetes, which is the same as Pleuronia, but through the country more towards the east along Chalcis and Calydon; it then makes a bend backwards to the plains of the ancient Pleuron, and having changed its course to the west, turns again to the south, where it empties itself. It was formerly called Lycormas. There Nessus, who had the post of ferryman, is said to have been killed by Hercules for having attempted to force Deianeira while he was conveying her across the river. The poet calls Olenus and Pylene Ætolian cities, the former of which, of the same name as the Achæan city, was razed by the Æolians. It is near the new city Pleuron. The Acarnanians disputed the possession of the territory. They transferred Pylene to a higher situation, and changed its name to Proschium. Hellanicus was not at all acquainted with the history of these cities, but speaks of them as still existing in their ancient condition, but Macynia and Molycria, which were built subsequent to the return of the Heracleidæ, This, then, is the general account of the country of the Acarnanians and Ætolians. We must annex to this some description of the sea-coast and of the islands lying in front of it. If we begin from the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf, the first place we meet with in Acarnania is Actium. The temple of Apollo Actius has the same name as the promontory, which forms the entrance of the Gulf, and has a harbour on the outside. At the distance of 40 stadia from the temple is Anactorium, situated on the Gulf; and at the distance of 240 stadia is Leucas. This was, anciently, a peninsula belonging to the territory of the Acarnanians. The poet calls it the coast of Epirus, meaning by Epirus the country on the other side of Ithaca, To Leucas also belonged Neritus, which Lærtes said he took- At present those are called Cephallenians who inhabit Cepliallenia. But Homer calls all those under the command of Ulysses by this name, among whom are the Acarnanians; for when he says, The present Cephallenia he calls Samos, as when he says, But Apollodorus at one time says that the ambiguity is removed by the epithet, which the poet uses, when he says, There is reason in this. For the poet does not express himself distinctly either about Cephallenia, or Ithaca, or the other neighbouring places, so that both historians and commentators differ from one another. For instance, with respect to Ithaca, when the poet says, In the verses, But this line seems to imply some contradiction; The expression does imply contradictions, which admit how- ever of some explanation. They do not understand The circuit of Ithaca is about 80 The poet does not mention Cephallenia, which contains four cities, by its present name, nor any of the cities except one, either Samé or Samos, which no longer exists, but traces of it are shown in the middle of the Strait near Ithaca. The inhabitants have the name of Samæ. The rest still exist at present, they are small cities, Paleis, Pronesus, and Cranii. In our time Caius Antonius, the uncle of Marcus Antonius, founded an additional city, when (being an exile after his consulship in which he was the colleague of Cicero the orator) he lived at Cephallenia, and was master of the whole island, as if it had been his own property. He returned from exile before he completed the foundation of the settlement, and died when engaged in more important affairs. Some writers do not hesitate to affirm, that Cephallenia and Dulichium are the same; others identify it with Taphos, and the Cephallenians with Taphians, and these again with Teleboæ. They assert that Amphitryon, with the aid of Cephalus, the son of Deioneus, an exile from Athens, undertook an expedition against the island, and having got possession of it, delivered it up to Cephalus; hence this city bore his name, and the rest those of his children. But this is not in accordance with Homer, for the Cephallenians were subject to Ulysses and Lærtes, and Taphos to Mentes; Cephallenia is situated opposite to Acarnania, at the distance from Leucatas of about 50, or according to others, of 40 stadia, and from Chelonatas Between Ithaca and Cephallenia is the small island The poet also gives the name of Samos to Thracia, which we now call Samothracé. He was probably acquainted with the Ionian island, for he seems to have been acquainted with the Ionian migration. He would not, otherwise, have made a distinction between islands of the same names, for in speaking of Samothrace, he makes the distinction sometimes by the epithet, Of the islands subject to Ulysses there remains to be described Zacynthus. To the east of this island, and of Cephallenia, are situated the Echinades Dolicha is situated opposite to the Œniadæ, and the mouth of the Achelous: it is distant from Araxus, Homer says, that in the time of the Trojan war the Echinades, and the Oxeiæ were subject to Meges, The islands of the Taphii, and formerly of the Teleboæ, among which was Taphus, now called Taphius, were distinct from the Echinades, not separated by distance, (for they lie near one another,) but because they were ranged under different chiefs, Taphii and Teleboæ. In earlier times Amphitryon, in conjunction with Cephalus, the son of Deioneus, an exile from Athens, attacked, and then delivered them up to the government of Cephalus. But the poet says that So much then concerning the islands off Acarnania. Between Leucas and the Ambracian gulf is a sea-lake, called Myrtuntium. Next are Crithote, Next is the river Evenus, which is distant from Actium 670 stadia. Then follows the mountain Chalcis, which Artemidorus calls Chalcia; [next Pleuron, then Licyrna, a village, above which in the interior is situated Calydon at the distance of 30 stadia. Near Calydon is the temple of Apollo Laphrius;] Artemidorus does not place the mountain, whether Chalcis or Chalcia, between the Achelous and Pleuron, but Apollo- Near Calydon is a large lake, abounding with fish. It belongs to the Romans of Patræ. Apollodorus says, that there is in the inland parts of Acarnania, a tribe of Erysichæi, mentioned by Aleman, Lysimachia also was near Olenus. This place has disappeared. It was situated upon the lake, the present Lysimachia, formerly Hydra, between Pleuron and the city Arsinoë, Pylene has experienced nearly the same fate as Olenus. When the poet describes Calydon The Acarnanians, and the Ætolians, like many other nations, are at present worn out, and exhausted by continual wars. The Ætolians however, in conjunction with the Acarnanians, during a long period withstood the Macedonians and the other Greeks, and lastly the Romans, in their contest for independence. But since Homer, and others, both poets and historians, frequently mention them, sometimes in clear and undisputed terms, and sometimes less explicitly, as appears from what we have already said of these people, we must avail ourselves of some of the more ancient accounts, which will supply us with First then with respect to Acarnania. We have already said, that it was occupied by Lærtes and the Cephallenians; but as many writers have advanced statements respecting the first occupants in terms sufficiently clear, indeed, but contradictory, the inquiry and discussion are left open to us. They say, that the Taphii and Teleboæ, as they are called, were the first inhabitants of Acarnania, and that their chief, Cephalus, who was appointed by Amphitryon sovereign of the islands about Taphus, was master also of this country. Hence is related of him the fable, that he was the first person who took the reputed leap from Leucatas. But the poet does not say, that the Taphii inhabited Acarnania before the arrival of the Cephallenians and Lærtes, but that they were friends of the Ithacenses; consequently, in his time, either they had not the entire command of these places, or had voluntarily retired, or had even become joint settlers. A colony of certain from Lacedæmon seems to have settled in Acarnania, who were followers of Icarius, father of Penelope, for the poet in the Odyssey represents him and the brothers of Penelope as then living; Ephorus does not say that they took part in the expedition against Troy; but he says that Alcmæon, the son of Amphiaraus, who was the companion of Diomede, and the other Epigoni in their expedition, having brought the war against the Thebans to a successful issue, went with Diomede to assist in punishing the enemies of Œneus, and having delivered up Ætolia to Diomede, he himself passed over into Acarnania, which country also he subdued. In the mean time Agamemnon attacked the Argives, and easily overcame them, the greatest part having attached themselves to the followers of Diomede. But a short time afterwards, when the expedition took place against Troy, he was afraid, lest, in his absence with the army, Diomede and his troops should return home, (for there was a rumour that he had collected a large force,) and should regain possession of a territory to which they had the best right, one being the heir of Adrastus, the other of his father. Reflecting then on these circumstances, he invited them to unite in the recovery of Argos, and to take part in the war. Diomede consented to take part in the expedition, but Alcmæon was indignant and refused; whence the Acarnanians were the only people who did not participate in the expedition with the Greeks. The Acarnanians, probably by following this account, are said to have imposed upon the Romans, and to have obtained from them the privilege of an independent state, because they alone had not taken part in the expedition against the ancestors of the Romans, for their names are neither in the Ætolian Catalogue, nor are they mentioned by themselves, nor is their name mentioned anywhere in the poem. Ephorus then having represented Acarnania as subject to Alcmeon before the Trojan war, ascribes to him the foundation of Amphilochian Argos, and says that Acarnania had its name from his son Acarnan, and the Amphilochians from his brother Amphilochus; thus he turns aside to reports contrary to the history in Homer. But Thucydides and other SOME writers reckon the Curetes among the Acarnanians, others among the Ætolians; some allege that they came from Crete, others that they came from Eubœa. Since, however, they are mentioned by Homer, we must first examine his account of them. It is thought that he does not mean the Acarnanians, but the Ætolians, in the following verses, for the sons of Porthaon were, Ephorus, after having asserted that the nation of the Ætolians were never in subjection to any other people, but, from all times of which any memorial remains, their country continued exempt from the ravages of war, both on account of its local obstacles and their own experience in warfare, says, that from the beginning Curetes were in possession of the whole country, but on the arrival of Ætōlus, the son of Endy- nion, from Elis, who defeated them in various battles, the Curetes retreated to the present Acarnania, and the Ætolians returned with a body of Epeii, and founded ten of the most ancient cities in Ætolia; and in the tenth generation afterwards Elis was founded, in conjunction with that people, by Oxylus, the son of Hæmon, who had passed over from Ætolia. They produce, as proofs of these facts, inscriptions, one sculptured on the base of the statue of Ætolus at Therma in Ætolia, where, according to the custom of the country, they assemble to elect their magistrates; He rightly alleges, as a proof of the affinity subsisting reciprocally between the Eleii and the $Etolians, these inscriptions, both of which recognise not the affinity alone, but also that their founders had established settlers in each other's country. Whence he clearly convicts those of falsehood who assert, that the Eleii were a colony of Ætolians, and that the Ætolians were not a colony of Eleii. But he seems to exhibit the same inconsistency in his positions here, that we proved with regard to the oracle at Delphi. For after asserting that Ætolia had never been ravaged by war from all time of which there was any memorial, and saying, that from the first the Curetes were in possession of this country, he But perhaps some person may say, that he means Ætolia was not laid waste, reckoning from the time that it had this name after the arrival of Ætolus; but he takes away the ground of this supposition, by saying afterwards, that the greatest part of the people, that remained among the Ætolians, were those called Epeii, with whom Ætolians were afterwards intermingled, who had been expelled from Thessaly together with Bœotians, and possessed the country in common with these people. But is it probable that, without any hostilities, they invaded the country of another nation and divided it among themselves and the original possessors, who did not require such a partition of their land? If this is not probable, is it to be believed that the victors agreed to an equal division of the territory? What else then is devastation of a country, but the conquest of it by arms? Besides, Apollodorus says that, according to history, the Hyantes abandoned Bœotia and came and settled among the Ætolians, and concludes as confident that his opinion is right by saying it is our custom to relate these and similar facts exactly, whenever any of them is altogether dubious, or concerning which erroneous opinions are entertained. Notwithstanding these faults in Ephorus, still he is superior to other writers. Polybius himself, who has studiously given him so much praise, has said that Eudoxus has written well on Grecian affairs, but that Ephorus has given the best account of the foundation of cities, of the relationship subsisting between nations, of changes of settlements, and of leaders of colonies, in these words, But you, Polybius, who introduce popular hearsay, and rumours on the subject of distances, not only of places beyond Greece, but in Greece itself, have you not been called to answer the charges sometimes of Posidonius, sometimes of Artemidorus, and of many other writers? ought you not therefore to excuse us, and not to be offended, if in transferring into our own work a large part of the historical poets from such writers we commit some errors, and to commend us when we are generally more exact in what we say than others, or supply what they omitted through want of information. With respect to the Curetes, some facts are related which belong more immediately, some more remotely, to the history of the Ætolians and Acarnanians. The facts more immediately relating to them, are those which have been mentioned before, as that the Curetes were living in the country which is now called Ætolia, and that a body of Ætolians under the command of Ætolus came there, and drove them into Acarnania; and these facts besides, that Æolians invaded Pleuronia, which was inhabited by Curetes, and called Curetis, took away their territory, and expelled the possessors. But Archemachus But according to some writers each tribe derived its name from some hero; But, as we have before said, when Ætolia was divided into two parts, the country about Calydon was said to be in the possession of Œneus; and a portion of Pleuronia in that of the Porthaonidæ of the branch of Agrius, There The myths relating to the Curetes abound with different statements and confusion. The following are the only points to be borne in mind. The Curetes belong to the most ancient times of Greece, and probably are to be counted among the first inhabitants of Phrygia. They were the authors and expositors of certain religious rites, which they celebrated with dances. According to mythology they played a part at the birth of Jupiter. They were sometimes called Idæan Dactyli. Hence their name was given to the ministers of the worship of the Great Mother among the Phrygians, which was celebrated with a kind of religious frenzy. The Curetes were also called Corybantes. Hence also arose the confusion between the religious rites observed in Crete, Phrygia, and Samothrace. Again, on the other hand, the Curetes have been mistaken for an Ætolian people, bearing the same name. Heyne, Not. ad Virgil. Æn. iii. 130. Religion. et Sacror. cum furore peract. Orig. Comm. Soc. R. Scient. Gotting. vol. viii. Dupuis, origin de tous les cultes, tom. 2. Sainte Croix Mém. pour servir a la religion Secrète, &c., Job. Guberleth. Diss. philol. de Myster. deorum Cabir. But since even the historians, through the similarity of the name Curetes, have collected into one body a mass We are now to consider how the names of these people agree together, and the theology, which is contained in their history. Now this is common both to the Greeks and the Barbarians, to perform their religious ceremonies with the observance of a festival, and a relaxation from labour; some are performed with enthusiasm, others without any emotion; some accompanied with music, others without music; some in mysterious privacy, others publicly; and these are the dictates of nature. Hence Plato, and, before his time, the Pythagoreans, called music philosophy. They maintained that the world subsisted by harmony, and considered every kind of music to be the work of the gods. It is thus that the muses are regarded as deities, and Apollo has the name of President of the Muses, and all poetry divine, as being conversant about the praises of the gods. Thus also they ascribe to music the formation of manners, as everything which refines the mind approximates to the power of the gods. The greater part of the Greeks attribute to Bacchus, Apollo, Hecate, the Muses, and Ceres, everything connected with orgies and Bacchanalian rites, dances, and the mysteries attended upon initiation. They call also Bacchus, Dionysus, and the chief Dæmon of the mysteries of Ceres. But in Crete both these, and the sacred rites of Jupiter in particular, were celebrated with the performance of orgies, and by ministers, like the Satyri, who are employed in the worship of Dionysus. These were called Curetes, certain youths who executed military movements in armour, accompanied with dancing, exhibiting the fable of the birth of Jupiter, in which Saturn was introduced, whose custom it was to devour his children immediately after their birth; Rhea attempts to conceal the pains of childbirth, and to remove the new-born infant out of sight, using her utmost endeavours to preserve it. But the Berecyntes, a tribe of Phrygians, the Phrygians in general, and the Trojans, who live about Mount Ida, themselves also worship Rhea, and perform orgies in her honour; they call her mother of gods, Agdistis, and Phrygia, We have the testimony of the poets in favour of these opinions. Pindar, in the Dithyrambus, which begins in this manner; Conjoining then Seilenus, Marsyas, and Olympus, and ascribing to them the invention of the flute, they thus again combine Dionysiac and Phrygian rites, frequently confounding Ida and Olympus, They invented terms appropriate to the sounds of the pipe, of the crotala, cymbals, and drums; to the noise also of shouts; to the cries of Evoe; and to the beating of the ground with the feet. They invented certain well-known names also to designate the ministers, dancers, and servants employed about the sacred rites, as Cabeiri, Corybantes, Pans, Satyri, Tityri, the god Bacchus; Rhea, Cybele, Cybebe, and Dindymene, from the places where she was worshipped. [The god] Sabazius belongs to the Phrygian rites, and may be considered the child as it were of the [Great] Mother. The traditional ceremonies observed in his worship are those of Bacchus. The rites called Cotytia, and Bendideia, From the song, the rhythm, and the instruments, all Thracian music is supposed to be Asiatic. This is evident also from the places where the Muses are held in honour. For Pieria, Olympus, Pimpla, and Leibethrum were anciently places, and mountains, belonging to the Thracians, but at present they are in the possession of the Macedonians. The Thracians, who were settled in Bœotia, dedicated Helicon to the Muses, and consecrated the cave of the Nymphs, Leibethriades. The cultivators of ancient music are said to have been Thracians, as Orpheus, Musaus, Thamyris; hence also Eumolpus had his name. Those who regard the whole of Asia as far as India as consecrated to Bacchus, refer to that country as the origin of a great portion of the present music. One author speaks of As in other things the Athenians always showed their admiration of foreign customs, so they displayed it in what respected the gods. They adopted many foreign sacred ceremonies, particularly those of Thrace and Phrygia; for which they were ridiculed in comedies. Plato mentions the Bendidean, and Demosthenes the Phrygian rites, where he is exposing Æschines and his mother to the scorn of the people; the former for having been present when his mother was sacrificing, and for frequently joining the band of Bacchanalians in celebrating their festivals, and shouting, Evoi, Saboi, Hyes Attes, and Attes Hyes, for these cries belong to the rites of Sabazius and the Great Mother. But there may be discovered respecting these dæmons, and the variety of their names, that they were not called ministers only of the gods, but themselves were called gods. For Hesiod says that Hecaterus and the daughter of Phoroneus had five daughters, The Scepsian (Demetrius) who has collected fabulous stories of this kind, does not receive this account because no mysterious tradition about the Cabeiri is preserved in Samothrace, yet he gives the opinion of Stesimbrotus of Thasus, to the effect that the sacred rites in Samothrace were celebrated in honour of the Cabeiri. The Scepsian says in another place, in contradiction to Euripides, that it is not the custom in Crete to pay divine honours to Rhea, and that these rites were not established there, but in Phrygia only, and in the Troad, and that they who affirm the contrary are mythologists rather than historians; and were probably misled by an identity of name, for Ida is a mountain both in the Troad and in Crete; and Dicte is a spot in the Scepsian territory, and a mountain in Crete. But Acusilaus, the Argive, mentions a Camillus, the According to Pherecydes, there sprung from Apollo and Rhetia nine Corybantes, who lived in Samothrace; that from Cabeira, the daughter of Proteus and Vulcan, there were three Cabeiri, and three Nymphs, Cabeirides, and that each had their own sacred rites. But it was at Lemnos and Imbros that the Cabeiri were more especially the objects of divine worship, and in some of the cities of the Troad; their names are mystical. Herodotus The Scepsian says, that it is probable that the Curetes and Corybantes are the same persons, who as youths and boys were employed to perform the armed dance in the worship of the mother of the gods. They were called Corybantes Some writers say that the first inhabitants of the country at the foot of Mount Ida were called Idæan Dac- But Sophocles Although we are not fond of fabulous stories, yet we have expatiated upon these, because they belong to subjects of a theological nature. All discussion respecting the gods requires an examination of ancient opinions, and of fables, since the ancients expressed enigmatically their physical notions concerning the nature of things, and always intermixed fable with their discoveries. It is not easy therefore to solve these enigmas exactly, but if we lay before the reader a multitude of fabulous tales, some consistent with each other, others which are contradictory, we HAVING described the islands about the Peloponnesus, and other islands also, some of which are upon, and others in front of, the Corinthian Gulf, we are next to speak of Crete, At present we are to speak first of Crete. The western extremity of the island is near Phalasarna; Sosicrates, who, according to Apollodorus, had an exact knowledge of this island, determines its length (not?) The greatest breadth is in the middle of the island. Here again the shores approach, and form an isthmus narrower than the former, of about 60 stadia in extent, reckoning from Minoa, The island is mountainous and woody, but has fertile valleys. The mountains towards the west are called Leuca, or the White Mountains, From the Cyrenæan One language is intermixed with another, says the poet; there are in Crete, There are many cities in Crete, but the largest and most distinguished are Cnossus, According to Ephorus, Minos was an imitator of Rhada- manthus, an ancient personage, and a most just man. He had the same name as his brother, who appears to have been the first to civilize the island by laws and institutions, by founding cities, and by establishing forms of government. He pre- tended to receive from Jupiter the decrees which he promul- gated. It was probably in imitation of Rhadamanthus that Minos went up to the cave of Jupiter, at intervals of nine years, and brought from thence a set of ordinances, which he said were the commands of Jove; for which reason the poet thus expresses himself;
+ It is difficult to determine which is right. There is another story also not generally received; some persons affirming that Minos was a foreigner, others that he was a native of the island. Homer seems to support the latter opinion, when he says, that It is generally admitted with regard to Crete that in ancient times it was governed by good laws, and induced the wisest of the Greeks to imitate its form of government, and particularly the Lacedæmonians, as Plato shows in his So much then respecting Cnossus, a city to which I am no stranger; but owing to the condition of human affairs, their vicissitudes and accidents, the connexion and intercourse that subsisted between ourselves and the city is at an end. Which may be thus explained. Dorylaiis, a military tactician, a friend of Mithridates Euergetes, was appointed, on account of his experience in military affairs, to levy a body of foreigners, and was frequently in Greece and Thrace, and often in the company of persons who came from Crete, before the Romans were in possession of the island. A great multitude of mercenary soldiers was collected there, from whom So much then respecting Cnossus. After Cnossus, the city Gortyna seems to have held the second place in rank and power. For when these cities acted in concert they held in subjection all the rest of the inhabitants, and when they were at variance there was discord throughout the island; and whichever party Cydonia espoused, to them she was a most important accession. The city of the Gortynians lies in a plain, and was perhaps anciently protected by a wall, as Homer also intimates, Leucocomas and Euxynthetus his erastes (or lover), whom Theophrastus mentions in his discourse on Love, were natives of Leben. Cydonia is situated on the sea, fronting Laconia, at an equal distance from both Cnossus and Gortyn, about 800 stadia, and from Aptera 80, and from the sea in this quarter 40 stadia. Cisamus Of the three cities founded by Minos, the last, which was Phæstus, Cherrhonesus, Miletus and Lycastus, the cities which were enumerated together with Lyctus, no longer exist; but the territory, after they had razed the city (Lyctus), was partitioned among Lyctians and Cnossians. As the poet in one place speaks of Crete as having a hundred, and in another ninety, cities, Ephorus says, that ten were founded in later times after the Trojan war by the Dori- Such then is the general description of the country of Crete. With respect to the form of government, which Ephorus has described at large, it will be sufficient to give a cur- sory account of the principal parts. The law-giver, says Ephorus, seems to lay, as the foundation of his constitution, the greatest good that states can enjoy, namely, liberty; for it is this alone which makes the property of every kind which a man possesses his own; in a state of slavery it belongs to the governor, and not to the governed. The liberty also which men enjoy must be guarded. Unanimity ensues, when the dissensions that arise from covetousness and luxury With a view that courage, and not fear, should predominate, they were accustomed from childhood to the use of arms, and to endure fatigue. Hence they disregarded heat and cold, rugged and steep roads, blows received in gymnastic exercises and in set battles. They practised archery, and the dance in armour, which the Curetes first invented, and was afterwards perfected by Pyrrhichus, and called after him Pyrrhiche. Hence even their sports were not without their use in their training for war. With the same intention they used the Cretan measures in their songs; the tones of these measures are extremely loud; they were invented by Thales, to whom are ascribed the pæans and other native songs and many of their usages. They adopted a military dress also, and shoes, and considered armour as the most valuable of all presents. Some, he says, alleged that many of the institutions supposed to be Cretan were of Lacedæmonian origin; but the truth is, they were invented by the former, but perfected by the Spartans. The Cretans, when their cities, and particularly Cnossus, were ravaged, neglected military affairs, but some usages were more observed by the Lyttii and Gortynii, and some other small cities, than by the Cnossians. Those persons, who maintain the priority of the Laconian institutions, adduce as evidence of this those of the Lyttii, because as colonists they would retain the customs of the parent state. Otherwise, it would be absurd for those, who lived under a better form of constitution and government, to be imitators of a worse. But this is not correct. For we ought not to form conjectures respecting the ancient from the present state of things, for each has undergone contrary changes. The Cretans were formerly powerful at sea, so that it was a proverbial saying addressed to those who pretended to be ignorant of what they knew, Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator, he says, was five generations later than Althæmenes, who conducted the colony into Crete. He is said by historians to have been the son of Cissus, who founded Argos The occasion of the journey of Lycurgus to Crete is said by the inhabitants to be as follows. The elder brother of Lycurgus was Polydectes, who, at his death, left his wife pregnant. Lycurgus reigned in place of his brother till the The following are the principal of the laws of Crete, which Ephorus has given in detail. All the Cretans, who are selected at the same time from the troop ( The woman's dower, if she has brothers, is half of the brother's portion. The children are taught to read, to chaunt songs taken from the laws, and some kinds of music. While they are still very young they are taken to the Syssitia, called Andreia. They sit on the ground, eating their food together, dressed in mean garments, which are not changed in winter or summer. They wait upon themselves and on the men. Both those of the same and those of different messes have battles with one another. A trainer of boys presides over each Andreion. As they grow older they are formed into On certain set days troop encounters troop, marching in time to the sound of the pipe and lyre, as is their custom in actual war. They inflict blows, some with the hand, and some even with iron weapons. They have a peculiar custom with respect to their attachments. They do not influence the objects of their love by persuasion, but have recourse to violent abduction. The lover apprizes the friends of the youth, three or more days beforehand, of his intention to carry off the object of his affection. It is reckoned a most base act to conceal the youth, or not to permit him to walk about as usual, since it would be an acknowledgment that the youth was unworthy of such a lover. But if they are informed that the ravisher is equal or superior in rank, or other circumstances, to the youth, they pursue and oppose the former slightly, merely in conformity with the custom. They then willingly allow him to carry off the youth. If however he is an unworthy person, they take the youth from him. This show of resistance does not end, till the youth is received into the Andreium to which the ravisher belongs. They do not regard as an object of affection a youth exceedingly handsome, but him who is distinguished for courage and modesty. The lover makes the youth presents, and takes him away to whatever place he likes. The persons present at the abduction accompany them, and having passed two months in feasting, and in the chase, (for it is not permitted to detain the youth longer,) they return to the city. The youth is dismissed with presents, which consist of a military dress, an ox, and a drinking cup; the last are prescribed by law, and besides these many other very costly gifts, so that the friends contribute each their share in order to diminish the expense. The youth sacrifices the ox to Jupiter, and entertains at a feast those who came down with him from the mountains. He then declares concerning the intercourse with the lover, The parastathentes, for this is the name which they give to those youths who have been carried away, enjoy certain honours. At races and at festivals they have the principal places. They are permitted to wear the stole, which distinguishes them from other persons, and which has been presented to them by their lovers; and not only at that time, but in mature age, they appear in a distinctive dress, by which each individual is recognised as Kleinos, for this name is given to the object of their attachment, and that of Philetor to the lover. These then are the usages respecting attachments. They elect ten Archons. On matters of highest moment they have recourse to the counsel of the Gerontes, as they are called. They admit into this council those who have been thought worthy of the office of Cosmi, and who were otherwise persons of tried worth. I considered the form of government among the Cretans as worthy of description, on account both of its peculiarity and its fame. Few of these institutions are now in existence, and the administration of affairs is chiefly conducted according to the orders of the Romans, as is the case also in their other provinces. THE islands about Crete are Thera, These islands are situated in the Cretan sea. Delos, The city of Delos is in a plain. Delos contains the temple of Apollo, and the Latoum, or temple of Latona. The Cynthus, Originally, there were said to be twelve Cyclades, but many others were added to them. Artemidorus enumerates (fifteen?) where he is speaking of the island Helena, Aratus, Although Delos Rheneia Formerly it had the name of Ortygia. Ceos There was an ancient law among these people, mentioned by Menander. The city lies on a mountain, at a distance from the sea of about 25 stadia. Its arsenal is the place on which Coressia was built, which does not contain the population even of a village. Near the Coressian territory and Pœëessa is a temple of Apollo Sminthius. But between the temple and the ruins of Pœëessa is the temple of Minerva Nedusia, built by Nestor, on his return from Troy. The river Elixus runs around the territory of Coressia. After Ceos are Naxos Here also is Syros, (the first syllable is long,) where Pherecydes the son of Babys was born. The Athenian Pherecydes is younger than the latter person. The poet seems to have mentioned this island under the name of Syria; Myconus Seriphos Tenos To the Sporades belongs Amorgos, Near these islands are Patmos, Icaria has no inhabitants, but it has pastures, of which the Samians avail themselves. Notwithstanding its condition it is famous, and gives the name of Icarian to the sea in front of it, in which are situated Samos, Cos, and the islands just mentioned, In the Carpathian sea, between Cos, Rhodes, and Crete, are situated many of the Sporades, as Astypalæa, We shall traverse in the description of Asia the considerable islands adjacent to that country, as Cyprus, Rhodes, Cos, and those situated on the succeeding line of coast, Samos, Chios, Lesbos, and Tenedos. At present we are to describe the remaining islands of the Sporades, which deserve mention. Astypalæa lies far out at sea, and contains a city. Telos, which is long, high, and narrow, in circumference about 140 stadia, with a shelter for vessels, extends along the Cnidian territory. Chalcia is distant from Telos 80, from Carpathus 400 stadia, and about double this number from Astypalæa. It has a settlement of the same name, a temple of Apollo, and a harbour. Nisyrus lies to the north of Telos, at the distance of about 60 stadia, which is its distance also from Cos. It is round, lofty, and rocky, and has abundance of mill-stone, whence the neighbouring people are well supplied with stones for grinding. It contains a city of the same name, a harbour, hot springs, and a temple of Neptune. Its circumference is 80 stadia. Near it are small islands, called the islands of the Nisyrians. Nisyrus is said to be a fragment broken off from Cos; a story is also told of Neptune, that when pursuing Polybotes, one of the giants, he broke off with his trident a piece of the island Cos, and hurled it at him, and that the missile became the island Nisyrus, with the giant lying beneath it. But some say that the giant lies beneath Cos. Carpathus, which the poet calls Crapathus, is lofty, having a circumference of 200 stadia. It contained four cities, and its name was famous, which it imparted to the surrounding sea. One of the cities was called Nisyrus, after the name of the island Nisyrus. It lies opposite Leuce Acte in Africa, which is distant about 1000 stadia from Alexandria, and about 4000 from Carpathus. Casus is distant from Carpathus 70, and from the promontory Salmonium in Crete 250 stadia. It is 80 stadia in circumference. It contains a city of the same name; and many islands, called the islands of the Casii, lie about it. They say that the poet calls the Sporades, Calydnæ, All the honey of the islands is, for the most part, excellent, and rivals that of Attica; but the honey of these islands surpasses it, particularly that of Calymna. SUMMARY. The Eleventh Book commences with Asia and the river Don, which, taking its rise in the northern regions, separates Europe from Asia. It includes the nations situated in Asia near its sources on the east and south, and the barbarous Asiatic nations who occupy the neighbourhood of Mount Caucasus, among whom are the Amazones, Massagetæ, Scythians, Albani, Iberes, Bactriani, Caspii, Medes, Persians, and the two Armenias, extending to Mesopotamia. Among these nations are included the Troglodytæ, Heniochi, Sceptuchi, Soanes, Assyrians, Polyphagi, Nabiani, Siraci, and Tapyri. Mention is made of Jason and Medea, and of the cities founded by them:—of Xerxes, Mithridates, and Alexander, son of Philip. ASIA is contiguous to Europe, approaching close to it at the Tanaïs or Don. I am to describe this country next, after dividing it, for the sake of perspicuity, by certain natural boundaries. What Eratosthenes has done with respect to the whole habitable earth, this I propose to do with respect to Asia. The Taurus, extending from west to east, embraces the middle of this continent, like a girdle, leaving one portion to the north, another to the south. The Greeks call the former Asia Within the Taurus, The Taurus has in many places a breadth of 3000 stadia; its length equals that of Asia, namely 45,000 stadia, It is divided into many parts, which are circumscribed by boundaries of greater or less extent, and distinguished by various names. But as such an extended range of mountains must comprise nations some of which are little known, and others with whom we are well acquainted, as Parthians, The currents of almost all the rivers which flow from the Taurus are in a direction contrary to each other, some running to the north, others to the south, at least at the commencement of their course, although afterwards some bend towards the east or west. They naturally suggest the adoption of this chain of mountains as a boundary in the division of Asia into two portions; in the same manner that the sea within the Pillars, which for the most part runs in the same line with these mountains, conveniently forms two continents, Europe and Africa, and is a remarkable boundary to both. In passing in our geographical description from Europe to Asia, the first parts of the country which present themselves are those in the northern division, and we shall therefore begin with these. Of these parts the first are those about the Tanaïs, (or Don,) which we have assumed as the boundary of Europe and Asia. These have a kind of peninsular form, for they are surrounded on the west by the river Tanaïs (or Don) and the Palus Maotis Those writers do not deserve attention who contract the isthmus as much as Cleitarchus, according to whom it is subject to inundations of the sea from either side. According to Posidonius the isthmus is I know not how any one can rely upon his authority respecting what is uncertain, when he has nothing probable to advance on the subject; for he reasons so falsely respecting things which are evident, and this too when he enjoyed the friendship of Pompey, who had carried on war against the Iberes and Albani, and was acquainted with both the Caspian and Colchian The second portion is that above the Hyrcanian, The third portion is continuous with the above-mention- ed isthmus, and consists of the country following next in order to the isthmus and the Caspian Gates, The fourth portion consists of the tract within the Halys, ACCORDING to this disposition, the first portion towards the north and the Ocean is inhabited by certain tribes of Scythians, shepherds, (nomades,) and Hamaxœci (or those who live in waggon-houses). Within these tribes live Sarmatians, who also are Scythians, Aorsi, Upon the river, and on the lake, stands a city Tanaïs, founded by the Greeks, who possess the Bosporus; but lately the King Polemon In the voyage along the coast, the first object which presents itself to those who have proceeded to the distance of 800 stadia from the Tanaïs, is the Great Rhombites, as it is called, where large quantities of fish are captured for the purpose of being salted. Then at the distance of 800 stadia more is the Lesser Rhombites, From the Lesser Rhombites to Tyrambe, and the river Anticeites, are 600 stadia; then 120 to the Cimmerian village, whence vessels set out on their voyage along the lake. In this coasting voyage we meet with some look-out places, (for observing the fish,) said to belong to the Clazomenians. Cimmericum was formerly a city built upon a peninsula, the isthmus of which it enclosed with a ditch and mound. The Cimmerii once possessed great power in the Bosporus, whence it was called the Cimmerian Bosporus. These are the people who overran the territory of the inhabitants of the inland parts, on the right of the Euxine, as far as Ionia. They were dislodged from these places by Scythians, and the Scythians by Greeks, who founded Panticapæum, Thence to the monument of Satyrus are 90 stadia; this is a mound raised on a promontory, Near it is Patræus, Beyond Corocondame is a large lake Upon sailing All those who are subject to the princes of the Bosporus are called Bosporani. The capital of the European Bosporani is Panticapæum, and of the Asian Bosporani, the city of Phanagorium, The Sindi, Dandarii, Toreatæ, Agri, Arrhechi, and besides these, the Tarpetes, Obidiaceni, Sittaceni, Dosci, and many others, belong to the Mæotæ; to this people belong the Aspurgiani also, who live between Phanagoria and Gorgipia, at the distance of 500 stadia [from the Mæotis?]. Polemon, the king, entered the country of these people under a With respect to the Asian Mæotæ in general, some of them were the subjects of those who possessed the mart on the Tanaïs; others, of the Bosporani; and different bodies have revolted at different times. The princes of the Bosporani were frequently masters of the country as far as the Tanaïs, and particularly the last princes, Pharnaces, Asander, and Polemon. Pharnaces is said to have once brought even the river Hypanis over the territory of the Dandarii through some ancient canal, which he had caused to be cleared, and inundated the country. Next to Sindica, and Gorgipia upon the sea, is the sea-coast inhabited by the Achæi, Zygi, and Heniochi. It is for the most part without harbours and mountainous, being a portion of the Caucasus. These people subsist by piracy. Their boats are slender, narrow, light, and capable of holding about five and twenty men, and rarely thirty. The Greeks call them camaræ. They say, that at the time of the expedition of Jason the Achæi Phthio$tæ founded the Achaia there, and the Lacedæmonians, Heniochia. Their leaders were Rhecas, and Amphistratus, the charioteers Such then is their mode of life. But even these people are governed by persons called Sceptuchi, and these again are subject to the authority of tyrants, or of kings. The Heniochi had four kings at the time that Mithridates Eupator fled from the country of his ancestors to the Bosporus, and passed through their country, which was open to him, but he avoided that of the Zygi on account of its ruggedness, and the savage character of the people. He proceeded with difficulty along the sea-coast, frequently embarking in vessels, till he came to the country of the Achæi, by whom he was hospitably received. He had then completed a journey from the Phasis of not much less than 4000 stadia. From Corocondame, the course of the voyage is directly towards the east. At the distance of 180 stadia is the Sindic harbour, and a city. Then at the distance of 400 stadia is Bata, Next to Bata Artemidorus places the coast of the Cercetæ, which has places of shelter for vessels, and villages along an extent of about 850 stadia; then at 500 stadia more the coast of the Achæi, then that of the Heniochi, at 1000 stadia, then the Great Pityus, from which to Dioscurias are 360 stadia. The authors most worthy of credit who have written the history of the Mithridatic wars, enumerate the Achæi first, then Zygi, then Heniochi, then Cercetæ, Moschi, Colchi, and above these the Phtheirophagi, Soanes, and other smaller nations about the Caucasus. The whole of the coast of the Achæi, and of the other nations, as far as Dioscurias, and the inland places lying in a straight line towards the south, are at the foot of the Caucasus. This mountain overhangs both the Euxine and the Caspian seas, forming a kind of rampart to the isthmus which separates one sea from the other. To the south it is the boundary of Albania and Iberia, to the north, of the plains of the Sarmatians. It is well wooded, and contains various kinds of timber, and especially trees adapted to shipbuilding. Eratosthenes says that the Caucasus is called Mount Caspius by the natives, a name borrowed perhaps from the Caspii. It throws out forks towards the south, which embrace the middle of Iberia, and touch the Armenian and those called the Moschic mountains, Situated on a bay of this kind, and occupying the most easterly point of the whole sea, is Dioscurias, The greater part of the rest of Colchis lies upon the sea. The Phasis, The country is fertile and its produce is good, except the Above the rivers which I have mentioned in the Moschic territory is the temple of Leucothea, How great anciently was the celebrity of this country, appears from the fables which refer obscurely to the expedition of Jason, who advanced as far even as Media; and still earlier intimations of it are found in the fables relative to the expedition of Phrixus. The kings that preceded, and who possessed the country when it was divided into Sceptuchies, The territory of the Moschi, in which is situated the temple, is divided into three portions, one of which is occupied by Colchians, another by Iberians, and the third by Armenians. There is in Iberia on the confines of Colchis, a small city, the city of Phrixus, the present Idessa, a place of strength. The river Charis Among the nations that assemble at Dioscurias are the Phtheiropagi, who have their appellation from their dirt and filth. Near them live the Soanes, not less dirty in their habits, but superior perhaps to all the tribes in strength and courage. They are masters of the country around them, and occupy the heights of Caucasus above Dioscurias. They have a king, and a council of three hundred persons. They can assemble, it is said, an army of two hundred thousand men, for all their people are fighting men, but not distributed into certain orders. In their country the winter torrents are said to bring down even gold, which the Barbarians collect in troughs pierced with holes, and lined with fleeces; and hence the fable of the golden fleece. Some The other neighbouring nations about the Caucasus occupy barren and narrow tracts of land. But the tribes of the Albanians and Iberians, who possess nearly the whole of the above-mentioned isthmus, may also be denominated Caucasian, and yet they live in a fertile country and capable of being well peopled. THE greater part of Iberia is well inhabited, and contains cities and villages where the houses have roofs covered with tiles, and display skill in building; there are marketplaces in them, and various kinds of public edifices. Some part of the country is encompassed by the Caucasian mountains; for branches of this range advance, as I have said, towards the south. These districts are fruitful, comprise the whole of Iberia, and extend to Armenia and Colchis. In the middle is a plain watered by rivers, the largest of which is the Cyrus, which, rising in Armenia, immediately enters the above-mentioned plain, having received the Aragus, The plain is occupied by those Iberians who are more disposed to agriculture, and are inclined to peace. Their dress is after the Armenian and Median fashion. Those who inhabit the mountainous country, and they are the most numerous, are addicted to war, live like the Sarmatians and Scythians, on whose country they border, and with whom they are connected by affinity of race. These people however engage in agriculture also, and can assemble many myriads of persons from among themselves, and from the Scythians and Sarmatians, whenever any disturbance occurs. There are four passes into the country; one through Sarapana, a Colchian fortress, and through the defiles near it, along which the Phasis, rendered passable from one side to the other by a hundred and twenty bridges, in conse- From the Nomades on the north there is a difficult ascent for three days, and then a narrow road by the side of the river Aragus, a journey of four days, which road admits only one person to pass at a time. The termination of the road is guarded by an impregnable wall. From Albania the entrance is at first cut through rocks, then passes over a marsh formed by the river (Alazonius), The inhabitants of this country are also divided into four classes; the first and chief is that from which the kings are appointed. The king is the oldest and the nearest of his predecessor's relations. The second administers justice, and is commander of the army. The second class consists of priests, whose business it is to settle the respective rights of their own and the bordering people. The third is composed of soldiers and husbandmen. The fourth comprehends the common people, who are royal slaves, and perform all the duties of ordinary life. Possessions are common property in families, but the eldest governs, and is the steward of each. Such is the character of the Iberians, and the nature of their country. THE Albanians pursue rather a shepherd life, and resemble more the nomadic tribes, except that they are not savages, and hence they are little disposed to war. They inhabit the country between the Iberians and the Caspian Sea, approaching close to the sea on the east, and on the west border upon the Iberians. Of the remaining sides the northern is protected by the Caucasian mountains, for these overhang the plains, and are called, particularly those near the sea, Ceraunian mountains. The southern side is formed by Armenia, which extends along it. A large portion of it consists of plains, and a large portion also of mountains, as Cambysene, where the Armenians approach close both to the Iberians and the Albanians. The Cyrus, which flows through Albania, and the other rivers which swell the stream of the Cyrus, improve the qualities of the land, but remove the sea to a distance. For the mud, accumulating in great quantity, fillsup the channel in such a manner, that the small adjacent islands are annexed to the continent, irregular marshes are formed, and difficult to be avoided; the reverberation also of the tide increases the irregular formation of the marshes. The mouth of the river is said to be divided into twelve branches, some of which afford no passage through them, others are so shallow as to leave no shelter for vessels. The shore for an extent of more than 60 stadia is inundated by the sea, and by the rivers; all that part of it is inaccessible; the mud reaches even as far as 500 stadia, and forms a bank along the coast. The Araxes Perhaps such a race of people have no need of the sea, for they do not make a proper use even of the land, which produces every kind of fruit, even the most delicate, and every kind of plant and evergreen. It is not cultivated with the least care; but all that is excellent grows without sowing, and without ploughing, according to the accounts of persons who have accompanied armies there, and describe the inhabitants as leading a Cyclopean mode of life. In many places the ground, which has been sowed once, produces two or three crops, the first of which is even fifty-fold, and that without a fallow, nor is the ground turned with an iron instrument, but with a plough made entirely of wood. The whole plain is better watered than Babylon or Ægypt, by rivers and streams, so that it always presents the appearance of herbage, and it affords excellent pasture. The air here is better than in those countries. The vines remain always without digging round them, and are pruned every five years. The young trees bear fruit even the second year, but the full grown yield so much that a large quantity of it is left on the branches. The cattle, both tame and wild, thrive well in this country. The men are distinguished for beauty of person and for size. They are simple in their dealings and not fraudulent, for they do not in general use coined money; nor are they acquainted with any number above a hundred, and transact their exchanges by loads. They are careless with regard to the other circumstances of life. They are ignorant of weights and measures as far as exactness is concerned; they are im- provident with respect to war, government, and agriculture. They fight however on foot and on horseback, both in light and in heavy armour, like the Armenians. They can send into the field a larger army than the Iberians, for they can equip 60,000 infantry and 22,000 horsemen; with such a force they offered resistance to Pompey. The Nomades also co-operate with them against foreigners, as they do with the Iberians on similar occasions. When there is no war they frequently attack these people and prevent them from cultivating the ground. They use javelins and bows, and wear breastplates, shields, and coverings for To the country of the Albanians belongs Caspiana, and has its name from the Caspian tribe, from whom the sea also has its appellation; the Caspian tribe is now extinct. The entrance from Iberia into Albania is through the Cambysene, a country without water, and rocky, to the river Alazonius. The people themselves and their dogs are excessively fond of the chase, pursuing it with equal eagerness and skill. Their kings differ from one another; at present one king governs all the tribes. Formerly each tribe was governed by a king, who spoke the peculiar language of each. They speak six and twenty languages from the want of mutual intercourse and communication with one another. The country produces some venomous reptiles, as scorpions and tarantulas. These tarantulas cause death in some instances by laughter, in others by grief and a longing to return home. The gods they worship are the Sun, Jupiter, and the Moon, but the Moon above the rest. She has a temple near Iberia. The priest is a person who, next to the king, receives the highest honours. He has the government of the sacred land, which is extensive and populous, and authority over the sacred attendants, many of whom are divinely inspired, and prophesy. Whoever of these persons, being violently possessed, wanders alone in the woods, is seized by the priest, who, having bound him with sacred fetters, maintains him sumptuously during that year. Afterwards he is brought forth at the sacrifice performed in honour of the goddess, and is anointed with fragrant ointment and sacrificed together with other victims. The sacrifice is performed in the following manner. A person, having in his hand a sacred lance, with which it is the custom to sacrifice human victims, advances out of the crowd and pierces the heart through the side, which he does from experience in this office. When the man has fallen, certain prognostications are indicated by the manner of the fall, and these are publicly declared. The body is carried away to a certain spot, and then they all trample upon it, performing this action as a mode of purification of themselves. The Albanians pay the greatest respect to old age, which is not confined to their parents, but is extended to old persons So much concerning the Albanians. It is said that when Jason, accompanied by Armenus the Thessalian, undertook the voyage to the Colchi, they advanced as far as the Caspian Sea, and traversed Iberia, Albania, a great part of Armenia, and Media, as the Jasoneia and many other monuments testify. Armenus, they say, was a native of Armenium, one of the cities on the lake Beebeis, between Pheræ and Parisa, and that his companions settled in Acilisene, and the Suspiritis, and occupied the country as far as Calachene and Adiabene, and that he gave his own name to Armenia. THE Amazons are said to live among the mountains above Albania. Theophanes, who accompanied Pompey in his wars, and was in the country of the Albanians, says that Gelæ and Legæ, The Mermodas, It is said that the Gargarenses ascended together with the Amazons from Themiscyra to these places, that they then separated, and with the assistance of some Thracians and Eubœans, who had wandered as far as this country, made war against the Amazons, and at length, upon its termination, entered into a compact on the conditions above mentioned, namely, that there should be a companionship only with respect to There is a peculiarity in the history of the Amazons. In other histories the fabulous and the historical parts are kept distinct. For what is ancient, false, and marvellous is called fable. But history has truth for its object, whether it be old or new, and it either rejects or rarely admits the marvellous. But, with regard to the Amazons, the same facts are related both by modern and by ancient writers; they are marvellous and exceed belief. For who can believe that an army of women, or a city, or a nation, could ever subsist without men? and not only subsist, but make inroads upon the territory of other people, and obtain possession not only of the places near them, and advance even as far as the present Ionia, but even despatch an expedition across the sea to Attica? This is as much as to say that the men of those days were women, and the women men. But even now the same things are told of the Amazons, and the peculiarity of their history is increased by the credit which is given to ancient, in preference to modern, accounts. They are said to have founded cities, and to have given their names to them, as Ephesus, Smyrna, Cyme, Myrina, besides leaving sepulchres and other memorials. Themiscyra, the plains about the Thermodon, and the mountains lying above, are mentioned by all writers as once belonging to the Amazons, from whence, they say, they were driven out. Where they are at present few writers undertake to point out, nor do they advance proofs or probability for what they state; as in the case of Thalestria, queen of the Amazons, with whom Alexander is said to have had intercourse in Hyrcania with the hope of having offspring. Writers are not agreed on this point, and among many who have paid the greatest regard to truth none mention the circumstance, nor do writers of the highest credit mention anything of the kind, nor do those who record it relate the same facts. Cleitarchus says that Thalestria set out from the Caspian Gates and Thermodon to meet Alexander. Now from the Caspian Gates to Thermodon are more than 6000 stadia. Stories circulated for the purpose of exalting the fame [of eminent persons] are not received with equal favour by all; the object of the inventors was flattery rather than truth; The highest points of the actual Caucasus are the most southerly, and lie near Albania, Iberia, the Colchi, and Heniochi. They are inhabited by the people whom I have mentioned as assembling at Dioscurias. They resort thither chiefly for the purpose of procuring salt. Of these tribes some occupy the heights; others live in wooded valleys, and subsist chiefly on the flesh of wild animals, wild fruits, and milk. The heights are impassable in winter; in summer they are ascended by fastening on the feet shoes as wide as drums, made of raw hide, and furnished with spikes on account of the snow and ice. The natives in descending with their loads slide down seated upon skins, which is the practice in Media, Atropatia, and at Mount Masius in Armenia, but there they fasten circular disks of wood with spikes to the soles of their feet. Such then is the nature of the heights of Caucasus. On descending to the country lying at the foot of these heights the climate is more northerly, but milder, for the land below the heights joins the plains of the Siraces. There are some tribes of Troglodytæ who inhabit caves on account Next to the Troglodytee are Chamæcœt, Immediately afterwards follow shepherd tribes, situated between the Mæotis and the Caspian Sea, Nabiani, Pangani, The Aorsi and Siraces seem to be a fugitive people from parts situated above. The Aorsi lie more to the north. Abeacus, king of the Siraces, when Pharnases occupied the Bosporus, equipped 20,000 horse, and Spadines, king of the Aorsi 200,000, and the Upper Aorsi even a larger body, for they were masters of a greater extent of territory, and nearly the largest part of the coast of the Caspian Sea was under their power. They were thus enabled to transport on camels the merchandise of India and Babylonia, receiving it from Armenians and Medes. They wore gold also in their dress in consequence of their wealth. The Aorsi live on the banks of the Tanaïs, and the Siraces on those of Achardeus, which rises in Caucasus, and dis- charges itself into the Mæotis. THE second portion of northern Asia begins from the Caspian Sea, where the first terminates. This sea is called also the Hyrcanian Sea. We must first speak of this sea, and of the nations that live near its shores. It is a bay extending from the Ocean to the south. At its commencement it is very narrow; as it advances further inwards, and particularly towards the extremity, it widens to the extent of about 500 stadia. The voyage from the entrance Eratosthenes says that the navigation of this sea was known to the Greeks, that the part of the voyage along the coast of the Albanians and Cadusii But with respect to the places situated in this portion of Asia, and to those lying so far removed from our own country, we must not understand the accounts of writers in too literal a sense, particularly with regard to distances. Upon sailing into the Caspian, on the right hand, contiguous to the Europeans, Scythians and Sarmatians occupy the country between the Tanaïs and this sea; they are chiefly Normades, or shepherd tribes, of whom I have already spoken. On the left hand are the Eastern Scythian Nomades, who extend as far as the Eastern sea, and India. The ancient Greek historians called all the nations towards the north by the common name of Scythians, and Kelto-Scy- thians. Writers still more ancient than these called the nations living above the Euxine, Danube, and Adriatic, Hyperboreans, Sauromatæ, and Arimaspi. For these authors, having observed that those who professedly were writers of fables obtained repute and success, supposed that they also should make their writings agreeable, We cannot easily credit the generality of the historians of Alexander, for they practise deception with a view to enhance the glory of Alexander; the expedition also was directed to the extremities of Asia, at a great distance from our country, and it is difficult to ascertain or detect the truth or falsehood of what is remote. The dominion of the Romans and of the Parthians has added very much to former discoveries, and the writers who speak of these people describe nations and places, where certain actions were performed, in a manner more likely to produce belief than preceding historians, for they had better opportunities of personal observation. THE nomades, or wandering tribes, who live on the left side of the coast on entering the Caspian Sea, are called by the moderns Dahæ, and surnamed Parni. A small part of this country at the foot of the mountains, as far as the heights, if we reckon from the sea, is inhabited by some tribes of Albanians and Armenians, but the greater portion by Gelæ, Cadusii, Amardi, Vitii, and Anariacæ. It is said, that some Parrhasii were settled together with the Anariace, who are now called Parrhasii, (Parsii?) and that the $SAEnianes built a wailed city in the territory of the Vitii, which city is Hyrcania But neither this country, nor the sea which is named after it, has received proper care and attention from the inhabitants, for there are no vessels upon the sea, nor is it turned to any use. According to some writers there are islands on it, capable of being inhabited, in which gold is found. The cause of this neglect is this; the first governors of Hyrcania were barbarians, Medes, and Persians, and lastly, people who were more oppressive than these, namely, Parthians. The whole of the neighbouring country was the haunt of robbers and wandering tribes, and abounded with tracts of desert land. For a short time Macedonians were sovereigns of the country, but being engaged in war were unable to attend to remote Nesæa Hyrcania is watered by the rivers Ochus and Oxus as far as their entrance into the sea. The Ochus flows through Nesæa, but some writers say that the Ochus empties itself into the Oxus. Aristobulus avers that the Oxus was the largest river, except those in India, which he had seen in Asia. He says also that it is navigable with ease, (this circumstance both Aristobulus and Eratosthenes borrow from Patrocles,) and that large quantities of Indian merchandise are conveyed by it to the Hyrcanian Sea, and are transferred from thence into Albania by the Cyrus, and through the adjoining countries to the Euxine. The Ochus is not often mentioned by the ancients, but Apollodorus, the author of the Parthica, frequently mentions it, [and describes it] as flowing very near the Parthians. Many additional falsehoods were invented respecting this sea, to flatter the ambition of Alexander and his love of glory; for, as it was generally acknowledged that the river Tanaïs separated Europe from Asia throughout its whole course, and that a large part of Asia, lying between this sea and the Tanaïs, had never been subjected to the power of the Macedonians, it was resolved to invent an expedition, in order that, according to fame at least, Alexander might seem to have conquered those countries. They therefore made the lake Mæotis, which receives the Tanaïs, and the Caspian Sea, which also they call a lake, one body of water, affirming that there was a subterraneous opening between both, and that one was part of the other. Polycleitus produces proofs to show that this sea is a lake, for instance, that it breeds serpents, and that the water is sweetish. Among the peculiarities recorded of the Hyrcanian sea, Eudoxus and others relate the following. There is a certain coast in front of the sea hollowed out into caverns, between which and the sea there lies a flat shore. Rivers on reaching this coast descend from the precipices above with sufficient force to dart the water into the sea without wetting the intervening shore, so that even an army could pass underneath sheltered by the stream above. The inhabitants frequently resort to this place for the purposes of festivity and of performing sacrifices, one while reclining beneath the caverns, at another basking in the sun (even) beneath the fall of water. They divert themselves in various ways, having in sight on each side the sea and shore, the latter of which by the dew [and moisture of the falls] is rendered a grassy and flowery meadow. IN proceeding from the Hyrcanian Sea towards the east, on the right hand are the mountains which the Greeks call Taurus, extending as far as India. They begin from Pamphylia and Cilicia, and stretch to this part from the west in a continuous line, bearing different names in different places. From the Hyrcanian sea to the Arii are about 6000 stadia. On the left hand Between these people, Hyrcania, and Parthia as far as Aria lies a vast and arid desert, which they crossed by long journeys, and overran Hyrcania, the Nesæan country, and the plains of Parthia. These people agreed to pay a tribute on condition of having permission to overrun the country at stated times, and to carry away the plunder. But when these incursions became more frequent than the agreement allowed, war ensued, afterwards peace was made, and then again war was renewed. Such is the kind of life which the other Nomades also lead, continually attacking their neighbours, and then making peace with them. The Sacæ had made incursions similar to those of the Cimmerians and Treres, some near their own country, others at a greater distance. They occupied Bactriana, and got possession of the most fertile tract in Armenia, which was called after their own name, Sacasene. They advanced even as far as the Cappadocians, those particularly situated near the Euxine; who are now called Pontici. When they were assembled together and feasting on the division of the booty, they were attacked by night by the Persian generals who were then stationed in that quarter, and were utterly exterminated. The Persians raised a mound of earth in the form of a hill over a rock in the plain, (where this occurred,) and fortified it. They erected there a temple to Anaïtis and tile gods Omanus and Anadatus, Persian deities who have a common altar. Such is the account which is given of the Sacæ by some writers. Others say, that Cyrus in an expedition against the The Massagetæ signalized their bravery in the war with Cyrus, of which many writers have published accounts; we must get our information from them. Such particulars as the following are narrated respecting this nation; some tribes inhabit mountains, some plains, others live among marshes formed by the rivers, others on the islands among the marshes. The Araxes is said to be the river which is the chief cause of inundating the country; it is divided into various branches and discharges itself by many mouths into the other sea Those who live in the islands have no corn-fields. Their food consists of roots and wild fruits. Their clothes are made of the bark of trees, for they have no sheep. They press out and drink the juice of the fruit of certain trees. The inhabitants of the marshes eat fish. They are clothed in the skins of seals, which come upon the island from the sea. The mountaineers subsist on wild fruits. They have besides a few sheep, but they kill them sparingly, and keep them for the sake of their wool and milk. Their clothes they variegate by steeping them in dyes, which produce a colour not easily effaced. The inhabitants of the plains, although they possess land, do not cultivate it, but derive their subsistence from their flocks, and from fish, after the manner of the nomades and Scythians. I have frequently described a certain way of life common to all these people. Their burial-places and their manners are alike, and their whole manner of living is independent, but rude, savage, and hostile; in their compacts, however, they are simple and without deceit. The Attasii (Augasii?) and the Chorasmii belong to the Massagetæ and Sacæ, to whom Spitamenes directed his flight from Bactria and Sogdiana. He was one of the Persians who, like Bessus, made his escape from Alexander by flight, as Arsaces afterwards fled from Seleucus Callinicus, and retreated among the Aspasiacæ. Eratosthenes says, that the Bactrians lie along the Arachoti and Massagetæ on the west near the Oxus, and that Sacæ and Sogdiani, through the whole extent of their territory, These are the distances which he gives. the productions of nature and art.
Then indeed the sun freshly struck the fields [with its rays], ascending heaven from the calmly-flowing, deep-moving ocean.
And the bright light of the sun fell into the ocean, drawing dark night over tile fruitful earth.
But the immortals will send you to the Elysian
+plain, and the boundaries of the Earth, where is auburn-haired Rhadamanthus;
+there of a
+ truth is the most easy life for men. There is nor snow, nor long
+winter,
+ nor even a shower, but every day the ocean sends forth the gently
+blowing
+ breezes of the west wind to refresh men."
The Ethiopians, who are divided into two divisions, the most distant of men.
For yesterday Jove went to Oceanus, to the blameless Ethiopians, to a banquet.
But it alone is free from the baths of the ocean.
Bear
and the Wain,
he means the Arctic Circle; otherwise he would never have said, It
when such an
+replacing The Bear is the limit of the dawn and of the evening, and from the re- gion of the Bear we have fine weather.
Now it is not the constellation of the Bear, but the Arctic Circle, which is the limit of the rising and the setting stars.wanderers,
noble milkers of mares,
living on cheese,
and without wealth.
For I go to visit the limits of the fertile earth, and Oceanus, the parent of the gods.
the ebbing ocean.
Thrice indeed each day it lets loose its waves, and thrice it ebbs them back.
I do not find any thing in these different passages of Homer to warrant the conclusion that he was aware of the ebb and flow of the tide; every one knows that the movement is hardly perceptible in the Mediterranean. In the Euripus, which divides the Isle of Negropont from Bœotia, the waters are observed to flow in opposite directions several times a day. It was from this that Homer probably drew his ideas; and the regular current of the Hellespont, which carries the waters of the Black Sea into the Mediterranean, led him to think that the whole ocean, or Mediterranean, had one continued flow like the current of a river.
But when the ship left the stream of the river-ocean, and entered on the wave of the wide-wayed sea.
They are covered with shadows and darkness, nor does the shining sun behold them with his beams,............ but pernicious night is spread over hapless mortals.
The result is 250,000 stadia for the circumference of the earth, which Eratosthenes altered into 252,000, that his result might give an exact number of stadia for the degree, namely, 700; this of course should have been 694 4/9. Pliny calls this 31,500 Roman miles, and therefore supposes the stadium to be the eighth part of a Roman mile, or takes for granted that Eratosthenes used the Olympic stadium. It is likely enough that the Ptolemies naturalized this stadium in Egypt; but nevertheless, it is not unlikely that an Egyptian stadium was employed. If we assume the Olympic stadium, (202 1/4 yards,) the degree of Eratosthenes is more than 79 miles, upwards of 10 miles too great. Nothing is known of any Egyptian stadium. Pliny asserts that Hipparchus, but for what reason he does not say, wanted to add 25,000 stadia to the circumference as found by Eratosthenes. According to Plutarch, Eratosthenes made the sun to be 804 millions of stadia from the earth, and the moon 780,000. According to Macrobius, he made the diameter of the sun to be 27 times that of the earth. With regard to the other merits of Eratosthenes, we must first of all mention what he did for geography, which was closely connected with his mathematical pursuits. It was Eratosthenes who raised geography to the rank of a science; for previous to his time it seems to have consisted, more or less, of a mass of in- formation scattered in books of travel, descriptions of particular countries, and the like. All these treasures were accessible to Eratosthenes in the libraries of Alexandria; and he made the most profitable use of them, by collecting the scattered materials, and uniting them into an organic system of geography, in his comprehensive work entitled
that no one can become really proficient in geography, either as a private individual or as a professor, without an acquaintance with astronomy, and a knowledge of eclipses. For instance, no one could tell whether Alexandria in Egypt were north or south of Babylon, nor yet the intervening distance, without observing the latitudes.
Such are the very words of Hipparchus. climate.
having been invited thither from the Apian
Having wandered to Cyprus, and Phœnice, and the Egyptians, I came to the Ethiopians, and Sidonians, and Erembi, and Libya, where the lambs immediately become horned.
Where the sustaining earth is most prolific.
skilled in mighty works.
Treatises on Positions.
On Ports,
and Voyages Round the World,
have performed their task imperfectly, since they have omitted to supply the requisite information from mathematics and astronomy.*Having already compiled,
&c. The alteration is borne out by the French and German translators.How great is Bion in spite of his rags!
+
Cowper.Moral Philosophy.
to whom the son of Atreus, when he set out for Troy, gave earnest charge to preserve his wife,
leading the bard to a desert island, he left him,
all the ancient poets took delight in showing their knowledge of such matters. Homer inserted into his poetry all that he knew about the Ethiopians, Egypt, and Libya. Of all that related to Greece and the neighbouring places he entered even too minutely into the details, describing Thisbe as
But in pursuing this method, what object has he in view, to amuse [merely], or to instruct? The latter, doubtless. Well, perhaps he has told the truth in these instances, but in what was beyond his observation both he and the other writers have indulged in all the marvels of fable. If such be the case the statement should have been, that the poets relate some things for mere amusement, others for instruction; but he affirms that they do it altogether for amusement, without any view to information; and by way of climax, inquires, What can it add to Homer's worth to be familiar with many abounding in doves,
Haliartus, grassy,
Anthedon, the far distant,
Litæa, situated on the sources of the Cephissus,
the destroyer of cities,
and as having vanquished Troy, by his counsels, his advice, and his deceptive art. Diomede says of him, But when he did send forth the mighty voice from his breast, and words like unto wintry flakes of snow, no longer then would another mortal contend with Ulysses.
to sing,
to designate eloquence of style, this in itself is an evidence that poetry is the source and origin of all ornamented and rhetorical language. Poetry in ancient days was on every occasion accompanied by melody. The song or ode was but a modulated speech, from whence the words rhapsody, tragedy, comedy,foot-soldier,
signifies also prose composition.
Hence Strabo's allusion to the chariot. The Latins borrowed the expression, and used sermo pedestris in the same sense.The powerful Shaker of the Earth, as he was returning from the Ethiopians, beheld him from a distance, from the mountains of the Solymi.
Of this latter class,
he says, are the places mentioned in the wanderings of Ulysses, and those who pretend that they are not mere fabrications of the poet, but
Now, in the first place, this rock is not three-peaked, nor does it form a crest at the summit at all, but a long and narrow angle reaching from the territory of Surrentumthinks it probable that Hesiod, having heard of the wanderings of Ulysses, and of their having taken place near to Sicily and Italy, embraced this view of the case, and not only describes the places spoken of by Homer, but also Ætna, the Isle of Ortygia,
What! are then Ætna and Tyrrhenia such well-known places, and Scyllæum, Charybdis, Circæum,that we may hope to discover the whereabout of Ulysses' wanderings, when we can find the cobbler who sewed up the winds in the leathern sack.
"And [adds Polybius] his description of the hunt of the galeotesAnd fishes there, watching about the rock for dolphins and dogs, and if she can any where take a larger whale.
And from thence I was carried for nine days over t' fishy sea by baleful winds.
And,
says Polybius, allowing the distance from Malea
but at the same time he takes no notice of this expression, which is his as well, But when the ship left the stream of the river ocean.
And we dwell at a distance, the farthest in the sea of many waves, nor does any other of mortals mingle with us.
Any one would believe that the poet intended the western regions as the scene of Ulysses' wanderings, but that he has departed from fact, sometimes through want of perfect information, at other times because he wished to give to scenes a more terrific and marvellous appearance than they actually possessed.
So far this is true, but his idea of the object which the poet had in
+In the Catalogue he does not describe his cities in regular order, because here there was no necessity, but both the people and foreign countries he arranges correctly. Having wandered to Cyprus, and Phœnice, and the Egyptians, I came to the Ethiopians, and Sidonians, and Erembi, and Libya.
And having left the wealthy lands of the Lydians and Phrygians, and the sunny plains of the Persians and the Bactrian walls, and having come over the stormy land of the Medes, and the Happy Arabia.
But it lies low, the highest in the sea towards the west, but those that are separated from it [lie] towards the east and the sun.
+Vide
Which I very little regard, nor do I care for them whether they fly to the right, towards the morn and the sun, or to the left, towards the darkening west.
O my friends, since we know not where is the west, nor where the morning, nor where the sun.
The north and west winds, which both blow from Thrace.
Zephyr blows from the west, and off Spain, and Thrace does not extend so far.
Does he then think that Homer was not aware that Zephyr came from the west, notwithstanding the careful manner in which he distinguishes its position when he writes as follows: And the south-east and the south rushed together, and the hard- blowing west, and the cold-producing north.
And the assembly was moved, as the great waves of the Icarian sea.
+
The north and west winds, which both blow from Thrace.
stormy zephyr,
he means the wind which is now called by us the north-west; and by the clear-blowing zephyr
our west wind; our Leuco- notus is his Argestes-notus, or clearing south wind,As when the west wind agitates the light clouds of the clearing south, striking them with a dreadful gale.
He was ignorant that the Nile separated into many mouths, nay, he was not even acquainted with the name of the river, though Hesiod knew it well, for he even mentions it.
But is it not inconceivable that Homer should describe Ethiopia, and the Sidonians, the Erembi, and the Exterior Sea,
Certainly not, his not describing these things is no proof that he was not acquainted with them. He does not tell us of his own country, nor yet many other things. The most probable reason is, they were so generally known that they did not appear to him worth recording.The priests stated also that Menes was the first of mortals that ever ruled over Egypt; to this they added that in the days of that king, all Egypt, with the exception of the Thebaic nome, was but a morass; and that none of the lands now seen below Lake Mœris, then existed; from the sea up to this place is a voyage by the river of seven days. I myself am perfectly convinced the account of the priests in this particular is correct; for the thing is evident to every one who sees and has common sense, although he may not have heard the fact, that the Egypt to which the Hellenes navigate, is a land annexed to the Egyptians, and a gift from the river; and that even in the parts above the lake just mentioned, for three days' sail, concerning which the priests relate nothing, the country is just of the same description.
Herod. ii. § 5.The Ethiopians, who are divided into two parts, the most distant of men, some at the setting of the sun, others at the rising.
and Crates,
However, in regard to their hypotheses, it makes no difference whether the passage were written this way or that. One of them, in fact, takes what he considers the mathematical view of the case, and says that the torrid zone is occupied by the ocean,as well in the west as also in the east,
because as the celestial zodiac always corresponds to the terrestrial, and never exceeds in its obliquity the space occupied by the two Ethiopias, the sun's entire course must necessarily be within this space, and also his rising and setting, as it appears to different nations according to the sign which he may be in.
which also means, that whether east or west, on either side of the ocean, Ethiopians dwell. But Aristarchus rejects this hypothesis. He says, The Ethiopians with whom we are acquainted, and who are farthest south from the Greeks, are those described by the poet as being separated into two divisions. But Ethiopia is not so separated as to form two countries, one situated towards the west, the other towards the east, but only one, that which lies south of the Greeks and adjoins Egypt; but of this the poet was ignorant, as well as of other matters enumerated by Apollodorus, which he has falsely stated concerning various places in his second book, containing the catalogue of the ships.
And what else is Egypt, with the exception of the island formed by the river and overflowed by its waters; does it not lie on either side of the river both east and west?We are they who fled before the brigand Joshua, the son of Naue (Nun).
It does not concern us to inquire whether these columns actually existed in the time of Procopius, but merely to remark two independent facts. The first is the tradition generally received for more than twenty centuries, that the coming of the Israelites into Palestine drove one body of Canaanites, its ancient inhabitants, to the extremities of the Mediterranean, while another party went to establish, among the savage tribes of the Peloponnesus and Attica, the earliest kingdoms known in Europe. The second observation has reference to the name of Ethiopians given by Ephorus to this fugitive people, as confirming what we have before stated, that the environs of Jaffa, and possibly the entire of Palestine, anciently bore the name of Ethiopia: and it is here we must leek for the Ethiopians of Homer, and not in the interior of Africa.The Ethiopians, the farthest removed of men, separated into two divisions.
There [is] the sacred wave, and the coralled bed of the Erythræan Sea, and [there] the luxuriant marsh of the Ethiopians, situated near the ocean, glitters like polished brass; where daily in the soft and tepid stream, the all-seeing sun bathes his undying self, and refreshes his weary steeds.
And as the ocean holds the same position in respect to the sun, and serves the same purpose throughout the whole southern region,
Here the poet merely describes them as the common stables of the Morning and of the Sun; but further on he tells us they were near to the dwellings of Merops, and in fact the whole plot of the piece has reference to this. This does not therefore refer alone to the [land] next to Egypt, but rather to the whole southern country extending along the sea-coast. If the whole celestial and terrestrial globe were divided into four parts, the Indians would possess that towards the east, the Ethiopians towards the south, the Kelts towards the west, and the Scythians towards the north.
He adds that Ethiopia is larger than Scythia; for, says he, it appears that the country of the Ethiopians extends from the rising to the setting of the sun in winter; and Scythia is opposite to it. towards the west,
and allusion in the passage is made to Ithaca as lying west of Greece.
by which he means the whole southern hemisphere: and again when he says, Whether they fly to the right towards the morn and the sun, or to the left towards the darkening west.
O my friends! since we know not where is the west, nor where the morning, nor where the sun that gives light to mortals descends beneath the earth, nor where he rises up again.
For yesterday Jove went to Oceanus to the blameless Ethiopians, to a banquet.
The powerful shaker of the earth, as he was returning from the Ethiopians, beheld him from a distance, from the mountains of the Solymi,
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in his return from the southern regions,
Which, after they have escaped the winter and immeasurable shower, with a clamour wing their way towards the streams of the ocean bearing slaughter and fate to the Pygmæan men.
Read 4000, as in lib. xvii. This correction is indicated by the following measure given by Herodotus:
This reasoning seems very plausible, but we must remark that Col. Leake, in a valuable paper
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The stadium made use of in Egypt at the time of Herodotus consisted of On the Stade as a Linear Measure,
published in vol. ix. of the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, is of opinion that Gosselin's system of stadia of different lengths cannot be maintained.heaven-sent.
And this not only to mountain torrents, but to all rivers alike, since they are all replenished by the showers. But even what lighter than the shadow of a cork,
more timid than a Phrygian hare,
to possess an estate shorter than a Lacedæmonian epistle;
so excellence becomes more excellent, when the title of heaven-sent
is given to the Nile. The mountain torrent has a better claim to be called heaven-sent than other rivers, but the Nile exceeds the mountain torrents, both in its size and the lengthened period of its overflow. Since, then, the wonders of this river were known to our poet, as we have shown in this defence, when he applies this epithet to the Nile, it must only be understood in the way we have explained. Homer did not think it worth mentioning, especially to those who were acquainted with the fact, that the Nile had many mouths, since this is a common feature of numerous other rivers. AlcæusBut in it there is a haven with good mooring, from whence they takes equal ships into the sea, having drawn black water.
Certainly having suffered many things, and having wandered much, I was brought in my ships, and I returned in the eighth year; having wandered to Cyprus, and Phœnice, and the Egyptians, I came to the Ethiopians and Sidonians, and Erembians, and Libya.
Thus far he, collecting much property and gold, wandered with his ships.
But the immortals will send you to the Elysian plain, and the boundaries of the earth.
But ever does the ocean send forth the gently blowing breezes of the west wind.
the port of Menelaus.
For the sons of magnanimous Œneus were no more, nor was he himself surviving; moreover, fair-haired Meleager was dead.
Having wandered to Cyprus, Phœnice, and the Egyptians, I came to the Ethiopians.
Where were her variously embroidered robes, the works of Sidonian females, which godlike Alexander himself had brought from Sidon, sailing over the broad ocean, in that voyage in which he carried off Helen, sprung from a noble sire.
I will give thee a wrought bowl: it is all silver, and the lips are bound with gold; it is the work of Vulcan: the hero Phædimus, king of the Sidonians, gave it [to me], when his home sheltered me, as I was returning from thence. I wish to give this to thee.
work of Vulcan,
must be looked upon as a hyperbole: in the same way all elegant productions are But in beauty it much excelled [all] upon the whole earth, for the ingenious Sidonians had wrought it cunningly, and Phœnician men had carried it.
He saw the cities of many men, and learned their manners.
Having suffered many things, and having wandered much, I was brought.
And the daughter of Arabus, whom gracious Hermes and Thronia, descended from king Belus, brought forth.
Thus, too, says Stesichorus. Whence it seems that at that time the country was from him named Arabia, though it is not likely this was the case in the heroic period.For thrice in a day she sends it out, and thrice she sucks it in.
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For thrice in a day she sends it out, and thrice she sucks it in terribly. Mayest thou not come hither when she is gulping it; for not even Neptune could free thee from ill.
She gulped up the briny water of the sea; but I, raised on high to the lofty fig-tree, held clinging to it, as a bat.
But I held without ceasing, until she vomited out again the mast and keel; and it came late to me wishing for it: as late as a man has risen from the forum to go to supper, adjudging many contests of disputing youths, so late these planks appeared from Charybdis.
Eumelus, whom Alcestis, divine amongst women, most beautiful in form of the daughters of Pelias, brought forth to Admetus.
In the verses which commence,
And again concerning the Colchians, who, the renowned Argo,
And again: Nor as yet had Jason, having accomplished the arduous journey, carried off the splendid fleece from Æa, fulfilling the dangerous mission of the insolent Pelias, nor had they ploughed the glorious wave of the ocean.
The city of Æetes, where the rays of the swift sun recline on their golden bed by the shore of the ocean, which the noble Jason visited.
This shall occur when the wide waters of the Pyramus have enlarged their banks as far as sacred Cyprus.
Being swollen it rises high around the projecting points, and spits from it the foam of the sea.
The lofty shores resound, the wave being ejected [upon the beach].
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On Bodies in Suspension,
says that all liquids when left at rest assume a spherical form, having a centre of gravity similar to that of the earth. A dictum which is acknowledged by all who have the slightest pretensions to mathematical sagacity. He says that the Mediterranean, which, according to his own description, is one entire sea, has not the same level even at points quite close to each other; and offers us the authority of engineers for this piece of folly, notwithstanding the affirmation of mathematicians that engineering is itself only one division of the mathematics. He tells us that Demetriusbut on the retiring of the Mediterranean,
&c.by the delegates from Cyrene,
but the reason he assigns for this is insufficient, viz. that though Cyrene was built in times of which we have record, no one mentions the oracle,by the delegates from Cyrene?
Defending from danger.
More probably, in this instance, the Securer of Foundations.And reached the two fair-flowing springs, where the two springs of the eddying Scamander rise. The one, indeed, flows with tepid water, and a steam arises from it around, as of burning fire; whilst the other flows forth in the summer time, like unto hail, or cold snow, or ice from water
And those who inhabited grape-clustered Arne, and those [who in- habited] Mideia.
Now there is a certain rocky island in the middle of the sea, between Ithaca and the rugged Samos, Asteris, not large; and in it there are havens fit for ships, with two entrances.
The light wave of the Euripus has divided the land of Eubœa from Bœotia; separating the projecting land by a strait.
Scythians.
Kimmerians,
but he points it out as a manifest error; and refers to Herodotus i. 103.There has been much argument respecting the continents. Some, considering them to be divided by the rivers Nile and Tanais,
continent,
could he not form in his mind a just idea of that taken as a whole, which he had so parcelled out. But if indeed he were not acquainted with the whole habitable earth, but merely made a division of some part thereof, pray what portion of that part did he denominate Asia, or Europe, or simply continent? Such talk is altogether nonsense. since amongst the Greeks there are many worthless characters, and many highly civilized are to be found amongst the Barbarians; witness the Indians and Ariani,
But we would inquire whether those men who thus divided the human race, abandoning one portion to contempt, and exalting to dignity the other, were not actuated to this because they found that on one side justice, knowledge, and the force of reason reigned supreme, but their contraries on the other. Alexander did not disregard the advice tendered him, but gladly embraced and followed it, respecting the wisdom of those who gave it; and so far from taking the opposite course, he closely pursued that which they pointed out. Through the whole of this distance the line mentioned is drawn across the sea
estimate at so much,
referring to the estimate at the conclusion of § 2.eastern ocean,
we must understand Strabo to mean the Bay of Bengal.If any one doubts the intensity of our winter's cold, let him believe when he sees this vase. The priest Stratius placed it here, not because he considered it a worthy offering to the god, but as a proof of the severity of our winter.
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when two countries are situated under the same parallel, but separated by a great distance, you cannot be certain that they are exactly under the same parallel, unless the
According to Eratosthenes, the northern side of the third section is bounded by a line of 10,000 stadia drawn from the Caspian Gates to the Euphrates, the southern side from Babylon to the confines of Carmania is a little more than 9000 stadia. On the western side, following the course of the Euphrates, from Thapsacus to Babylon there are 4800 stadia, and thence to the outlets of the river 3000 stadia more. Northward from Thapsacus [to the Gates of Armenia] is reckoned
Eratosthenes,
he says, estimates that there are 6700 stadia between Babylon and the Caspian Gates, and from Babylon to the frontiers of Carmania and Persia above 9000 stadia; this he supposes to lie in a direct line towards the equinoctial rising,
The hypotenuse of the supposed triangle, or the line drawn from Babylon to the Caspian Gates being only 6700 stadia, would be necessarily shorter than either of the other sides, since the line from Babylon to the frontiers of Carmania is estimated by Eratosthenes at 9170, and that from the frontiers of Carmania to the Caspian Gates above 9000 stadia. The frontiers of Carmania would thus be east of the Caspian Gates, and Persia would consequently be comprised, not in the third, but in the second section of Eratosthenes, being east of the meridian of the Caspian Gates, which was the boundary of the two sections.
Strabo, in the text, points out the falsity of this argument.according to these premises, the meridian drawn from the Gates of the Caspian will intersect the parallel of Babylon and Susa 4400 stadia more to the west, than would a straight line drawn from the Caspian to the confines of Carmania and Persia; and that this last line, forming with the meridian of the Caspian Gates half a right angle, would lie exactly in a direction midway between the south and the equinoctial rising. Now as the course of the Indus is parallel to this line, it cannot flow south on its descent from the mountains, as Eratosthenes asserts, but in a direction lying between the south and the equinoctial rising, as laid down in the ancient charts.
But who is there who will admit this to be an obtuse-angled triangle, without also admitting that it contains a right angle? Who will agree that the line from Babylon to Susa, which forms one side of this obtuse-angled triangle, lies parallel, without admitting the same of the whole line as far as Carmania? or that the line drawn from the Caspian Gates to the frontiers of Carmania is parallel to the Indus? Nevertheless, without this the reasoning [of Hipparchus] is worth nothingEratosthenes himself also states,
[continues Hipparchus,that the form of India is rhomboidal; and since the whole eastern border of that country has a decided tendency towards the east, but more particularly the extremest cape,
Had [Eratosthenes] been chargeable for small distances only, he might have been excused; but since his mistakes involve thousands of stadia, we cannot pardon him, more especially since he has laid it down that at a mere distance of 400 stadia,
But these sensible variations are not all of the same kind, the distance [involved therein] being in some instances greater, in others less; greater, when for our estimate of the climata we trust merely to the eye, or are guided by the vegetable productions and the temperature of the air; less, when we employ gnomons and dioptric instruments. Nothing is more likely than that if you measure the parallel of Athens, or that of Rhodes and Caria, by means of a gnomon, the difference resulting from so many stadiaAccording to Eratosthenes, the mouth of the Nile at Canopus,
Since it is not every latitude which has Arctic Circles,
Nothing however is proved [against Aristotle] from the fact that there are not Arctic Circles for every latitude, since they exist for all the inhabitants of the temperate zone, on whose account alone the zone receives its name of temperate. But the objection that the Arctic Circles do not remain the same for every latitude, but shift their places, is excellent.five is the number best suited for the explanation of the celestial appearances, two of these are periscii,
to return to Egypt through the passage of the Pillars of Hercules.
See Humboldt's Cosmos, ii. 488, note, Bohn's edition.Thus far,
says Posidonius, I have followed the history of Eudoxus. What happened afterwards is probably known to the people of Gades and Iberia;
but,
says he, all these things only demonstrate more clearly the fact, that the in- habited earth is entirely surrounded by the ocean.
Posidonius is certainly a most strange writer; he considers that the voyage of the Magus,that the tradition concerning the Island of Atlantis might be received as something more than a mere fiction, it having been related by Solon on the authority of the Egyptian priests, that this island, almost as large as a continent, was formerly in existence, although now it had disappeared.
Posidonius thinks it better to quote this than to say, He who brought it into existence can also cause it to disappear, as the poet did the wall of the Achivi.
It is the opinion of Posidonius that the emigration of the Cimbrians and other kindred races from their native territory was
towards the descending sun,
viz. when having passed the meridian, it begins to decline. towards the descending [sun].
But in what can this be said to differ from towards the west,
since the whole section of the hemisphere west of the meridian is styled the west,
not only the mere semicircle of the horizon. This is manifested by the following expression of Aratus, Aratus, who lived about B. C.
How is it possible that a private individual, and one too in narrow circumstances, could ever have performed such vast expeditions by sea and land? And how could Eratosthenes, who hesitates whether he may rely on his statements in general, place such entire confidence in what that writer narrates concerning Britain, Gades, and Iberia?
says he, it would have been better had Eratosthenes trusted to the Messenian
Sacred History,
as we may call it, was taken from the although even Dicæarchus would not believe him,
is ridiculous, just as if Eratosthenes ought to take for his standard a writer whom Polybius is himself for ever complaining of.He assigns 3000 to the interval which stretches towards the Pillars as far as the Strait, and 7000 from the Strait to the Pillars.
The distance from Cape Tenarum to the Strait of Messina is in proportion to the distance from the Strait of Messina to Gibraltar, about 3 to 10, not 3 to 7 as given by Dicæarchus.I will not inquire,
says Polybius, whether the statement concerning the 3000 stadia is correct or not, but 7000 stadia
The two former of these Polybius describes in the same manner as Eratosthenes, but he subdivides the third. He comprehends within Cape Malea all the Peloponnesus; within Cape Sunium the whole of Greece, Illyria, and a part of Thrace.
perfect science,
for want of a better phrase.perfect sciences
they define as those which, depending on no external hypothesis, have their origin, and the evidence of their propositions, in themselves. Here are a few of the facts established by natural philosophers.
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It would be extremely interesting.
says Professor Schmitz,
to trace this expedition of Ælius Gallus into Arabia, but our knowledge of that country is as yet too scanty to enable us to identify the route as described by Strabo, who derived most of his information about Arabia from his friend Ælius Gallus.Sponge of the Sea.
the stars nearest to Canopus.
But this too is not certain, and the passage is otherwise evidently corrupt.So completely have they vanished, that no one who should now visit their sites could say that they had ever been inhabited!
the Lycaonians,
This passage has recently been pronounced corrupt, (Kramer i. 211,) and
Inveni- untur ita massæ; necnon in puteis etiam
Hear us, strangers, explain our riddle if ye can.
Then some of those who were present ordered them to speak. We leave,
say they, what we take, and we carry with us that we cannot take.
No one being able to solve the enigma, they thus expounded it. Having had an unproductive fishery,
say they in explanation, we sat down on the sand, and being annoyed by the vermin, left the fish we had taken on the shore, taking with us the vermin we could not catch,
al-
They say that on the piece of land enclosed between the two outlets of this river there formerly stood a city named, like the river, Tartessus, and that the district was called Tartessis, which the Turduli now inhabit. Eratosthenes likewise tells us that the [country] near to CalpeThe bright light of the sun fell into the ocean, drawing dark night over the fruitful earth.
But still it would be disgraceful to remain here so long, and to return home without fitting booty.
But the immortals will send you to the Elysian plain, and the boundaries of the earth, where is auburn-haired Rhadamanthus; there of a truth is the most easy life for men. There is nor snow nor long winter, nor ever a shower, but ever does the ocean send forth the gently blowing breezes of the west wind to refresh men.
There then I beheld Minos, the illustrious son of Jove, having a golden sceptre, giving laws to the dead.
Herodotus too has preserved the name of the king, whom he calls Arganthonius.Neither would I desire the horn of Amalthea, nor to reign over Tartessus one hundred and fifty years.
nor to reign for a length- ened period in Tartessus.
Some writers
They practise gymnastic exercises,Last of all he danced the Persian dance, clashing his bucklers, and in dancing fell on his knees, then sprang up again.
Xen. Anab. b. vi. c. 1, 10.
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portari in triumpho Massiliam vidimus.
Appian, on occasion of the triumph of Scipio, says, This surprise of the Vettones is nothing extraordinary. Amongst all barbarous nations, savages especially, the promenade is an unknown exercise. When roused by necessity or passion, they will even kill themselves with fatigue; at other times they remain in the most perfect inaction. The first thing which strikes a Turk on coming to any of the polished nations of Europe, is to see men pro- menading without any other aim but that of pleasure or health.
Sibi mortem consciscant; neque adhuc hominum memoriâ repertus est quisquam, qui, eo interfecto cujus se amicitiæ devovisset, mori recusaret.
Plutarch tells us that Sertorius had in his suite many thousand Iberians devoted to him. The following epitaph of these men, who, after the death of Sertorius, sacrificed themselves, being unwilling to survive him, was extracted by Swinburne from the Annals of Catalonia.
For the appalling means they adopted to hold out the city of Calaguris to the last, see resembling the schenus, a species of rush from which cords are made. Philetas in his Mercury [says] 'he was covered with a vile and filthy tunic, and about his wretched loins was bound a strip of black rush, as if he had been girt with a mere schœnus.
It is evident that this passage is the scholium of some ancient grammarian, and we have followed the example of the French editors in inserting it in a note, as it is a great impediment in the middle of Strabo's description of the equipment of the island warriors.Cibum puer a matre non accipit, nisi quem, ipsa monstrante, percussit.
Florus, lib. iii. c. 8. The same thing is stated by Lycophron, v. 637, and Diodorus Siculus, 1. v. c. 18.The length of the island of Leon, at the extremity of which the city of Cadiz is situated, is about 9500 toises, which are equivalent to 100 Olympic stadia.
Omnia armis Romanis superata et a Cornelio Balbo triumphata, uni huic omnium externo curru et Quiritium jure donato.
Plin. ib. v. c. 5. Solinus likewise says of him, (cap. xxix. p. 54,) Primus sane de externis, utpote Gadibus genitus accessit ad gloriana nominis triumphalis.
The Twins.
[certain citizens of Cadiz have appropriated to themselves possessions in the interior of the island,] but the whole sea-shore is inhabited in common,
that is, by shepherds who pastured the grounds in common.
and on the opposite,
Alexander too erected altars as boundaries of his Indian campaign in those parts of the Indies he arrived at, which were situated farthest towards the east, in imitation of Hercules and Bacchus.The Gaditanian Gates,
if he had in mind the pillars at the mouth; for these mouths are very similar to gates. On the other hand, Gades is not in a position to indicate an extremity, but is situated about the middle of a long coast forming a kind of gulf. The supposition that the pillars of the temple of Hercules in Gades are intended, appears to me still less probable. It seems most likely that the name was originally conferred not by merchants, but generals, its celebrity afterwards became universal, as was the case with the Indian pillars. Besides, the inscription recorded refutes this idea, since it contains no religious dedication, but a mere list of expenses; whereas the pillars of Hercules should have been a record of the hero's wonderful deeds, not of Phoenician expenditure. Les ouvrages qui traitent des choses merveilleuses.
Neque adhuc satis cognitum est, anhelitune suo id mundus efficiat, retractamque cum spiritu regerat undam undique, si, ut doctioribus placet, unum (
Druidæque circum, preces diras, sublatis ad cœlum manibus, fundentes, novitate adspectus perculere milites, ut, quasi hærentibus membris, immobile corpus vulneribus præberent.
Immediately before these words he thus describes the women, "Stabat pro litore diversa acies, densa armis virisque, intercursantibus feminis in as we have said before
are evidently interpolated.one of the statues consecrated in her temple.
whose ancestors have not been citizens,
&c., being self-evident.Quarum calor, olim acrior, exhalatus per tempora evaporavit; nec jam par est fame priori.
The Island of Blascon is a rock opposite Agde, on which remains a fortified castle, which preserves the name of Brescon. This rock has been connected with the mainland, to form the port of Agde.
This ancient city,
says Gosselin, "no longer exists, with the exception of an old tower, scarcely a league from Perpignan, which still bears the name of the Tower of Roussillon.dug mullets,
for whoever digs two or three feet and plunges a trident into the muddy water, will be sure to take the fish, which are worthy of consideration on account of their size; they are nourished in the mud like eels. Such are the rivers which flow from the Pyrenees between Narbonne and the promontory on which is built the temple of Venus. On the other side of Narbonne the following rivers descend from the Cevennes into the sea. The Aude,dug mullets,
we have already spoken; we will now mention another, even more surprising. Between Marseilles and the outlets of the Rhone there is a circular plain, about 100 stadia distant There you will come to the undaunted army of the Ligurians, where, resistless though you be, sure am I you will not worst them in battle; for it is fated that there your darts shall fail you; nor will you be able to take up a stone from the ground, since the country consists of soft mould; but Jupiter, beholding your distress, will compassionate you, and overshadowing the earth with a cloud, he will cause it to hail round stones, which you hurling against the Ligurian army, will soon put them to flight!
Prometheus Loosed,
which is now lost.Father Jupiter, willing evil to the Trojans and suffering to the Greeks, decreed such things.
tectus,
covered, and sagum,
a species of cassock.Strabo,
says Gosselin, always argues on the hypothesis that the Pyrenees run from south to north; that the Garonne and the Loire flowed in the same direction; that the Cevennes stretched from west to east; and that the coasts of Gaul, from the Pyrenees, rose gently towards the north, bending considerably east.
The Marseillese, [says he,] when interrogated by Scipio
Mediolaniumunder,
we have not hesitated to translate it paulo audacius,
of Coray's reading As for the Ædui on these accounts indeed.
Ad solis occasum naves solvit . . . . accessum est ad Britanniam omnibus navibus meridiano fere tempore.
These people called themselves by the name of Kelts; the Greeks styled them Galatæ, and the Latins Galli or Gaus.
propter repentinos Galliæ motus.
L. v. c. 22.Et sorer et conjux.
Compare also Cæsar, lib. v.sole inhabitant.
According to Servius, either because after he had driven out the Ligurians he remained the sole inhabitant of the country; or because it was not usual to associate any other divinities in the temples consecrated to him.the king of men,
which Scholiasts have in vain endeavoured to soften or excuse— There is a lake from which proceeds the Atesinus, (or the Adige,) and which, after having received the Atax, (perhaps the Eisach, or Aicha, which flows by Bolzano,) discharges itself into the Adriatic. The Isar proceeds from the same lake, and [passing by Munich] discharges itself into the Danube.
From the Heneti, whence is the race of wild mules.
The different parts of Transpadana are inhabited by the Heneti and the Istrii as far as Pola; above the Heneti, by the Carni, the Cenomani, the Medoaci, and the Symbri.from Placentia to Parma;
he has been followed throughout the passage by the French translators.good-morning.
And there is a different language of different men mixed together; there are in it Achaians, and magnanimous Eteocretans, and Cydonians, and crest-shaking Dorians, and divine Pelasgians.
Hippothous led the tribes of the spear-skilled Pelasgians, of those who inhabited fertile Larissa.
Likewise Æschylus in his Suppliants, or Danaids, makes their race to be of Argos near Mycenæ. Ephorus likewise says that Peloponnesus was named Pelasgia; and Euripides, in the Archelaus, says,
Anticlides says, that they first colonized about Lemnos and Imbros, and that some of their number passed into Italy with Tyrrhenus, the son of Atys. And the writers on the Athenian Antiquities,Danaus, who was the father of fifty daughters, having arrived in Argos inhabited
Ortonium
to life,
is an interpolation posterior to the age of Strabo.Nor ever does the light-giving Sun shine upon them.
+
+
It had been decreed that the Sirens should live only till some one hearing their song should pass on unmoved, and Orpheus, who accompanied the Argonauts, having surpassed the Sirens, and led on the ship, they cast themselves into the sea, and were metamorphosed into these rocks.
Timæus,Now indeed the sea-girt shores beyond Cumæ, and Sicily, press on his shaggy breast.
Quondam Sabini fernntur vovisse, si res communis melioribus locis constitisset, se
Sisenn. Hist. lib. iv. ap. Non. Marcell. De doctor. indag. ed. Quæ sit hyems Veliæ, quod cœlum, Vala, Salerni.
Contra Veliam Pontia et Ischia. Utræquc uno nomine Œnotrides, argumentum possesses ab Œnotriis Italiæ.
Hist. Nat. lib. iii. § 13. If this reading be not faulty, Pliny will have placed in the latitude, of which our author is now giving a description, a small island bearing the same name,
For the Greeks of Italy, enticed by this prophecy, marched against Laiis, and were defeated by the Leucani.not only (says he) Aristotle, but Antiochus, according to Strabo's own testimony, positively affirmed that the Chones and Œnotri were one and the same nation, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Antiq. Roman. lib. i. § 11) makes no doubt that the Œnotri were of Greek origin.
But Mazochi justifies the distinction between the Chones and the Œnotri, and shows cause to doubt that the Œnotri were of Greek origin.
At its mouth was a haven named Portus Albernus.He stirred up every body against every body.
It is conceived that the hostilities of the Bruttii were fomented by Dion in order to prevent the tyrant Dionysius from deriving any aid from his Leucanian allies. The advancement of the Bruttii to independence is computed by Diodorus Siculus to have taken place about 397 years after the foundation of Rome, that is, 356 before the Christian era.Let no one offend the hero of Temesa,
for they said that [for a long time he
+
+
+
Son of Æacus, beware of approaching the Acherusian water and Pandosia, where death is destined for thee.
for he thought that it foreshowed the destruction of his enemies, and not of his own people. They say that Pandosia
together with a rivulet, Maresanto or Arconti; which last name recalls the Acheron denounced by another prediction, as so inauspicious to the Molossian king. Scylax, in his Periplus, seems to place Pandosia, together with Clampetia and Terina, near the western coast.Amalthea's horn,
raised by Gelon of Syracuse.
Others,rendered them more plausible, but impaired their utility.
It is more true than the victory of the Sagras.
Some people add to the mysterious account, that it was announced the same day at the Olympic games to the people there assembled, and this speedy news was found perfectly correct. They say that this mischance was so unfortunate an event to the Crotoniatæ, that after it they did not long remain as a nation, on account
+Itaque Dionysius major intercisam eo loco adjicere Siciliæ voluit.
Hist. Nat. lib. iii. § 15. Grimaldi also is of opinion that the circumstance mentioned by Strabo should be referred to the first years of Dionysius the younger, about B. C. As the chorographer says, Artemidorus reckons that [the journey would take 12 days for one travelling on foot], with his girdle on; [but, to one sailing, the distance is 2000 stadia:] leaving at the same time as many [for the mouth, as Polybius has given] for the breadth of the mouth of the gulf.
The French translators, however, have attempted to read the text as follows, The chorographer makes it 240 miles, and Artemidorus says that it is 380 for a light traveller; a computation in which the breadth of the mouth is not included;
but comment on it in several extensive notes.a salt-marsh;
but Cramer, in his description of ancient Italy, observes that the mouth of the river Esaro formed a haven, which, however incommodious compared with those of Tarentum and Brundusium, was long a source of great wealth to Crotona, as we are assured by Polybius, Frag. x. 1.to burn the ships.
and that he returned and built Crotena, wherein he was assisted by Archias,O short-backed Myscellus, whilst seeking somewhat else of thyself,
more salubrious than Crotona,
as instancing a place which had something to show, in the number of wrestlers which it produced, as a proof of its salubrity and the robust frame of body which it was capable of rearing. Thus it had many victors in the Olympic games, although it cannot be reckoned to have been long inhabited on account of the vast destruction of its citizens, who fell at the battle of the Sagras. Its celebrity too was not a little spread by the number of Pythagoreans who resided there, and Milo,A democratical party, at the head of which was Telys, having gained the ascendency, expelled 500 of the principal citizens, who sought refuge at Crotona. This city, upon receiving a summons to give up the fugitives, or prepare for war, by the advice of Pythagoras chose the latter. The armies met near the river Triunti, in the territory of Crotona, where the brave citizens gained a complete victory.
possédée par des Troyens.
MSS. give various readings.
afford sufficient proof that Melanippe was led to Dius and not to Metabum. Ephorus says that Daulius, the tyrant of Crissastatim Messana litteras Halesam mittit.
Cic. in Verr. ii. c. 7. Diodorus spells it and to Gela, 20,
+have been omitted by the copyist.
But on the death of Hiero,Thou understandest what I say, O father, that bearest the same name with the splendid holy sacrifices, thou founder of Ætna.
The words played on are
+
Dionysius however fortified Epipolæ with a wall, and joined it to the city.
Timæus
The French translators have rendered them,
And Groskurd,
Liddell and Scott call to breathe again,
and, according to the supposition of the ancients, the Alpheus might justly be said to breathe again on appearing at Arethusa, after its passage beneath the bed of the sea from Greece. a recovering of breath.
and further on [he says], Flowing from the heights of Pindus and Lacmus, passes from the country of the Perrhœbi
Those who would have the river Inopus to be a branch of the Nile flowing to Delos, exaggerate this kind of marvel to the utmost. Zoïlus the rhetorician, in his Eulogium of the people of Tenedos, says that the river Alpheus flows from Tenedos: yet this is the man who blames Homer for fabulous writing. Ibycus also says that the Asopus, a river of Sicyon,Thence to Argos, cutting through the waves, it comes to the territory of Lyrceius.
Centuripe, largoque virens Entella Lyæo.
Apparet Camarina procul, campique Geloi.
Virg. Æn. iii. 701.
From this place we have the adjective Enneus, and the Ennea virgo of Sil. lib. xiv., for Proserpine,
Diodorus Siculus, lib. v. cap. 3, says that there was a fable about the seizure of the virgin [Proserpine] in the meadows near Enna. The locality is very near the town, embellished with violets and all kinds of beautiful flowers. An ancient coin of the place described by Ezech. Spanheim, page 906, is inscribed with the letters M U N. H E N N A E. Pliny, lib. iii. cap. 8, writes, Municipes Hennenses.
Eryx
to notice,
placed between daggers, seems to have been transposed from the end of § 5; it should immediately succeed the words Ægestus the Trojan.Eubœa.
The
to prosperity,
has been transferred from its proper place. See note 12, page 412.that at less than 20 stadia distant from the Athenæum are found the ruins of Asea, as well as the hill on which the citadel of the town was built, which was surrounded by walls, the vestiges of which still remain. About 5 stadia from Asea, and not far from the main road, is the source of the Alpheus, and, quite close, even at the edge of the road, that of the Eurotas.... [At a short distance] the two rivers unite and run as one for about 20 stadia; they then both cast themselves into a chasm, and, continuing their under-ground course, they afterwards reappear; one (the Eurotas) in Laconia, the other in the territory of Megalopolis.
Such is what Pausanias relates in one place. But when, in this account, he fixes the source of the Alpheus at about 5 stadia from Asea, we must understand him to allude to a second source of the river; for further on (book viii. cap. 54, p. 709) he says distinctly that the main source of the Alpheus is seen near Phylace in Arcadia; then adds that that river, on coming to the district of Tegea, is absorbed under the ground, to re-issue near Asea.en divers endroits de I' Italic.
Some manuscripts read when the south wind is to blow, a thick cloud lies stretched round the island, so that one cannot see even as far as Sicily in the distance; but when there is to be a north wind, the clear flames ascend to a great height above the said crater, and great rumblings are heard; while for the west wind effects are produced about half way between these two. The other craters are similarly affected, but their exhalations are not so violent. Indeed, it is possible to foretell what wind will blow three days beforehand, from the degree of intensity of the rumbling, and also from the part whence the exhalations, flames, and smoky blazes issue. It is said indeed that some of the inhabitants of the Lipari Islands, at times when there has been so great a calm that no ship could sail out of port, have pre-
From hence indeed that which seems to be the most fabulous invention of the poet, appears not to have been written without some foundation, and he appears to have merely used an allegorical style, while guided by the truth, when he says that Æolus is the steward of the winds;[Great, undoubtedly,] is the impression produced by animated energy, [of which] it may be asserted [that it excites in a marked degree both admiration and pleasure]. For both arise equally from graphic representation and animated description. Pleasure at least is common to both.
The following are Groskurd's own words: Gross allerdings ist der Eindruck kräftiger Lebendigkeit, [von welcher] man behaupten darf, [dass sie vorzüglich sowohl Bewunderung als Vergniigen gewahre]. Denn Beide erfolgen gleichermassen, sowohl durch Darstellung als durch Lebendigkeit; das Vergniigen wenigstens ist Beiden gemein.round.
M. Dolomieu, p. 113, says that the island of Stromboli, seen from a distance, appears like a cone; when, however, it is more particularly examined, it looks like a mountain terminated by two peaks of different heights, and the sides appear disturbed and torn by craters opened in various parts, and streams of lava which have flowed down. It might be about 12 miles in circumference.double.
Cluverius identifies this with the island now called Salini. M. Dolomieu says that Didyma is situated to the west of Lipari; it is nearly circular, and contains three mountains placed so as to form a triangle. Two of the mountains are connected at their bases, the third is separated from them by a valley which runs right across the island, so that while sailing at some distance in the sea on the south side it has the appearance of two islands, from which circumstance it took its ancient name of Didyma: its present name, Salini, is derived from salt works there.
If we follow Strabo's testimony solely, we may almost describe the bounds of the Peucetii by four lines, viz. 1. From Tarentum to Brindisi. 2. Along the sea-shore from Brindisi to Bari. 3. From Bari to Garagnone or Gorgoglione, the ancient Sylvium, if not even still nearer to Venosa. 4. From Garagnone to Tarentum, constituting what is called in modern geography Terra di Bari.–The following are the limits of the Dannii. 1. From Garagnone to Bari. 2. From Bari to Peschici or to Rodi. 3. Thence to Lucera; and, 4 from Lucera to Garagnone. Thus they occupied a great part of La Puglia, with a portion of the Terra di Bari. With regard to those who, according to Strabo, were properly Apuli, they extended from the neighbourhood of Lucera to Rodi or Peschici, thence to the mouth of the river Fortore, thence to Civitate, (the ancient Teanum Apulum,) which was included, and from Civitate to Lucera; this district would answer to the northern portion of La Puglia, which the Fortore separates from La Capitanata.free citizens.
Several notes have been written on the exact meaning of the words, but I am not satisfied that we understand it properly. It might perhaps mean those appointed to the chief rule of the state by the constitution.free citizens.
Several notes have been written on the exact meaning of the words, but I am not satisfied that we understand it properly. It might perhaps mean those appointed to the chief rule of the state by the constitution.Let not Phalanthus put on his helmet.
The conspirators perceiving that the plot was disclosed, some fled, and others supplicated mercy. When the chief magistrates had bid them not to fear, they
The Partheniæ accordingly accompanied Phalanthus to their destination, and the barbarians and Cretans,To thee Satyrium
+
+That through Tarentum is a little to the left, it runs about a day's journey round for one traversing the whole distance; it is called the Appian Way, and is more of a carriage road than the other. On it stands the city Uria,for it is 1000, while the former is 800 stadia across.
+
The coast of Daunia forms an extensive bay about these parts.
Germani,
as signifying genuine; for in the Latin language Germani signifies genuine.true,
the wahr of modern German, and that Germani signifies the true men of the country, the undoubted autochthones of Galatia or Gaul.For although it is true that the ocean has tides of more or less height, still they occur periodically, and in an order constantly the same.
diu apud plerosque numinis loco habitam.
This is of no value to our present inquiry, but must be omitted, as Socrates has done in the Phædrus of Plato. We will relate only what we have learnt from ancient accounts, and the reports made in our times. But he himself turned back his shining eyes apart, looking towards the land of the equestrian Thracians and the close-fighting Mysians.
+
to turn his eyes again,
is more especially to turn them behind him; but he who extends his vision from the Trojans to the people either behind them, or on either side of them, stretches his sight to a greater distance, but not in the least behind him. And this also is introduced as a proof of this very thing, that Homer classes with these the Hippemolgi,And the illustrious Hippemolgi, milk-nourished, simple in living and most just men.
without life,
more particularly on account of their living without wives, considering their solitary state as but a half life; in the same way as he likewise designates the house of Protesilaus imperfect,
on account of the bereavement of his widow; in the same manner he applies to the Mysians the epithet of close-fighting,
on account of their being invincible, like good warriors. [Finally, Posidonius pretends] that in the thirteenththe close-fighting Mysians,
[the close-fighting Mœsi.
] without hearths.
And a little after he gives examples of their rage for women. All the Thracians truly, and especially above all others we Getæ, (for I myself glory in being descended from this race,) are not very chaste.
Such a one would be accounted as unmarried amongst them. These things are likewise confirmed by the evidence of other historians. And it is not likely that the same people should regard as an unhappy life that which is passed without the enjoyment of many women, and at the same time regard as a dignified and holy life that which is passed in celibacy without any women. But that those living without wives should be considered holy, and termed Capnobatæ, is entirely opposed to our received opinions; for all agree in regarding women as the authors of devotion to the gods, and it is they For there is no one among us who marries fewer than ten or eleven wives, and some have twelve, or even more.
expenses,
but all manuscripts have He was so lavish in the sacrifices and other expenses for the feast.
Both the French and German translations adopt the emendation.
And his Misogynes, complaining of the same things, exclaims, The gods weary us indeed, but especially our married men, who are always obliged to celebrate some feast.
It would therefore seem absurd to suppose that only those among the Getæ who remained without wives were considered pious, but that the care of worshipping the Supreme Being is great among this nation is not to be doubted, after what Posidonius has related, We sacrificed five times a day, while seven female slaves ranged in a circle played on the cymbals, and others raised their suppliant cries.
and they even abstain from animal food from religious motives,
as likewise on account of the testimony of other historians.
Indeed we ought not to be surprised at meeting with this in Homer, for those who have lived at a more recent period than he did, have been ignorant of many things, and have told strange tales. Hesiod has talked of I came to the Ethiopians, the Sidonians, and the Arabians.
free from evil,
or who neither does nor suffers wrong.
However. there were some who interpreted it differently. They maintain that Mercury was so called from a cavern in Arcadia, called Acacesium, (see Schol. in Homer, edit. Villois. pag. 382,) which was situated near Cyllene, a mountain of Arcadia, where he was born. See Apollodor. Biblioth. lib. iii. cap. x. § 2. Hesiod, however, applies the same epithet to Prometheus, (Theogon. verse 613,) who, according to the scholiast, was thus designated from Acacesium, a mountain, not a cavern, of Arcadia, where he was greatly revered.who was bred in the country of Ithaca.
On comparing this passage with others, Iliad xvi. vss. 47, 514, and with a parallel expression of Hesiod, Theogon. verse 971, one is greatly astonished at the ignorance and eccentricity of those who sought to make a place Demus out of this passage of Homer.And the close-fighting Mysians, and the illustrious Hippemolgi milk- nourished,
blest with length of days,
and Buckley simple in living,
is
And when we consider the amount of fraud connected with trading speculations even amongst ourselves, what ground have we to wonder that Homer should have designated as the justest and most noble those who had but few commercial and monetary transactions, and with the exception of their swords and drinking-cups, possessed all things in common, and especially their wives and children, who were cared for by the whole community according to the system of Plato. Æschylus too seems to plead the poet's cause, when he says, He went and saw the Ethiopians, the Ligurians,
And this is still the opinion entertained of them by the Greeks; for we esteem them the most sincere, the least deceitful of any people, and much more frugal and self-relying than ourselves. And yet the manner of life customary among us has spread almost every where, and brought about a change for the worse, effeminacy, luxury, and over-great refinement, inducing extortion in ten thousand different ways; and doubtless much of this corruption has penetrated even into the countries of the nomades, as well as those of the other barbarians; for having once learnt how to navigate the sea, they have become depraved, committing piracy and murdering strangers; and holding intercourse with many different nations, they have imitated both their extravagance and their dishonest traffic, which may indeed appear to promote civility of manners, but do doubtless corrupt the morals and lead to dissimulation, in place of the genuine sincerity we have before noticed. But the Scythians, governed by good laws, and feeding on cheese of mares' milk.
Of Europe,
having gone over Europe as far as the Scythians, concludes by saying that there is great difference in the manner of life both of the Sauromatæ and the other Scythians, for while some of them are exceedingly morose, and are indeed cannibals, others abstain even from the flesh of animals. Other historians, he observes, descant upon their ferocity, knowing that the terrible and the wonderful always excite attention; but they ought also to relate the better features of these people, and point to them as a pattern; for his part, he declares he will speak of those who excel in the justness of their actions, as there are some of the nomade Scythians who subsist on mares' milk, and excel all Travels round the World,
who says that Phineus was taken by the Harpies
Ephorus then proceeds to state the causes of their justice, because they are frugal in their mode of life, not hoarders of wealth, and just towards each other; they possess everything in common, both their women, their children, and the whole of their kin; thus when they come into collision with other nations, they are irresistible and unconquered, having no cause for which they need endure slavery. He then cites Chœrilus, who in his Passage of the Bridge of Boats,
which Darius
And again Ephorus declares of Anacharsis, whom he designates as And the sheep-feeding Sacæ, a people of Scythian race, but they inhabited Wheat-producing Asia: truly they were a colony of the nomades, A righteous race.
The Wise,
that he was sprung from that race; and that he was reckoned as one of the Seven Sages, on account of his pre-eminent moderation and knowledge. He asserts too that he was the inventor of the bellows, the double- fluked anchor, and the potter's wheel.Isle of Serpents.
sewn
some goddess,
it may be doubted whether Diana is here meant, or some Scythian or Eastern divinity. Parthenium, a village, is mentioned, c. 4, 5. The scene of the Iphigenia in Tauris of Euripides is laid some where on these shores.like a comb,
descriptive of the indented nature of the gulf. Both Gossellin and D'Anville have mistaken the true position of the Heracleotic Chersonese.there was a time when the Bœotian people were called Syes.
For it seems to me to be obscurely intimated by the etymology of the name, Leleges, that they were a mixed people anciently collected together, which had become extinct. And this may be said of the Caucones, who exist no where at present, yet were formerly settled in several places. For Locrus was the leader of the nation of the Leleges, whom Jupiter, the son of Saturn, in his infinite wisdom, once gave as subjects to Deucalion, a people gathered from among the nations of the earth.
It is supposed, says Apollodorus, that it had this name from the There is a country Hellopia, rich in corn-fields and pastures; at its extremity is built Dodona.
hele,
or marshes about the temple. He is of opinion that the poet did not call the people about the temple Helli, but Selli, adding, that Homer mentions a certain river (near) of the name of Selleis. He specifies the name in this line,
[Demetrius of Skepsis contends that] Ephyra of Thesprotia is not here meant, but Ephyra of Elis. For the river Selleis is in Elis, and there is no river of this name either in Thesprotia or among the Molotti. The fable of the oak and the doves, and other similar things, like the stories connected with Delphi, although they are subjects more adapted to engage the attention of a poet, yet are appropriate to the description of the country with which we are now occupied.At a distance far from Ephyra, from the river Selleis.
If the Tomuri of great Jove approve, I myself will kill him, and I will order all to join in the deed; but if the god forbid it, I command to withhold.
To listen to
[With the exception of the following Fragments, the rest of this book is lost.]
peliæ,
and old men pelii,
so that the celebrated doves were probably not birds, but three old women who passed an idle time about the temple. EPIT. peliæ,
and old men pelii,
as among the Macedonians. Persons at least who hold office are called peligones,
as among the Laconians and Massilienses they are called ge- rontes.
Hence it is asserted that the story of the doves in the oak at Dodona is a fable. E. The brazen vessel of Dodona,
thus arose. In the temple was a brazen vessel, having over it a statue of a man (an offering of the Corcyræans) grasping in the hand a brazen scourge of three thongs, woven in chains, from which were suspended small bones. The bones striking continually upon the brazen vessel, whenever they were agitated by the wind, produced a long protracted sound, so that a person from the beginning to the end of the vibrations might proceed to count as far as four hundred. Whence also came the proverb, The Corcyræan scourge.
Corcyra the Free, ease yourself where you please.
EPIT. These two from Thrace,
and what follows, for Ephyri we are to understand Crannonii, and for Phlegyes, the people of Gyrton. Pieria is on the other side. E. Both from Thrace,
we are to understand by Ephyri, the Crannonians, and by Phlegyes, the Gyrtonii. EPIT.
It was razed by the Argeadæ. E. month beautiful,
probably on account Cisseus educated him,
meaning Iphidamas. E.
to
For it is not the fairest water
which is diffused over the spring, but the fairest water
of the spring which is diffused over the Axius.In the passage
whose grandfather Cisseus educated him,
he says, in Thrace,
which is now called Macedonia. EPIT. A Datum of good things,
like to the proverb, Piles of plenty.
A Datum of good things,
like "Piles of plenty. Son of Pelegon;
for the Pæonians were called Pelagones. EPIT. There are the Sinties.
EPIT.
But the argument is contradicted in the following lines,
Piros commanded the Thracians,
So that he would consider all people settled next to the Thracians as excluded from the Hellespont. For Ænos is situated in the district formerly called Apsynthis, but now Corpilice. The territory of the Cicones is next towards the west. E. Harbours,
Voyages,
Circuits of the Earth,
The other he calls Pylus subject to Nestor, through which, he says, the Alpheius flows:
for he would not have given the title of chief of Epeii to one who came from the Arcadian mountain of this name. It is a village of moderate size, in which is preserved the Æsculapius of Colotes, a statue of ivory, of admirable workmanship. Next to Cyllene is the promontory Chelonatas,Or he will go to the rich country of Ephyra to bring back poison de- structive of our lives.
I first slew a man,
there ii
to Ephyra,
is, as he also remarks, probably an interpolation. Strabo has already enumerated four cities of the name of Ephyra, viz. the Eliac, the Thesprotic, the Corinthian, and the Thessalian; yet here two others are presented to our notice, the Sicyonian and the Ætolian, of which Strabo makes no mention in his account of Ætolia and Sicyonia.abounding with sheep;
the Bœotian Orchomenus, as Minyeius;
by applying to Samos the term Thracian, and adds, at a distance,
and from the river Selleis.
This does not agree with what Demetrius of Scepsis says, from whom he borrows most of his information. For Demetrius does not say that there is a river Selleis in Thesprotia, but in Elis, near the Thesprotic Ephyra, as I have said before.Thamyris
for he says,
namely, this and the Lepreatic Pylus in Triphylia, and a third, the Messeniac near Coryphasium,
For, by applying the name Epeii to both people, the Buprasians and the Eleii, and by never applying the name Eleii to the Buprasians, he may seem to divide, not Eleia, but the country of the Epeii, into four parts, which he had before divided into two; nor would Buprasium then be a part of Elis, but rather of the country of the Epeii. For that he terms the Buprasians Epeii, is evident from these words: those who inhabit Buprasium and the sacred Elis, all whom Hyrminë and Myrsinus, situated at the extremity of the territory and the Olenian rock, and Aleisium contain, these were led by four chiefs; ten swift vessels accompanied each, and multitudes of Epeii were embarked in them.
Again, by enumerating together As when the Epeii were burying King Amarynces at Buprasium.
Buprasium and sacred Elis,
and then by making a fourfold division, he seems to arrange these very four divisions in common under both Buprasium and Elis.
for Dulichium is one of the Echinades. Modern writers also use this figure, as Hipponax, through Greece and the middle of Argos;
through Greece and Pthia;
the Curetes and the Ætoli were fighting
those from Dulichium and the sacred Echinades;
for the Amathusii are Cyprians: and Alcman; they eat the bread of the Cyprians and the wheat of the Amathusii;
and Æschylus; leaving the beloved Cyprus, and Paphos, washed on all sides by the sea:
for we must understand the words by the figure hyperbaton. Some also point out a river Aleisius. Till we brought our horses to Buprasium rich in grain, and to the Olenian rock, and to the place which is called the hill of Aleisium,
some change the last word At sun-rise I go to the magnanimous Caucones, where a debt neither of a late date nor of small amount is owing to me.
This will appear more clearly, when we describe the Pisatis, and after it Triphylia as far as the confines of Messenia. sandy
from this tract. Botanische erklarung
of Strabo does not attempt to explain it.
For the poet was at liberty to feign things which did not exist, but when it is possible to adapt poetry to reality, and They came to Pylus, the well-built city of Neleus; the people were sacrificing on the sea-shore bulls, entirely black, to Neptune, the god of the dark locks, who shakes the earth.
to obtain payment of the debt, in a forward direction. How then are we to reconcile these opinions? for Nestor might say, The Caucones are my subjects, and lie directly in the road of persons who are going to Lacedæmon; why then do you not accompany Telemachus and his friends on his journey, but take a road in an opposite direction?
Besides, it was natural for one, who was going to recover payment of a debt, and that a considerable sum, as she says, from a people under the command of Nestor, to request some assistance from him in case they should be so unjust, as usually happens, as to refuse to discharge it. But she did not do this.formerly Calliste, but afterwards called Thera,
according to Callimachus, founded Thera, the capital of Cyrene, and gave the same name to the city, and to the island.
these youths were natives of this Samos. For he says that Rhadinē being given in marriage to the tyrant, set sail from Samos to Corinth with a westerly wind, and therefore certainly not from the Ionian Samos. By the same wind her brother, who was archi-theorus, arrived at Delphi. Her cousin, who was in love with her, set out after her in a chariot to Corinth. The tyrant put both of them to death, and sent away the bodies in a chariot, but changing his mind, he recalled the chariot, and buried them. Come, tuneful Muse, Erato, begin the melodious song, in praise of the lovely Samian youths, sounding the strings of the delightful lyre:
not Celadon, nor Pheia, for this place is nearer the tomb of Jardanus and the Arcades than the other. Oh that I were young as when multitudes of Pylii, and of Arcades, handling the spear, fought together at the swift-flowing Acidon near the walls of Chaa,
"And they who inhabited Pylus, and the beautiful Arene, and Thryum, a passage across the Alpheius, and the well-built Æpy, and Cyparisseis, and Amphigeneia, and Pteleum, and Helos, and Dorium, where the Muses having met with Thamyris the Thracian, deprived him of the power of song, as he was coming from Œchalia, from the house of Eurytus the Œchalian.
It is Pylus, therefore, to which the question relates, and we shall soon treat of it. We have already spoken of Arene. The places, which he here calls Thryum, in another passage he calls Thryoessa, the well-built Æpy,
Epitalium, which is naturally strong, and in the other part of the passage he mentions a lofty hill;
for to this place the direction of the vessel was towards the north, and thence it turns to the east. The vessel leaves its first and straight course in the direction of Ithaca, because the suitors had placed an ambush there, they went past Cruni, and the beautiful streams of Chalcis; the sun set, and all the villages were in shade and darkness; but the ship, exulting in the gales of Jove, arrived at Pheæ. She passed also the divine Elis, where the Epeii rule;
these,
he says,
and adds below, and the Olenian rock, where is a tumulus of Alesius, whence again Minerva repulsed the multitudes;
If Neleus lived there, there Nestor also lived. How then were there a great debt was owing at the divine Elis; four horses, which had won the prize; they came with their chariots to contend for prizes; they were about to run in the race for a tripod; and Augeas, king of men, detained them there, but dismissed the charioteer.
The country also was divided into four parts, none of which was subject to Nestor, but those tribes were under his com- mand, four chiefs of Eleians and Buprasians, with ten swift ships accompanying each, and with many Epeii embarked in them?
and at the places that follow next as far as Messene
[This is well expressed, and the poet, as from other circumstances, so particularly from the brows, suggests the thought that he is depicting some grand conception, and great power worthy of Jupiter. So also in his description of Juno, in both he preserves the peculiar decorum of each character, for he says, He spoke, and gave the nod with his sable brows, the ambrosial hair shook on the immortal head of the king of gods, and vast Olympus trembled.
potable.
The city of Pisa is shown, situated on an eminence between two mountains, which have the same names as those in Thessaly, Ossa and Olympus. Some say, that there was no such city as Pisa, for it would have been one of the eight, but a fountain only, which is now called Bisa, near Cicysium, the largest of the eight cities. But Stesichorus calls the tract of country named Pisa, a city, as the poet calls Lesbos, a city of Macar; and Euripides in the play of Ion says
and so in the play of Rhadamanthus,
thus Sophocles also in the play of the Mysi,
He certainly would not have promised what did not belong either to himself or to his brother. The poet mentions those, who accompanied Menelaus from Pheræ to the war,Cardamyle, Enope, the grassy Hira, the divine Pheræ,
with its rich pastures,
is most appropriate. Near it on the sea is Corone. There are some writers who say that this town is called Pedasus by the poet. These cities are all near the sea;
Cardamyle close to it; Pheræ at the distance of 5 stadia, having an anchorage, which is used in the summer. The rest are situated at unequal distances from the sea. for,
said he, when you have seized both horns, the cow will be your own;
meaning, by the horns, Ithome and Acrocorinthus, and, by the cow, Peloponnesus. It was no doubt their convenient situation which made these cities subjects of contention. The Romans therefore razed Corinth, and again rebuilt it. The Lacedæmonians
Wherefore we must either invalidate the authority of the elegiac verses, or we must disbelieve Philochorus, and Callisthenes, and many other writers, who say that he came from Athens, or Aphidnæ, at the request of the Lacedæmonians, whom an oracle had enjoined to receive a commander from the Athenians.for Jupiter himself, the son of Saturn, and husband of Juno with the beautiful crown, gave this city to the Heracleidæ, with whom we left the windy Erineum, and arrived at the spacious island of Pelops.
cri,
and do,
and maps,
by the two Lapersæ, by Eurotas, by the gods in Argos and Sparta.
Messenia he describes in this manner: Laconia has much land capable of tillage, but difficult to be worked, for it is hollow, surrounded by mountains, rugged, and difficult of access to an enemy.
and a little farther on, speaking of the division of the country by the Heracleidæ according to lot, the first was It bears excellent fruit; is watered by innumerable streams; it affords the finest pasture to herds and flocks; it is not subject to the blasts of winter, nor too much heated by the coursers of the sun;
the second was Messene,
and Tyrtæus speaks of it in the same manner.
this river flows through the middle of Messenia, and does not touch any part of the present Laconia. Nor is he right, when he says that Mess nia is inaccessible to sailors, whereas it borders upon the sea, in the same manner as Laconia.
and he adduces a proof unnecessarily. For if he means the present Eleian territory, which is on the confines of Messenia, this the Pamisus does not touch, any more than it touches Laconia, for, as has been said before, it flows through the middle of Messenia: or, if he meant the ancient Eleia, called the Hollow, this is a still greater deviation from the truth. For after crossing the Pamisus, there is a large tract of the Messenian country, then the whole district of [the Lepreatæ], and of the [Macistii], which is called Triphylia; then the Pisatis, and Olympia; then at the distance of 300 stadia is Elis. large,
which is most probable. Some understand abounding with calaminthus;
others suppose, as the fissures occasioned by earthquakes are called Cæeti, that this is the origin of the epithet. Hence Cæietas also, the name of the prison among the Lacedæmonians, which is a sort of cave. Some however say, that such kind of hollows are rather called Coi, whence the expression of Homer,
He means the country which was a part of Messenia.A stranger, whom he met at Lacedæmon, gave him,
or, they met at Messene;
for it is evident that Pheræ was the home of Ortilochus: The sun was setting; they came to the hollow Lacedæmon (
pasturing horses,
and abounding with horses.
Now the ground consists of hollows, it is intersected by rivers, and is full of marshes and lakes; the city also has a copious supply of water from many wells, which rises near the surface.
or without the at present he is making the attempt, and he will soon-destroy (
that is, A Lerna of evils.
Four of the wells are esteemed sacred, and held in peculiar veneration. Hence they occasioned a want of water, while they supplied it abundantly.
His tomb, called Palinthus, is in the middle of the marketplace of the Argives. I suppose that the celebrity of this city was the reason of all the Greeks having the name of Pelasgiotæ, and Danai, as well as Argives.he made a law that those who were formerly called Pelasgiotæ, should be called Danai throughout Greece.
Among these we have already spoken of Argos; we must now speak of the rest. They who occupied Argos, and Tiryns, with strong walls, and Hermione, and Asine situated on a deep bay, and Eïones, and Epidaurus with its vines, and the valiant Achæan youths who occupied Ægina, and Mases.
Go to Trœzen,
they might never cease to build walls,
instead of
making a distinction between the places of the same name.
and another, one of the cities of the Tetrapolis near Marathon, to which the proverb is applied, Ægina wares.
+
Eurystheus'-head.
well built.
There also, between Cleonæ and Phlius, is Nemea, and the grove where it was the custom of the Argives to celebrate the Nemean games: here is the scene of the fable of the Nemean Lion, and here also the village Bembina. Cleonæ is distant from Argos 120 stadia, and 80 from Corinth. And we have ourselves beheld the city from the Acrocorinthus.
It was a desirable thing for the merchants coming from Asia, and from Italy, to discharge their lading at Corinth without being obliged to double Cape Maleæ. For goods exported from Peloponnesus, or imported by land, a toll was paid to those who had the keys of the country. This continued after- terwards for ever. In after-times they enjoyed even additional advantages, for the Isthmian games, which were celebrated there, brought thither great multitudes of people. The Bacchiadæ, a rich and numerous family, and of illustrious descent, were their rulers, governed the state for nearly two hundred years, and peaceably enjoyed the profits of the mart. Their power was destroyed by Cypselus, who became king himself,
The answer is related of a courtesan to a woman who was reproaching her with disliking work, and not employing herself in spinning; Although I am what you see, yet, in this short time, I have already finished three distaffs.
the epithet I come from the Acrocorinthus, well-watered on all sides, the sacred hill and habitation of Venus,
well-watered on all sides,
must be understood to refer to depth; pure springs and under-ground rills are dispersed through the mountain; or we must suppose, that, anciently, the Peirene overflowed, and irrigated the mountain. There, it is said, Pegasus was taken by Bellerophon, while drinking; this was a winged horse, which sprung from the neck of Medusa when the head of the Gorgon was severed from the body. This was the horse, it is said, which caused the Hippocrene, or Horse's Fountain, to spring up in Helicon by striking the rock with its hoof.Nothing to the Bacchus,
) and Hercules tortured in the robe, the gift of Deïaneira.
and indicates the place because it was near Olenus. There also is Ceryneia, situated upon a lofty rock. This place, and Helice, belong to the Ægienses,Lunâ gens prior illa fuit.
There are rich pastures for cattle, and particularly for horses and asses, which are used as stallions. The race of Arcadian horses, as well as the Argolic and Epidaurian, is preferred before all others. The uninhabited tracts of country in Ætolia and Acarnania are not less adapted to the breeding of horses than Thessaly.
are difficult to discover, and if discovered, would be of no use from the deserted condition of the country. by legs on each side.
Nisæa was united to Megara, as the Piræus to Athens, by two lone walls.
and on the side towards Megara,
Although those, who wrote on the history of Attica
Such are the proofs which are adduced to show that Megaris was a part of Attica. My father determined that I should go away to Acte, having assigned to me, as the elder, the best part of the land; to Lycus, the opposite garden of Eubœa; for Nisus he selects the irregular tract of the shore of Sciron; and the rugged Pallas, breeder of giants, obtained by lot the part to the south.
it is uninhabited. The other is situated in a bay on a spot of a peninsular form contiguous to Attica. In former times it had other names, for it was called Sciras, and Cychreia, from certain heroes; from the former Minerva is called Sciras; hence also Scira, a place in Attica; Episcirosis, a religions rite; and Scirophorion, one of the months. From Cychreia pitys,
the pine tree. The island obtained its renown from the Æacidæ, who were masters of it, particularly from Ajax, the son of Telamon, and from the defeat of Xerxes by the Greeks in a battle on the coast, and by his flight to his own country. The Æginetæ participated in the glory of that engagement, both as neighbours, and as having furnished a considerable naval force. [In Salamis is the river Bocarus, now called Bocalia.]
and appealed to the poet as a witness, that the island originally belonged to the Athenians. But this is not admitted by the critics, because many other lines testify the contrary. For why does Ajax appear at the extremity of the line not with the Athenians, but with the Thessalians under the command of Protesilaus;
and again, respecting Ajax and the Salaminii; found the son of Peteus, Menestheus, the tamer of horses, standing, and around were the Athenians skilful in war: near stood the wily Ulysses, and around him and at his side, the ranks of the Cephalleni
and near them, he came to the Ajaces,
which are places in Megaris, of which Tripodes has the name of Tripodiscium, situated near the present forum of Megara. Ajax conducted ships from Salamis, from Polichna, from Ægirussa, from Nisæa, and from Tripodes,
Yet this very writer mentions only one of the remarkable things to be seen in the Acropolis. Polemo PeriegetesI behold the acropolis, there is the symbol of the great trident;
the Collection of the Rivers,
Callimachus says, that he should laugh at the person, who would venture to describe the Athenian virgins as
from which even the herds would turn away. There are indeed fountains of water, pure and fit for drinking, it is said, without the gate called Diochares, near the Lyceium; formerly also a fountain was erected near it, which afforded a large supply of excellent water; but if it is not so at present, is it at all strange, that a fountain supplying abundance of pure and potable water at one period of time, should afterwards have the property of its waters altered?
In front of these places lies off, at no great distance, the island Belbina; and the rampart of Patroclus; but most of these islands are uninhabited. The dusty Theban soil opened and received him with his armour, and the four-horse chariot.
For Cranaë, from the kind of intercourse which took place there, is now called Helena. Next to Helena,Not when first I carried thee away from the pleasant Lacedæmon, across the deep, and in the island Cranaë embraced thee.
Ours is the best honey.
by day,
whereas they had made the attack by night, whence the common proverb, a Thracian shuffle.
The Pythaïstæ, as they are called, signify, by the order of an oracle, the occurrence of any lightning when they are looking in the direction of Harma, and despatch the sacrifice to Delphi whenever it is observed. They were to keep watch for three months, and for three days and nights in each month, at the altar of Jupiter Astrapius, or Dispenser of lightning. This altar is in the wall, between the Pythium and the Olympium. Respecting the Bœotian Harma, some say, that Amphiaraus fell in battle out of his chariot, [harma,] near the spot where his temple now stands, and that the chariot was drawn empty to the place, which bears the same name [Harma].
lengthening the first syllable by poetical licence for the sake of the metre, instead of
for Nisa is not to be found anywhere in Bœotia, as Apollodorus says in his observations on the Catalogue of the Ships;
meaning the present Creusa, the arsenal of the Thespieans, situated on the Crisæan Gulf. Others write the passage
Pharæ is one of the four villages, (or Tetracomiæ,) near Tanagra, namely, Heleon, Harma, Mycalessus, Pharæ. Others again write the passage thus,
Nysa is a village of Helicon.
for there is a place of this name in Lydia,
these words,
For the Copais is of great extent, and not situated in the Theban district, but the other is small, and filled from the former by subterraneous channels; it is situated between Thebes
for Ajax was not to send for his shield from Lydia.
It is said that Pentheus was brought from thence, and torn in pieces. There was among the cities near Olynthus another of the name of Scolus. We have said that in the Heracleian Trachinia there was a village of the name of Parasopii, beside which runs a river Asopus, and that there is another river Asopus in Sicyonia, and that the country through which it flows is called Asopia. There are however other rivers of the same name.
but the lines are well known.
Helicon is contiguous to Phocis on its northern, and partly on its western side, as far as the last harbour of Phocis, which is called from its characteristic situation, Mychus, or the Recess. He dwelt near Helicon in a wretched village, Ascra; bad in winter, in summer intolerable, and worthless at any season.
Thence to Sicyon is a voyage of 160 stadia.
The festival Pambœotia was here celebrated. Hades is associated with Minerva, in the dedication of the temple, for some mystical reason. The inhabitants of the Bœotian Coroneia are called Coronii, those of the Messenian Coroneia, Coronenses. Minerva, warrior queen, who o'er Coroneia keepest watch before thy temple, on the banks of Coralius.
Glissas,
Pausanias, b. ix. ch. 19, makes mention of a tumulus covered with trees, near the ruins of Glisas or Glissas, which was the burial-place of Ægialus and his companions, and also of other tumuli. These were probably the under Thebes
instead of under Cadmeia.
As Alcæus is mistaken in the altering the name of the river Cuarius, so he makes a great error in placing Onchestus at the extremities of Helicon, whereas it is situated very far from this mountain. He traversed in his onward way the earth and sea; he stood upon the heights of the lofty mountains; he shook the caves in their deep recesses, and overthrew the foundations of the sacred groves
or temples.
and he calls Tenerus
"The Ptoum is situated above the Teneric plain, and the lake Copaïs, near Acræphium. the prophet, dwelling in the temple, and having the same name as the soil on which it stands.
Neither are those persons in the right, who substitute in this passage Tarnē for Arnē, for there is not a place of the name of Tarne to be found in Bœotia, although there is in Lydia. Homer mentions it,
Besides Alalcomenæ and Tilphossium, which are near the lake, Chæroneia, Lebadia, and Leuctra, are worthy of notice. Idomeneus then slew Phæstus, the son of Borus, the artificer, who came from the fruitful soil of Tarn.
Not all that is brought to Orchomenus, or to Ægyptian Thebes.
Delphi then was celebrated on this account. Elateia was famous as being the largest of the cities in that quarter, and for its very convenient position upon the straits; for he, who is the master of this city, commands the entrances into Phocis and Bœotia. First, there are the Œtæan mountains, next the mountains of the Locri, and the Phocians; they are not every where passable for invading armies, coming from Thessaly, but having narrow passes distinct from each other, which the adjacent cities guard. Those, who take the cities, are masters fierce contest of Ulysses, and Achilles, the son of Peleus, how once they contended together, and Agamemnon king of men was pleased, for so Phœbus Apollo had foretold by the oracle in the illustrious Pytho.
The treasuries indicate its riches, and the plunder committed by the Phocians, which gave rise to the Phocic or Sacred war, as it was called. It is however supposed that a spoliation of the temple must have taken place at some more remote period, when the wealth mentioned by Homer disappeared; for no vestige of it whatever was preserved to later times, when Onomarchus and Phayllus pillaged the temple, as the property [then] removed was of a more recent date than that referred to by the poet. For there were once deposited in the treasuries, offerings from spoils, bearing inscriptions with the names of the donors, as of Gyges, of Crœsus, of the Sybaritæ, of the Spinetæ on the Adriatic, and of others also. It would be unbecoming to supposeNor all the wealth, which the marble threshold of Phœbus Apollo, the Archer, (Aphetor,)
behind it,
but Marathus is on the opposite side of the bay. The ruins are indicated in modem maps.not far from
the Crisæan Gulf, Abæ, which was certainly near Hyampolis, on the borders of the Locri Epicne- midii? It is on the authority of this passage only that geographers have placed a second Abæ behind Ambrysus, at the foot of Parnassus.
are understood in a double sense; some persons supposing it to have its name from the tree of the country, but others from a village situated below the Lycoreian territory. which, like a serpent, winds along Panopeus and the strong Glechon, and through Orchomenus.
Opoeis, the capital of the Locri, hides in its bosom those who died in defence of Greece against the Medes.
It is distant from the sea about 15 stadia, and 60 from the naval arsenal. The arsenal is Cynus,the fetters,
for Demetrias commanding Pelion and Ossa, commanded also the passes at Tempe. Afterwards, however, when the whole country was subject to one power, the passes were freely open to all.Keys of Greece.
Livy, b. xxxii. c. 37.Stranger, go tell Lacedæmon that we lie here in obedience to her laws.
He joins together with these the people under the command of Phoenix, and makes them compose one common expedition. The poet nowhere mentions the Dolopian forces in the battles near Ilium, neither does he introduce their leader Phoenix, as undertaking, like Nestor, dangerous enterprises. But Phoenix is mentioned by others, as by Pindar, All who dwelt in Pelasgic Argos; they who occupied Alus, Alope, and Trachin; they who possessed Phthia, and Hellas, abounding with beautiful women, were called Myrmidones, Hellenes, and Achæi.
The words of the poet are to be understood according to the figure of the grammarians, by which something is suppressed, for it would be ridiculous for the king to engage in the expe- dition,
+To be an eloquent speaker, and to achieve great deeds.
But here he particularizes them; there were Bœoti and Iaones wearing long robes, Locri, Phthii, and illustrious Epeii.
at the head of the Phthii fought Medon and Podarces, firm in battle. These armed with breastplates fought together with Bœoti, at the head of the magnanimous Phthii, keeping away the enemy from the ships.
I lived,
he says, at the farthest part of Phthia, king of the Dolopes.
the Ass of Antron.
Next are Pteleum and Halus; next the temple of Ceres, and Pyrasus in ruins; above these, Thebæ; then Pyrrha, a promontory, and two small islands near, one of which is called Pyrrha, the other Deucalion. Somewhere here ends the territory of Phthiotis.
for she alone accepts the sacrifice of swine. Certainly Callimachus, if any person could be said to possess information, was well informed, and it was his object, as he himself says, all his life to relate these fables. Later writers, however, have proved that there was not one Venus only, but several, who accepted that sacrifice, from among whom the goddess worshipped at Metropolis came, and that this [foreign] rite was delivered down by one of the cities which contributed to form that settlement. among the Venuses, (for the goddess bears several titles,) Venus Castnietis surpasses all others in wisdom,
The Capture of Œchalia?
Autolycus brought it away from Eleon, out of the house of Amyntor, the son of Ormenus, having broken through the thick walls.
but this is a Tanagrian town; and the words
+Guneus brought from Cyphus two and twenty vessels. His followers were Enienes and Peræbi, firm in battle. They dwelt near the wintry Dodona, and tilled the fields about the lovely Titaresius.
These two from Thrace appeared with breastplates armed against Ephyri, or haughty Phlegyæ,
The greater part of the Ænianes were expelled by the Lapithæ, and took refuge in Œta, where they established their power, having deprived the Dorians and the Malienses of some portions of country, extending as far as Heracleia and Echinus. Some of them however remained about Cyphus, a Perrhæbic mountain, where is a settlement of the same name. As to the Perrhæbi, some of them collected about the western parts of Olympus and settled there, on the borders of the Macedonians. But a large body took shelter among the mountains near Athamania, and Pindus. But at present few, if any, traces of them are to be found.Or, as a pure virgin, who dwells on the sacred heights of the Twin hills, comes to the Dotian plain, in front of Amyrus, abounding with vines, to bathe her feet in the lake Bœbias.
Aristotle says that Thracians, taking their departure from Aba, the Phocian city, settled with the other inhabitants in the island, and gave the name of Abantes to those who already occupied it; other writers say that they had their name from a hero,narrow.
Euboïs near the bending shore of Jupiter Cenæus, close to the tomb of the wretched Lichas.
warriors eager to break through breastplates with extended ashen spears.
He represents the Eubœans as fighting in this manner; but he describes the Locrian mode as contrary to this; he wounded him with a polished spear, pointed with brass, and unbraced his limbs.
An answer of an oracle is commonly repeated, which was returned to the Ægienses; It was not their practice to engage in close fight, but they followed him to Ilium with their bows, clothed in the pliant fleece of the sheep.
meaning the Chalcideans as superior to all other people, for Arethusa belongs to them. a Thessalian horse, a Lacedæmonian woman, and the men who drink the water of the sacred Arethusa,
we must understand the coast of Acarnania.
and the cities which he mentions in the Catalogue, as when I was chief of the Cephallenians, and took Nericus, a well built city, on the coast of Epirus,
Menander then says that Sappho was the first who took the leap, but persons better acquainted with ancient accounts assert that it was Cephalus, who was in love with Pterelas, the son of Deioneus.Here Sappho first 'tis said,
(according to Menander,) in pursuit of the haughty Phaon, and urged on by maddening desire, threw herself
a daughter of Pterelas who was in love with Cephalus.
See below, § 14.
(the remarkable mountain in this island; so also, Ulysses led the Cephallenians, those who possessed Ithaca, and Neritum, waving with woods,
he means by Epirus the country opposite to the islands, intending to include together with Leucas the rest of Acarnania, of which he says, and they who inhabited Crocyleia and rocky Ægilips, Zacynthus, Samos, Epirus, and the country opposite to these islands;
meaning the island; and at another time he pretends that we ought to write
and not
and evidently supposes that the city is called by either name, Samos or Samé, but the island by that of Samos only. That the city is called Same is evident from the enumeration of the suitors from each city, where the poet says,
but whether he means the city, or the island, is not clear, at least from this verse; I dwell at Ithaca, turned to the western sun; where is a mountain, Neritum, seen from afar with its waving woods;
Any one would understand these words in their proper sense to mean the city, as we speak of Athens, Lycabettus, Rhodes, Atabyris, Lacedæmon, and Taygetus, but in a poetical sense the contrary is implied.
the meaning is plain, because the mountain is on the island and not in the city; and when he says, I dwell at Ithaca, turned to the western sun, in which is a mountain Neritum,
waving with woods;
the other as a well-built city;
one in Ithaca, the other on the sea-beach of Epirus.]for there is not any island in the sea exposed to the western sun,
low,
but its contiguity to the continent, to which it approaches very close; nor by towards darkness,
the contrary to which is towards the south, (at a distance,
and apart,
as if the other islands lay to the south, and more distant from the continent, but Ithaca near the continent and towards the north. That the poet designates the southern part (of the heavens) in this manner appears from these words,
and still more evidently in these lines, whether they go to the right hand, towards the morning and the sun, or to the left, towards cloudy darkness;
We may here understand the four climates,my friends, we know not where darkness nor where morning lie, nor where sets nor where rises the sun which brings light to man.
companion of Phyleides, chief of the magnanimous Epeii;
but Ulysses led the magnanimous Cephallenes.
one of the Saii is exulting in the possession of an honourable shield, which I left against my will near a thicket.
Some writers add, that this was the horn of Amaltheia, which Hercules broke off from the Achelous, and presented to Œneus as a bridal gift. Others, conjecturing the truth included in this story, say, that Achelous is reported to have resembled a bull, like other rivers, in the roar of their waters, and the bendings of their streams, which they term horns; and a serpent from its length and oblique course; and bull-fronted because it was compared to a bull's head; and that Hercules, who, on other occasions, was disposed to perform acts of kindness for the public benefit, so particularly, when he was desirous of contracting an alliance with Œneus, performed for him these services; he prevented the river from overflowing its banks, by constructing mounds and by diverting its streams by canals, and by draining a large tract of the Paracheloitis, which had been injured by the river; and this is the horn of Amaltheia.My suitor was a river, I mean the Achelous, who demanded me of my father under three forms; one while coming as a bull of perfect form, another time as a spotted writhing serpent, at another with the body of a man and the forehead of a bull.
The father of Phyleus was Augeas, king of Elis, and of the Epeii. The Epeii then, who possessed these islands, were those who had migrated to Dulichium with Phyleus. son of the hero Phyleus, beloved of Jupiter, who formerly repaired to Dulichium on account of a quarrel with his father.
the labours of Hercules,
the workmanship of Lysippus, which was lying in an unsuitable place, being a deserted spot.
Olenus belonged to Ætolia; Homer mentions it in the Ætolian Catalogue,not an Erysichæan, nor a shepherd; but I came from the extremities of Sardis.
And with respect to the brothers; who did not dare to go to the palace of Icarius with a view of his disposing of his daughter in marriage.
Nor is it probable that they were living at Lacedæmon, for Telemachus would not, in that case, have been the guest of Menelaus upon his arrival, nor is there a tradition, that they had any other habitation. But they say that Tyndareus and his brother Icarius, after being banished from their own country by Hippocoon, repaired to Thestius, the king of the Pleuronii, and assisted in obtaining possession of a large tract of country on the other side of the Achelous on condition of receiving a portion of it; that Tyndareus, having espoused Leda the daughter of Thestius, returned home; that Icarius continued there in possession of a portion of Acarnania, and had Penelope and her brothers by his wife Poly- casta, daughter of Lygæus. for now a long time both her father and her brothers were urging her to marry Eurymachus.
But Epirus was never called Acarnania, nor Acté, Leucas.
nor
But we have shown in a former part of this work, that this mode of expression is usual with Homer, and even trite among other poets. This objection then is easily answered. But let the objectors explain, how, if these people were not Æto-
And the other inscription on the statue of Oxylus is in the market-place of Elis; this statue of Ætolus, son of Endymion, brought up near the streams of the Alpheius, and in the neighbourhood of the stadia of Olympia, Ætolians dedicated as a public monument of his merits.
Ætolus, having formerly abandoned the original inhabitants of this country, won by the toils of war the land of the Curetes. But Oxylus, the son of Hæmon, the tenth scion of that race, founded this ancient city.
he obtained possession of the country of the Curetes by the continued toils of war.
but I shall explain the
Curetic affairs
and concerning the Curetes
have been considered as identical with accounts concerning the people (of the same name) who inhabited Ætolia and Acarnania.
But the former differ from the latter, and resemble rather the accounts which we have of Satyri and Silenes, Bacchæ and Tityri; for the Curetes are represented as certain dæmons, or ministers of the gods, by those who have handed down the traditions respecting Cretan and Phrygian affairs, and which involve certain religious rites, some mystical, others the contrary, relative to the nurture of Jupiter in Crete; the celebration of orgies in honour of the mother of the gods, in Phrygia, and in the neighbourhood of the Trojan Ida. There is however a very great varietythis difference only,
as Groskurd observes.Strabo clearly refutes the statements of those who believed that the Cabeiri, Dactyli, Curetes, Corybantes, and Telchines, were not only the same kind of persons, but ever separate members of the same family.
It appears to me, on the contrary, that this was the opinion adopted by our author. The history of this people will receive additional and a fitting illustra- tion by a reference to physical facts,
such as the manner of wearing their hair, tonsure, &c.tunic-trailers,
and to bind the hair in the form of the Crobulus and ornamented with a grasshopper.
The hair over the forehead of the Apollo Belvidere is an example of the crobulus.selecting Curetes, the bravest of the Ach$eans, to carry from the swift ship, presents, which, yesterday, we promised to Achilles.
Il. xix. 248. The text is probably mutilated, and Strabo may have quoted the verses in Homer in which Merion is represented as dancing in armour.
After mentioning the hymns, both ancient and modern, in honour of Bacchus, he makes a digression, and says, formerly the dithyrambus used to creep upon the ground, long and trailing.
where he combines with one another the rites celebrated among the Greeks in honour of Dionysus with those performed among the Phrygians in honour of the mother of the for thee, O Mother, resound the large circles of the cymbals, and the ringing crotala; for thee, blaze the torches of the yellow pine;
"Then forsaking Tmolus, the rampart of Lydia, my maidens, my pride, [whom I took from among barbarians and made the partners and companions of my way, raise on high the tambourine of Phrygia, the tambourine of the great mother Rhea,] my invention.
And again, in what follows, he combines with these the Cretan rites. Blest and happy he who, initiated into the sacred rites of the gods, leads a pure life; who celebrating the orgies of the Great Mother Cybele, who brandishing on high the thyrsus and with ivy crowned, becomes Dionysus' worshipper. Haste, Bacchanalians, haste, and bring Bromius Dionysus down from the Phrygian mountains to the wide plains of Greece.
+Hail, sacred haunt of the Curetes, and divine inhabitants of Crete, progenitors of Jove, where for me the triple-crested Corybantes in their caves invented this skin-stretched circle [of the tambourine], who mingled with Bacchic strains the sweet breath of harmony from Phrygian pipes, and placed in Rhea's hands this instrument which re-echoes to the joyous shouts of Bacchanalians: from the Mother Rhea the frantic Satyri succeeded in obtaining it, and introduced it into the dances of the Trieterides, among whom Dionysus delights to dwell.
+
Not revelling with Dionysus, who together with his mother was cheered with the resounding drums along the tops of Ida.
And in another passage; one holding the bombyces, the admirable work of the turner, with the fingers makes the loud notes resound, exciting frenzy; another makes the brass-bound cotylæ to re-echo.
for these are like the Phrygian ceremonies, nor is it at all improbable that, as the Phrygians themselves are a colony of Thracians, so they brought from Thrace their sacred ceremonies, and by joining together Dionysus and the Edonian Lycurgus they intimate a similarity in the mode of the worship of both. The song of victory is poured forth; invisible mimes low and bellow from time to time like bulls, inspiring fear, and the echo of the drum rolls along like the noise of subterranean thunder;
striking forcibly the Asiatic cithara;
another calls the pipes Berecynthian and Phry-
The author of the Phoronis calls the Curetes, players upon the pipe, and Phrygians; others call them earth-born, and wearing brazen shields.
Another author terms the Corybantes, and not the Curetes, Phrygians, and the Curetes, Cretans. Brazen shields were first worn in Eubœa, whence the people had the name of Chalcidenses.Corybantes.
Because the Corybantes are dancers, and are frantic, we call those persons by this name whose movements are furious. Come hither, you who are the best skilled Betarmones among the Phæacians.
Kandax,
Megalo Kastron, became with the Venetian writers Candia; the word for a long time denoted only the principal city of the island, which retained its ancient name in the chroniclers and in Dante, Inferno xiv. 94. It is described by Strabo as lying between Cyrenaica and that part of Hellas which extends from Sunium to Laconia, and parallel in its length from W. to E. of these two points. The words Its width is not in proportion to its length.
Kramer says that the preposition
Of these people, says Staphylus, the Dorians occupy the eastern parts of the island, Cydonians the western, Eteocretans the southern, to whom Prasus, a small town, belonged, where is the temple of the Dictæan Jupiter; the other nations, being more powerful, inhabited the plains. It is probable that the EteocretansAchæi, the brave Eteocretans, Cydones, Dorians divided into three bands,
Laws,
and Ephorus has described in his work Europe.
Afterwards there was a change in the government, and for the most part for the worse. For the Tyrrheni, who chiefly infested our sea, were followed by the Cretans, who succeeded to the haunts and piratical practices of the former people, and these again afterwards were subject to the devastations of the Cilicians. But the Romans destroyed them all after the conquest of Crete,
for he would have mentioned such a misfortune. Ulysses indeed might not have been acquainted with the destruction of these cities, for he had not had any intercourse with any of the Greeks either during or after his wanderings; but (Nestor), who had been the companion of Idomeneus in the expedition and in his escape from shipwreck, could not be ignorant of what had happened at home during the expedition and before his return. But he must certainly have been aware of what occurred after his return. For if he and all his companions escaped, he returned so powerful that their enemies were not in a position to deprive them of ten cities.but Idomeneus brought back all his companions who had survived the war to Crete; the sea had not deprived him of any of them;
a Cretan, and not know the sea;
but at present they have abandoned nautical affairs. In festivals and in joyous assemblies of the Andreia, it is fit to begin the pean in honour of the guests.
and in another, he mentions Thera only,Mother of my country, celebrated for its fine breed of horses.
Thera is a long island, about 200 stadia in circumference. It lies opposite to the island Dia,a Siphnian pledge,
a Siphnian bone (astragalus),
on account of its insignificance. Still nearer, both to Cimolus and Crete, is Melos,
The islands lying about it, called Cyclades, gave it celebrity, since they were in the habit of sending at the public charge, as a testimony of respect, sacred delegates, (Theori,) sacrifices, and bands of virgins; they also repaired thither in great multitudes to celebrate festivals.Before this time,
(says Pindar,Delos was carried about by the waves, and by winds blowing from every quarter, but when the daughter of Cœus set her foot upon it, who was then suffering the sharp pangs of approaching child-birth, at that instant four upright columns, resting on adamant, sprang from the depths of the earth and retained it fast on the rugged rock; there she brought forth, and beheld her happy offspring.
"O Latona, thou art shortly going to pass by me
+
For the law, it seems, ordained that those above sixty years old should be compelled to drink hemlock, in order that there might be sufficient food for the rest. It is said that once when they were besieged by the Athenians, a decree was passed to the effect that the oldest persons, fixing the age, should be put to death, and that the besiegers retired in consequence.Phanias, that is a good law of the Ceans; who cannot live comfortably (or well), let him not live miserably (or ill).
all under one Myconus,
applied to persons who collect under one title things that are disjoined by nature. Some also call bald persons Miconians, because baldness is frequent among the inhabitants of the island.
for the Lerians are reputed to have bad dispositions. the Lerians are bad, not some, but all, except Procles; but Procies is a Lerian;
they who occupied the islands Nisyrus, Crapathus, Casus, and Cos, the city of Eurypylus, and Calydnæ.
Not as if the author of the iambic intended to speak of the river, nor of the city of the same name upon the river, but Colchis designated by a part, because from the city and the river there remains a voyage of not less than 600 stadia in a straight line to the recess of the bay. This same Dioscurias is the commencement of the isthmus lying between the Caspian Sea and the Euxine. It is a common mart of the nations situated above it, and in its neighbourhood. There assemble at Dioscurias 70 or, according to some writers who are careless in their statements,eight or nine,
instead of three or two,
the letters T and B being a corruption of
+
He also assigns the following distances from the Caspian Gates to India.
Thus much then respecting the Sacæ.
+PARTHIA is not an extensive tract of country; for this reason it was united with the Hyrcani for the purpose of paying tribute under the Persian dominion and afterwards, during a long period when the Macedonians were masters of the country. Besides its small extent, it is thickly wooded, mountainous, and produces nothing; so that the kings with their multitude of followers pass with great speed through the country, which is unable to furnish subsistence for such numbers even for a short time. At present it is augmented in extent. Comisene
From the Caspian Gates to Rhagæ are 500 stadia according to Apollodorus, and to Hecatompylos, the royal seat of the Parthians,
Disturbances having arisen in the countries beyond the Taurus in consequence of the kings of Syria and Media, who possessed the tract of which we are speaking, being engaged in other affairs,
They say that the Dahæ Parni were an emigrant tribe from the Dahæ above the Mæotis, who are called Xandii and Parii. But it is not generally acknowledged that Dahæ are to be found among the Scythians above the Meotis, yet from these Arsaces according to some was descended; according to others he was a Bactrian, and withdrawing himself from the increasing power of Diodotus, occasioned the revolt of Parthia.
+We have enlarged on the subject of the Parthian customs in the sixth book of historical commentaries, and in the second of those, which are a sequel to Polybius: we shall omit what we said, in order to avoid repetition; adding this only, that Poseidonius affirms that the council of the Parthians is composed of two classes, one of relatives, (of the royal family,) and another of wise men and magi, by both of which kings are chosen.
ARIA and Margiana, which are the best districts in this portion of Asia, are partly composed of valleys enclosed by
Aria borders upon Bactriana, and the mountain
Drangiana as far as Carmania furnished jointly with Aria payment of the tribute. The greater part of this country is situated at the foot of the southern side of the mountains; some tracts however approach the northern side opposite Aria.
+Arachosia, which belongs to the territory of Aria, is not far distant; it lies at the foot of the southern side of the mountains, and extends to the river Indus.
+The length of Aria is about 2000 stadia, and the breadth of the plain 300 stadia. Its cities are Artacaëna, Alexandreia, and Achaia, which are called after the names of their founders.
+The soil produces excellent wines, which may be kept for three generations in unpitched vessels.
Margiana is like this country, but the plain is surrounded by deserts. Antiochus Soter admired its fertility; he enclosed a circle of
SOME parts of Bactria lie along Aria to the north, but the greater part stretches beyond (Aria) to the east. It is an extensive country, and produces everything except oil.
+The Greeks who occasioned its revolt became so powerful by means of the fertility and advantages of the country, that they became masters of Ariana and India, according to Apollodorus of Artamita. Their chiefs, particularly Menander, (if he really crossed the Hypanis to the east and reached Isamus,)
Their cities were Bactra, which they call also Zariaspa, (a river of the same name flows through it, and empties itself into the Oxus,) and Darapsa,
Anciently the Sogdiani and Bactriani did not differ much from the nomades in their mode of life and manners, yet the manners of the Bactriani were a little more civilized. Onesicritus however does not give the most favourable account of this people. Those who are disabled by disease or old age are thrown alive to be devoured by dogs kept expressly for this purpose, and whom in the language of the country they call entombers.
Alexander, it is said, founded eight cities in Bactriana and Sogdiana; some he razed, among which were Cariatæ in Bactriana, where Callisthenes was seized and imprisoned; Maracanda in Sogdiana, and Cyra, the last of the places founded by Cyrus, situated upon the river Iaxartes, and the boundary of the Persian empire. This also, although it was attached to Cyrus, he razed on account of its frequent revolts.
+Alexander took also, it is said, by means of treachery, strong fortified rocks; one of which belonged to Sisimithres in Bactriana, where Oxyartes kept his daughter Roxana; another to Oxus in Sogdiana, or, according to some writers, to Ariamazas. The stronghold of Sisimithres is described by historians to have been fifteen stadia in height, and eighty stadia in circuit. On the summit is a level ground, which is fertile and capable of maintaining 500 men. Here Alexander was entertained with sumptuous hospitality, and here he espoused Roxana the daughter of Oxyartes. The height of the fortress in Sogdiana is double the height of this. It was near these places that he destroyed the city of the Branchidæ, whom Xerxes settled there, and who had voluntarily accompanied him from their own country. They had delivered up to the Persians the riches of the god at Didymi, and the treasure there deposited. Alexander destroyed their city in abhorrence of their treachery and sacrilege.
Aristobulus calls the river, which runs through Sogdiana, Polytimetus, a name imposed by the Macedonians, as they imposed many others, some of which were altogether new, others were deflections
It is said that on digging near the river Ochus a spring of oil was discovered. It is probable, that as certain nitrous, astringent, bituminous, and sulphurous fluids permeate the earth, greasy fluids may be found, but the rarity of their occurrence makes their existence almost doubtful.
The Iaxartes is distinct from the Oxus from its commencement to its termination, and empties itself into the same sea. Their mouths, according to Patrocles, are about 80 parasangs distant from each other. The Persian parasang some say contains 60, others 30 or 40, stadia.
+When I was sailing up the Nile, schœni of different measures were used in passing from one city to another, so that the same number of schœni gave in some places a longer, in others a shorter, length to the voyage. This mode of computation has been handed down from an early period, and is continued to the present time.
In proceeding from Hyrcania towards the rising sun as far as Sogdiana, the nations beyond (within?) the Taurus were known first to the Persians, and afterwards to the Macedonians and Parthians. The nations lying in a straight line
It is not generally admitted, that persons have passed round by sea from India to Hyrcania, but Patrocles asserts that it may be done.
It is said that the termination of Taurus, which is called Imaus, approaches close to the Indian Sea, and neither advances towards nor recedes from the East more than India itself. But on passing to the northern side, the sea contracts (throughout the whole coast) the length and breadth of India, so as to shorten on the East the portion of Asia we are now
The greatest length of this portion, reckoned from the Hyrcanian Sea to the (Eastern) Ocean opposite Imaus, is about 30,000 stadia, The arguments contained in this paragraph on the whole appear to me strange; they rest on a basis which it is difficult to comprehend; they establish explicitly a proposition which disagrees with what the author has said elsewhere, and lastly they present an enormous geographical error. It will therefore be useful to the reader to explain, as far as I understand it the argument of our author. 1.The exact form of the chlamys is unknown to us, but it was such, that its greatest 2. The greatest 3. The meridian which passes at the distance of 35,000 stadia from the eastern or western extremities of the Habitable Earth, is that which, drawn from the mouth of the Hyrcanian Sea to the Northern Ocean, and prolonged in another direction through the mouth of the Persian Gulf to the sea called Erythræan, would pass through the city Artemita. Consequently it is on the meridian of Artemita that we must look for the greatest breadth of the Habitable Earth. 4. On this same meridian, we must reckon from the parallel of the last habitable country in the south to the mouth of the Persian Gulf; about 8000 stadia; then from the mouth of the Persian Gulf to Artemita, 8000 stadia; and from Artemita to the bottom of the Hyrcanian Sea, 8000 stadia: total 24,000 stadia. 5. It being established that the breadth of the Habitable Earth is 30,000 stadia, and not to extend it northwards beyond the parallel of the mouth of the Hyrcanian Sea, where it communicates with the Northern Ocean, the distance to this point from the bottom of this same sea must. be calculated at 6000 stadia. less than 10,000 stadia.
This passage therefore seems to present great difficulties. The difficulties respecting the parallel can only be perceived by an examination and comparison of the numerous passages where our author indicates the direction of the chain of mountains which form the Taurus.greatest length,
and 10,000 stadia as its greatest breadth,
Strabo proceeds to prove what he had just advanced respecting its greatest length. Then he should, it seems, have endeavoured to furnish us, in the same manner, with a proof that its greatest breadth is not more, as he says, than 10,000. But in what follows there is nothing advanced on this point; all that he says is to develope another proposition, viz. that the extent of the Hyrcanian—Caspian Sea is at the utmost 6000 stadia.
What Euripides expresses in the following lines is said to be a custom among them; they lament the birth of the new-born on account of the many evils to which they are exposed; but the dead, and one at rest from his troubles, is carried forth from his home with joy and gratulation.
Other tribes do not put to death even the greatest offenders, but only banish them from their territories together with their children; which is contrary to the custom of the Derbices, who punish even slight offences with death. The Derbices worship the earth. They neither sacrifice, nor eat the female of any animal. Persons who attain the age of above seventy years are put to death by them, and their nearest relations eat their flesh. Old women are strangled, and then buried. Those who die under seventy years of age are not eaten, but are only buried.
+The Siginni in general practise Persian customs. They have small horses with shaggy hair, but which are not able to carry a rider. Four of these horses are harnessed together, driven by women, who are trained to this employment from childhood. The best driver marries whom she pleases. Some, they say, make it their study to appear with heads as long as possible, and with foreheads projecting over their chins.
+The Tapyrii have a custom for the men to dress in black, and wear their hair long, and the women to dress in white, and wear their hair short. [They live between the Derbices and Hyrcani.]
The Caspii starve to death those who are above seventy years old, by exposing them in a desert place. The exposed are observed at a distance; if they are dragged from their resting-place by birds, they are then pronounced happy; but if by wild beasts, or dogs, less fortunate; but if by none of these, ill-fated.
SINCE the Taurus constitutes the northern parts of Asia, which are called also the parts within the Taurus, I propose to speak first of these.
+They are situated either entirely,—or chiefly, among the mountains. Those to the east of the Caspian Gates admit of a shorter description on account of the rude state of the people, nor is there much difference whether they are referred to one climate
Media lies towards the west, an extensive country, and formerly powerful; it is situated in the middle of Taurus, which here has many branches, and contains large valleys, as is the case in Armenia.
This mountain has its beginning in Caria and Lycia, but does not exhibit there either considerable breadth or height. It first appears to have a great altitude opposite the Chelidoneæ,
From the south flow both rivers, the Euphrates and the Tigris, which encircle Mesopotamia, and approach close to each other at Babylonia, and then discharge themselves into the sea on the coast of Persia. The Euphrates is the larger river, and traverses a greater tract of country with a tortuous course, it rises in the northern part of Taurus, and flows toward the west through Armenia the Greater, as it is called, to Armenia the Less, having the latter on the right and Acilisene on the left hand. It then turns to the south, and at its bend touches the boundaries of Cappadocia. It leaves this and Commagene on the right hand; on the left Acilisene and Sophene,
The Tigris takes its course from the southern part of the same mountains to Seleucia,
The sources of the Tigris and of the Euphrates are distant from each other about 2500 stadia.
Towards the north there are many forks which branch away from the Taurus. One of these is called Anti-Taurus, for there the mountain had this name, and includes Sophene in a valley situated between Anti-Taurus and the Taurus.
+Next to the Anti-Taurus on the other side of the Euphrates, along the Lesser Armenia, there stretches towards the north a large mountain with many branches, one of which is called Paryadres,
The southern mountains on the other side of the Euphrates, extending towards the east from Cappadocia and Commagene,above
these cities, would appear to mean overhanging them both, as it is situated between them.
In the middle of these branches are situated Media and Armenia, which comprise many mountains, and many mountain plains, as well as plains and large valleys. Numerous small tribes live around among the mountains, who are for the most part robbers.
+We thus place within the Taurus Armenia and Media, to which belong the Caspian Gates.
In our opinion these nations may be considered as situated to the north, since they are within the Taurus. But Eratosthenes, having divided Asia into southern and northern portions, and what he calls seals, (or sections,)
MEDIA is divided into two parts, one of which is called the Greater Media. Its capital is Ecbatana,
The other division is Atropatian Media. It had its name from Atropatus, a chief who prevented this country, which is a part of Greater Media, from being subjected to the dominion of the Macedonians. When he was made king he established the independence of this country; his successors continue to the present day, and have at different times contracted marriages with the kings of Armenia, Syria, and Parthia.
Atropatian Media borders upon Armenia and Matiane
According to Apollonides its strength is not inconsiderable, since it can furnish 10,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry.
+It contains a lake called Spauta,
The summer palace is at Gazaka, situated in a plain; the winter palace
The other parts of this country are fertile, but that towards the north is mountainous, rugged, and cold, the abode of the mountain tribes of Cadusii Amardi, Tapyri, Curtii, and other similar nations, who are migratory, and robbers. These people are scattered over the Zagrus and Niphates. TheCurtii in Persia, and Mardi, (for so they call the Amardi,) and those in Armenia, and who bear the same name at present, have the same kind of character.
The Cadusii have an army of foot soldiers not inferior in number to that of the Ariani. They are very expert in throwing the javelin. In the rocky places the soldiers engage in battle on foot, instead of on their horses. The expedition of Antony was harassing to the army, not by the nature of the country, but by the conduct of their guide, Artavasdes, king of the Armenii, whom Antony rashly made his adviser, and master of his intentions respecting the war, when at the same time that prince was contriving a plan for his destruction. Antony punished Artavasdes, but too late; the latter had been the cause of many calamities to the Romans, in conjunction with another person; he made the march from the Zeugma on the Euphrates to the borders of Atropatene to exceed 8000 stadia, or double the distance of the direct course, [by leading the army] over mountains, and places where there were no roads, and by a circuitous route.
Media is bounded on the east by Parthia, and by the mountains of the Cossæi, a predatory tribe. They once furnished the Elymæi, whose allies they were in the war against the Susii and Babylonians, with 13,000 archers. Nearchus says that there were four robber tribes; the Mardi, who were contiguous to the Persians; the Uxii and Elymæi, who were on the borders of the Persians and Susii; and the Cossæi, on those of the Medes; that all of them exacted tribute from the kings; that the Cossæi received presents, when the king, having passed his summer at Ecbatana went down to Babylonia; that Alexander attacked them in the winter time, and repressed their excessive insolence. Media is bounded on the east by these nations, and by the Parætaceni, who are contiguous to the Persians, and are mountaineers, and robbers; on the north by the Cadusii, who live above the Hyrcanian Sea, and by other nations, whom we have just enumerated; on the south by the Apolloniatis, which the ancients called Sitacene, and by the Zagrus, along which lies Massabatica, which belongs to Media, but according to others, to Elymæa; on the west by the Atropatii, and by some tribes of the Armenians.
+There are also Grecian cities in Media, founded by Macedonians, as Laodiceia, Apameia, Heracleia near Rhagæ, and Rhaga itself, founded by Nicator, who called it Europus, and the Parthians Arsacia, situated about 500 stadia to the south of the Caspian Gates, according to Apollodorus of Artemita.
The greater part of Media consists of high ground, and is cold; such are the mountains above Ecbatana, and the places about Rhagæ and the Caspian Gates, and the northern parts in general extending thence as far as Matiane and Armenia.
The herbage which constitutes the chief food of the horses we call peculiarly by the name of Medic, from its growing in Media in great abundance. The country produces Silphium,
Such then is the nature of the country with respect to magnitude; its length and breadth are nearly equal. The greatest breadth (length?)length.
The account of the tribute paid agrees with the extent and wealth of the country. Cappadocia paid to the Persians yearly, in addition to a tribute in silver,
Many of their customs are the same as those of the Armenians, from the similarity of the countries which they inhabit. The Medes however were the first to communicate them to the Armenians, and still before that time to the Persians, who were their masters, and successors in the empire of Asia.
Some writers say that Medeia, when with Jason she ruled in these countries, introduced this kind of dress, and concealed her countenance as often as she appeared in public in place of the king; that the memorials of Jason are, the Jasonian heroa,
It is a Median custom to elect the bravest person as king, but this does not generally prevail, being confined to the mountain tribes. The custom for the kings to have many wives is more general, it is found among all the mountaineers also, but they are not permitted to have less than five. In the same manner the women think it honourable for husbands to have as many wives as possible, and esteem it a misfortune if they have less than five.
+While the rest of Media is very fertile, the northern and mountainous part is barren. The people subsist upon the produce of trees. They make cakes of apples, sliced and
THE southern parts of Armenia lie in front of the Taurus, which separates Armenia from the whole of the country situated between the Euphrates and the Tigris, and which is called Mesopotamia. The eastern parts are contiguous to the Greater Media, and to Atropatene. To the north are the range of the mountains of Parachoathras lying above the Caspian Sea, the Albanians, Iberians, and the Caucasus. The Caucasus encircles these nations, and approaches close to the Armenians, the Moschic and Colchic mountains, and extends as far as the country of the people called Tibareni. On the west are these nations and the mountains Paryadres and Scydises, extending to the Lesser Armenia, and the country on the side of the Euphrates, which divides Armenia from Cappadocia and Commagene.
The Euphrates rises in the northern side of the Taurus, and flows at first towards the west through Armenia, it then makes a bend to the south, and intersects the Taurus between the Armenians, Cappadocians, and Commageni. Then issuing outwards and entering Syria, it turns towards the winter sun-rise as far as Babylon, and forms Mesopotamia with the Tigris. Both these rivers terminate in the Persian Gulf.
+Such is the nature of the places around Armenia, almost all of them mountainous and rugged, except a few tracts which verge towards Media.
+To the above-mentioned Taurus, which commences again in the country on the other side of the Euphrates, occupied
Above Mount Masius far to the east along Gordyene is the Niphates, then the Abus,
We have described the course of the Euphrates. The Araxes, after running to the east as far as Atropatene, makes a bend towards the west and north. It then first flows beside Azara, then by Artaxata,
There are many mountains in Armenia, and many mountain plains, in which not even the vine grows. There are also many valleys, some are moderately fertile, others are very productive, as the Araxenian plain, through which the river Araxes flows to the extremities of Albania, and empties itself into the Caspian Sea. Next is Sacasene, which borders upon Albania, and the river Cyrus; then Gogarene. All this district abounds with products of the soil, cultivated fruit trees and evergreens. It bears also the olive.
+There is Phauene, (Phanenæ, Phasiana?) a province of Armenia, Comisene, and Orchistene, which furnishes large bodies of cavalry.
They say that hollow masses are consolidated in the snow, which contain good water, enveloped as in a coat; that animals are bred in the snow, which Apollonides call scoleces,
According to historians, Armenia, which was formerly a small country, was enlarged by Artaxias and Zariadris, who had been generals of Antiochus the Great, and at last, after his overthrow, when they became kings, (the former of Sophene, Acisene, (Amphissene?) Odomantis, and some other places, the latter of the country about Artaxata,) they simultaneously aggrandized themselves, by taking away portions of the territory of the surrounding nations: from the Medes they took the Caspiana, Phaunitis, and Basoropeda; from the Iberians, the country at the foot of the Paryadres, the Chorzene, and Gogarene, which is on the other side of the Cyrus; from the Chalybes, and the Mosynœci, Carenitis and Xerxene, which border upon the Lesser Armenia, or are even parts of it; from the Cataones, Acilisene,
The cities of Armenia are Artaxata, called also Artax-
Not far from the city are the treasure-storehouses of Tigranes and Artavasdes, the strong fortresses Babyrsa, and Olane. There were others also upon the Euphrates. Ador, (Addon?) the governor of the fortress, occasioned the revolt of Artageræ, but the generals of Cæsar retook it after a long siege, and destroyed the walls.
There are many rivers in the country. The most celebrated are the Phasis and Lycus; they empty themselves into the Euxine; (Eratosthenes instead of the Lycus mentions the Thermodon, but erroneously;) the Cyrus and the Araxes into the Caspian, and the Euphrates and the Tigris into the Persian Gulf.
There are also large lakes in Armenia; one the Mantiane,blue,
this explanation of Strabo's appears to refer to the lake Spauta or Kapauta, above, c. xiii. § 2.
The next is Arsene,
There are mines of gold in the Hyspiratis,
This country is so well adapted, being nothing inferior in this respect to Media, for breeding horses, that the race of Nesean horses, which the kings of Persia used, is found here also; the satrap of Armenia used to send annually to the king of Persia
Not only do the Medes and Armenians, but the Albanians also, admire this kind of cavalry, for the latter use horses covered with armour.
Of the riches and power of this country, this is no slight proof, that when Pompey imposed upon Tigranes, the father of Artavasdes, the payment of 6000 talents of silver, he immediately distributed the money among the Roman army, to each soldier 50 drachmæ, 1000 to a centurion, and a talent to a Hipparch and a Chiliarch.
Theophanes represents this as the size of the country; its breadth to be 100 schœni, and its length double this number, reckoning the schœnus at 40 stadia; but this computation exceeds the truth. It is nearer the truth to take the
Such then is the nature of the country of Armenia, and its power.
There exists an ancient account of the origin of this nation to the following effect. Armenus of Armenium, a Thessalian city, which lies between Pheræ and Larisa on the lake Bœbe, accompanied Jason, as we have already said, in his expedition into Armenia, and from Armenus the country had its name, according to Cyrsilus the Pharsalian and Medius the Larisæan, persons who had accompanied the army of Alexander. Some of the followers of Armenus settled in Acilisene, which was formerly subject to the Sopheni; others in the Syspiritis, and spread as far as Calachene and Adiabene, beyond the borders of Armenia.
+The dress of the Armenian people is said to be of Thessalian origin; such are the long tunics, which in tragedies are called Thessalian; they are fastened about the body with a girdle, and with a clasp on the shoulder. The tragedians, for they required some additional decoration of this kind, imitate the Thessalians in their attire. The Thessalians in particular, from wearing a long dress, (probably because they inhabit the most northerly and the coldest country in all Greece,) afforded the most appropriate subject of imitation to actors for their theatrical representations. The passion for riding and the care of horses characterize the Thessalians, and are common to Armenians and Medes.
+The Jasonia are evidence of the expedition of Jason: some of these memorials the sovereigns of the country restored, as Parmenio restored the temple of Jason at Abdera.
It is supposed that Armenus and his companions called the Araxes by this name on account of its resemblance to the Peneius, for the Peneius had the name of Araxes from bursting through Tempe, and rending (
Some tribes of Ænianes are mentioned, some of whom settled in Vitia, others above the Armenians beyond the Abus and the Nibarus. These latter are branches of Taurus; the Abus is near the road which leads to Ecbatana by the temple of Baris (Zaris?).
+Some tribes of Thracians, surnamed Saraparæ, or decapitators, are said to live above Armenia, near the Gouranii and Medes. They are a savage people, intractable mountaineers, and scalp and decapitate strangers; for such is the meaning of the term Saraparæ.
+I have spoken of Medeia in the account of Media, and it is conjectured from all the circumstances that the Medes and Armenians are allied in some way to the Thessalians, descended from Jason and Medeia.
This is the ancient account, but the more recent, anc extending from the time of the Persians to our own age, may be given summarily, and in part only (as follows); Persians and Macedonians gained possession of Armenia, next those who were masters of Syria and Media. The last was Orontes, a descendant of Hydarnes, one of the seven Persians: it was then divided into two portions by Artaxias and Zariadris, generals of Antiochus the Great, who made war against the Romans. These were governors by permission of the king, but upon his overthrow they attached themselves to the Romans, were declared independent, and had the title of kings. Tigranes was a descendant of Artaxias, and had Armenia, properly so called. This country was contiguous to Media, to the Albani, and to the Iberes, and extended as far as Colchis, and Cappadocia upon the Euxine.
+Artanes the Sophenian was the descendant of Zariadris, and had the southern parts of Armenia, which verge rather to the west. He was defeated by Tigranes, who became master of the whole country. He had experienced many vicissitudes of fortune. At first he had served as a
Artavasdes, his successor, prospered as long as he continued a friend of the Romans. But having betrayed Antony to the Parthians in the war with that people, he suffered punishment for his treachery. He was carried in chains to Alexandria, by order of Antony, led in procession through the city, and kept in prison for a time. On the breaking out of the Actiac war he was then put to death. Many kings reigned after Artavasdes, who were dependent upon Cæsar and the Romans. The country is still governed in the same manner.
Both the Medes and Armenians have adopted all the sacred rites of the Persians, but the Armenians pay particu- lar reverence to Anaitis, and have built temples to her honour in several places, especially in Acilisene. They dedicate there to her service male and female slaves; in this there is nothing remarkable, but it is surprising that persons of the highest rank in the nation consecrate their virgin daughters to the goddess. It is customary for these women, after being
SUMMARY.
The Twelfth Book contains the remainder of Pontus, viz. Cappadocia, Gala tia, Bithynia, Mysia, Phrygia, and Mæonia: the cities, Sinope in Pontus, Heracleia, and Amaseia, and likewise Isauria, Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, with the islands lying along the coast; the mountains and rivers.
The nations speaking the same language are chiefly those who are bounded on the south by the Cilician Taurus,
Among the nations that speak the same language, the ancients placed the Cataonians by themselves, contra-dis- tinguishing them from the Cappadocians, whom they considered as a different people. In the enumeration of the nations they placed Cataonia after Cappadocia, then the Euphrates, and the nations on the other side of that river, so as to include even Melitene in Cataonia, although Melitene lies between Cataonia and the Euphrates, approaches close to Commagene, and constitutes a tenth portion of Cappadocia,
Cataonia is a tenth portion of Cappadocia. In our time each province had its own governor, and since no difference appears in the language of the Cataonians compared with that of the other Cappadocians, nor any difference in their customs, it is surprising how entirely the characteristic marks of a foreign nation have disappeared, yet they were distinct nations; Ariarathes, the first who bore the title of king of the Cappadocians, annexed the Cataonians to Cappadocia.
This country composes the isthmus, as it were, of a large peninsula formed by two seas; by the bay of Issus, extending to Cilicia Tracheia, and by the Euxine lying between Sinope and the coast of the Tibareni.
+The isthmus cuts off what we call the peninsula; the whole tract lying to the west of the Cappadocians, to which Herodotus
This Asia comprises, first, the nations on the east, Paphlagonians, Phrygians, and Lycaonians; then Bithynians, Mysians, and the Epictetus; besides these, Troas, and Hellespontia; next to these, and situated on the sea, are the Æolians and Ionians, who are Greeks; the inhabitants of the remaining portions are Carians and Lycians, and in the inland parts are Lydians.
+We shall speak hereafter of the other nations.
The Macedonians obtained possession of Cappadocia after it had been divided by the Persians into two satrapies, and permitted, partly with and partly without the consent of the people, the satrapies to be altered to two kingdoms, one of which they called Cappadocia Proper, and Cappadocia
We are ignorant at present how Cappadocia the Great was at first distributed; upon the death of Archelaus the king, Cæsar and the senate decreed that it should be a Roman province. But when the country was divided in the time of Archelaus and of preceding kings into ten provinces, they reckoned five near the Taurus, Melitene, Cataonia, Cilicia, Tyanitis, and Garsauritis; the remaining five were Laviansene, Sargarausene, Saravene, Chamanene, Morimene. The Romans afterwards assigned to the predecessors of Archelaus an eleventh province formed out of Cilicia, consisting of the country about Castabala and Cybistra,
MELITENE resembles Commagene, for the whole of it is planted with fruit-trees, and is the only part of all Cappadocia which is planted in this manner. It produces oil, and the wine Monarites, which vies with the wines of Greece. It is situated opposite to Sophene, having the river Euphrates flowing between it and Commagene, which borders upon it. n the country on the other side of the river is Tomisa, a considerable fortress of the Cappadocians. It was sold to the prince of Sophene for a hundred talents. Lucullus presented it afterwards as a reward of valour to the Cappadocian prince for his services in the war against Mithridates.
Cataonia is a plain, wide and hollow,
In the Anti-Taurus are deep and narrow valleys, in which is situated Comana,
The river Sarus flows through this city, and passes out through the valleys of the Taurus to the plains of Cilicia, and to the sea lying below them.
The Pyramus,The time will come, when Pyramus, with its deep whirlpools, by ad- vaucing on the sea-shore, will reach the sacred Cyprus.
Something similar to this takes place in Egypt. The Nile is continually converting the sea into continent by an accumulation of earth; accordingly Herodotus calls Egypt a gift of the river, and Homer says, that the Pharos was formerly out at sea, not as it is at present connected with the mainland of Egypt.
[The third
Neither the plain of the Cataonians nor Melitene have any city, but strongholds upon the mountains, as Azamora, and Dastarcum, round which runs the river Carmalas.
In Morimene, among the Venasii, is a temple of Jupiter, with buildings capable of receiving nearly three thousand servants of the temple. It has a tract of sacred land attached to it, very fertile, and affording to the priest a yearly revenue of fifteen talents. The priest is appointed for life like the priest at Comana, and is next to him in rank.
Two provinces only have cities. In the Tyanitis is Tyana,Eusebeia at the Taurus.
Tyanitis is fertile, and the greatest part of it consists of plains. Tyana is built upon the mound of Semiramis, which is fortified with good walls. At a little distance from this city are Castabala and Cybistra, towns which approach still nearer to the mountain. At Castabala is a temple of Diana Perasia, where, it is said, the priestesses walk with naked feet unhurt upon burning coals. To this place some persons apply the story respecting Orestes and Diana Tauropolus, and say that the goddess was called Perasia, because she was conveyed from beyond (
In Tyanitis, one of the ten provinces above mentioned, is the city Tyana. But with these I do not reckon the cities that were afterwards added, Castabala, and Cybistra, and those in Cilicia Tracheia, to which belongs Elæussa, a small
In the Cilician province, as it is called, is Mazaca,Eusebeia,
with the addition at the Argæus,
for it is situated at the foot of the Argeus,
Mazaca is not adapted in other respects by nature for the settlement of a city, for it is without water, and unfortified. Through the neglect of the governors, it is without walls, perhaps intentionally, lest, trusting to the wall as to a fortification, the inhabitants of a plain, which has hills situated above it, and not exposed to the attacks of missile weapons, should addict themselves to robbery. The country about, although it consists of plains, is entirely barren and uncultivated, for the soil is sandy, and rocky underneath. At a little distance further there are burning plains, and pits full of fire to an extent of many stadia, so that the necessaries of life are brought from a distance. What seems to be a peculiar advantage (abundance of wood) is a source of danger. For though nearly the whole of Cappadocia is without timber, the Argæus is surrounded by a forest, so that wood may be procured near at hand, yet even the region lying below the forest contains fire in many parts, and springs of cold water; but as neither the fire nor the water break out upon the surface, the greatest part of the country is covered with herbage. In some parts the bottom is marshy, and flames burst out from the ground by night. Those acquainted with the country collect wood with caution; but there is danger to others, and particularly to cattle, which fall into these hidden pits of fire.
In the plain in front of the city, and about 40 stadia from it, is a river of the name of Melas,
Ariarathes the king filled in some narrow channels by which the Melas entered the Halys, and converted the neighbouring plain into a wide lake. There he selected some small islands like the Cyclades, where he passed his time in boyish and frivolous diversions. The barrier, however, was broken down all at once, and the waters again flowed abroad and swelled the Halys, which swept away a large part of the Cappadocian territory, and destroyed many buildings and plantations; it also damaged a considerable part of the country of the Galatians, who occupy Phrygia. In compensation for this injury he paid a fine of three hundred talents to the inhabitants, who had referred the matter to the decision of the Romans. The same was the case at Herpa; for he there obstructed the stream of the Carmalas, and, on the bursting of the dyke, the water damaged some of the places in the Cilician territories about Mallus; he was obliged to make compensation to those who had sustained injury.
Although the territory of the Mazaceni is destitute in many respects of natural advantages, it seems to have been preferred by the kings as a place of residence, because it was nearest the centre of those districts which supplied timber, stone for building, and fodder, of which a very large quantity was required for the subsistence of their cattle. Their city was almost a camp. The security of their persons and treasure
Mazaca is distant from Pontus
The breadth of the country from Pontus to the Taurus is about
In Cappadocia is found the red earth called the Sinopic, which is better than that of any other country. The Spanish only can rival it. It had the name of Sinopic, because the merchants used to bring it down from Sinope, before the traffic of the Ephesians extended as far as the people of Cappadocia. It is said that even plates of crystal and of the onyx stone were discovered by the miners of Archelaus near the country of the Galatians. There was a place where was found a white stone of the colour of ivory in pieces of the size of small whetstones, from which were made handles for small swords. Another place produced large masses of transparent stone for windows, which were exported.
+The boundary of Pontus and Cappadocia is a mountainous range parallel to the Taurus, commencing from the western extremities of Chammanene, (where stands Dasmenda, a fortress built upon a precipice,) and extending to the eastern parts of
When the Romans, after the defeat of Antiochus, first governed Asia, they made treaties of friendship and alliance both with the nations and with the kings. This honour was conferred upon the other kings separately and independently, but upon the king of Cappadocia in common with the nation. On the extinction of the royal race, the Romans admitted the independence of the Cappadocians according to the treaty of friendship and alliance which they had made with the nation. The deputies excused themselves from accepting the liberty which was offered to them, declaring that they were unable to bear it, and requested that a king might be appointed. The Romans were surprised that any people should be unwilling to enjoy liberty, but permitted
So much respecting the Greater Cappadocia.
+With regard to Cilicia Tracheia, which was annexed to the Greater Cappadocia, it will be better to describe it when we give an account of the whole of Cilicia.
MITHRIDATES Eupator was appointed King of Pontus. His kingdom consisted of the country bounded by the Halys,
In later times the Roman emperors made different divisions of the same country, appointing kings and rulers, making some cities free, and subjecting others to the authority of rulers, others again were left under the dominion of the Roman people.
+As we proceed in our description according to the present state of things, we shall touch slightly on their former condition, whenever it may be useful.
+I shall begin from Heracleia,
In sailing out of the Propontis into the Euxine Sea, on the left hand are the parts adjoining to Byzantium, (Constantinople,) and these belong to the Thracians. The parts on the left of the Pontus are called Aristera (or left) of Pontus; the parts on the right are contiguous to Chalcedon. Of these the first tract of country belongs to the Bithynians, the next to the Mariandyni, or, as some say, to the Caucones; next is that of the Paphlagonians, extending to the Halys, then that of the Cappadocians near the Pontus, and then a district reaching to Colchis.
It is generally acknowledged by writers, that the Bithynians, who were formerly Mysians, received this name from Bithynians and Thyni, Thracian people, who came and settled among them. They advance as a proof of their statement, first as regards the Bithynians, that there still exists in Thrace a people called Bithynians, and then, as regards the Thyni, that the sea-shore, near Apollonia
Such is the account given of these people.
There is not, however, the same agreement among writers with regard to the Mariandyni, and the Caucones. For they say that Heracleia is situated among the Mariandyni, and was founded by Milesians.
Theopompus says that Mariandynus, who governed a part of Paphlagonia, which was subject to many masters, invaded and obtained possession of the country of the Bebryces, and that he gave his own name to the territory which he had before occupied. It is also said that the Milesians who first founded Heracleia, compelled the Mariandyni, the former possessors of the place, to serve as Helots, and even sold them, but not beyond the boundaries of their country. For they were sold on the same conditions as the class of persons called Mnoans, who were slaves to the Cretans, and the Penestæ,
The Caucones, who, according to history, inhabited the line of sea-coast which extends from the Mariandyni as far as the river Parthenius, and to whom belonged the city Tieium,
for the territory extends from Heracleia, and the Mariandyni as far as the Leucosyri, whom we call Cappadocians. But the tribe of the Caucones about Tieium extends to the Parthenius; that of the Heneti, who occupy Cytorum,
Heracleia is a city with a good harbour, and of importance in other respects. It has sent out colonies, among which are the Cherronesus,
Between Chalcedon and Heracleia are several rivers, as the Psillis,
The Sangarius thus increased in bulk, and navigable, although not so formerly, is the boundary of Bithynia at the part of the coast where it discharges itself. In front of this coast is the island Thynia.
+In the territory of Heracleia grows the aconite.
+This city is distant from the temple at Chalcedon about
Tieium is now a small town and has nothing remarkable belonging to it, except that it was the birth-place of Philetærus, the founder of the family of the Attalic kings.
+Next is the river Parthenius, flowing through a country abounding with flowers; from these it obtained its name.
for at present, they say, no Heneti are to be found in Paphlagonia. Others say that it is a village on the shore distant ten schœni from Amastris. But Zenodotus writes the verse in this manner, the brave Pylæmenes led the Paphlagonians out of the country of the Heneti, where they have a race of wild mules;
From Heneta,
and says that it means the present Amisus. According to others it was a tribe bordering upon the Cappadocians, which engaged in an expedition with the Cimmerians, and were afterwards driven away into Adria. But the account most generally received is, that the Heneti were the most considerable tribe of the Paphlagonians; that Pylæmenes was descended from it; that a large body of this people accompanied him to the Trojan war; that when they had lost their leader they passed over to Thrace upon the capture of Troy; and in the course of their wanderings arrived at the present Henetic territory.
Some writers say that both Antenor and his sons participated in this expedition, and settled at the inner recess of the
The boundary of the Paphlagonians to the east is the river Halys, which flows from the south between the Syrians and the Paphlagonians; and according to Herodotus,
thus designating the people that lived at Themiscyra.the Amazons commanded a Syrian band, armed with spears with broad iron heads;
The river Halys forms the boundary of the Paphlagonians to the east; Phrygians and the Galatians settled among that people, on the south; and on the west Bithynians and Mariandyni (for the race of the Caucones has everywhere entirely disappeared); on the north the Euxine. This country is divided into two parts, the inland, and the maritime, extending from the Halys as far as Bithynia. Mithridates Eupator possessed the maritime part as far as Heracleia, and of the inland country he had the district nearest to Heracleia, some parts of which extended even beyond the Halys. These are also the limits of the Roman province of Pontus. The remainder was subject to chiefs, even after the overthrow of Mithridates.
+We shall afterwards speak of those Paphlagonians in the inland parts, who were not subject to Mithridates; we propose at present to describe the country which he governed, called Pontus.
After the river Parthenius is Amastris, bearing the same name as the princess by whom it was founded. It is
Ægialus is a line of sea-coast, in length more than 100 stadia. On it is a village of the same name,
The Erythini are said to be the present Erythrini, and to have their name from their (red) colour. They are two rocks.
Next to Ægialus is Carambis, a large promontory stretching towards the north, and the Scythian Chersonesus. We have frequently mentioned this promontory, and the Criu-metopon opposite it, which divides the Euxine into two seas.
Next to Carambis is Cinolis,
It is a village of the Sinopenses, with a harbour.
Next is Sinope itself, distant from Armene 50 stadia, the most considerable of all the cities in that quarter. It was founded by Milesians, and when the inhabitants had established a naval force they commanded the sea within the Cya-
The peninsula projects in a circular form; the shores are surrounded by a chain of rocks, and in some parts there are cavities, like rocky pits, which are called Chœnicides. These are filled when the sea is high. For the above reason, the place is not easily approached; besides which, along the whole surface of rock the road is covered with sharp-pointed stones, and persons cannot walk upon it with naked feet. The lands in the higher parts and above the city have a good soil, and are adorned with fields dressed as gardens, and this is the case in a still greater degree in the suburbs. The city itself is well secured with walls, and magnificently ornamented with a gymnasium, forum, and porticos. Notwithstanding these advantages for defence, it was twice taken; first by Pharnaces, who attacked it unexpectedly; afterwards by Lucullus, who besieged it while it was harassed by an insidious tyrant within the walls. For Bacchides,
Proceeding thence, next in order is the mouth of the river Halys. It has its name from the
Next to the mouth of the Halys is Gadilónitis, extending as far as the Saramene; it is a fertile country, wholly consisting of plains, and produces every kind of fruit. It affords also pasture for flocks of sheep which are covered
The Amiseni possess one part of this country. Pompey gave another to Deïotarus, as well as the tract about Pharnacia and Trapezus as far as Colchis and the Lesser Armenia. Pompey appointed him king of these people and countries: he had already inherited the tetrarchy of the Galatians, called the Tolistobogii. Upon his death various persons succeeded to the different parts of his kingdom.
Next to Gadilon
This city also was in the possession of the kings. Mithridates Eupator embellished it with temples, and added a part to it. Lucullus, and afterwards Pharnaces, who came from across the Bosporus, besieged it. Antony surrendered it to the kings of Pontus, after it had been declared free by Divus Cæsar. Then the Tyrant Strato oppressed the inhabitants, who again recovered their liberty under Cæsar Augustus after the battle of Actium. They are now in a prosperous condition. Among other fertile spots is Themiscyra,
Another river very similar to this, of the name of Iris,
Next to Themiscyra is Sidene, a fertile plain, but not watered in the same manner by rivers as Themiscyra. It has strongholds on the sea-coast, as Side,
Among the natives of Amisus
Next to Sidene is Pharnacia
In sailing along this coast from Amisus we first come to the Heracleian promontory;
I have already spoken of Colchis, and of the sea-coast beyond.
Above Trapezus and Pharnacia are situated Tibareni, Chaldæi, Sanni, (who were formerly called Macrones,
The present Chaldæi were anciently called Chalybes. It is in their territory chiefly that Pharnacia is situated. On the sea-coast it has natural advantages for the capture of the pelamydes. For this fish is first caught at this place. On the mainland there are at present mines of iron; formerly there were also mines of silver. The sea-shore along all these places is very narrow, for directly above it are hills, which abound with mines and forests; much, however, of the country is not cultivated. The miners derive their subsistence from the mines, and the fishermen from the fisheries, especially from the capture of pelamydes and dolphins. The dolphins pursue shoals of fish, the cordyla, the tunny, and even the pelamys; they grow fat on them, and as they approach the land incautiously, are easily taken. They are caught with a bait and then cut into pieces; large quantities of the fat are used for all purposes.
These I suppose are the people who are called by Homer Halizoni, who in his Catalogue follow the Paphlagonians. far from Chalybe,
or whether the people were formerly called Alybes instead of Chalybes. We cannot at present say that it is possible that Chaldæi should be read for Chalybes, but it cannot be maintained that formerly Chalybes could not be read for Alybes, espe-
This same people have now the name of Sapæi. For all these people were settled about Abdera, they also held Lemnos and the islands about Lemnos. Thus also Brygi, Briges, and Phryges are the same people; and Mysi, Mæones, and Meones are the same people. But it is unnecessary to multiply instances of this kind.one of the Saii exults in having a shield, which, without blame, I involuntarily left behind in a thicket.
The Scepsian (Demetrius) throws some doubt on the alteration of the name from Alybes to Chalybes, but not understanding what follows, nor what accords with it, nor, in particular, why the poet calls the Chalybes Alizoni, he rejects the opinion that there has been an alteration of name. In comparing his opinion with my own I shall consider also the hypotheses entertained by others.
Some persons alter the word to Alazones, others to Amazons, and Alybe
to Alope,
or Alobe,
calling the Scythians above the Borysthenes Alazones and Callipidæ, and by other names, about which Hellanicus, Herodotus, and Eudoxus have talked very absurdly; some say that the Amazons were situated between Mysia, Caria, and Lydia near Cyme, which is the opinion also of Ephorus, who was a native of the latter place. And this opinion may not be unreasonable, for he may mean the country which in later times was inhabited by the Æolians and Ionians, but formerly by Amazons. There are some cities, it is said, which have their names from the Amazons; as Ephesus, Smyrna, Cyme, and Myrina. But would any one think of inquiring in these places after Alybe, or, according to some writers, Alope, or Alobe; what would be the meaning of from afar,
or where is the silver mine?
These objections he solves by an alteration in the text, for he writes the verses in this manner,
But by this solution he has invented another fiction. For
The Scepsian (Demetrius) does not adopt the opinion of Ephorus, nor does he agree with those who suppose them to be the Halizoni about Pallene, whom we mentioned in the description of Macedonia. He is at a loss also to understand how any one could suppose that auxiliaries could come to the Trojans from the Nomades situated above the Borysthenes. He much approves of the opinion of Hecateus the Milesian, and of Menecrates of Elea, disciples of Xenocrates, and that of Palæphatus. The first of these says in his work entitled the Circuit of the Earth,
near the city Alazia is the river Odrysses, which after flowing through the plain of Mygdonia from the west, out of the lake Dascylitis, empties itself into the Rhyndacus.
He further relates that Alazia is now deserted, but that many villages of the Alazones through which the Odrysses flows are inhabited. In these villages Apollo is worsihpped with peculiar honours, and especially on the confines of the Cyziceni.
Menecrates, in his work the Circuit of the Hellespont,
says that above the places near Myrleia there is a continuous mountain tract occupied by the nation of the Halizoni. The name, he says, ought to be written with two l's, Hallizoni, but the poet uses one only on account of the metre.
Palæphatus says that Odius and Epistrophus levied their army from among the Amazons then living in Alope, but at present in Zeleia.
Do the opinions of these persons deserve approbation? For besides their alteration of the ancient text, and the position of this people, they neither point out the silver mines, nor where in Myrleatis Alope is situated, nor how they, who came thence to Troy, came from afar,
although it should be granted that there existed an Alope, or an Alazia. For these are much nearer Troy than the places about Ephesus. Those, however, are triflers, in the opinion of Demetrius, who speak of the existence of Amazons near Pygela, between Ephesus, Magnesia, and Priene, for the words from afar
do not agree with the spot; much less will they agree with a situation about Mysia, and Teuthrania. far from Chalybe.
For having conceded that, although at present there are not silver mines among the Chalybes, they might formerly have existed, he does not grant that they were far-famed, and worthy of notice, like the iron mines. But some one may say, what should prevent them from being as famous as the iron mines, or does an abundance of iron make a place celebrated, and not an abundance of silver? Again, if the silver mines had obtained celebrity in the age of Homer, but not in the heroic times can any one blame the poet's representation? How did their fame reach him? How did the fame of the copper mines at Temesa in Italy, or of the wealth of Thebes in Egypt, reach his ears, although Egyptian Thebes was situated almost at double the distance of the Chaldæi.
But Demetrius does not altogether agree with those whose opinions he espouses. For when he is describing the neighbourhood of Scepsis his own birth-place, he mentions Enea, a village, Argyria, and Alazonia, as near Scepsis, and the Æsepus;
With regard to Apollodorus, who mentions these places in his discourse on the array of the Trojan forces, we have
He will not be able to reply. Next we will ask the reason why he does not admit that some auxiliaries came from the country on the other side of the Halys. For if it was the case, that all the rest were living on this side the Halys, except the Thracians, nothing prevented this one body of allies from coming from afar, from the country beyond the Leuco- Syrians? Or, was it possible for the persons immediately engaged in the war to pass over from those places, and from the country beyond them, as the Amazons, Treres, and Cimmerians, but impossible for allies to do so?
The Amazons were not allies, because Priam had fought in alliance with the Phrygians against them: at that time, says Priam, I was among their auxiliaries on that day, when the Amazons came to attack them.
The people also who were living on the borders of the country of the Amazons were not situated at so great a distance that it was difficult to send for them from thence, nor did any animosity exist, I suppose, at that time to prevent them from affording assistance.
Nor is there any foundation for the opinion, that all the ancients agree that no people from the country beyond the Halys took part in the Trojan war. Testimony may be found to the contrary. Mæandrius at least says that Heneti came from the country of the Leuco-Syrians to assist the Tro- jans in the war; that they set sail thence with the Thracians, and settled about the recess of the Adriatic; and that the Heneti, who had no place in the expedition, were Cappadocians. This account seems to agree with the circumstance, that the people inhabiting the whole of that part of Cappadocia near the Halys, which extends along Paphlagonia, speak two dialects, and that their language abounds with Paphlagonian names, as
and says, that Hecatæus the Milesian understands Henete to mean Amisus. But we have shown that Amisus belongs to the Leuco-Syrians, and is situated beyond the Halys.
He also somewhere says that the poet obtained his knowledge of the Paphlagonians, situated in the interior, from persons who had travelled through the country on foot, but that he was not acquainted with the sea-coast any more than with the rest of the territory of Pontus; for otherwise he would have mentioned it by name. We may, on the contrary, after the description which has just been given of the country, retort and say that he has traversed the whole of the sea-coast, and has omitted nothing worthy of record which existed at that time. It is not surprising that he does not mention Heracleia, Amastris, or Sinope, for they were not founded; nor is it strange that he should omit to speak of the interior of the country; nor is it a proof of ignorance not to specify by name many places which were well known, as we have shown in a preceding part of this work.
+He says that Homer was ignorant of much that was remarkable in Pontus, as rivers and nations, otherwise he would have mentioned their names. This may be admitted with respect to some very remarkable nations and rivers, as the Scythians, the Palus Mæotis, and the Danube. For he would not have described the Nomades, by characteristic signs, as living on milk, Abii, a people without certain means of subsistence, most just
and renowned Hippemolgi,
(milkers of mares,) and not distinguished them as Scythians, or Sauromatæ, or Sarmatæ, if, indeed, they had these names among the Greeks (at that time). Nor in mentioning the Thracians and Mysians, who live near the Danube, would he have passed over in silence the Danube itself, one of the largest rivers, particularly as, in other instances, he is inclined to mark the boundaries of places by rivers; nor in speaking of the Cimmerians would he have omitted the Bosporus, or the Mæotis.
It is evident from all these circumstances that every person who concludes that because a certain thing is not mentioned by the poet he was therefore ignorant of it, uses a bad argument; and we must prove by several examples that it is bad, for many persons employ this kind of evidence to a great extent. We must refute them therefore by producing such instances as these which follow, although we shall repeat what has been already said.
+If any one should maintain that the poet was not acquainted with a river which he has not mentioned, we should say that his argument is absurd, for he has not mentioned by name even the river Meles, which runs by Smyrna, his birth-place according to many writers, while he has mentioned the rivers Hermus and Hyllus by name, but yet not the Pactolus,
The argument drawn from this is false; the true argument would have been to show that the poet has asserted what is not true. Apollodorus has not succeeded in this attempt, and he has more particularly failed when he ventures to call by the name of fiction the renowned Hippemolgi and Galactophagi.
So much then in reply to Apollodorus. I now return to the part of my description which follows next in order.
Above the places about Pharnacia and Trapezus are the Tibareni, and Chaldæi, extending as far as the Lesser Armenia.
+The Lesser Armenia is sufficiently fertile. Like Sophene it was always governed by princes who were sometimes in alliance with the other Armenians, and sometimes acting independently. They held in subjection the Chaldæi and Tibareni. Their dominion extended as far as Trapezus and Pharnacia. When Mithridates Eupator became powerful, he made himself master of Colchis, and of all those places which were ceded to him by Antipater the son of Sisis. He bestowed however so much care upon them, that he built seventy-five strongholds, in which he deposited the greatest part of his treasure. The most considerable of these were Hydara, Basgedariza, and
All the mountainous range of the Paryadres has many such convenient situations for fortresses, being well supplied with water and timber, it is intersected in many places by abrupt ravines and precipices. Here he built most of the strongholds for keeping his treasure. At last on the invasion of the country by Pompey he took refuge in these extreme parts of the kingdom of Pontus, and occupied a mountain near Dasteira in Acilisene, which was well supplied with water. The Euphrates also was near, which is the boundary between Acilisene and the Lesser Armenia. Mithridates remained there till he was besieged and compelled to fly across the mountains into Colchis, and thence to Bosporus. Pompey built near this same place in the Lesser Armenia Nicopolis, a city which yet subsists, and is well inhabited.
The Lesser Armenia, which was in the possession of different persons at different times, according to the pleasure of the Romans, was at last subject to Archelaus. The Tibareni, however, and Chaldæi, extending as far as Colchis, Pharnacia, and Trapezus, are under the government of Pythodoris, a prudent woman, and capable of presiding over the management of public affairs. She is the daughter of Pythodorus of Tralles. She was the wife of Polemo, and reigned conjointly with him for some time. She succeeded, after his death, to the throne. He died in the country of the Aspurgiani, a tribe of barbarians living about Sindica. She had two sons by Polemo, and a daughter who was married to Cotys the Sapæan. He was treacherously murdered, and she became a widow. She had children by him, the eldest of whom is now king. Of the sons of Pythodoris, one as a private person, administers, together with his mother, the affairs of the kingdom, the other has been lately made king of the Greater Armenia. Pythodoris however married Archelaus, and remained with him till his death. At present she is a widow, and in possession of the countries before mentioned, and of others still more beautiful, of which we shall next speak.
Sidene, and Themiseyra are contiguous to Pharnacia. Above these countries is situated Phanarœa, containing the best portion of the Pontus, for it produces excellent oil and
There also is the Cainochorion, (New Castle,) as it is called, a fortified and precipitous rock, distant from Cabeira less than 200 stadia. On its summit is a spring, which throws up abundance of water, and at its foot a river, and a deep ravine. The ridge of rocks on which it stands is of very great height, so that it cannot be taken by siege. It is enclosed with an excellent wall, except the part where it has been demolished by the Romans. The whole country around is so covered with wood, so mountainous, and destitute of water, that an enemy cannot encamp within the distance of 120 stadia. There Mithridates had deposited his most valuable effects, which are now in the Capitol, as offerings dedicated by Pompey.
+Pythodoris is in possession of all this country; (for it is contiguous to that of the barbarians, which she holds as a conquered country;) she also holds the Zelitis and the Megalopolitis. After Pompey had raised Cabeira to the rank of a city, and called it Diospolis, Pythodoris improved it still more, changed its name to Sebaste, (or Augusta,) and considers it a royal city.
+She has also the temple of Men surnamed of Pharnaces, at Ameria, a village city, inhabited by a large body of sacred menials, and having annexed to it a sacred territory, the produce of which is always enjoyed by the priest. The kings held this temple in such exceeding veneration, that this was the Royal oath, by the fortune of the king, and by Mēn of
This is also the temple of the moon, like that among the Albani, and those in Phrygia, namely the temple of Mēn in a place of the same name, the temple of Ascæus at Antioch in Pisidia, and another in the territory of Antioch.
Above Phanarœa is Comana
We have formerly mentioned Dorylaus the Tactician, who was my mother's great grandfather; and another Dorylaus, who was the nephew of the former, and the son of Philetærus; I said that, although he had obtained from Mithridates the highest dignities and even the priesthood of Comana, he was detected in the fact of attempting the revolt of the kingdom to the Romans. Upon his fall the family also was disgraced. At a later period however Moaphernes, my mother's uncle, rose to distinction near upon the dissolution of the kingdom. But a second time he and his friends shared in the misfortunes of the king, except those persons who had anticipated the calamity and deserted him early. This was the case with my maternal grandfather, who, perceiving the unfortunate progress of the affairs of the king in the war with Lucullus, and at the same time being alienated from him by resentment for having lately put to death his nephew Tibius, and his son Theophilus. undertook to avenge their wrongs and his own. He obtained pledges of security from Lucullus, and caused fifteen fortresses to revolt; in return he received magnificent promises. On the arrival of Pompey, who succeeded Lucullus in the conduct of the war, he regarded as enemies (in consequence of the enmity which subsisted between himself and that general) all those persons who had performed any services that were acceptable to Lucullus. On his return home at the conclusion of the war he prevailed upon the senate not to confirm those honours which Lucullus had promised to some persons of
The affairs of Comana were administered as has been described in the time of the kings. Pompey, when he had obtained the power, appointed Archelaus priest, and assigned to him a district of two schoeni, or 60 stadia in circuit, in addition to the sacred territory, and gave orders to the inhabitants to obey Archelaus. He was their governor, and master of the sacred slaves who inhabited the city, but had not the power of selling them. The slaves amounted to no less than six thousand.
+This Archelaus was the son of that Archelaus who received honours from Sylla and the senate; he was the friend of Gabinius, a person of consular rank. When the former was sent into Syria, he came with the expectation of accompanying in, when he was making preparations for the Parthian war, out the senate would not permit him to do so, and he abandoned this, and conceived a greater design.
+Ptolemy, the father of Cleopatra, happened at this time to be ejected from his kingdom by the Ægyptians. His daughter however, the elder sister of Cleopatra, was in possession of the throne. When inquiries were making in order to marry her to a husband of royal descent, Archelaus presented himself to those who were negotiating the affair, and pretended to be the son of Mithridates Eupator. He was accepted, but reigned only six months. He was killed by Gabinius in a pitched battle, in his attempt to restore Ptolemy.
His son however succeeded to the priesthood, and Lycomedes succeeded him, to whom was assigned an additional district of four schœni (or 120 stadia) in extent. When Lycomedes was dispossessed he was succeeded by Dyteutus, the son of Adiatorix, who still occupies the post, and appears to have obtained this honour from Cæsar Augustus on account of his good conduct on the following occasion.
+Cæsar, after leading in triumph Adiatorix, with his wife and children, had resolved to put him to death together with the eldest of his sons. Dyteutus was the eldest; but when the second of his brothers told the soldiers who were leading them away to execution that he was the eldest, there was a contest between the two brothers, which continued for some time, till
Comana is populous, and is a considerable mart, frequented by persons coming from Armenia. Men and women assemble there from all quarters from the cities and the country to celebrate the festival at the time of the exodi or processions of the goddess. Some persons under the obligation of a vow are always residing there, and perform sacrifices in honour of the goddess.
+The inhabitants are voluptuous in their mode of life. All their property is planted with vines, and there is a multitude of women, who make a gain of their persons, most of whom are dedicated to the goddess. The city is almost a little Corinth. On account of the multitude of harlots at Corinth, who are dedicated to Venus, and attracted by the festivities of the place, strangers resorted thither in great numbers. Merchants and soldiers were quite ruined, so that hence the proverb originated, every man cannot go to Corinth.
Such is the character of Comana.
All the country around is subject to Pythodoris, a .d she possesses also Phanarœa, the Zelitis, and the Megalopolitis.
+We have already spoken of Phanarœa.
+In the district Zelitis is the city Zela,
There remain to be described the parts of Pontus, situated between this country and the districts of Amisus, and Sinope, extending towards Cappadocia, the Galatians, and the Paphlagonians.
+Next to the territory of the Amiseni is Phazemonitis,
The part of Phazemonitis towards Phanarœa is occupied by a lake, sea-like in magnitude, called Stiphane,
Above the district of Amasis are the hot springs
My native city, Amaseia, lies in a deep and extensive valley, through which runs the river Iris.
A valley extends from the river; it is not very wide at its commencement, but afterwards increases in breadth, and forms the plain called the Chiliocomon (The Thousand Villages). Next is the Diacopene, and the Pimolisene, the whole of which is a fertile district extending to the Halys.
+These are the northern parts of the country of the Amasenses, and are in length about 500 stadia. Then follows the remainder, which is much longer, extending as far as Babanomus, and the Ximene,
So much respecting Pontus.
Next to Pompeiopolis is the remainder of the inland parts of Paphlagonia as far as Bithynia towards the west. This tract, although small in extent, was governed, a little before our time, by several princes, but their race is extinct; at present it is in possession of the Romans. The parts bordering upon Bithynia are called Timonitis; the country of Geza- a goat
in the Paphlagonian language. In ecclesiastical writers it is often mentioned as the metropolitan see of Paphlagonia. The orchards of this town were celebrated for their apples. Athen. iii.—
Eudoxus, without defining the spot, says, that fossil fish
We have described Paphlagonia bordering upon Pontus; and as the Bithynians border upon the Paphlagonians towards the west, we shall endeavour to describe this region also. We shall then set out again from the Bithynians and the Paphlagonians, and describe the parts of the country next to these nations lying towards the south; they extend as far as the Taurus, and are parallel to Pontus and Cappadocia; for some order and division of this kind are suggested by the nature of the places.
BITHYNIA is bounded on the east by the Paphlagonians, Mariandyni, and by some tribes of the Epicteti; on the north by the line of the sea-coast of the Euxine, extending from the mouth of the Sangarius
Next follows the coast of the Chalcedonians, the bay of Astacus,
Here Nicomedia
On the same bay was Astacus a city founded by Megareans and Athenians; it was afterwards again colonized by Dœdalsus. The bay had its name from the city. It was razed by Lysimachus. The founder of Nicomedia transferred its inhabitants to the latter city.
There is another bay
The Prusienses having shown a friendly disposition towards the Romans in their administration of public affairs, obtained their freedom. But the Apamies were obliged to admit a Roman colony.
+Prusa, situated below the Mysian Olympus, on the borders of the Phrygians and the Mysians, is a well-governed city; it was founded by Cyrus,
It is difficult to define the boundaries of the Bithynians, Mysians, Phrygians, of the Doliones about Cyzicus, and of the Mygdones and Troes; it is generally admitted that each of these tribes ought to be placed apart from the other. A proverbial saying is applied to the Phrygians and Mysians, The boundaries of the Mysi and Phryges are apart from one another,
but it is difficult to define them respectively. The reason is this; strangers who came into the country were soldiers and barbarians; they had no fixed settlement in the country of which they obtained possession, but were, for the most part, wanderers, expelling others from their territory, and being expelled themselves. All these nations might be supposed to be Thracians, because Thracians occupy the country on the other side, and because they do not differ much from one another.
But as far as we are able to conjecture, we may place Mysia between Bithynia and the mouth of the Æsepus, contiguous to the sea, and nearly along the whole of Olympus. Around it, in the interior, is the Epictetus, nowhere reaching the sea, and extending as far as the eastern parts of the Ascanian lake and district, for both bear the same name. Part of this territory was Phrygian, and part Mysian; the Phrygian was further distant from Troy; and so we must understand the words of the poet
Phorcys, and the god-like Ascanius, were the leaders of the Phryges far from Ascania,
that is, the Phrygian Ascania; for the other, the Mysian Ascania, was nearer to the present Nicæa, which he mentions, when he says, Palmys, Ascanius, and Morys, sons of Hippotion, the leader of the Mysi, fighting in close combat, who came from the fertile soil of Ascania, as auxiliaries.
It is not then surprising that he should speak of an Ascanius, a leader of the Phrygians, who came from Ascania, and of an Ascanius, a leader of the Mysians, coming also from Ascania, for there is much repetition of names derived from rivers, lakes, and places.
The poet himself assigns the Æsepus as the boundary of the Mysians, for after having described the country above Ilium, and lying along the foot of the mountains subject to Æneas, and which he calls Dardania, he places next towards the north Lycia, which was subject to Pandarus, and where Zeleia
below Zeleia, towards the sea, on this side of Æsepus, lies the plain of Adrasteia, and Tereia, Pitya, and in general the present district of Cyzicene near Priapus,They who inhabited Zeleia, at the very foot of Ida, Aphneii Trojans, who drink of the dark stream of Æsepus;
In the inland parts of Bithynia is Bithynium,
That Bithynia was a colony of the Mysians, first Scylax of Caryanda will testify, who says that Phrygians and Mysians dwell around the Ascanian lake. The next witness is Dionysius, who composed a work on the foundation of cities.
He says that the straits at Chalcedon, and Byzantium, which are now called the Thracian, were formerly called the Mysian Bosporus. Some person might allege this as a proof that the Mysians were Thracians; and Euphorio says,
and thus also Alexander the Ætolian,
These authors testify the same thing, because the Ascanian lake is found in no other siuation but this. who have their dwellings near the Ascanian waters, on the margin of the Ascanian lake, where Dolion dwelt, the son of Silenus and of Melia.
Men distinguished for their learning, natives of Bithynia, were Xenocrates the philosopher, Dionysius the dialectician, Hipparchus, Theodosius and his sons the mathematicians, Cleophanes the rhetorician of Myrleia, and Asclepiades the physician of Prusa.on Spherics
still exists, and was printed in Paris in India,
and the Anabasis
(the Asiatic expedition) of Alexander,
was also born at Nicomedia towards the end of A. 1. 100.
To the south of the Paphlagonians are the Galatians, of whom there are three tribes; two of them, the Trocmi and the Tolistobogii, have their names from their chiefs; the third, the Tectosages, from the tribe of that name in Celtica. The Galatians took possession of this country after wandering about for a long period, and overrunning the country subject to the Attalic and the Bithynian kings, until they received by a voluntary cession the present Galatia, or Gallo-Græcia, as it is called. Leonnorius seems to have been the chief leader of these people when they passed over into Asia. There were three nations that spoke the same language, and in no respect differed from one another. Each of them was divided into four portions called tetrarchies, and had its own tetrarch, its own judge, and one superintendent of the army, all of whom were under the control of the tetrarch, and two subordinate super-
The Trocmi occupy the parts near Pontus and Cappadocia, which are the best which the Galatians possess. They have three walled fortresses, Tavium, a mart for the people in that quarter, where there is a colossal statue of Jupiter in brass, and a grove, which is used as a place of refuge; Mithridatium, which Pompey gave to Bogodiatarus, (Deïotarus?) having separated it from the kingdom of Pontus; and thirdly, Danala, where Pompey, when he was about to leave the country to celebrate his triumph, met Lucullus and delivered over to him as his successor the command of the war.
+This is the country which the Trocmi possess.
+The Tectosages occupy the parts towards the greater Phrygia near Pessinus,
Pessinus is the largest mart of any in that quarter. It contains a temple of the Mother of the Gods, held in the highest veneration. The goddess is called Agdistis. The priests anciently were a sort of sovereigns, and derived a large revenue from their office. At present their consequence is much diminished, but the mart still subsists. The sacred enclosure was adorned with fitting magnificence by the Attalic kings,
The mountain Dindymus is situated above the city; from Dindymus comes Dindymene, as from Cybela, Cybele. Near it runs the river Sangarius, and on its banks are the ancient dwellings of the Phrygians, of Midas, and of Gordius before his time, and of some others, which do not preserve the vestiges of cities, but are villages a little larger than the rest. Such is Gordium,
Next to Galatia towards the south is the lake Tatta,
SUCH is the description of Tatta. The places around Orcaorci, Pitnisus and the mountainous plains of Lycaonia, are cold and bare, affording pasture only for wild asses; there is a great scarcity of water, but wherever it is found the wells are very deep, as at Soatra, where it is even sold. Soatra is a village city near Garsabora (Garsaura?). Although the country is ill supplied with water, it is surprisingly well adapted for feeding sheep, but the wool is coarse. Some persons have acquired very great wealth by these flocks alone. Amyntas had above three hundred flocks of sheep in these
Here the Taurus approaches this country, separating Cappadocia and Lycaonia from Cilicia Tracheia. It is the boundary of the Lycaonians and Cappadocians, between Coropassus, a village of the Lycaonians, and Gareathyra (Garsaura), a small town of the Cappadocians. The distance between these fortressess is about 120 stadia.
To Lycaonia belongs Isaurica, near the Taurus, in which are the Isaura, two villages of the same name, one of which is surnamed Palæa, or the Old, the other [the New], the latter is well fortified.
Derbe,
For being in possession of Antiocheia near Pisidia, and the country as far as Apollonias,
Cremna is occupied by a Roman colony.
+Sagalassus is under the command of the same Roman governor, to whom all the kingdom of Amyntas is subject. It is distant from Apameia a day's journey, having a descent of nearly 30 stadia from the fortress. It has the name also of Selgessus. It was taken by Alexander.
+Amyntas made himself master of Cremna and passed into the country of the Homonadeis, who were supposed to be the most difficult to reduce of all the tribes. He had already got into his power most of their strong-holds, and had killed the tyrant himself, when he was taken prisoner by an artifice of the wife of the tyrant, whom he had killed, and was put to death by the people. Cyrinius (Quirinus)governor of Syria
in St. Luke. Tacitus (Ann. B. iii. c. 48) speaks of his expedition against the Ho- monadeis, and Josephus of his arrival in Syria, where he was sent with Coponius by Augustus.
Among the heights of Taurus, and in the midst of rocks and precipices for the most part inaccessible, is a hollow and fertile plain divided into several valleys. The inhabitants cultivate this plain, but live among the overhanging heights of the mountains, or in caves. They are for the most part armed, and accustomed to make incursions into the country of other tribes, their own being protected by mountains, which serve as a wall.
CONTIGUOUS to these, among other tribes of the Pisidians, are the Selgeis, the most considerable tribe of the nation.
+The greater part of the Pisidians occupy the summits of Taurus, but some tribes situated above Side
Artemidorus says that Selge, Sagalassus, Petnelissus, Adada, Tymbrias, Cremna, Pityassus, (Tityassus?) Amblada, Anabura, Sinda, Aarassus, Tarbassus, Termessus, are cities of the Pisidians. Of these some are entirely among the mountains, others extend on each side even as far as the country at the foot of the mountains, and reach to Pamphylia and Milyas, and border on Phrygians, Lydians, and Carians, all of whom are disposed to peace, although situated to the north.
The Pamphylians, who partake much of the character of the Cilician nation, do not altogether abstain from predatory enterprises, nor permit the people on the confines to live in peace, although they occupy the southern parts of the country at the foot of Taurus.
+On the confines of Phrygia and Caria, are Tabæ,
All the rest of the mountain tribes of the Pisidians whom I have spoken of are divided into states governed by tyrants, and follow like the Cilicians a predatory mode of life. It is said that anciently some of the Leleges, a wandering people, were intermixed with them, and from the similarity of their habits and manners settled there.
+Selge
The Selgic iris
Their position with respect to the Romans was that they possessed this tract on certain conditions. They sent ambassadors to Alexander and offered to receive his commands in the character of friends, but at present they are altogether subject to the Romans, and are included in what was formerly the kingdom of Amyntas.
THE people called Mysians, and Phrygians, who live around the so-called Mysian Olympus, border upon the Bithynians to the south. Each of these nations is divided into two parts. One is called the Greater Phrygia, of which Midas was king. A part of it was occupied by the Galatians. The other is the Lesser, or Phrygia on the Hellespont, or Phrygia around Olympus, and is also called Epictetus.
+Mysia is also divided into two parts; Olympic Mysia, which is continuous with Bithynia, and with the Epictetus, (which, Artemidorus says, was inhabited by the Mysians beyond the Danube,) and the part around the Caïcus,
This country, however, as we have frequently observed, has undergone so many changes, that it is uncertain whether the district around Sipylus,
The Lydians also, and the Mæones, whom Homer calls Meones, are in some way confounded with these people and with one another; some authors say that they are the same, others that they are different, nations. Add to this that some writers regard the Mysians as Thracians, others as Lydians, according to an ancient tradition, which has been preserved by Xanthus the Lydian, and by Menecrates of Elæa, who assign as the origin of the name Mysians, that the Lydians call the beech-tree (Oxya) Mysos, which grows in great abundance near Olympus, where it is said decimated persons
The confusion which has existed among the nations in this district, and even the fertility of the country within the Halys, particularly near the sea, have contributed to the invention of fables of this sort. The richness of the country provoked attacks, from various quarters, and at all times, of tribes who came from the opposite coast, or neighbouring people contended with one another for the possession of it. Inroads and migrations took place chiefly about the period of the Trojan war, and subsequently to that time, Barbarians as well as Greeks showing an eagerness to get possession of the territory of other nations. This disposition, however, showed itself before the time of the Trojan war; for there existed then tribes of Pelasgi, Caucones, and Leleges, who are said to have wandered, anciently, over various parts of Europe. The poet represents them as assisting the Trojans, but not as coming from the opposite coast. The accounts respecting the Phrygians and the Mysians are more ancient than the Trojan times.
+Two tribes bearing the name of Lycians, lead us to suppose that they are the same race; either the Trojan Lycians sent colonies to the Carians, or the Carian Lycians to the Trojans. Perhaps the same may be the case with the Cilicians, for they also are divided into two tribes; but we have not the same evidence that the present Cilicians existed before the Trojan times. Telephus may be supposed to have come with his mother from Arcadia; by her marriage with Teuthras, (who had received them as his guests,) Telephus was admitted into the
The Carians, who were formerly islanders, and Leleges,
it is said, settled on the continent with the assistance of the Cretans. They built Miletus, of which the founder was Sarpedon from Miletus in Crete. They settled the colony of Termilmæ in the present Lycia, but, according to Herodotus,
This account shows that the Solymi and Lycians were the same people, but the poet distinguishes them. He represents Bellerophon setting out from Lycia, and
That the common prize, proposed to be obtained by the conquerors, was the fertile country which I am describing, is confirmed by many circumstances which happened both before and after the Trojan times. When even the Amazons ventured to invade it, Priam and Bellerophon are said to have undertaken an expedition against these women. Anciently there were cities which bore the names of the Amazons. In the Ilian plain there is a hill
who, according to historians, was one of the Amazons, and they found this conjecture on the epithet, for horses are said to be which men call Batieia, but the immortals, the tomb of the bounding (
After the Trojan times, the migrations of Greeks and of Treres, the inroads of Cimmerians and Lydians, afterwards of Persians and Macedonians, and lastly of Galatians, threw everything into confusion. An obscurity arose not from these changes only, but from the disagreement between authors in their narration of the same events, and in their description of the same persons; for they called Trojans Phrygians, like the Tragic poets; and Lycians Carians, and similarly in other instances. The Trojans who, from a small beginning, increased so much in power that they became kings of kings, furnished a motive to the poet and his interpreters, for determining what country ought to be called Troy. For the poet calls by the common name of Trojans all their auxiliaries, as he calls their enemies Danai and Achæi. But certainly we should not give the name of Troy to Paphlagonia, or to Caria, or to Lycia, which borders upon it. I mean when the poet says,
We must endeavour, however, to distinguish as far as we are able one nation from another, notwithstanding this uncertainty. If anything relative to ancient history escapes my notice, it must be pardoned, for this is not the province of the geographer; my concern is with the present state of people and places.
There are two mountains situated above the Propontis, the Mysian Olympus
We shall afterwards speak of Troy, and of the places continuous with it on the south. At present we shall give an account of the places about Olympus, and of the adjoining country as far as the Taurus, and parallel to the parts which we have previously described.
+The country lying around Olympus is not well inhabited. On its heights are immense forests and strongholds, well adapt-
Cleon was a native of the village Gordium, which he afterwards enlarged, and erected into a city, giving it the name of Juliopolis. His first retreat and head-quarters was a place called Callydium, one of the strongest holds. He was of service to Antony in attacking the soldiers who collected money for Labienus, at the time that the latter occupied Asia, and thus hindered the preparations which he was making for his defence. In the Actian war he separated himself from Antony and attached himself to the generals of Cæsar; he was rewarded above his deserts, for in addition to what he received from Antony he obtained power from Cæsar, and exchanged the character of a freebooter for that of a petty prince. He was priest of Jupiter Abrettenus, the Mysian god, and a portion of the Morena was subject to him, which, like Abrettena, is Mysian. He finally obtained the priesthood of Comana in Pontus, and went to take possession of it, but died within a month after his arrival. He was carried off by an acute disease, occasioned either by excessive repletion, or, according to the account of those employed about the temple, inflicted by the anger of the goddess. The story is this. Within the circuit of the sacred enclosure is the dwelling of the priest and priestess. Besides other sacred observances relative to the temple, the purity of this enclosure is an especial object of vigilance, by abstinence from eating swine's flesh. The whole city, indeed, is bound to abstain from this food, and swine are not permitted to enter it. Cleon, however, immediately upon his arrival displayed his lawless disposition and character by violating this custom, as if he had come there not as a priest, but a polluter of sacred things.
The description of Olympus is as follows. Around it, to the north, live Bithynians, Mygdonians, and Doliones; the rest is occupied by Mysians and Epicteti. The tribes about Cyzicus
Cyzicus is an island
In this island of the Cyziceni is the mountain Artace, well wooded, and in front of it lies a small island of the same name; near it is the promontory Melas (or Black), as it is called, which is met with in coasting from Cyzicus to Priapus.
To Phrygian Epictetus belong the Azani, and the cities Nacoleia, Cotiæium,
Mysia extends in the inland parts from Olympene to Pergamene, and to the plain of Caïcus, as it is called; so that it lies between Ida and the Catacecaumene, which some place in Mysia, others in Mæonia.
Beyond the Epictetus to the south is the Greater Phrygia, leaving on the left Pessinus, and the parts about Orcaorci, and Lycaonia, and on the right Mæones, Lydians, and Carians. In the Epictetus are Phrygia Paroreia, and the country towards Pisidia, and the parts about Amorium,
The Paroreia
Synnada is not a large city. In front of it is a plain planted with olives, about 60 stadia in extent. Beyond is Docimia, a village, and the quarry of the Synnadic marble. This is the name given to it by the Romans, but the people of the country call it Docimite and Docimæan. At first the quarry produced small masses, but at present, through the extravagance of the Romans, pillars are obtained, consisting of a single stone and of great size, approaching the alabastrite marble in variety of colours; although the distant carriage of such heavy loads to the sea is difficult, yet both pillars and slabs of surprising magnitude and beauty are conveyed to Rome.
Apameia is a large mart of Asia, properly so called, and second in rank to Ephesus, for it is the common staple for merchandise brought from Italy and from Greece. It is built upon the mouth of the river Marsyas, which runs through the middle of it, and has its commencement above the city; being carried down to the suburb with a strong and precipitous current, it enters the Mæander,
Laodiceia,
The country around Laodiceia breeds excellent sheep, remarkable not only for the softness of their wool, in which they surpass the Milesian flocks, but for their dark or raven colour. The Laodiceans derive a large revenue from them, as the Colosseni do from their flocks, of a colour of the same name.
+Here the Caprus and the Lycus, a large river, enter the Mæander. From the Lycus, a considerable river, Laodiceia has the name of Laodiceia on the Lycus. Above the city is the mountain Cadmus, from which the Lycus issues, and another river of the same name as the mountain. The greater part of its course is under-ground; it then emerges, and unites with other rivers, showing that the country abounds with caverns and is liable to earthquakes. For of all countries Laodiceia is very subject to earthquakes, as also the neighbouring district Carura.
Carura
Phrygia Catacecaumene, (or the Burnt,) which is occupied by Lydians and Mysians, obtained this name from something of the following kind. In Philadelphia,
Apameia among other cities experienced, before the invasion of Mithridates, frequent earthquakes, and the king, on his arrival, when he saw the overthrow of the city, gave a hundred talents for its restoration. It is said that the same thing happened in the time of Alexander; for this reason it is probable that Neptune is worshipped there, although they are an inland people, and that it had the name of Celænæ from Celva- nus,
We must listen, however, to the ancient historians, and to the account of Xanthus, who composed a history of Lydian affairs; he relates the changes which had frequently taken place in this country,—I have mentioned them in a former part of my work.
Between Laodiceia and Carura is a temple of Mén Carus, which is held in great veneration. In our time there was a large Herophilian
The names of some Phrygian tribes, as the Berecyntes [and Cerbesii], are mentioned, which no longer exist. And Aleman says,
They speak also of a Cerbesian pit which sends forth destructive exhalations; this however exists, but the people have no longer the name of Cerbesii. Æschylus in his Niobe
and again;
—and Tantalus says, I sow the furrows of the Berecynthian fields, extending twelve days' journey, where the seat of Adrasteia and Ida resound with the lowing of herds and the bleating of sheep; all the plain re-echoes with their cries.
SUMMARY.
The Thirteenth Book contains the part of Asia south of the Propontis (Sea of Marmara), the whole of the sea-coast, and the adjacent islands. The author dwells some time on Troy, though deserted, on account of its distinction, and the great renown it derived from the war.
THESE are the limits of Phrygia. We return again to the Propontis, and to the sea-coast adjoining the Æsepus,
The first country which presents itself on the sea-coast is the Troad.
The coast of the Propontis extends from Cyzicene and the places about the Æsepus and Granicus
The poet implies that it was the Trojans chiefly who were divided into eight or even nine bodies of people, each forming a petty princedom, who had under their sway the places about Æsepus, and those about the territory of the present Cyzicene, as far as the river Caïcus. The troops of auxiliaries are reckoned among the allies.
The writers subsequent to Homer do not assign the same boundaries, but introduce other names, and a greater number of territorial divisions. The Greek colonies were the cause of this; the Ionian migration produced less change, for it was further distant from the Troad, but the Æolian colonists occasioned it throughout, for they were dispersed over the whole of the country from Cyzicene as far as the Caïcus, and occupied besides the district between the Caïcus and the river Hermus. It is said that the Æolian preceded the Ionian migration four generations, but it was attended with delays, and the settlement of the colonies took up a longer time. Orestes was the leader of the colonists, and died in Arcadia. He was preceded by his son Penthilus, who advanced as far as Thrace, sixty years
On the other side, Cleuas, the son of Dorus, and Malaus, who were descendants of Agamemnon, assembled a body of men for an expedition about the same time as Penthilus, but the band of Penthilus passed over from Thrace into Asia before them; while the rest consumed much time near Locris, and the mountain Phricius. At last however they crossed the sea, and founded Cyme, to which they gave the name of Phriconis, from Phricius, the Locrian mountain.
The Æolians then were dispersed over the whole country, which we have said the poet calls the Trojan country. Later writers give this name to the whole, and others to a part, of Æolis; and so, with respect to Troja, some writers understand the whole, others only a part, of that country, not entirely agreeing with one another in anything.
+According to Homer, the commencement of the Troad is at the places on the Propontis, reckoning it from the Æsepus. According to Eudoxus, it begins from Priapus, and Artace, situated in the island of the Cyziceni opposite to Priapus, and thus lie contracts the boundaries [of the Troad]. Damastes contracts them still more by reckoning its commencement from Parium.
The situation of the country actually called Troja is best marked by the position of Ida, a lofty mountain, looking to the west, and to the western sea, but making a slight bend to the north and towards the northern coast. This latter is the coast of the Propontis, extending from the straits near Abydos to the Æsepus, and to the territory of Cyzicene. The western sea is the exterior (part of the) Hellespont, and the Ægtæan Sea.
+Ida has many projecting parts like feet, and resembles in figure a tarantula, and is bounded by the following extreme points, namely, the promontory
where the poet describes Lectum in appropriate terms, for he says correctly that Lectum is a part of Ida, and that this was the first place of disembarkation for persons intending to ascend Mount Ida.They (namely, Somnus and Juno) came, says Homer, to Ida, abounding with springs, the nurse of wild beasts, to Lectum where first they left the sea,
abounding with springs;
for the mountain, especially in that part, has a very large supply of water, which appears from the great number of rivers which issue from it;
and others, which he mentions afterwards, and which are now to be seen by us.]all the rivers which rise in Ida, and proceed to the sea, the Rhesus, and Heptaporus,
In speaking of the projections like feet on each side of Ida, as Lectum, and Zeleia,
On doubling Lectum a large bay opens,
Those who have paid particular attention to this subject conjecture, from the expressions of the poet, that all this coast was subject to the Trojans, when it was divided into nine dynasties, but that at the time of the war it was under the sway of Priam, and called Troja. This appears from the detail. Achilles and his army perceiving, at the beginning of the war, that the inhabitants of Ilium were defended by walls, carried on the war beyond them, made a circuit, and took the places about the country; I sacked with my ships twelve cities, and eleven in the fruitful land of Troja.
and Neoptolemus, as when he slew with his sword the hero Eurypylus, the son of Telephus;
The poet says these places were laid waste, and even Lesbos;
for by calling Lyrnessus Thou didst not permit me, when the swift-footed Achilles slew my husband, and destroyed the city of the divine Mynes, to make any lamentation;
the city of the divine Mynes,
the poet implies that it was governed by him who was killed fighting in its defence.
Chryseïs was carried away from Thebe; Andromache, daughter of the magnanimous Eetion, Eetion king of the Cilicians, who dwelt under the woody Placus at Thebe Hypoplacia.
This is the second Trojan dynasty after that of Mynes, and in agreement with what has been observed are these words of Andromache;
The words are not to be understood in their direct sense, but by a transposition; Hector, wretch that I am; we were both born under the same destiny; thou at Troja in the palace of Priam, but I at Thebe.
both born in Troja, thou in the house of Priam, but I at Thebe.
The third dynasty is that of the Leleges, which is also a Trojan dynasty;
This is the sixth dynasty.Aphneian Trojans, who inhabited Zeleia at the farthest extremity of Ida, who drink of the dark waters of Æsepus, these were led by Pandarus, the illustrious son of Lycaon.
The people, also, who lived between the Æsepus and Abydos were Trojans, for the country about Abydos was governed by Asius;
Now it is manifest that a son of Priam, who had the care of his father's brood mares, dwelt at Abydos; those who dwelt about Percote and Practius, at Sestos, Abydos, and the noble Arisbe, were led by Asius, the son of Hyrtacus.
At Percote,he wounded the spurious son of Priam, Democoon, who came from Abydos from the pastures of the swift mares.
first he addressed the brave son of Hicetaon, Melanippus, who was lately tending the oxen in their pastures at Percote.
All therefore were Trojans from Abydos to Adrasteia, divided, however, into two bodies, one governed by Asius, the other by the Meropidæ, as the country of the Cilicians is divided into the Thebaic and the Lyrnessian Cilicia. To this district may have belonged the country under the sway of Eurypylus, for it follows next to the Lyrnessis, or territory of Lyrnessus.
That Priam The Trojans, properly so called, occupied the basin of the Scamander (Menderes-Tschai). The Cilicians, commanded by Eetion, occupied the territory which surrounds the present Gulf of Adramytti. The Cilicians of Mynes were to the south of the above. The Leleges extended along a part of the northern coast of the Gulf of Adramytti, from Cape Baba. The Dardanians were above the Trojans, and the chain of Ida. On the north, extending on both sides of the Hellespont, were the people of Arisbe, Sestos, and Abydos. The people of Adrasteia occupied the Propontis, as far as the Granicus. The Lycians, the country beyond, as far as the Æsepus and Zeleia. Strabo mentioned a ninth (c. i. § 2) principality subject to Priam; he does not mention it by name, or rather it is wanting in the text. M. de Choiseul-Gouffier, (Voyage Pittoresque de la Gréce, vol. ii.,) with much probability, thinks that this principality was that of the island of Lesbos. we have heard, old man, that your riches formerly consisted in what
Such was the state of the country at that time. Afterwards changes of various kinds ensued. Phrygians occupied the country about Cyzicus as far as Practius; Thracians, the country about Abydos; and Bebryces and Dryopes, before the time of both these nations. The next tract of country was occupied by Treres, who were also Thracians; the plain of Thebe, by Lydians, who were then called Mæonians, and by the survivors of the Mysians, who were formerly governed by Telephus and Teuthoras.
+Since then the poet unites together Æolis and Troja, and since the Æolians occupied all the country from the Hermus as far as the sea-coast at Cyzicus, and founded cities, we shall not do wrong in combining in one description Æolis, properly so called, (extending from the Hermus to Lectum,) and the tract which follows, as far as the Æsepus; distinguishing them again in speaking of them separately, and comparing what is said of them by Homer and by other writers with their present state.
According to Homer, the Troad begins from the city Cyzicus and the river Æsepus. He speaks of it in this manner:
These people he calls also Lycians. They had the name of Aphneii, it is thought, from the lake Aphnitis, for this is the name of the lake Dascylitis. Aphneian Trojans, who inhabited Zeleia at the farthest extremity of Ida, who drink the dark waters of Æsepus, these were led by Pandarus, the illustrious son of Lycaon.
Now Zeleia is situated at the farthest extremity of the country lying at the foot of Ida, and is distant 190 stadia from Cyzicus, and about 80
The poet then immediately gives in detail the parts of the sea-coast which follow the Æsepus; those who occupied Adrasteia, and the territory of Apæsus, and Pityeia and the lofty mountain Tereia, these were commanded by Adrastus, and Amphius with the linen corslet, the two sons of Merops of Percote,
Above the mouth of the Æsepus about * * stadia is a hill on which is seen the sepulchre of Memnon, the son of Tithonus. Near it is the village of Memnon. Between the Æsepus and Priapus flows the Granicus, but for the most part it flows through the plain of Adrasteia, where Alexander defeated in a great battle the satraps of Dareius, and obtained possession of all the country within the Taurus and the Euphrates.
+On the banks of the Granicus was the city Sidene, with a large territory of tile same name. It is now in ruins.
+Upon the confines of Cyzicene and Priapene is Harpagia, a place from which, so says the fable, Ganymede was taken away by force. Others say that it was at the promontory Dardanium, near Dardanus.
Priapus is a city on the sea, with a harbour. Some say that it was built by Milesians, who, about the same time, founded Abydos and Proconnesus; others, that it was built by Cyziceni. It has its name from Priapus,
It was in later times that Priapus was considered as a god.
This district was called Adrasteia, and the plain of Adrasteia, according to the custom of giving two names to the same place, as Thebe, and the plain of Thebe; Mygdonia, and the plain of Mygdonia.
+Callisthenes says that Adrasteia had its name from King Adrastus, who first built the temple of Nemesis. The city Adrasteia is situated between Priapus and Parium, with a plain of the same name below it, in which there was an oracle of the Actæan Apollo and Artemis near the sea-shore.There is a great goddess Nemesis, who has received all these things from the immortals. Adrastus first raised an altar to her honour on the banks of the river Æsepus, where she is worshipped under the name of Adrasteia.
The city of Parium lies upon the sea, with a harbour larger than that of Priapus, and has been augmented from the latter city; for the Pariani paid court to the Attalic kings, to whom Priapene was subject, and, by their permission, appropriated to themselves a large part of that territory.
+It is here the story is related that the Ophiogeneis have some affinity with the serpent tribe (
Pitya is situated in Pityus in the Parian district, and having above it a mountain abounding with pine trees (
In the voyage along the coast from Parium to Priapus are the ancient and the present Proconnesus,
Aristeas, the writer of the poems called Arimaspeian, the greatest of impostors, was of Proconnesus.
With respect to the mountain Tereia, some persons say that it is the range of mountains in Peirossus, which the Cyziceni occupy, contiguous to Zeleia, among which was a royal chase for the Lydian, and afterwards for the Persian, kings. Others say that it was a hill forty stadia from Lampsacus, on which was a temple sacred to the mother of the gods, surnamed Tereia.
Lampsacus, situated on the sea, is a considerable city with a good harbour, and, like Abydos, supports its state well. It is distant from Abydos about 170 stadia. It had formerly, as they say Chios had, the name of Pityusa. On the opposite territory in Cherronesus is Callipolis,
In the interval between Lampsacus and Parium was Pæsus, a city, and a river Pæsus.
Neoptolemus,Rhetoric addressed to Alexander,
now known as The Rhetoric of Aristotle, has been ascribed to him. For the above see Athænæus.
It was from Lampsacus that Agrippa transported the Prostrate Lion, the workmanship of Lysippus, and placed it in the sacred grove between the lakeStagnum Agrippe
in Tacit. Ann. b. xv. c. 37.
Next to Lampsacus is Abydos, and the intervening places, of which the poet speaks in such a manner as to comprehend both Lampsacene and some parts of Pariane, for, in the Trojan times, the above cities were not yet in existence: those who inhabited Percote, Practius, Sestos, Abydos, and the famed Arisbe, were led by Asius, the son of Hyrtacus,
implying by these words that Arisbe was the royal seat of Asius, whence, he says, he came, came from Arisbe, from the river Selleïs in a chariot drawn by large and furious coursers;
But these places are so little known, that writers do not agree among themselves about their situation, except that they are near Abydos, Lampsacus, and Parium, and that the name of the last place was changed from Percope to Percote.
With respect to the rivers, the poet says that the Selleis flows near Arisbe, for Asius came from Arisbe and the river Selleis. Practius is a river, but no city of that name, as some have thought, is to be found. This river runs between Abydos and Lampsacus; the words, therefore,
must be understood of the river, as these expressions of the poet, who was the maternal uncle of the hero Hector, own brother of Hecu- ba, and son of Dymas who lived in Phrygia on the banks of the Sangarius.
Abydos was founded by Milesians by permission of Gyges, king of Lydia; for those places and the whole of the Troad were under his sway. There is a promontory near
Sestos is the finest
After the Trojan war, Abydos was inhabited by Thracians, then by Milesians. When the cities on the Propontis were burnt by Dareius, father of' Xerxes, Abydos shared in the calamity. Being informed, after his return from Scythia, that the Nomades were preparing to cross over to attack him, in revenge for the treatment which they had experienced, he set fire to these cities, apprehending that they would assist in transporting the Scythian army across the strait.
+In addition to other changes of this kind, those occasioned by time are a cause of confusion among places.
+We spoke before of Sestos, and of the whole of the Cherronesus, when we described Thrace. Theopompus says that
In the Troad, above the territory of Abydos is Astyra, which now belongs to the Abydeni,—a city in ruins, but it was formerly an independent place, and had gold-mines, which are now nearly exhausted, like those in Mount Tmolus near the Pactolus.
+From Abydos to the Æsepus are, it is said, about 700 stadia, but not so much in sailing in a direct line.
Beyond Abydos are the parts about Ilium, the seacoast as far as Lectum, the places in the Trojan plain, and the country at the foot of Ida, which was subject to Æneas. The poet names the Dardanii in two ways, speaking of them as
It is probable that the Dardania,
Plato conjectures that, after the deluges, three kinds of communities were established; the first on the heights of the mountains, consisting of a simple and savage race, who had taken refuge there through dread of the waters, which overflowed the plains; the second, at the toot of the mountains, who regained courage by degrees, as the plains began to dry; the third, in the plains. But a fourth, and perhaps a fifth, or more communities might be supposed to be formed, the last of which might be on the sea-coast, and in the islands, after all fear of deluge was dissipated. For as men approached the sea with a greater or less degree of courage, we should have greater variety in forms of government, diversity also in manners and habits, accord- all things grow there,
he says, "without sowing seed, and without the plough. But they have no assemblies for consulting together, nor administration of laws, but live on the heights of lofty mountains, in deep caves, and each gives laws to his wife and children.
As an example of the second form of society, he alleges the mode of life und er Dardanus; he founded Dardania; for sacred Ilium was not yet a city in the plain with inhabitants, but they still dwelt at the foot of Ida abounding with streams.
An example of the third state of society is taken from that in the time of Ilus, when the people inhabited the plains. He is said to have been the founder of Ilium, from whom the city had its name. It is probable that for this reason he was buried in the middle of the plain, because he first ventured to make a settlement in it, they rushed through the middle of the plain by the wild fig-tree near the tomb of ancient Ilus, the son of Dardanus.
He did not, however, place entire confidence in the situation, for he did not build the city where it stands at present, but nearly thirty stadia higher to the east, towards Ida, and Dardania, near the present village of the Ilienses. The present Ilienses are ambitious of having it supposed that theirs is the ancient city, and have furnished a subject of discussion to those who form their conjectures from the poetry of Homer; but it does not seem to be the city meant by the poet. Other writers also relate, that the city had frequently changed its place, but at last about the time of Cræsus it became station-
The present city of Ilium was once, it is said, a village, containing a small and plain temple of Minerva; that Alexander, after
After the death of Alexander, it was Lysimachus who took the greatest interest in the welfare of the place; built a temple, and surrounded the city with a wall of about 40 stadia in extent. He settled here the inhabitants of the ancient cities around, which were in a dilapidated state. It was at this time that he directed his attention to Alexandreia, founded by Antigonus, and surnamed Antigonia, which was altered (into Alexandreia). For it appeared to be an act of pious duty in the successors of Alexander first to found cities which should bear his name, and afterwards those which should be called after their own. Alexandreia continued to exist, and became a large place; at present it has received a Roman colony, and is reckoned among celebrated cities.
The present Ilium was a kind of village-city, when the Romans first came into Asia and expelled Antiochus the Great from the country within the Taurus. Demetrius of Scepsis says that, when a youth, he came, in the course of his travels, to this city, about that time, and saw the houses so neglected that even the roofs were without tiles. HegesianaxWe had no Hector to defend the city.
Sylla afterwards came, defeated Fimbrias, and dismissed Mithridates, according to treaty, into his own territory. Sylla conciliated the Ilienses by extensive repairs of their city. In our time divus Cæsar showed them still more favour, in imitation of Alexander. He was inclined to favour them, for the purpose of renewing his family connexion with the Ilienses, and as an admirer of Homer.
+There exists a corrected copy of the poems of Homer, called the casket-copy.
Alexander perused it in company with Callisthenes and Anaxarchus, and having made some marks and observations deposited it in a casket
But Cæsar, who admired the character of Alexander, and had strong proofs of his affinity to the Ilienses, had the greatest possible desire to be their benefactor. The proofs of his affinity to the Ilienses were strong, first as being a Roman, —for the Romans consider Æneas to be the founder of their race,—next he had the name of Julius, from Iulus, one of his
Next to Abydos is the promontory Dardanis,
Dardanus is an ancient settlement, but so slightly thought of, that some kings transferred its inhabitants to Abydos, others re-settled them in the ancient dwelling-place. Here Cornelius Sylla, the Roman general, and Mithridates, surnamed Eurptor, conferred together, and terminated the war by a treaty.
Near Dardanus is Ophrynium, on which is the grove dedicated to Hector in a conspicuous situation, and next is Pteleos, a lake.
Then follows Rhœteium, a city on a hill, and continuous to it is a shore on a level with the sea, on which is situated a monument and temple of Ajax, and a statue. Antony took away the latter and carried it to Ægypt, but Augustus Cæsar restored it to tie inhabitants of Rhœteium, as he restored other
After Rhœteium is Sigeium,
Opposite the Sigeian promontory on the Cherronesus is the Protesilæium,
The extent of this sea-coast as we sail in a direct line from Rhœteium to Sigeium, and the monument of Achilles, is 60 stadia. The whole of the coast lies below the present Ilium; the part near the port of the Achæans, The other 30 stadia, which, according to Strabo, or rather according to Demetrius of Scepsis, was the distance from New Ilium to the town of the Ilienses, are equal to 2440 toises, and terminate at the most eastern edge of the table-land of Tchiblak, in a spot where ruins of a temple and other edifices are seen. Thus there is nothing to prevent our taking this place for the site of the town of the Ilienses, and this is the opinion of many modern travellers. But did this town occupy the same ground as the ancient Ilium, as Demetrius of Scepsis believed? Strabo thinks not, and we shall hereafter see the objections he has to offer against the opinion of Demetrius.—
Near the Sigeium is a temple and monument of Achilles, and monuments also of Patroclus and Anthlochus.
A short way from this coast is the Achæïum, situated on the continent opposite Tenedos.
Such, then, is the nature of the places on the sea-coast. Above them lies the plain of Troy, extending as far as Ida to the east, a distance of many stadia.
From the mountainous tract of Ida near these places, two arms, he says, extend to the sea, one in the direction of Rhœteium, the other of Sigeium, forming a semicircle, and terminate in the plain at the same distance from the sea as the present Ilium, which is situated between the extremities of the above-mentioned arms, whereas the ancient Ilium was situated at their commencement. This space comprises the Simoïsian plain through which the Simoeis runs and the Scamandrian plain, watered by the Scamander. This latter plain is properly the plain of Troy, and Homer makes it the scene of the greatest part of his battles, for it is the widest of the two; and there we see the places named by him, the Erineos, the tomb of Æsyetes, Groskurd reads The topography of the plain of Troy and its neighbourhood is not yet sufficiently known to be able to distinguish all the details given by Demetrius. It appears only that he took the Tchiblak for the Simoïs, and placed the plain of Troy to the right of the present Menderé, which he called the Scamander. This opinion, lately renewed by Major Rennell, presents great and even insurmountable difficulties when we endeavour to explain on this basis the principal circumstances of the Iliad. It must be remembered that in the time of Demetrius the remembrance of the position of ancient Troy was entirely lost, and that this author constantly reasoned on the hypothesis, much contested in his time, that the town of the Ilienses corresponded with that of ancient Ilium. Both-mentioned plains are separated from each other by a long neck of land between the above-mentioned arms, which takes its commencement from the present Ilium and unites with it, extending itself in a straight line as far as Cebrenia, and forms with the arms on each side the letter
A little above this ridge of land is the village of the Ilienses, supposed to be the site of the ancient Ilium, at the distance of 30 stadia from the present city. Ten stadia above the village of the Ilienses is Callicolone, a hill beside which, at the distance of five stadia, runs the Simoeis.
+The description of the poet is probable. First what he says of Mars,
for since the battle was fought on the Scamandrian plain, Mars might, according to probability, encourage the men, one while from the citadel, at another time from the neighbouring places, the Simoeis and the Callicolone, to which the battle might extend. But since Callicolone is distant from the present Ilium 40 stadia, where was the utility of changing places at so great a distance, where the array of the troops did not extend? and the words but on the other side Mars arose, like a black tempest, one while with a shrill voice calling upon the Trojans from the summit of the citadel, at another time running along Callicolone beside the Simoeis;
but it is very far distant from the present city. The beech-tree was a little lower than the Erineos; of the former Achilles says, but place your bands near Erineos, where the city is most accessible to the enemy, and where they can mount the wall,
When I fought with the Achæans Hector was not disposed to urge the fight away from the wall, but advanced only as far as the Scæan gates, and the beech-tree.
Besides, the Naustathmus which retains its name at present, is so near the present city that any person may justly be surprised at the imprudence of the Greeks, and the want of spirit in the Trojans;—imprudence on the part of the Greeks, that they should have left the place for so long a time unfortified with a wall, in the neighbourhood of so large a city, and so great a body of men, both inhabitants and auxiliaries; for the wall, Homer says, was constructed at a late period; or perhaps no wall was built and the erection and destruction of it, as Aristotle says, are due to the invention of the poet;—a want of spirit on the part of the Trojans, who, after the wall was built, attacked that, and the Naustathmus, and the vessels themselves, but had not the courage before there was a wall to approach and besiege this station, although the distance was not great, for the Naustathmus is near Sigeium. The Scamander discharges itelf near this place at the distance of 20 stadia from Ilium.
Polydamas also says, Consider well, my friends, what is to be done, for my advice is to return now to the city, for we are far from the walls.
Demetrius (of Scepsis) adds the testimony of Hestiæa
Polites also,
was acting absurdly. For although he was seated who was the scout of the Trojans, trusting to his swiftness of foot, and who was on the summit of the tomb of the old Æsyetes,
yet he might have observed from the much greater height of the citadel, situated nearly at the same distance, nor would his swiftness of foot have been required for the purpose of security, for the tomb of Æsyetes, which exists at present on the road to Alexandreia, is distant five stadia from the citadel.
Nor is the course of Hector round the city at all a probable circumstance, for the present city will not admit of a circuit round it on account of the continuous ridge of hill, but the ancient city did allow such a course round it. But it is difficult to conceive how, at so distant a period and among a people half savage, a space of ground so large and without water could be entirely occupied by a town, whose power scarcely extended beyond 25 leagues. On the other hand, as the exterior circuit of this mountain is more than 5500 toises, it is not to be conceived how Homer, so exact in his description of places, should have represented Achilles and Hector, already fatigued by a long-continued battle, as making an uninterrupted course of about seven leagues round this mountain, before commencing in single combat. It appears to me therefore that the Troy of Homer must have covered a much less space of ground than is generally supposed, and according to all appearances this space was bounded by a hillock, on which is now the village of Bounar-bachi. This hillock is about 700 or 800 toises in circumference; it is isolated from the rest of the mountain; and warriors in pursuing one another could easily make the circuit. This would not prevent Pergamus from being the citadel of Ilium, but it was separated from it by an esplanade, which served as a means of communication between the town and the fortress.—
No trace of the ancient city remains. This might be expected, for the cities around were devastated, but not entirely destroyed, whereas when Troy was overthrown from its foundation all the stones were removed for the reparation of the other cities. Archæanax of Mitylene is said to have fortified Sigeium with the stones brought from Troy. Sigeium was taken possession of by the Athenians, who sent Phryno, the victor in the Olympic games, at the time the Lesbians advanced a claim to nearly the whole Troad. They had in-
Demetrius accuses Timæus of falsehood, for saying that Periander built a wall round the Achilleium out of the stones brought from Ilium as a protection against the attacks of the Athenians, and with a view to assist Pittacus; whereas this place was fortified by the Mitylenæans against Sigeium, but not with stones from Ilium, nor by Periander. For how should they choose an enemy in arms to be arbitrator?
+The Achilleium is a place which contains the monument of Achilles, and is a small settlement. It was destroyed, as also Sigeium, by the Ilienses on account of the refractory disposition of its inhabitants. For all the sea-coast as far as Dardanus was afterwards, and is at present, subject to them.
+Anciently the greatest part of these places were subject to the Æolians, and hence Ephorus does not hesitate to call all the country from Abydos to Cume by the name of Æolis. But Thucydidesall the towns possessed by the Mitylenæans.
The present Ilienses affirm that the city was not entirely demolished when it was taken by the Achæans, nor at any time deserted. The Locrian virgins began to be sent
He does not mention any force having been used, nor does he attribute the death of Ajax by shipwreck to the wrath of Minerva, nor to any similar cause, but says, in general terms, that he was an object of hatred to Minerva, (for she was incensed against all who had profaned her temple,) and that Ajax died by the agency of Neptune for his boasting speeches.He slew Othryoneus, who had lately come to the war from Cabesus, induced by the glory of the contest, and who sought in marriage the most beautiful of the daughters of Priam, Cassandra, without a dower.
The Locrian virgins were sent there when the Persians were masters of the country.
Such is the account of the Ilienses. But Homer speaks expressly of the demolition of the city:
Of this they produce evidence of the following kind; the statue of Minerva, which Homer represents as in a sitting posture, is seen at present to be a standing figure, for he orders them by placing the robe at the knees,
and adduce this line, near the hearth.
For what would the laying the robe at the knees mean? And they who alter the accent, and for who has not heard, when it was once razed by the Greeks, that it was uninhabited?
It is conjectured that those who afterwards proposed to rebuild it avoided the spot as inauspicious, either on account of its calamities, of which it had been the scene, or whether Agamemnon, according to an ancient custom, had devoted it to destruction with a curse, as Crcesus, when he destroyed Sidene, in which the tyrant Glaucias had taken refuge, uttered a curse against those who should rebuild its walls. They therefore abandoned that spot and built a city elsewhere.
+The Astypalæans, who were in possession of Rhœteium, were the first persons that founded Polium near the Simoïs, now called Polisma, but not in a secure spot, and hence it was soon in ruins.
+The present settlement, and the temple, were built in the time of the Lydian kings; but it was not then a city; a long time afterwards, however, and by degrees, it became, as we have said, a considerable place.
+Hellanicus, in order to gratify the Ilienses, as is his custom, maintains that the present and the ancient city are the same. But the district on the extinction of the city was divided by the possessors of Rhœteium and Sigeium, and the other neighbouring people among themselves. Upon the rebuilding of the city, however, they restored it.
Ida is thought to be appropriately described by Homer,
Demetrius, who was acquainted with these places, (for he was a native,) thus speaks of them: Modern travellers accuse Demetrius with having confounded the Scamander with the Simoïs. The Simoïs they say rises in Cotylus, (Kasdagh,) as also the Granicus, (Oustrola,) and the Æsepus, (Satal-dere,) but the sources of the Scamander are below, and to the W. of Ida, near the village called by the Turks Bounar-bachi, which signifies the head of the source. If it is an error, Demetrius is not alone responsible for it, as Hellenicus (Schol in Iliad xxi. 242) also says that the Scamander had its source in Mount Ida itself. Both probably rested on the authority of Homer, who places the source of the Scamander in Ida. They did not, however, observe that Homer employs the expression There is a height of Ida called Cotylus; it is situated about 120 stadia above Scepsis, and from it flow the Scamander, the Granicus, and the Æsepus;
We may, however, ask why the poet says, In the time of Homer these two rivers united together and discharged themselves into the sea by the same mouth: but the course of the Scamander has been changed for a long time, since, according to Pliny, (v. c. 33,)a part of its waters spread themselves over a marsh, and the remainder flowed unto the Ægæan Sea, between Alexandria-Troas and Sigeum. This ancient author therefore gave to the little river (which he called Palæscamander, the old Scamander) exactly the same course which the stream Bounar-bachi still follows. This change of direction in the course of the river appears to me to have been anterior to the time of Demetrius of Scepsis, for this alone can explain his error. For, no longer finding a stream which runs on the left of the present Menderé, and which might represent the Scamander, he thought proper to transfer this latter name to the Simoïs, and to look for the site of the Ilium of Homer, as also of the plain which was the scene of the combats described by the poet, on the right of this river. Thence he is persuaded that the town of the Ilienses occupied the same site as the ancient Ilium, and that the stream of the Tschiblak was the Simoïs. I must remark that the Menderé is a torrent, the waters of which fail during a great part of the year, whilst the stream of the Bounar-bachi always continues to flow. This advantage is probably the reason why it preserved the name of Scamander to the sea, although it ran into the bed of the Simoïs and was far inferior to this torrent in the length of its course. Hence it may be perceived how the name of Scamander, now changed into that of Menderé, has remained attached to this ancient mouth, how ultimately it was given to the whole course of the Simoïs, and how Demetrius of Scepsis was led into error by the change in the course of the true Scamander, and by the transfer of its name to the Simois.—Voyage Pittorcsque de la Grèce par Troad, par
that is, hot; he proceeds, however, They came to the fair fountains, whence burst forth two streams of the eddying Scamander, one flowing with water warm,
for no warm springs are now found in that spot, nor is the source of the Scamander there, but in the mountain, and there is one source instead of two.around issues vapour as though caused by fire—the other gushes out in the summer, cold like hail, or frozen as snow,
The Andirus empties itself into the Scamander; a
Demetrius again says, the river Rhesus is now called Rhoeites, unless it is the Rhesus which empties itself into the Granicus.
+The Heptaporus, which is called also Polyporus, is crossed seven times in travelling from the places about Cale Peuce (or the beautiful pitch tree) to the village Melænæ and to the Asclepieium, founded by Lysimachus.
+Attalus, the first king, gives this account of the beautiful pitch tree; its circumference, he says, was 24 feet; the height of the trunk from the root was 67 feet; it then formed three branches, equally distant from each other; it then contracts into one head, and here it completes the whole height of two plethra, and 15 cubits. It is distant from Adramyttium 180 stadia towards the north.
+The Caresus flows from Malus, a place situated between Palæscepsis and Achæïum, in front of the isle of Tenedos, and empties itself into the Æsepus.
+The Rhodius flows from Cleandria and Gordus, which are distant 60 stadia from Cale Peuce, and empties itself into the Ænius (Æsepus?).
In the valley about the Æsepus, on the left of its course, the first place we meet with is Polichna, a walled stronghold; then Palæscepsis, next Alizonium, a place invented for the supposed existence of the Halizoni whom we have mentioned before.silver mines.
But
Where then is Alybe, or Alope, or in whatever way they please to play upon the name? For they ought to have had the impudence to invent this place also, and not to leave their system imperfect and exposed to detection, when they had once ventured so far. This is the contradiction which may be given to Demetrius.
+As to the rest, we ought at least in the greatest number of instances to attend to a man of experience, and a native of the country, who also had bestowed so much thought and time on this subject as to write thirty books to interpret little more than 60 lines of the catalogue of the Trojan forces.
+Palæscepsis, according to Demetrius, is distant from Ænea 50, and from the river Æsepus 30, stadia, and the name of Palæscepsis is applied to many other places.
We return to the sea-coast, from which we have digressed.
After the Sigeian promontory, and the Achilleium, is the coast opposite to Tenedos, the Achæïum, and Tenedos itself, distant not more than 40 stadia from the continent. It is about 80 stadia in circumference. It contains an Æolian city, and has two harbours, and a temple of Apollo Smintheus, as the poet testifies;
Continuous with the Achæium are Larisa and Colonæ, formerly belonging to the people of Tenedos, who occupied the opposite coast; and the present Chrysa, situated upon a rocky height above the sea, and Hamaxitus lying below, and close to Lectum. But at present Alexandreia is continuous with the Achæium; the inhabitants of those small towns, and of many other strongholds, were embodied in Alexandreia. Among the latter were Cebrene and Neandria. The territory is in the possession of the Alexandrini, and the spot in which Alexandreia is now situated was called Sigia.
The temple of Apollo Smintheus is in this Chrysa, and the symbol, a mouse, which shows the etymology of the epithet Smintheus, lying under the foot of the statue.
The Teucri, who came from Crete, (of whom Callinus, the elegiac poet, gave the first history, and he was followed by many others,) were directed by an oracle to settle wherever the earth-born inhabitants should attack them, which, it is said, occurred to them near Hamaxitus, for in the night-time great multitudes of field-mice came out and devoured all arms or utensils which were made of leather; the colony therefore settled there. These people also called the mountain Ida, after the name of the mountain in Crete.
Others say, that a certain Teucer came from Attica, who belonged to the Demus of Troes, which is now called Xypeteon, but that no Teucri came from Crete. They adduce as a proof of the intermixture of Trojans with Athenians, that an Ericthonius was a founder of both people.
+This is the account of modern writers. But the traces which now exist in the plain of Thebe, and at Chrysa situated there, coincide better with the description of Homer; and of these we shall speak immediately.
The name of Smintheus is to be found in many places, for near Hamaxitus itself, besides the Sminthian Apollo at the temple, there are two places called Sminthia, and others in the neighbouring district of Larissa. In the district also of Pariane is a place called Sminthia; others in Rhodes,On the Sminthia of Rhodes.
Separate from the other is the Halesian plain near Lectum, which is not extensive, and the Tragasæan salt-pan near Ha- maxitus,the salt-pans.
These places are in sight of Ilium, at the distance of a little more than 200 stadia. On the other side the parts about Abydos are visible, although Abydos is somewhat nearer.
After doubling Lectum, there follow the most considerable cities of the Æolians, the bay of Adramyttium, on which Homer seems to have placed the greater part of the Leleges, and the Cilicians, divided into two tribes. There also is the coast of the Mitylenæans with some villages of the Mitylenæans on the continent. The bay has the name of the Idæan bay, for the ridge extending from Lectum to Ida overhangs
I have spoken before of the Leleges, and I shall now add that the poet speaks of a Pedasus, a city of theirs which was subject to Altes; below Satnioeis,
as if the city lay at the foot of a mountain called Satnioeis; yet there is no mountain there called Satnioeis, but a river, on which the city is placed. The city is at present deserted. The poet mentions the river;
And in another place; Ajax pierced with his spear Satnius, the son of Œnops, whom the beautiful nymph Naïs bore to Œnops, when he tended herds on the banks of the Satnioeis.
Later writers called it Satioeis, and some writers Saphnioeis. It is a great winter torrent, which the poet, by mentioning it, made remarkable. These places are continuous with the districts Dardania and Scepsia, and are as it were another Dardania, but lower than the former. Œnops dwelt on the banks of the smooth-flowing Satnioeis In lofty Pedasus.
The country comprised in the districts of Antandria, Cebrene, Neandria, and the Hamaxitus, as far as the sea opposite to Lesbos, now belongs to the people of Assus and Gargara.
The Neandrians are situated above Hamaxitus on this side Lectum, but more towards the interior, and nearer to Ilium, from which they are distant 130 stadia. Above these people are the Cebrenii, and above the Cebrenii the Dardanii, extending as far as Palæscepsis, and even to Scepsis.
+The poet Alcæus calls Antandrus a city of the Leleges:
Demetrius of Scepsis places it among the adjacent cities, so that it might be in the country of the Cilicians, for these people are rather to be regarded as bordering upon the Le-
Next is Astyra, a village and grove sacred to Artemis Astyrene. Close to it is Adramyttium, a city founded by a colony of Athenians, with a harbour, and a station for vessels. Beyond the gulf and the promontory Pyrrha is Cisthene, a deserted city with a harbour. Above it in the interior is a copper mine, Perperena, Trarium, and other similar settle- ments.
+On this coast after Cisthene are the villages of the Mitylenæans, Coryphantis and Heracleia; next to these is Attea; then Atarneus,
We shall resume our description of each place, lest we should have omitted any one that is remarkable. And first with regard to Scepsis.
Palescepsis is situated above Cebrene towards the most elevated part of Ida near Polichna. It had the name of
The Scepsian (Demetrius) supposes that Scepsis was the palace of Æneas, situated between the dominion of Æneas and Lyrnessus, where, it is said, he took refuge when pursued by Achilles. Remember you not,
says Achilles, how I chased you when alone and apart from the herds, with swift steps, from the heights of Ida, thence indeed you escaped to Lyrnessus; but I took and destroyed it.
Present traditions respecting Æneas do not agree with the story respecting the first founders of Scepsis. For it is said that he was spared on account of his hatred to Priam:
His companion chiefs, the Antenoridæ, and Antenor, and myself, escaped on account of the hospitality which the latter had shown to Menelaus.he ever bore hatred to Priam, for never had Priam bestowed any honour upon him for his valour.
Sophocles, in his play, The Capture of Troy, says, that a panther's skin was placed before Antenor's door as a signal that his house should be spared from plunder. Antenor and
Homer does not agree either with these writers or with what is said respecting the founders of Scepsis. For he represents Æneas as remaining at Troy, succeeding to the kingdom, and delivering the succession to his children's children after the extinction of the race of Priam: the son of Saturn hated the family of Priam: henceforward Æneas shall reign over the Trojans, and his children's children to late generations.
In this manner not even the succession of Scamandrius could be maintained. He disagrees still more with those writers who speak of his wanderings as far as Italy, and make him end his days in that country. Some write the verse thus: The race of Æneas and his children's children,
meaning the Romans, shall rule over all nations."
The Socratic philosophers, Erastus, Coriscus, and Neleus, the son of Coriscus, a disciple of Aristotle, and Theophrastus, were natives of Scepsis. Neleus succeeded to the possession of the library of Theophrastus, which included that of Aristotle; for Aristotle gave his library, and left his school,
Even Rome contributed to this increase of errors; for immediately on the death of Apellicon, Sylla, who captured Athens, seized the library of Apellicon. When it was brought to Rome, Tyrannion,
This may suffice on this subject.
Demetrius the grammarian, whom we have frequently mentioned, was a native of Scepsis. He composed a comment on the catalogue of the Trojan forces. He was contemporary with Crates and Aristarchus. He was succeeded by Metrodorus,on anointing with oil,
or on oil used in the public exercises.
It seems however very probable that the treatise on the Troad, (
So much then respecting Scepsis.
Next to Scepsis are Andeira, Pioniæ, and Gargaris. There is found at Andeira a stone, which when burnt becomes iron. It is then put into a furnace together with some kind of earth, when it distils a mock silver, (Pseudargyrum,) or with the addition of copper it becomes the compound called oreichalcum. There is found a mock silver near Tmolus also. These places and those about Assus were occupied by the Leleges.
Assus is a strong place, and well fortified with walls. There is a long and perpendicular ascent from the sea and the harbour, so that the verse of Stratonicus the citharist seems to be applicable to it;
The harbour is formed of a large mole.
Cleanthes, the Stoic philosopher, was a native of this place. He succeeded to the school of Zeno of Citium, and left it to Chrysippus of Soli. Here also Aristotle resided for some time, on account of his relationship to Hermeas the tyrant. Hermeas was an eunuch, servant of a money-changer. When he was at Athens he was the hearer both of Plato and of Aristotle. On his return he became the associate in the tyranny of his master, who attacked the places near Atarneus and Assus. He afterwards succeeded his master, sent for both Aristotle and Xenocrates, and treated them with kindness. He even gave his niece in marriage to Aristotle. But Memnon of Rhodes, who was at that time general in the service of the Persians, invited to his house Hermeas, under the mask of friendship, and—on pretence of business. He seized Hermeas, and sent him to the king, who ordered him to be hanged. The philosophers, avoiding places in possession of the Persians, escaped by flight.
Myrsilus says that Assus was founded by Methymnæ- ans; but according to Hellanicus it was an Æolian city, like Gargara and Lamponia of the Æolians. Gargara The town called Lamponia by Strabo is called Lamponium by Hellanicus and Herodotus.the kings,
we must probably understand the kings of Bithynra rather than the kings of Persia, as understood by Rambach (De Mileto ejusque colonize); for if we suppose that colonists are here meant who came to Gargara from Miletus after the destruction of this latter town by the Persians, how could Demetrius of Scepsis say of the Gargareans that, Eolians as they were, or instead of Æolians they became semibarbarians?
He ought at least to have said, that they became Ionians,
for Miletus, a Greek city of Ionia, at the time of its destruction by the Persians, was far from being barbarous. But Miletopolis, although from its name and position in the territory of Cyzicus was probably, like Cyzicus, a colony of Miletus, yet might have been peopled with barbarians at the time Gargara received colonists. Mualitsh is the modern name of Miletopolis.
The Leleges were therefore a different people from the Carians, and lived between the people subject to Æneas and the Cilicians, as they are called by the poet. After being plundered by Achilles, they removed to Caria, and occupied the country about the present Halicarnassus. Near the sea are Carians, and Pœonians with curved bows, Leleges, and Caucones.
Pedasus, the city which they abandoned, is no longer in existence. But in the interior of the country belonging to the people of Halicarnassus there was a city called by them Pedasa, and the territory has even now the name of Pedasis. It is said that this district contained eight cities, occupied by the Leleges, who were formerly so populous a nation as to possess Caria as far as Myndus, Bargylia, and a great part of Pisidia. In later times, when they united with the Carians in their expeditions, they were dispersed throughout the whole of Greece, and the race became extinct.
+Mausolus, according to Callisthenes, assembled in Halicarnassus
There is now existing in the territory of the Stratoniceis
The tract of sea-coast following next after the Leleges was occupied, according to Homer, by Cilicians, but at present it is occupied by Adramytteni, Atarneitæ, and Pitanæi as far as the mouth of the Caïcus. The Cilicians were divided into
Homer says that Thebe was the city of Eetion;
he says, to Thebe, ravaged it, and carried everything away; the sons of the Achtæans divided the booty among themselves, but selected for Atrides the beautiful Chryseis.
Lyrnessus he calls the city of Mynes, for
the poet cannot mean Thebe, for that belonged to Eetion, but Lyrnessus, for both cities lay in what was afterwards called the plain of Thebe, which, on account of its fertility, was a subject of contest among the Mysians and Lydians formerly, and latterly among the Greeks who had migrated from Æolis and Lesbos. At present Adramytteni possess the greater part of it; there are Thebe and Lyrnessus, a strong place, but both are deserted. One is situated at the distance of 60 stadia from Adramyttium on one side, and the other 88 stadia on the other side. you suffered me not to weep when the swift Achilles slew my husband, and laid waste the city of the divine Mynes,
In the Adramyttene district are Chrysa and Cilla. There is at present near Thebe a place called Cilla, in which is a temple of Apollo Cillæus. Beside it runs a river, which comes from Mount Ida. These places are near Antandria. The Cillæum in Lesbos has its name from this Cilla. There is also amountain Cillæum between Gargara and Antandrus. Dæs of Colonæ says that the temple of Apollo Cillæus was founded at Colonæ by the Æolians, who came by sea from Greece. At Chrysa also it is said that there is a Cillæan Apollo, but it is uncertain whether it is the same as Apollo Smintheus, or a different statue.
+
Nor is it near Thebe, but it is near it, according to Homer, for he says, that Chryseis was taken away from thence.Chryseïs left the ship; then the sage Ulysses, leading her to the altar, placed her in the hands of her beloved father.
Nor is there any place of the name of Cilla in the district of the Alexandreia, (Troas,) nor a temple of Apollo Cillæus, whereas the poet joins them together:
The story about the Teucri, and the mice from whom the name of Smintheus is derived, (for mice are called Sminthii,) must be transferred to this place.
The country about Adramyttium is Mysia. It was once subject to Lydians, and there are now Pylæ Lydiæ (or the Lydian Gates) at Adramyttium, the city having been founded, it is said, by Lydians.
+Astyra also, the village near Adramyttium, is said to belong to Mysia. It was once a small city, in which was the temple of Artemis Astyrene, situated in a grove. The Antandrians, in whose neighbourhood it is more immediately situated, preside over it with great solemnity. It is distant 20 stadia from the ancient Chrysa, which also has a temple in a grove. There too is the Rampart of Achilles. At the distance of 50 stadia in the interior is Thebe, uninhabited, which the poet says was situated below the woody Placus; but there is neither a place called Placus nor Plax there, nor a wood above it, although it is near Ida.
+Thebe is distant from Astyra 70, and from Andeira 60 stadia. All these are names of uninhabited places, or thinly inhabited, or of rivers which are torrents. But they owe their fame to ancient history.
Assus and Adramyttium are considerable cities. Adramyttium was unfortunate in the Mithridatic war, for Diodorus the general, in order to gratify the king, put to death the council of the citizens, although at the same time he pretended to be a philosopher of the Academy, pleaded causes, and professed to teach rhetoric. He accompanied the king on his voyage to Pontus, but upon his overthrow Diodorus was punished for his crimes. Many accusations were simultane-
Adramyttium produced Xenocles, a distinguished orator, who adopted the Asiatic style of eloquence and was remarkable for the vehemence of his manner; he defended Asia before the senate, at the time when that province was accused of favouring the party of Mithridates.
Near Astyra is a lake called Sapra, full of deep holes, that empties itself by a ravine among ridges of rocks on the coast. Below Andeira is a temple dedicated to the Andeirenian Mother of the gods, and a cave with a subterraneous passage extending to Palæa. Palæa is a settlement distant 130 stadia from Andeira. A goat, which fell into the opening, discovered the subterraneous passage. It was found at Andeira the next day, accidentally, by the shepherd, who had gone there to a sacrifice.
+Atarneus
Arcesilaus of the Academy was a native of Pitane, and a fellow-disciple of Zeno of Citium in the school of Polemo.
+There is a place in Pitane called Atarneus under Pitane,
opposite to the island called Elæussa.
It is said that at Pitane bricks float upon the water, as was the case with a small islanda certain earth.
Pliny, b. ii. c. 95 speaks of islands which are always floating;
something of the kind occurs in volcanic lakes.
After Pitane the Caïcus
At 100 stadia farther is Cane, the promontory opposite to Lectum, and forming the gulf of Adramyttium, of which the Elaitic Gulf is a part. Canoe is a small city of the Locrians who came from Cynus; it is situated in the Canæan territory, opposite the most southerly extremities of Lesbos. This territory extends to the Arginusæ, and the promontory above, which some call Æga, or the goat. The second syllable however must be pronounced long, Aigan, like Actan and Archan, for this was the name of the whole mountain, which at present is called Cane, or Canæ.
Homer here rather proposes an enigma than a clear meaning. For we do not know who the Cetæi were, nor what people we are to understand by this name, nor what is meant by the words, as when he slew the son of Telephus, the hero Eurypylns, and many of his companions, the Ceæi, were killed around him for the sake of the gifts of women.
for the sake of the gifts of women.
Let us dismiss this doubtful matter, and turn to what is more certain; for instance, according to Homer, Eurypylus appears to have been king of the places about the Caïcus, so that perhaps a part of the Cilicians were his subjects, and that there were not only two but three dynasties among that people.
+This opinion is supported by the circumstance that in the Elaïtis there is a small river, like a winter torrent, of the name of Ceteium. This falls into another like it, then again
for Celænæ is at a great distance from Ida, and so are the sources of the Caïcus, for they are to be seen in the plain.
There is a mountain, Temnum, which separates this and the plain of Asia; it lies in the interior above the plain of Thebe. A river, Mysius, flows from Temnum and enters the Caïcus below its source. Hence some persons suppose that Æschylus refers to it in the beginning of the prologue to the play of the Myrmidons,
Near its source is a village called Gergitha, to which Attalus transferred the inhabitants of Gergitha in the Troad, after destroying their own stronghold.
SINCE Lesbos, a very remarkable island, lies along and opposite to the sea-coast, extending from Lectum to Canæ, and since it is surrounded by small islands, some of which lie beyond it, others in the space between Lesbos and the continent, it is now proper to describe them, because they are Æolian places, and Lesbos is, as it were, the capital of the Æolian cities. We shall begin where we set out to describe the coast opposite to the island.
In sailing from Lectum to Assos the Lesbian district begins opposite to Sigrium,
From Methymna to Malia,
Mitylene, the largest city, lies between Methymna and Malia, at the distance from Malia of 70 stadia, and from Canæ of 120, and as many from the Arginussæ islands,
Mitylene has two harbours; of which the southern is a close harbour and capable of holding 50 triremes. The northern harbour is large, and deep, and protected by a mole. In front of both lies a small island, which contains a part of the city. Mitylene is well provided with everything.
It formerly produced celebrated men, as Pittacus, one of the Seven Wise Men; Alcæus the poet, and his brother Antimenidas, who, according to Alcæus, when fighting on the side of the Babylonians, achieved a great exploit, and extricated them from their danger by killing
Contemporary with these persons flourished Sappho, an extraordinary woman; for at no period within memory has any woman been known at all to be compared to her in poetry.
At this period Mitylene was ruled by many tyrants, in consequence of the dissensions among the citizens. These dissensions are the subject of the poems of Alcæus called Stasiotica (the Seditions). One of these tyrants was Pittacus: Alcæus inveighed against him as well as against Myrsilus, Melanchrus the Cleanactidæ, and some others; nor was he
At a late period afterwards appeared Diophanes the rhetorician; in our times Potamo, Lesbocles, Crinagoras, and Theophanes the historian.
The Athenians were in danger of incurring irremediable disgrace by passing a decree that all the Mitylenæans who had attained the age of puberty should be put to death. They, however, recalled their resolution, and the counter-decree reached their generals only one day before the former order was to be executed.
Pyrrha is in ruins. But the suburb is inhabited, and has a port, whence to Mitylene is a passage of 80 stadia. Next after Pyrrha is Eressus.
Eressus was the birth-place of Theophrastus, and of Phanias, Peripatetic philosophers, disciples of Aristotle. Theophrastus was called Tyrtamus before his name was changed by Aristotle to Theophrastus, thus getting rid of the cacophony of the former name, and at the same time expressing the
Antissawe have relinquished the song adapted to four strings, and shall cause new hymns to resound on a seven-stringed cithara.
The historian Hellanicus, and Callias, who has commented on Sappho and Alcæus, were Lesbians.
Near the strait situated between Asia and Lesbos there are about twenty small islands, or, according to Timosthenes, forty. They are called Hecatonnesoi,hundred islands,
the word being composed not of Hecatus but of Hecaton, a hundred,
and islands.
Near these islands is Pordoselene, which contains a city of the same name, and in front of this city is another island
Some persons, in order to avoid the indecorum couched in these names,with clothes dripping with wet,
(the country is
Lesbos is at the same distance, rather less than 500 stadia, from Tenedos, Lemnos, and Chios.
SINCE there subsisted so great an affinity among the Leleges and Cilicians with the Trojans, the reason is asked, why these people are not included in Homer's Catalogue. Perhaps it is that, on account of the loss of their leaders and the devastation of the cities, the few Cilicians that were left placed themselves under the command of Hector. For Eetion and his sons are said to have been killed before the Catalogue is mentioned;
says Andromache, killed my father, and destroyed Thebe, with its lofty gates, the city of the Cilicians.
— I had seven brothers in the palace; all of them went in one day to Hades, for they were all slain by the swift-footed divine Achilles.
Those also under the command of Mynes had lost their leaders, and their city;
And in another place, on the sea-coast are Carians, and Pæonians with curved bows, Leleges, and Caucones.
for they had not been so completely annihilated as to prevent he killed Satnius with a spear—the son of Enops, whom a beautiful nymph Neis bore to Enops, when he was tending herds near the banks of Satnioeis,
my mother Laothoë, daughter of the old Altes, brought me into the world to live but a short time; of Altes, king of the war-loving Leleges.
Such is the reasoning, from probability, which this subject admits.
We reason from probability when we endeavour to determine by the words of the poet the exact bounds of the territory of the Cilicians, Pelasgi, and of the people situated between them, namely, the Ceteii, who were under the command of Eurypylus.
+We have said of the Cilicians and of the people under the command of Eurypylus what can be said about them, and that they are bounded by the country near the Caïcus.
+It is agreeable to probability to place the Pelasgi next to these people, according to the words of Homer and other histories. Homer says, Hippothous led the tribes of the Pelasgi, who throw the spear, who inhabited the fertile Larisa; their leaders were Hippothous and Pylæus, a son of Mars, both sons of Lethus the Pelasgian, son of Teutamis.
He here represents the numbers of Pelasgi as considerable, for he does not speak of them as a tribe, but tribes,
and specifies the place of their settlement, Larisa. There are many places of the name of Larisa, but we must understand some one of those near the Troad, and perhaps we might not be wrong in supposing it to be that near Cyme; for of three places of the name of Larisa, that near Hamaxitus is quite in sight of Ilium and very near it, at the distance of about 200 stadia, so that Hippothous could not be said consistently with probability to fall, in the contest about Patroclus,
It is said that the people who set out from Phricium, a Locrian mountain above Thermopylæ, settled on the spot where Cyme is now situated; and finding the Pelasgi, who had been great sufferers in the Trojan war, yet still in possession of Larisa, distant about 70 stadia from Cyme, erected as a defence against them what is at present called Neon-teichos, (or the New Wall,) 30 stadia from Larisa. They took Larisa,
That the Pelasgi were a great nation, history, it is said, furnishes other evidence. For Menecrates of Elæa, in his work on the foundation of cities, says, that the whole of the present Ionian coast, beginning from Mycale and the neighbouring islands, were formerly inhabited by Pelasgi. But the Lesbians say, that they were commanded by Pylæus, who is called by the poet the chief of the Pelasgi, and that it was from him that the mountain in their country had the name of Pylæmem.
+The Chians also say, that the Pelasgi from Thessaly were
Something peculiar took place among the Larisæans in the plain of the Cayster, in the Phriconis, and in Thessaly. All of them occupied a country, the soil of which has been accumulated by rivers, by the Caÿster,
At Larisa Phriconis Piasus is said to receive great honours. He was chief of the Pelasgi, and enamoured, it is said, of his daughter Larisa, whom he violated, and was punished for the outrage. She discovered him leaning over a cask of wine, seized him by his legs, lifted him up, and dropped him down into the vessel. These are ancient accounts.
To the present Æolian cities we must add Ægæ and Temnus, the birth-place of Hermagoras, who wrote a book on the Art of Rhetoric.
+These cities are on the mountainous country which is above the district of Cyme, and that of the Phocæans and Smyrnæans, beside which flows the Hermus.
+Not far from these cities is Magnesia under Sipylus, made a free city by a decree of the Romans. The late earthquakes have injured this place. To the opposite parts, which incline towards the Caïcus to Cyme from Larisa, in passing to which the river Hermus is crossed, are 70 stadia; thence to Myrina 40 stadia; thence to Grynium 40 stadia, and thence to Elæa. But, according to Artemidorus, next to Cyme is Adæ; then, at the distance of 40 stadia, a promontory, which is called Hydra, and forms the Elaïtic Gulf with the opposite promontory Harmatus. The breadth of the entrance is about 80 stadia, including the winding of the bays. Myrina, situated at 60 stadia, is an Æolian city with a harbour, then the harbour of Achæans, where are altars of the twelve gods; next is Grynium, a small city [of the Myrinæans], a temple of Apollo, an ancient oracle, and a costly fane of white marble. To Myrina are 40 stadia; then 70 stadia to Elæa, which has a harbour and a station for vessels of the Attalic kings, founded
The places about Pitane, and Atarneus, and others in this quarter, which follow Elæa, have been already described.
Cyme is the largest and best of the Æolian cities. This and Lesbos may be considered the capitals of the other cities, about 30 in number, of which not a few exist no longer. The inhabitants of Cyme are ridiculed for their stupidity, for, according to some writers, it is said of them that they only began to let the tolls of the harbour three hundred years after the foundation of their city, and that before this time the town had never received any revenue of the kind; hence the report that it was late before they perceived that they inhabited a city lying on the sea.
+There is another story, that, having borrowed money in the name of the state, they pledged their porticos as security for the payment of it. Afterwards, the money not having been repaid on the appointed day, they were prohibited from walking in them. The creditors, through shame, gave notice by the crier whenever it rained, that the inhabitants might take shelter under the porticos. As the crier called out, Go under the porticos,
a report prevailed that the Cymæans did not perceive that they were to go under the porticos when it rained unless they had notice from the public crier.
Ephorus, a man indisputably of high repute, a disciple of Isocrates the orator, was a native of this city. He was an historian, and wrote the book on Inventions.
+Hesiod the poet, who long preceded Ephorus, was a native of this place, for he himself says, that his father Dius left Cyme in Æolis and migrated to the Bœotians; he dwelt near Helicon in Ascra, a village wretched in winter, in summer oppressive, and not pleasant at any season.
It is not generally admitted that Homer was from Cyme, for many dispute about him.
+The name of the city was derived from an Amazon, as that of Myrina was the name of an Amazon, buried under the Batieia in the plain of Troy; men call this Batieia; but the immortals, the tomb of the bounding Myrina.
Ephorus is bantered, because, having no achievements of his countrymen to commemorate among the other exploits in his history, and yet being unwilling to pass them over unnoticed, he exclaims,
After having described the Trojan and Æolian coasts, we ought next to notice cursorily the interior of the country as far as Mount Taurus, observing the same order.
PERGAMUM
Pergamum was the treasure-hold of Lysimachus, the son of Agathocles, and one of the successors of Alexander. It is situated on the very summit of the mountain which terminates in a sharp peak like a pine-cone. Phileterus of Tyana was intrusted with the custody of this strong-hold, and of the treasure, which amounted to nine thousand talents. He became an eunuch in childhood by compression, for it happened that a great body of people being assembled to see a funeral, the nurse who was carrying Philetærus, then an infant, in her arms, was entangled in the crowd, and pressed upon to such a degree that the child was mutilated.
+He was therefore an eunuch, but having been well educated he was thought worthy of this trust. He continued for
During these disorders the eunuch remained in the fortress, continually employing the policy of promises and other courtesies with those who were the strongest and nearest to himself. He thus continued master of the strong-hold for twenty years.
He had two brothers, the elder of whom was Eumenes, the younger Attalus. Eumenes had a son of the same name, who succeeded to the possession of Pergamum, and was then sovereign of the places around, so that he overcame in a battle near Sardes
Attalus, the son of Attalus and Antiochis, daughter of Achæus, succeeded to the kingdom. He was the first person who was proclaimed king after a victory, which he obtained in a great battle with the Galatians. He became an ally of the Romans, and, in conjunction with the Rhodian fleet, assisted them in the war against Philip. He died in old age, having reigned forty-three years. He left four sons by Apollonis, a woman of Cyzicus,—Eumenes, Attalus, Philetærus, and Athenæus. The younger sons continued in a private station, but Eumenes, the elder, was king. He was an ally of the Romans in the war with Antiochus the Great, and with Perseus; he received from the Romans all the country within the Taurus which had belonged to Antiochus. Before this time there were not under the power of Pergamum many places which reached to the sea at the Elaïtic and the Adramyttene Gulfs. Eumenes embellished the city, he ornamented the Nicephorium
He appointed as guardian of his son, who was very young,On brotherly love,
and by Livy, xlii. c. 15 and 16.
The Caïcus flows past Pergamum through the plain of Caïcus, as it is called, and traverses a very fertile country, indeed almost the best soil in Mysia.
The celebrated men in our times, natives of Pergamum, were Mithridates, the son of Menodotus and the daughter of Adobogion; he was of the family of the Tetrarchs of Galatia. Adobogion, it is said, had been the concubine of Mithridates the king; the relatives therefore gave to the child the name of Mithridates, pretending that he was the king's son.
+This prince became so great a friend of Divus Cæsar, that he was promoted to the honour of Tetrarch (of Galatia) out of regard to his mother's family; he was appointed also king of Bosporus and of other places. He was overthrown by Asander, who put to death Pharnaces the king and obtained
But the friendship of Augustus Cæsar, whom he instructed in oratory, was the principal cause of the elevation of Apollodorus. He had a celebrated scholar Dionysius, surnamed Atticus, his fellow-citizen, who was an able teacher of philosophy, an historian, and composer of orations.
Proceeding from the plain and the city towards the east, we meet with Apollonia, a city on an elevated site. To the south is a mountainous ridge, which having crossed on the road to Sardes, we find on the left hand the city Thyateira, a colony of the Macedonians, which some authors say is the last city belonging to the Mysians. On the right hand is Apollonis, 300 stadia from Pergamum, and the same distance from Sardes. It has its name from Apollonis of Cyzicus (wife of Attalus). Next are the plains of Hermus and Sardes. The country to the north of Pergamum is principally occupied by Mysians; it lies on the right hand of the people called Abaïtæ, on whose borders is the Epictetus, extending to Bithynia.
Sardes is a large city, of later date than the Trojan times, yet ancient, with a strong citadel. It was the royal seat of the Lydians, whom the poet calls Meones, and later writers Meones, some asserting that they are the same, others that they are a different people, but the former is the preferable opinion.
+Above Sardes is the Tmolus, a fertile mountain having on its summit a seat
The Hermus takes its rise in Mysia, descending from the sacred mountain of Dindymene; after traversing the Catacecaumene, it enters the Sardian territory, and passes through the contiguous plains to the sea, mentioned above. Below the city lie the plains of Sardes, of the Cyrus, of the Hermus, and of the Caÿster, which are contiguous to one another and the most fertile anywhere to be found.
+At the distance of 40 stadia from the city is the lake Gygæa, as it is called by the poet.
The verses in Homer are to this effect,
Some persons add a fourth verse to these, Mesthles and Antiphus, sons of Talæmenes, born of the lake Gygæa, were the leaders of the Meones, who live below Tmolus.
But no Hyde
Some lay the scene of the last fable in Cilicia, others in Syria, others among the Pithecussæ (islands),among the Arini,
(which in Roman letters would be in the Pithecussæ Islands,
according to the opinion of those who placed Typhoëus in Italy. But it is remarkable that from the two words
The Scepsian (Demetrius) says that the opinion of those authors is most to be depended upon who place the Arimi in the Catacecaumene in Mysia. But Pindar associates the Pithecussæ which lie in front of the Cymæan territory and Sicily with Cilicia, for the poet says that Typhon lay beneath Ætna;
And again, Once he dwelt in far-famed Cilician caverns, but now Sicily, and the sea-girt isle, o'ershadowing Cyme, press upon his shaggy breast.
And again,
Others understand Syrians by the Arimi, who are now called Aramæi, and maintain that the Cilicians in the Troad migrated and settled in Syria, and deprived the Syrians of the country which is now called Cilicia. 'Twas the great Jove alone of gods that overpowered, with resistless force, the fifty-headed monster Typhon, of yore among the Arimi.
The monuments of the kings lie around the lake Coloë. At Sardes is the great mound of Alyattes upon a lofty base, the work, according to Herodotus,
Some historians say, that Coloë is an artificial lake, designed to receive the superabundant waters of the rivers when they are full and overflow.
+Hyptæpa
Callisthenes says that Sardes was taken first by Cimmerians, then by Treres and Lycians, which Callinus also, the elegiac poet, testifies, and that it was last captured in the time of Cyrus and Crœsus. When Callinus says that the incursion of the Cimmerians when they took Sardes was directed against the Esioneis, the Scepsian (Demetrius) supposes the Asioneis to be called by him Esioneis, according to. the Ionian dialect; for perhaps Meonia, he says, was called Asia, as Homer describes the country,
The distinguished natives of Sardes were two orators of the same name and family, the Diodori; the elder of whom was called Zonas, who had pleaded the cause of Asia in many suits. At the time of the invasion of Mithridates the king, he was accused of occasioning the revolt of the cities from him, but in his defence he cleared himself of the charge.
+The younger Diodorus was my friend; there exist of his
Xanthus, the ancient historian, is said to be a Lydian, but whether of Sardes I do not know.
After the Lydians are the Mysians, and a city Philadelphia, subject to constant earthquakes. The walls of the houses are incessantly opening, and sometimes one, sometimes another, part of the city is experiencing some damage. The majority of people (for few persons live in the city) pass their lives in the country, employing themselves in agriculture, and cultivate a good soil. Yet it is surprising that there should be even a few persons so much attached to a place where their dwellings are insecure; but one may marvel more at those who founded the city.
Next is the tract of country called the Catacecaumene, extending 500 stadia in length, and in breadth 400. It is uncertain whether it should be called Mysia or Meonia, for it has both names. The whole country is devoid of trees, excepting vines, from which is obtained the Catacecaumenite wine; it is not inferior in quality to any of the kinds in repute. The surface of the plains is covered with ashes, but the hilly and rocky part is black, as if it were the effect of combustion. This, as some persons imagine, was the effect of thunder-bolts and of fiery tempests, nor do they hesitate to make it the scene of the fable of Typhon. Xanthus even says that a certain Arimus was king of these parts. But it is unreasonable to suppose that so large a tract of country was all at once consumed; it is more natural to suppose that the effect was produced by fire generated in the soil, the sources of which are now exhausted. Here are to be seen three pits, which are called Physæ, or breathing holes, situated at the distance of 40 stadia from each other. Above are rugged hills, which probably consist of masses of matter thrown up by blasts of air (from the pits).
+That ground of this kind should be well adapted to vines, may be conceived from the nature of the country Catana,
Some persons, in allusion to such countries as these, wittily observe that Bacchus is properly called Pyrigenes, or fire-born.
The Tmolus is a well compacted mass of mountain,
So also the rivers, and particularly the Mæander, are the actual boundaries of some nations, but take their course through the middle of others, rendering accurate distinction between them difficult.
+The same may be said of plains, which are found on each side of a mountainous range and on each side of a river. Our attention however is not required to obtain the same degree of accuracy as a surveyor, but only to give such descriptions as have been transmitted to us by our predecessors.
Contiguous on the east to the plain of Caÿster, which lies between the Mesogis and Tmolus, is the plain Cilbianum. It is extensive, well inhabited, and fertile. Then follows the Hyrcanian plain, a name given by the Persians, who brought colonists from Hyrcania (the plain of Cyrus, in like manner had its name from the Persians). Next is the Peltine plain, belonging to the Phrygians, and the Cillanian and the Tabenian plains, the latter of which contains small towns, inhabited by a mixed population of Phrygians, with a portion of Pisidians. The plains have their names from the towns.
After crossing the Mesogis, situated between the Cari- between Carura and Nysa.
The Plutonium, situated below a small brow of the overhanging mountain, is an opening of sufficient size to admit a man, but there is a descent to a great depth. In front is a quadrilateral railing, about half a plethrum in circumference. This space is filled with a cloudy and dark vapour, so dense that the bottom can scarcely be discerned. To those who approach round the railing the air is innoxious, for in calm weather it is free from the cloud which then continues within the enclosure. But animals which enter within the railing die instantly. Even bulls, when brought within it, fall down and are taken out dead. We have ourselves thrown in sparrows, which immediately fell down lifeless. The Galli,
The conversion of water into stone is said to be the property of certain rivers in Laodiceia, although the water is fit for the purpose of drinking. The water at Hierapolis is peculiarly adapted for the dyeing of wool. Substances dyed with the roots,
After Hierapolis are the parts beyond the Mæander. Those about Laodiceia and Aphrodisias,
Antioch is a city of moderate size situated on the banks of the Mæander, at the side towards Phrygia. There is a bridge over the river. A large tract of country, all of which is fertile, on each side of the river, belongs to the city. It produces in the greatest abundance the fig of Antioch, as it is called, which is dried. It is also called Triphyllus. This place also is subject to shocks of earthquakes.
+A native of this city was Diotrephes, a celebrated sophist; his disciple was Hybreas, the greatest orator of our times.
The Cabaleis, it is said, were Solymi. The hill situated above the Termessian fortress is called Solymus, and the Termessians themselves Solymi. Near these places is the rampart of Bellerophon and the sepulchre of Peisander his son, who fell in the battle against the Solymi. This account agrees with the words of the poet. Of Bellerophon he speaks thus,
The Cibyratæ are said to be descendants of the Lydians who occupied the territory Cabalis. The city was afterwards in the possession of the Pisidians, a bordering nation, who occupied it, and transferred it to another place, very strongly fortified, the circuit of which was about 100 stadia. It flourished in consequence of the excellence of its laws. The villages belonging to it extended from Pisidia, and the bordering territory Milyas, as far as Lycia and the country opposite to Rhodes. Upon the
The Cibyratæ used four languages, the Pisidic, that of the Solymi, the Greek, and the Lydian, but of the latter no traces are now to be found in Lydia.
+At Cibyra there is practised the peculiar art of carving with ease ornamental work in iron.
+Milya is the mountain-range extending from the defiles near Termessus, and the passage through them to the parts within the Taurus towards Isinda, as far as Sagalassus and the country of Apameia. + +
SUMMARY.
+The Fourteenth Book contains an account of the Cyclades islands and the region opposite to them, Pamphylia, Isauria, Lycia, Pisidia, Cilicia as far as Seleucia of Syria, and that part of Asia properly called Ionia.
THERE remain to be described Ionia, Caria, and the sea-coast beyond the Taurus, which is occupied by Lycians, Pamphylians, and Cilicians.
The navigation around Ionia along the coast is about 3430 stadia. It is a considerable distance, on account of the gulfs, and of the peninsular form for the most, part of the country, but the length in a straight line is not great. The distance, for example, from Ephesus to Smyrna is a journey in a straight line of 320 stadia; to Metropolis
According to Pherecydes, Miletus, Myus,
Pherecydes says that the leader of the Ionian, which was posterior to the Æolian migration, was Androclus, a legitimate son of Codrus king of the Athenians, and that he was the founder of Ephesus, hence it was that it became the seat of the royal palace of the Ionian princes. Even at present the descendants of that race are called kings, and receive certain honours, as the chief seat at the public games, a purple robe as a symbol of royal descent, a staff instead of a sceptre, and the superintendence of the sacrifices in honour of the Eleusinian Ceres.
+Neleus, of a Pylian family, founded Miletus. The Messenians and Pylians pretend that there is some affinity between them; in reference to which later poets say that even Nestor was a Messenian, and that many Pylians accompanied Melanthus, the father of Codrus, to Athens, and that all this people sent out the colony in common with the Ionians. There is also to be seen on the promontory Poseidium an altar erected by Neleus.
+Myus was founded by Cydrelus, a spurious son of Codrus; Lebedos
These are the twelve Ionian cities. At a subsequent period Smyrna also was added to the Ionian association at the instance of the Ephesians, for anciently they inhabited the same city, at which time Ephesus was called Smyrna. Callinus somewhere gives it this name, and calls the Ephesians Smyrnæans in the address to Jupiter:
and in another passage, And pity the Smyrnæans;
Smyrna was an Amazon, who got possession of Ephesus; from her the inhabitants and the city had their name, in the same manner as some Ephesians were called Sisyrbitæ from Sisyrba; and a certain spot in Ephesus was called Smyrna, as Hipponax testifies: remember now, if ever, the beautiful thighs of the oxen [which the Smyrnæans burnt in sacrifice].
The mountain Prion was called Lepre Acta; it overhangs the present city, and has on it a portion of the wall. Even now the farms at the back of the Prion retain the name in the term Opistholepria. The country along the foot of the mountain about Coressus was called Tracheia. The city was anciently built about the Athenaeum, which is now beyond the city, at the (fountain) Hypelæus. Smyrna therefore was situated near the present gymnasium, at the back of the present city, but between Tracheia and Lepre Acta. The Smyrnæans, upon quitting the Ephesians, marched to the place where Smyrna now stood, and which was in the possession of Leleges. They expelled these people and founded the ancient Smyrna, which is distant from the present city about 20 stadia. They were themselves afterwards expelled by Æolians, and took refuge at Colophon; they then returned with a body of men from the latter place, and recovered their own city, Smyrna. Mimnermus relates this in his poem of Nanno, and says of Smyrna, that it was always a subject of contention; He lived in Smyrna, at the back of the city between Tracheia and Lepre Acta.
after leaving Pylus, the lofty city of Neleus, we came in our voyage to the long wished-for Asia, and settled at Colophon, and hastening thence from the river Astëeis, by the will of the gods we took Æolian Smyrna.
So much then on this subject.
+We must, however, again describe each place in particular, beginning with the principal cities, from which the first settlements originated, I mean Miletus and Ephesus, for these are superior to all others, and the most celebrated.
Next after the Poseidium of the Milesians, at the distance of 18
The Milesians afterwards built a temple, which exceeded in size all others, but it remained without a roof on account of its magnitude. The circuit of the sacred enclosure contained within it a village with a magnificent grove, which also extended beyond it; other sacred enclosures contain the oracle, and what belongs to the worship of the god.
+Here is laid the scene of the fable of Branchus, and Apollo's love for him. The temple is adorned with the most costly offerings, the productions of ancient art.
+Thence to the city the journey is not long either by land or sea.
Ephorus relates that Miletus was first founded and fortified by the Cretans on the spot above the sea-coast where at present the ancient Miletus is situated, and that Sarpedon conducted thither settlers from the Miletus in Crete,
The present city has four harbours, one of which will admit a fleet of ships.
Anaximenes of Lampsacus says, that the Milesians colonized both the island Icarus and Lerus, and Limnæ on the Hellespont, in the Chersonesus; in Asia, Abydus, Arisba, and Pæsus; on the island of the Cyziceni, Artace and Cyzicus; in the interior of the Troad, Scepsis. We have mentioned, in our particular description of places, other cities which this writer has omitted.
+Both the Milesians and Delians invoke Apollo Ulius, as dispensing health and curing diseases; for health and good welcome;
for Apollo is a healer, and Artemis has her name from making persons
Illustrious persons, natives of Miletus, were Thales, one of the seven wise men, the first person who introduced among the Greeks physiology and mathematics; his disciple Anaximander, and Anaximenes the disciple of Anaximander. Besides these, Hecatæus the historian;and Cadmus
to be here omitted. Kramer considers this correction to be very doubtful; see b. i. c. ii. § 6.
Miletus shut her gates against Alexander, and experienced the misfortune of being taken by storm, which was also the fate of Halicarnassus; long before this time it was captured by the Persians. Callisthenes relates, that Phrynichus the tragic writer was fined a thousand drachmæ by the Athenians for composing a play entitled The taking of Miletus by Darius.
The island Lade lies close in front of Miletus, and small islands about Tragææ,
Next follows the Gulf of Latmus, on which is situated Heracleia under Latmus,
At a little distance further, after crossing a small river near Latmus, there is seen in a cave the sepulchre of Endymion. Then from Heracleia to Pyrrha, a small city, is about 100 stadia by sea, but a little more from Miletus to Heracleia, if we include the winding of the bays.
From Miletus to Pyrrha, in a straight line by sea, is 30 stadia; so much longer is the journey by sailing near the land.
When we are speaking of celebrated places, the reader must endure with patience the dryness of such geographical descriptions.
+From Pyrrha to the mouth of the Mæander are 50 stadia. The ground about it is marshy and a swamp. In sailing up the river in vessels rowed by oars to the distance of 30 stadia, we come to Myus,
At four stadia from Myus is Thymbria, a Carian village, near which is Aornum; this is a sacred cave called Charo-
After the mouths of the Mæander follows the shore of Priene. Above it is Priene,More just in pleadings than Bias of Priene.
In front of Trogilium lies an island of the same name. Thence, which is the nearest way, is a passage across to Sunium of
From Trogilium to Samos are 40 stadia. Both this and the harbour, which has a station for vessels, have a southern aspect. A great part of it is situated on a flat, and is overflowed by the sea, but a part also rises towards the mountain which overhangs it. On the right hand, in sailing towards the city, is the Poseidium, a promontory, which forms towards Mycale the strait of 7 stadia. It has upon it a temple of Neptune. In front is a small island, Narthecis; on the left, near the Heræum, is the suburb, and the river Imbrasus, and the Heræum, an ancient temple, and a large nave, which at present is a repository for paintings. Besides the great number of paintings in the Heræum, there are other repositories and some small chapels, filled with works of ancient art. The Hypæthrum also is full of the best statues. Of these, three of colossal size, the work of Myron, stand
The voyage round the island Sarnos is 600 stadia.
Samos is not very fortunate as regards the production of wine, but in general it is fertile, as appears from its possession being a subject of warlike contention, and from the language of its panegyrists, who do not hesitate to apply to it the proverb,
as Menander somewhere says. This was the cause also of the tyrannies established there, and of the enmity of the Athenians. It produces even birds' milk,
The tyrannies were at their height in the time of Polycrates and his brother Syloson. The former was distinguished for his good fortune, and the possession of such a degree of power as made him master of the sea. It is related as an instance of his good fortune, that having purposely thrown into the sea his ring, which was of great value both on account of
It is said that in his time Pythagoras, observing the growing tyranny, left the city, and travelled to Egypt and Babylon, with a view to acquire knowledge. On his return from his travels, perceiving that the tyranny still prevailed, he set sail for Italy, and there passed the remainder of his life.
+So much respecting Polycrates.
Syloson was left by his brother in a private station. But he made a present to Darius, son of Hystaspes, of a robe which the latter saw him wearing, and very much desired to possess. Darius was not king at this time, but when he became king, Polycrates received as a compensation the tyranny of Samos. He governed with so much severity, that the city was depopulated, which gave occasion to the proverb, By the pleasure of Syloson there is room enough.
The Athenians formerly sent Pericles their general, and with him Sophocles the poet, who harassed with the evils of a siege the refractory Samians. AfterwardsThe taking of Œchalia.
Callimachus, on the contrary, intimates in an epigram that it was the composition of
Some say that he was Homer's master; according to others, it was not Creophylus, but Aristeas of Proconnesus. I am the work of the Samian, who once entertained in his house, as a guest, the divine Homer. I grieve for the sufferings of Eurytus, and mourn for the yellow-haired Ioleia. I am called Homer's writing. O Jupiter, how glorious this for Creophylus.
The island of Icaria, from which the Icarian Sea has its name, is near Samos. The island has its name from Icarus, the son of Dædalus, who, it is said, having accompanied his father in his flight, when both of them, furnished with wings, set out from Crete, fell on that island, unable to sustain his flight. He had mounted too near the sun, and the wings dropped off on the melting of the wax [with which they were fastened].
+The whole island is 300 stadia in circumference; it has no harbours, but only anchorages, the best of which is called Histi. A promontory stretches towards the west. There is also on the island a temple of Diana, called Tauropolium, and a small town Œnoë; and another, Dracanum,
Next to the Samian strait at Mycale, on the right hand on the voyage to Ephesus, is the sea-coast of the Ephesians, a part of which even the Samians possess. First on the sea-coast is the Panionium,
Then follows Neapolis, which formerly belonged to the Ephesians, but now belongs to the Samians, having exchanged Marathesium
Next is a harbour called Panormus, with a temple of the Ephesian Diana; then the city.
+On the same coast, at a little distance from the sea, is Ortygia, a fine wood with trees of all kinds, but the cypress in the greatest abundance. Through this wood flows the river Cenchrius, in which Latona is said to have bathed after the birth of her child. For here is laid the scene of the birth of the child, the cares of the nurse Ortygia, the cave in which the birth took place, the neighbouring olive tree under which the goddess first reposed when the pains of child-birth had ceased.
+Above the wood is the mountain Solmissus, where, it is said, the Curetes stationed themselves, and with the noise of their arms perplexed and terrified Juno, who was enviously watching in secret the delivery of Latona, who was thus assisted in concealing the birth of the child.
+There are many temples in the place, some of which are ancient, others of later times; in the former are ancient statues; in the latter are works of Scopas, Latona holding a sceptre, and Ortygia standing by her with a child in each arm.
+A convention and festival are celebrated there every year. It is the custom for young men to vie with each other, particularly in the splendour of their convivial entertainments. The body of Curetes celebrate their Symposia at the same time, and perform certain mystic sacrifices.
The city of Ephesus was inhabited both by Carians and Leleges. After Androclus had expelled the greatest part of the inhabitants, he settled his companions about the Athenæum, and the Hypelæum, and in the mountainous tract at the foot of the Coressus. It was thus inhabited till the time of Crœsus. Afterwards, the inhabitants descended from the mountainous district, and settled about the present temple, and continued there to the time of Alexander. Then Lysimachus built a wall round the present temple, and, perceiving the in-
He called the city Arsinoë, after the name of his wife, but the old name prevailed. A body of elders was enrolled, with whom were associated persons called Epicleti, who administered all the affairs of the city.
Chersiphron
Besides, Artemidorus says, that Alexander promised to defray the expense of its restoration, both what had been and what would be incurred, on condition that the work should be attributed to him in the inscription, but the Ephesians refused to accede to this ; much less, then, would they be disposed to acquire fame by sacrilege and spoliation. He praises also the reply of an Ephesian to the king, that it was not fit that a god should provide temples in honour of gods.
After the completion of the temple, which, he says, was the work of Cheirocrates (the same person who built Alexandria, and also promised Alexander that he would form a figure in wax of Penelope.
Kramer does not adopt the reading, on the ground that no figures in wax are mentioned by ancient authors.
The priests were eunuchs, who were called Megabyzi. It was the practice to send to various places for persons worthy of this office, and they were held in high honour. They were obliged to appoint virgins as their colleagues in their priesthood. At present some of their rites and customs are observed, and some are neglected.
+The temple was formerly, and is at present, a place of refuge, but the limits of the sanctity of this asylum have been frequently altered; Alexander extended them to the distance of a stadium. Mithridates discharged an arrow from the angle of the roof, and supposed that it fell a little beyond the distance of a stadium. Antonius doubled this distance, and included within the range of the sanctuary a certain portion of the city. This was attended with much evil, as it placed the city in the power of criminals and malefactors. On this account Augustus Cesar abolished the privilege.
The city has an arsenal and a harbour. The entrance of the harbour was made narrow, by order of the king Attalus Philadelphus, who, together with the persons that constructed it, was disappointed at the result. The harbour was formerly shallow, on account of the embankment of earth accumulated by the Caÿster; but the king, supposing that there would be
Such then is the nature of the harbour.
+The city, by the advantages which it affords, daily improves, and is the largest mart in Asia within the Taurus.
Among illustrious persons in ancient times natives of Ephesus were Heracleitus, surnamed Scoteinus, or the Obscure, and Hermodorus, of whom Heracleitus himself says:
Hermodorus seems to have compiled laws for the Romans. Hipponax the poet was an Ephesian, and the painters Parrhasius and Apelles.The Ephesians, youths and all, deserve hanging, for expelling Hermodorus, an honest citizen,
In more recent times was Alexander the orator, surnamed Lychnus, or the Lamp;
Next to the mouth of the Caÿster is a lake called Selinusia, formed by the overflowing of the sea. It is succeeded by another, which communicates with this. They afford a large revenue, of which the kings, although it was sacred, deprived the goddess, but the Romans restored it; then the
In the most retired part of the lake is a temple of a king, built, it is said, by Agamemnon.
Next follows the mountain Gallesius, and Colophon, an Ionian city, in front of which is the grove of Apollo Clarius, where was once an ancient oracle.
Hesiod relates the fable somewhat in this manner: Calchas propounds to Mopsus something of this kind:
Mopsus answered: I am surprised to see how large a quantity of figs there is on this small tree; can you tell the number?
Thus he spoke; the number and measure were exact. Then Calchas closed his eyes in the sleep of death.There are ten thousand; they will measure a medimnus, and there is one over, which you cannot comprehend.
But Pherecydes says, that Calchas proposed a question respecting a pregnant sow, and asked how many young she had; the other answered, three, one of which is a sow.
Upon his giving the true answer, Calchas died of vexation. According to others, Calchas propounded the question of the sow, and Mopsus that of the fig-tree; that Mopsus returned the true answer, and that Calchas was mistaken, who died of vexation, according to some oracular prophecy.
Sophocles, in his Helen Claimed,
says that he was destined by fate to die when he should meet with a prophet superior to himself. But this writer transfers the scene of the rivalry, and of the death of Calchas, to Cilicia.
These are ancient traditions.
The Colophonians once possessed a considerable armament, consisting both of ships and of cavalry. In the latter they were so much superior to other nations, that in any obstinate engagement, on whichever side the Colophonian horse were auxiliaries, they decided it; whence came the proverb, he put the Colophon to it,
when a person brought any affair to a decisive issue.
Among some of the remarkable persons born at Colophon were Mimnermus, a flute-player and an elegiac poet; Xenophanes, the natural philosopher, who composed Silli in verse. Pindar mentions one Polymnastus also, a Colophonian, as distinguished for his skill in music:
and some writers affirm that Homer was of that city. The voyage from Ephesus in a straight line is 70 stadia, and including the winding of the bays, 120. Thou knowest the celebrated strains of Polymnastus, the Colophonian:
Next to Colophon is the mountain Coracium, and a small island sacred to Artemis, to which it is believed that the hinds swim across to bring forth their young.
+Then follows Lebedos,
Teos is distant from Lebedos 120 stadia. Between these two places is the island Aspis,
Teos is situated upon a peninsula, and has a port. Anacreon, the lyric poet, was a native of this place; in his time, the Teians, unable to endure the insults and injuries of the Persians, abandoned Teos, and removed to Abdera, whence originated the verse—
Some of them returned in after-times to their own country. We have said that Apellicon was of Teos, and Hecatæus also, the historian.Abdera, the beautiful colony of the Teians.
There is another port to the north, at the distance of 30 stadia from the city, Gerrhæïdæ.
Next follows Chalcideis, and the isthmus of the peninsula
The passage across the isthmus from the Alexandrine grove and Chalcideis, as far as the Hypocremnus, is 50 stadia (150?). The circuit round by sea is more than 1000 stadia. Somewhere about the middle of the voyage is Erythræ,
But before we come to Erythræ, the first place we meet with is Eræ,
Next is Corycus, a lofty mountain; and below it, Casystes, a port;
when any one thinks that he has done or said anything not to be divulged, but is betrayed by spies or persons anxious to be informed of what does not concern them. The Corycæan must have overheard it,
Next to Corycus is Halonnesus, a small island, then the Argennum,
Erythræ was the native place of the Sibyl, an ancient inspired prophetess. In the time of Alexander there was another Sibyl, who was also a prophetess, whose name was Athenais, a native of the same city; and in our age there was Heracleides the Herophilian physician, a native of Erythræ, a fellow-student of Apollonius surnamed Mus.
The coasting circumnavigation of Chios is 900 stadia. It has a cityof the same name
is omitted after city.
Among illustrious natives of Chios were Ion
The Chians once possessed a naval force, and aspired to the sovereignty of the sea, and to liberty.Whence also the Homeridæ, the chanters of the rhapsodies, most frequently begin their song.
From Chios to Lesbos is a voyage of about 400 stadia, with a south wind.
After the Hypocremnus is Chytrium, a place where Clazomenæ
Anaxagoras, the natural philosopher, was a distinguished Clazomenian; he was a disciple of Anaximenes the Milesian, and master of Archelaus the natural philosopher, and of Euripides the poet.
+Next is a temple of Apollo, and hot springs, the bay of Smyrna, and the city Smyrna.
Next is another bay, on which is situated the ancient Smyrna, at the distance of 20 stadia from the present city. After Smyrna had been razed by the Lydians, the inhabitants continued for about four hundred years to live in villages. It was then restored by Antigonus, and afterwards by Lysimachus, and at present it is the most beautiful city in Ionia.
+One portion of Smyrna is built up on a hill, but the greater part is in the plain near the harbour, the Metroum, and the Gymnasium. The division of the streets is excellent, and as nearly as possible in straight lines. There are paved roads, large quadrangular porticos, both on a level with the ground and with an upper story.
+There is also a library, and the Homereium, a quadrangular portico, which has a temple of Homer and a statue. For the Smyrnæans, above all others, urge the claims of their city to be the birth-place of Homer, and they have a sort of brass money, called Homereium.
The river Meles flows near the walls. Besides other conveniences with which the city is furnished, there is a close harbour.
+There is one, and not a trifling, defect in the work of the architects, that when they paved the roads, they did not make drains beneath them; the filth consequently lies on the surface, and, during rains particularly, the receptacles of the filth spread it over the streets.
+It was here that Dolabella besieged and slew Trebonius, one of the murderers of divus Cæsar; he also destroyed many parts of the city.
Next to Smyrna is Leucæ,
After Leucæ follows Phocæa,
In the interior of the Ionian maritime territory there remain to be described the places about the road leading from Ephesus, as far as Antioch
This tract is occupied by a mixed population of Lydians, Carians, and Greeks.
The first place after Ephesus is Magnesia, an Æolian city, and called Magnesia on the Mæander, for it is situated near it; but it is still nearer the Lethæus, which discharges itself into the Mæander. It has its source in Pactyes, a mountain in the Ephesian district. There is another Lethæus in
Magnesia lies in a plain, near a mountain called Thorax,O slaves, with backs purpled with stripes, filings of the gold of Lysimachus, you are the kings of Lydia and Phrygia.
An oracle is said to have warned Daphitas to beware of the Thorax.Shall I find my horse?
when he had none. The oracle answered that he would find it. He was afterwards, by the command of Attalus, king of Pergamum, taken and thrown from a precipice called the Horse.
The Magnesians appear to be the descendants of Delphians who inhabited the Didymæan mountains in Thessaly, and of whom Hesiod says, or, as the chaste virgin, who inhabits the sacred Didymæan hills in the plain of Dotium, opposite Amyrus, abounding with vines, and bathes her feet in the lake Bœbias—
At Magnesia also was the temple of Dindymene, the mother of the gods. Her priestess, according to some writers, was the daughter, according to others, the wife, of Themistocles. At present there is no temple, because the city has been transferred to another place. In the present city is the temple of Artemis Leucophryene, which in the size of the nave and in the number of sacred offerings is inferior to the temple at Ephesus; but, in the fine proportion and the skill exhibited in the structure of the enclosure, it greatly surpasses the Ephesian temple; in size it is superior to all the temples in Asia, except that at Ephesus and that at Didymi.
+Anciently the Magnetes were utterly extirpated by Treres, a Cimmerian tribe, who for a long period made successful inroads. Subsequently Ephesians got possession of the place.
whence we may conjecture that Archilochus was posterior to Callinus. Yet Callinus mentions some other earlier inroad of the Cimmerians, when he says— bewail the misfortunes of the Thasians, not of the Magnetes;
where he is speaking of the capture of Sardis. and now the army of the daring Cimmerians is advancing,
Among the illustrious natives of Magnesia were Hegesias the orator, who first introduced the Asiatic fervour, as it was called, and corrupted the established Attic style of eloquence; Simon (Simus?) the lyric poet, who also corrupted the system and plan of former lyric poets, by introducing the Simodia; it was still more corrupted by the Lysiodi and Magodi;
The theatres had raised the reputation of Anaxenor, the player on the cithara, but Antony elevated him as high as possible, by appointing him receiver of the tribute from four cities, and by giving him a guard of soldiers for the protection of his person. His native country also augmented his dignity, by investing him with the sacred purple of Jupiter Sosipolis, as is represented in the painted figure in the forum. There is also in the theatre a figure in brass, with this inscription:
The artist who engraved the words was inattentive to the space which they would occupy, and omitted the last letter of the second verse, It is truly delightful to listen to a minstrel such as he is, whose voice is like that of the gods.
After Magnesia is the road to Tralles;
The character of the sites of places is the same even as far as Nysa
The city of Tralles is built upon ground in the shape somewhat of a trapezium. It has a citadel strongly fortified, and the places around are well defended. It is as well peopled as any of the cities in Asia, and its inhabitants are wealthy; some of them constantly occupy chief stations in the province, and are called Asiarchs. Among the latter was Pythodorus, originally a native of Nysa; but, induced by the celebrity of the place, he migrated hither. He was one of the few friends of Pompey who were fortunate. His wealth was kingly, and consisted of more than two thousand talents, which he redeemed when it was confiscated by divus Cæsar, on account of his attachment to Pompey, and left it undiminished to his children. Pythodoris, who is at present queen in Pontus, and whom we have mentioned before. is his daughter. Pythodorus flourished in our times, and also Menodorus, an eloquent man, and a person of dignified and grave demeanour; he was priest of Jupiter Larisæus. He was circumvented by the adherents of Domitius Ænobarbus, who, on the credit of
Tralles produced also celebrated orators, Dionysocles, and after him Damasus, surnamed Scombrus.
+It is said to have been founded by Argives and a body of Tralli Thracians,
Nysa is situated near the Mesogis, resting for the most part against the mountain. It is as it were a double town, for a kind of torrent watercourse divides it into two parts, and forms a valley, one part of which has a bridge over it, connecting the two towns; the other is adorned with an amphitheatre; underneath it is a passage through which the waters of the torrents flow out of sight.
+Near the theatre are situated
On the road between Tralles and Nysa is a village of the Nysæans, not far from the city Acharaca, in which is the Plutonium, to which is attached a large grove, a temple of Pluto and Proserpine, and the Charonium, a cave which overhangs the grove, and possesses some singular physical properties. The sick, it is said, who have confidence in the cures performed by these deities, resort thither, and live in the village near the cave, among experienced priests, who sleep at night in the open air, on behoof of the sick, and direct the modes of cure by their dreams. The priests invoke the gods to cure the sick, and frequently take them into the cave, where, as in a den, they are placed to remain in quiet without food for several days. Sometimes the sick themselves observe their own dreams, but apply to these persons, in their character of priests and guardians of the mysteries, to interpret them, and to counsel what is to be done. To others the place is interdicted and fatal.
+An annual festival, to which there is a general resort, is celebrated at Acharaca, and at that time particularly are to be
Thirty stadia from Nysa, as you cross the Mesogis to-words the southern parts of Mount Tmolus,
and they show a temple dedicated to two heroes, Caÿstrius and Asius, and the Caÿster flowing near it. On the Asian mead,
Historians relate that three brothers, Athymbrus, Athymbradus, and Hydrelus, coming hither from Lacedæmon, founded (three?) cities, to which they gave their own names; that the population of these towns afterwards declined, but that out of these jointly Nysa was peopled. The Nysæans at present regard Athymbrus as their founder.
Beyond the Mæander and in the neighbourhood are considerable settlements, Coscinia
Among illustrious natives of Nysa were Apollonius the Stoic philosopher, the most eminent of the disciples of Panætius, and of Menecrates, the disciple of Aristarchus; Aristodemus, the son of Menecrates, whom, when I was a very young man, I heard lecturing on philosophy, in extreme old
THE places beyond the Mæander, which remain to be described, belong to the Carians. The Carians here are not intermixed with Lydians, but occupy the whole country by themselves, if we except a small portion of the sea-coast, of which the Milesians and Mysians have taken possession.
+Caria
The whole voyage along the coast, including the winding
The beginning of this tract is Dædala,
The city Caunus has a naval arsenal and a close harbour. Above the city upon a height is Imbrus, a stronghold. Although the country is fertile, yet the city is allowed by all to be unhealthy in summer, on account of the heat, and in autumn, from the abundance of fruits.
+Stories of the following kind are related respecting the city. Stratonicus, the player on the cithara, seeing the Caunians somewhat dark and yellow,
When he was accused of ridiculing the unhealthiness of the city, he answered, As are the leaves, so is the race of men.
Can I be so bold as to call that city unhealthy, where even the dead walk about?
The Caunians once revolted from the Rhodians, but, by a decision of the Romans, they were received again by the Rhodians into favour. There is in existence an oration of Molo against the Caunians.
+It is said that they speak the same language as the Carians, that they came from Crete, and retained their own laws and customs.
Next is Physcus,
The city of the Rhodians is on the eastern promontory. With regard to harbours, roads, walls, and other buildings, it so much surpasses other cities, that we know of none equal, much less superior to it.
+Their political constitution and laws were excellent, and the care admirable with which they administered affairs of state generally, and particularly those relative to their marine. Hence being for a long period masters of the sea, they put an end to piracy, and became allies of the Romans, and of those kings who were well affected to the Romans and the Greeks; hence also the city was suffered to preserve her independence, and was embellished with many votive offerings. These are distributed in various places, but the greatest part of them are deposited in the Dionysium and in the gymnasium. The most remarkable is the Colossus of the Sun, which, the author of the iambics says, was
It now lies on the ground, having been thrown down by an earthquake, and is broken off at the knees. An oracle prohibited its being raised again. This is the most remarkable of the votive offerings, and it is allowed to be one of the seven wonders of the world.seventy cubits in height, the work of Chares of Lindus.
The Rhodians, although their form of government is not democratic, are attentive to the welfare of the people, and endeavour to maintain the multitude of poor. The people receive allowances of corn, and the rich support the needy, according to an ancient usage. There are also public offices in the state, the object of which is to procure and distribute provisions,
Some of the dockyards are kept private, and the multitude are prohibited from seeing them. If any person should be found inspecting, or to have entered them, he would be punished with death. As at Massalia and Cyzicus,
Like the people of Halicarnasus,
But these migrations are more recent than the events re-
and adds afterwards— slew the maternal uncle of his father, the aged Licymnius. He immediately built ships, and, collecting a large body of people, fled away with them:
and mentions by name the cities then existingafter many sufferings on the voyage, he came to Rhodes; they settled there according to their tribes, in three bodies:
the city of the Rhodians not being yet founded.Lindus, Ialysus, and the white Cameirus,
Homer does not here mention Dorians by name, but means Æolians and Bœotians, since Hercules and Licymnius lived in Bœotia. If however, as others relate, Tlepolemus set out from Argos and Tiryns, even so the colony would not be Dorian, for it was settled before the return of the Heracleidæ.
+And of the Coans also Homer says—
and these names designate rather an Æolian than a Dorian origin. their leaders were Pheidippus and Antiphus, two sons of Thessalus the King, an Heracleid;
Rhodes was formerly called Ophiussa and Stadia, then Telchinis, from the Telchines, who inhabited the island.
These Telchines are called by some writers charmers and enchanters, who besprinkle animals and plants, with a view to destroy them, with the water of the Styx, mingled with sulphur. Others on the contrary say, that they were persons who excelled in certain mechanical arts, and that they were calumniated by jealous rivals, and thus acquired a bad reputation; that they came from Crete, and first landed at Cyprus, and then removed to Rhodes. They were the first workers in iron and brass, and were the makers of Saturn's scythe.
+I have spoken of them before, but the variety of fables
After the Telchines, the Heliadæ
Others say, that Tlepolemus founded them, and gave to them the names of some of the daughters of Danaüs. Lindus, Ialysus, and the white Cameirus.
The present city was built during the Peloponnesian war, by the same architect,
It is related of the Rhodians that their maritime affairs were in a flourishing state, not only from the time of the foundation of the present city, but that many years before the institution of the Olympic festival, they sailed to a great distance from their own country for the protection of sailors. They sailed as far as Spain, and there founded Rhodus, which the people of Marseilles afterwards occupied; they founded Parthenope
Some of the Rhodians settled in the neighbourhood of
Other writers have applied these verses to a fable, according to which, at the birth of Minerva, it rained gold on the island from the head of Jupiter, as Pindar has said.they settled according to their tribes, in three companies, and were the favourites of Jupiter, who showered upon them great wealth.
The island is 920 stadia in circumference.
In sailing from the city, and leaving the island on the right hand, the first place we meet with is Lindus,
Cleobulus, one of the seven wise men, was a native of Lindus.
Next to Lindus is Ixia,
There have been many remarkable persons, natives of Rhodes, both generals and athlete, among whom were the ancestors of Panætius the philosopher. Among statesmen, orators, and philosophers, were Panætius, Stratocles, Andronicus the Peripatetic, Leonides the Stoic, and long before the time of these persons, Praxiphanes, Hieronymus, and Eudemus. Poseidonius was concerned in the administration of the affairs of state, and taught philosophy at Rhodes, (but he was a native of Apameia in Syria,) as did Apollonius Malacus, and late comer,
This is sufficient on the subject of the island of Rhodes.
There is a bend of the Carian coast opposite to Rhodes, immediately after Eleus
Then follows Cnidus,
Illustrious natives of Cnidus were, first, Eudoxus the mathematician, a disciple of Plato's; Agatharchides, the Peripatetic philosopher and historian; Theopompus, one of the most powerful of the friends of divus Cæsar, and his son Artemidorus. Ctesias also, the physician of Artaxerxes, was a native of this place. He wrote a history of Assyria and Persia.
+Next after Cnidus are Ceramus
Then follows Halicarnasus, formerly called Zephyra, the royal seat of the dynasts of Caria. Here is the sepulchre of Mausolus, one of the seven wonders of the world;a work,
suggests that there is some omission in the text. Coraÿ supposes that the name of the architect or architects is wanting. Groskurd would supply the words the work of Scopas and other artificers.
See Pliny, N. H. xxxvi., and Vitruvius Præf. b. vii.
There is an acropolis at Halicarnasus. In front of it lies Arconnesus.
Among the natives of Halicarnasus were Herodotus the historian, who was afterwards called Thurius, because he was concerned in sending out the colony to Thurii; Heracleitus the poet, the friend of Callimachus; and in our time, Dionysius the historian.
Halicarnasus suffered, when it was taken by storm by Alexander. Hecatomnus, who was then king of the Carians, had three sons, Mausolus, Hidrieus, and Pixodarus, and two daughters. Mausolus, the eldest son, married Artemisia, the eldest daughter; Hidrieus, the second son, married Ada, the other sister. Mausolus came to the throne, and, dying without children, left the kingdom to his wife, by whom the above-mentioned sepulchre was erected. She pined away for grief at the loss of her husband. Hidrieus succeeded her; lie died a natural death, and was succeeded by his wife Ada. She was ejected by Pixodarus, the surviving son of Hecatomnus. Having espoused the party of the Persians, Pixodarus sent for a satrap to share the kingdom with him. After the death of Pixodarus, the satrap became master of Halicarnasus. But upon the arrival of Alexander, he sustained a siege. His wife was Ada, daughter of Pixodarus, and Aphneïs, a woman of Cappadocia. But Ada, the daughter of Hecatomnus, whom Pixodarus ejected, entreated Alexander, and endeavoured to prevail upon him to reïnstate her in the kingdom of which she had been deprived; she promised (in return) her assistance in reducing to obedience the parts of the country which had revolted; for the persons who were in possession of them
Next is Termerium,
The city of the Coans was formerly called Astypalæa, and was built in another place, but is at present on the sea-coast. Afterwards, on account of a sedition, they migrated to the present city, near Scandarium, and changed the name to that of the island, Cos. The city is not large, but beautifully built, and a most pleasing sight to mariners who are sailing by the coast. The island is about 550 stadia in circumference. The whole of it is fertile, and produces, like Chios and Lesbos, excellent wine. It has, towards the south, the promontory Laceter,
It is said, that Hippocrates learned and practised the dietetic part of medicine from the narrative of cures suspended in the temple. He is one of the illustrious natives of Cos. Simus, also, the physician, Philetas the poet and critic, Nicias of our time, who was tyrant of Cos; Ariston, the disciple and heir of Ariston the Peripatetic philosopher; and Theomnestus, a minstrel of name, who was of the opposite political party to Nicias.
On the coast of the continent opposite to the Myndian territory is Astypalæa a promontory, and Zephyrium. The city Myndus follows immediately after, which has a harbour; then the city Bargylia. In the intervening distance is Caryanda
Among the distinguished natives of Bargylia was Protarchus the Epicurean; Demetrius surnamed Lacon was his disciple.
Next follows Iasus, situated upon an island,
As a player on the cithara was displaying his art in public, every one listened to him attentively till the market bell rung for the sale of fish, when he was deserted by all except one man, who was quite deaf. The minstrel coming up to him said, Friend, I am much obliged to you for the honour you have done me, and I admire your love of music, for all the others have left me at the sound of the bell.
—What say you, has the bell rung?
—Yes, he replied?
—Good bye to you,
said the man, and away he also went.
Diodorus the Dialectician was a native of this place. He was surnamed Cronus (or Old Time); the title was not properly his from the first; it was his master Apollonius who (in the first instance) had received the surname of Cronus, but it was transferred to Diodorus on account of the want of celebrity in the true Cronus.
Next to Iasus is Cape Poseidium
Mylasa is situated in a very fertile plain; a mountain, containing a very beautiful marble quarry, overhangs the city; and it is no small advantage to have stone for building If the founder of the city had no fear, he had no shame.
The Mylasians have two temples, one of Jupiter called Osogo, and another of Jupiter Labrandenus. The former is in the city. Labranda is a village on the mountain, near the passage across it from Alabanda to Mylasa, at a distance from the city. At Labranda is an ancient temple of Jupiter, and a statue of Jupiter Stratius, who is worshipped by the neighbouring people and by the inhabitants of Mylasa. There is a paved road for a distance of about 60 stadia from the temple to the city; it is called the Sacred Way, along which the sacred things are carried in procession. The most distinguished citizens are always the priests, and hold office during life. These temples belong peculiarly to the city. There is a third temple of the Carian Jupiter, common to all the Carians, in the use of which the Lydians, also, and Mysians participate, as being brethren.
+Mylasa is said to have been anciently a village, but the native place and royal residence of Hecatomnus and the Carians. The city approaches nearest to the sea at Physcus, which is their naval arsenal.
Mylasa has produced in our time illustrious men, who were at once orators and demagogues, Euthydemus and Hybreas. Euthydemus inherited from his ancestors great wealth and reputation. He possessed commanding eloquence, and was regarded as a person of eminence, not only in his own country, but was thought worthy of the highest honours even in Asia. The father of Hybreas, as he used to relate the circumstance in his school, and as it was confirmed by his fellow-citizens, left him a mule which carried wood, and a mule driver. He was maintained for a short time by their labour, and was enabled to attend the lectures of Diotrephes of Antioch. On his return he held the office of superintendent of the market. But here being harassed, and gaining but
The saying of Hybreas, at the conclusion of an harangue to the people, is applauded: Euthydemus, you are an evil necessary to the city; for we can live neither with thee nor without thee.
Hybreas, although he had acquired great power, and had the reputation of being both a good citizen and an excellent orator, was defeated in his political opposition to Labienus. For the citizens, unarmed, and disposed to peace, surrendered to Labienus, who attacked them with a body of troops and with Parthian auxiliaries, the Parthians being at that time masters of Asia. But Zeno of Laodiceia and Hybreas, both of them orators, did not surrender, but caused their own cities to revolt. Hybreas provoked Labienus, an irritable and vain young man, by saying, when the youth announced himself emperor of the Parthians, Then I shall call myself emperor of the Carians.
Upon this Labienus marched against the city, having with him cohorts drafted from the Roman soldiery stationed in Asia. He did not however take Hybreas prisoner, who had retreated to Rhodes, but plundered and destroyed his house, which contained costly furniture, and treated the whole city in the same manner. After Labienus had left Asia, Hybreas returned, and restored his own affairs and those of the city to their former state.
This then on the subject of Mylasa.
Stratoniceia is a colony of Macedonians. It was embellished by the kings with costly edifices. In the district of the Stratoniceians are two temples. The most celebrated, that of Hecate, is at Lagina, where every year great multitudes assemble at a great festival. Near the city is the temple of Jupiter Chrysaoreus,
In the time of our ancestors there flourished at Stratoniceia a distinguished person, Menippus the orator, surnamed Catocas, whom Cicero
There is another Stratoniceia, called Stratoniceia at the Taurus, a small town adjacent to the mountain.
Alabanda lies at the foot of two eminences, in such a manner as to present the appearance of an ass with panniers. On this account Apollonius Malacus ridicules the city, and also because it abounds with scorpions; he says, it was an ass, with panniers full of scorpions.
+This city and Mylasa, and the whole mountainous tract between them, swarm with these reptiles.
+The inhabitants of Alabanda are addicted to luxury and debauchery. It contains a great number of singing girls.
+Natives of Alabanda, distinguished persons, were two orators, brothers, Menecles, whom we mentioned a little above, and Hierocles, Apollonius, and Molo; the two latter afterwards went to Rhodes.
Among the various accounts which are circulated respecting the Carians, the most generally received is that the Carians, then called Leleges, were governed by Minos, and occupied the islands. Then removing to the continent, they obtained possession of a large tract of sea-coast and of the interior, by driving out the former occupiers, who were, for the most part, Leleges and Pelasgi. The Greeks again, Ionians and Dorians, deprived the Carians of a portion of the country.
+As proofs of their eager pursuit of war, the handles of shields, badges, and crests, all of which are called Carian, are alleged. Anacreon says,
and Alcæus— Come, grasp the well-made Caric handles;
Shaking a Carian crest.
But when Homer uses these expressions, Masthles commanded the Carians, who speak a barbarous language,
and in another place— A man whose fame has spread through Greece and Argos;
But if there was no such term as Barbarian, how could he properly speak of people as Barbarophonoi (i. e. speaking a barbarous language)?But if you wish to go through Hellas and the middle of Argos.
Neither is Thucydides nor Apollonius the grammarian right, because the Greeks, and particularly the Ionians, applied to the Carians a common term in a peculiar and vituperative sense, in consequence of their hatred of them for their animosity and continual hostile incursions. Under these circumstances he might call them Barbarians. But we ask, why does he call them Barbarophonoi, but not once Barbarians? Because, replies Apollonius, the plural number does not fall in with the metre; this is the reason why Homer does not call them Barbarians. Admitting then that the genitive case (
and of the same kind is the word TroïiTrojans, Lycians, and Dardani;
Like the Troïi horses
(
Nor is the reason to be found in the alleged excessive harshness of the Carian language, for it is not extremely harsh; and besides, according to Philippus, the author of a history of Caria, their language contains a very large mixture of Greek words. barbarian
was at first invented to designate a mode of pronunciation which was embarrassed, harsh, and rough; as we use the words battarizein, traulizein, psellizein,
As those who pronounce their words with a thick enunciation are called Barbarians, so foreigners, I mean those who were not Greeks, were observed to pronounce their words in this manner. The term Barbarians was therefore applied peculiarly to these people, at first by way of reproach, as having a thick and harsh enunciation; afterwards the term was used improperly, and applied as a common gentile term in contradistinction to the Greeks. For after a long intimacy and intercourse had subsisted with the Barbarians, it no longer appeared that this peculiarity arose from any thickness of enunciation, or a natural defect in the organs of the voice, but from the peculiarities of their languages.
+But there was in our language a bad and what might be called a barbarous utterance, as when any person speaking Greek should not pronounce it correctly, but should pronounce the words like the Barbarians, who, when beginning to learn the Greek language, are not able to pronounce it perfectly, as neither are we able to pronounce perfectly their languages.
+This was peculiarly the case with the Carians. For other nations had not much intercourse with the Greeks, nor were disposed to adopt the Grecian manner of life, nor to learn our language, with the exception of persons who by accident and singly had associated with a few Greeks; but the Carians were dispersed over the whole of Greece, as mercenary soldiers. Then the barbarous pronunciation was frequently met with among them, from their military expeditions into Greece; and afterwards it spread much more, from the time that they occupied the islands together with the Greeks: not even when
Hence arose the expression, to barbarize,
for we are accustomed to apply this term to those whose pronunciation of the Greek language is vicious, and not to those who pronounce it like the Carians.
We are then to understand the expressions, barbarous speaking
and barbarous speakers,
of persons whose pronunciation of the Greek language is faulty. The word to barbarize
was formed after the word to Carize,
and transferred into the books which teach the Greek language; thus also the word to solœcize
was formed, derived either from Soli or some other source.
Artemidorus says that the journey from Physcus, on the coast opposite to Rhodes, towards Ephesus, as far as Lagina is 850 stadia; thence to Alabanda 250 stadia; to Tralles 160. About halfway on the road to Tralles the Mæander is crossed, and here are the boundaries of Caria. The whole number of stadia from Physcus to the Mæander, along the road to Ephesus, is
But as there is a public frequented road by which all travellers pass on their way from Ephesus to the east, Artemidorus thus describes it. [From Ephesus] to Carura, the boundary of Caria towards Phrygia, through Magnesia and Tralles, Nysa, Antioch, is a journey of 740 stadia. From Carura, the first town in Phrygia, through Laodiceia, Apameia, Metropolis, and Chelidoniæ,
The places in a straight line with these, as far as India, are described in the same manner by Artemidorus and Eratosthenes. Polybius says, that with respect to those places we ought chiefly to depend upon Artemidorus. He begins from Samosata in Commagene, which is situated at the passage, and the Zeugma of the Euphrates, to Samosata across the Taurus, from the mountains of Cappadocia about Tomisa, he says is a distance of 450 stadia.
AFTER the part of the coast oppositeAfter the Peræa of Rhodes.
Peræa was the name of the coast of Caria opposite to Rhodes, which for several centuries formed a dependency of that opulent republic. In the time of Scylax, the Rhodians possessed only the peninsula immediately in face of their island. As a reward for their assistance in the Antiochian war, the Romans gave them a part of Lycia, and all Caria as far as the Mæander. By having adopted a less prudent policy in the second Macedonic war, they lost it all, including Caunus, the chief town of Peræa. It was not long, however, before it was restored to them, together with the small islands near Rhodes; and from this time Peræa retained the limits which Strabo has described, namely, Dedala on the east and Mount Loryma on the west, both included Vespasian finally reduced Rhodes itself into the provincial form, and joined it to Caria.—
The description of this coast will complete the account of the whole peninsula. We shall then pass to the rest of Asia without the Taurus, and lastly we shall describe Africa.
After Dedala of the Rhodians there is a mountain of Lycia, of the same name, Dedala, and here the whole Lycian coast begins, and extends
At Side,
But the Lycians continued to live as good citizens, and with so much restraint upon themselves, that although the Pamphylians had succeeded in obtaining the sovereignty of the sea as far as Italy, yet they were never influenced by the desire of base gain, and persevered in administering the affairs of the state according to the laws of the Lycian body.
There are three and twenty cities in this body, which have votes. They assemble from each city at a general congress, and select what city they please for their place of meeting. Each of the largest cities commands three votes, those of intermediate importance two, and the rest one vote. They contribute in the same proportion to taxes and other public charges. The six largest cities, according to Artemidorus, are Xanthus,
At the congress a lyciarch is first elected, then the other officers of the body. Public tribunals are also appointed for
Thus judges and magistrates are elected according to the proportion of the number of votes belonging to each city.
The poets, however, particularly the tragic poets, confound nations together; for instance, Trojans, Mysians, and Lydians, whom they call Phrygians, and give the name of Lycians to Carians.
After Dædala is a Lycian mountain, and near it is Telmessus,
Then follows Anticragus, a precipitous mountain, on which is Carmylessus,
for this Pandarus, it is said, came from Lycia. thus the pale nightingale, daughter of Pandarus;
Next is the river Xanthus, formerly called Sirbis.
Next is Myra, at the distance of 20 stadia from the sea, situated upon a lofty hill; then the mouth of the river Limyrus, and on ascending from it by land 20 stadia, we come to the small town Limyra. In the intervening distance along the coast above mentioned are many small islands and harbours. The most considerable of the islands is Cisthene, on which is a city of the same name. Later writers, says Leake, make no mention of Cisthene; and Ptolemy, Pliny, Stephanus, agree in showing that Megiste and Dolichiste were the two principal islands on the coast of Lycia: the former word Megiste,
Groskurd would read Among others is Megiste an island, and a city of the same name, and Cisthene.
Then follow the Sacred Promontory
The Chelidoniæ islands seem to be situated in a manner opposite to Canopus,
From the Sacred Promontory to Olbia
Then follows Phaselis,
About Phaselis, near the sea, are narrow passes through which Alexander conducted his army. There is a mountain called Climax. It overhangs the sea of Pamphylia, leaving a narrow road along the coast, which in calm weather is not covered with water, and travellers can pass along it, but when the sea is rough, it is in a great measure hidden by the waves. The pass over the mountains is circuitous and steep, but in fair weather persons travel on the road along the shore. Alexander came there when there was a storm, and trusting generally to fortune, set out before the sea had receded, and the soldiers marched during the whole day up to the middle of the body in water.
+Phaselis also is a Lycian city, situated on the confines of Pamphylia. It is not a part of the Lycian body, but is an independent city.
The poet distinguishes the Solymi from the Lycians, When he despatches Bellerophon by the king of the Lycians to this second adventure; he encountered the brave Solymi;
AFTER Phaselis is Olbia; here Pamphylia begins. It is a large fortress. It is followed by the Cataractes,
Next is Attaleia,
It is said, that between Phaselis and Attaleia, Thebe and Lyrnessus
Next is the river Cestrus;
Then at the distance of about 40 stadia from the sea is [Syllium],
Herodotus says,all,
and nation.
OF Cilicia without the Taurus one part is called Cilicia Tracheia, the rugged; the other, Cilicia Pedias, the flat or plain country.
+The coast of the Tracheia is narrow, and either has no level ground or it rarely occurs; besides this, the Taurus overhangs it, which is badly inhabited as far even as the northern side, about Isaura and the Homonadeis as far as Pisidia. This tract has the name of Tracheiotis, and the inhabitants that of Tracheiotæ. The flat or plain country extends from Soli and Tarsus as far as Issus, and the parts above, where the Cappadocians are situated on the northern side of the Taurus. This tract consists chiefly of fertile plains.
+I have already spoken of the parts within the Taurus; I shall now describe those without the Taurus, beginning with the Tracheiotæ.
The first place is Coracesium,
Tryphon was the cause of originating among the Cilicians a piratical confederacy. They were induced also to do this by the imbecility of the kings who succeeded each other on the thrones of Syria and Cilicia. In consequence of his introduction of political changes, others imitated his example, and the dissensions among brothers exposed the country to the attacks of invaders.
+The exportation of slaves was the chief cause of inducing them to commit criminal acts, for this traffic was attended with very great profit, and the slaves were easily taken. Delos was at no great distance, a large and rich mart, capable of receiving and transporting, when sold, the same day, ten thousand slaves; so that hence arose a proverbial saying,
The Romans, having acquired wealth after the destruction of Carthage and Corinth, employed great numbers of domestic slaves, and were the cause of this traffic. The pirates, observing the facility with which slaves could be procured, issued forth in numbers from all quarters, committing robbery and dealing in slaves.Merchant, come into port, discharge your freight—everything is sold.
The kings of Cyprus and of Egypt, who were enemies of the Syrians, favoured their marauding enterprises; the Rhodians were no less hostile to the Syrians, and therefore afforded the latter no protection. The pirates, therefore, under the pretence of trading in slaves, continued without intermission their invasions and robbery.
+The Romans paid little attention to the places situated without the Taurus; they sent, however, Scipio Æmilianus. and afterwards some others, to examine the people and the cities. They discovered that the evils arose from negligence on the part of the sovereigns, but they were reluctant to deprive the family of Seleucus Nicator of the succession, in which he had been confirmed by themselves.
+For the same reason the Parthians, who occupied the parts
The Romans were subsequently compelled to reduce the Cilicians, after their aggrandizement, by war and expeditions, whose progress, however, and advancement they had not obstructed; yet it would be improper to accuse the Romans of neglect, because, being engaged with concerns nearer at hand, they were unable to direct their attention to more distant objects.
+I thought proper to make these remarks in a short digression from my subject.
Next to the Coracesium is the city Syedra;
Then follows Laertes a fortress, situated upon the crest of a hill, of a pap-like form; a port belongs to it; next, the city Selinus,
From the boundaries of Pamphylia to Anemurium, the voyage along the Cilician coast is 820 stadia; the remainder of it as far as Soli
Some writers,
Next is Holmi,
In our time there flourished at that place remarkable persons of the Peripatetic sect of philosophers, Athenæus and Xenarchus. The former was engaged in the administration of the affairs of state in his own country, and for some time espoused the party of the people; he afterwards contracted a friendship with Murena, with whom he fled, and with whom he was captured, on the discovery of the conspiracy against Augustus Cæsar; but he established his innocence, and was set at liberty by Cæsar. When he returned from Rome, he addressed the first persons who saluted him, and made their inquiries, in the words of Euripides—
He survived his return but a short time, being killed by the fall, during the night, of the house in which he lived.I come from the coverts of the dead, and the gates of darkness.
Xenarchus, whose lectures I myself attended, did not long remain at home, but taught philosophy at Alexandreia, Athens, and Rome. He enjoyed the friendship of Areius, and afterwards of Augustus Cæsar; he lived to old age, honoured and respected. Shortly before his death he lost his sight, and died a natural death.
After the Calycadnus, is the rock called Pœcile,bitter water
is given to it.
After Corycus, is the island Elæussa,
At the extremity of the Taurus is Olympus a moun-
Next to Lamus is Soli,
Chrysippus the Stoic philosopher, the son of an inhabitant of Tarsus, who left it to live at Soli; Philemon the comic poet; and Aratus, who composed a poem called the Phænomena,
were among the illustrious natives of this place.
Next follows Zephyrium,SARDANAPALUS, THE SON OF ANACYNDARAXES, BUILT ANCHIALE AND TARSUS IN ONE DAY. EAT, DRINK, BE MERRY; EVERYTHING ELSE IS NOT WORTH
—the snapping of the fingers.
Chœrilus mentions this inscription, and the following lines are everywhere known: Meat and drink, wanton jests, and the delights of love, these I have enjoyed; but my great wealth I have left behind.
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Above Anchiale is situated Cyinda a fortress, where the Macedonian kings formerly kept their treasure. Eumenes, when he revolted from Antigonus, took it away. Further above this place and Soli, is a mountainous tract, where is situated Olbe a city, which has a temple of Jupiter, founded by Ajax, son of Teucer. The priest of this temple was master
Next to Anchiale are the mouths of the Cydnus
The whole of the sea-coast, beginning from the part opposite to Rhodes, extends to this place in the direction from the western to the eastern point of the equinoctial. It then turns towards the winter solstice, as far as Issus, and thence immediately makes a bend to the south to Phœnicia. The remainder towards the west terminates at the pillars (of Hercules).
The actual isthmus of the peninsula, which we have described, is that which extends from Tarsus and the mouth of the Cydnus as far as Amisus, for this is the shortest distance from Amisus to the boundaries of Cilicia; from these to Tarsus are 120 stadia, and not more from Tarsus to the mouth of the Cydnus. To Issus, and the sea near it, there is no shorter road from Amisus than that leading through Tarsus, nor from Tarsus to Issus is there any nearer than that leading to Cydnus; so that it is clear, that, in reality, this is the isthmus. Yet it is pretended that the isthmus extending as far as the
Hence, not aiming at exactness, we say that the line drawn from the country opposite to Rhodes, which we protracted as far as Cydnus, is the same as that extending as far as Issus, and that the Taurus extends in a straight direction with this line as far as India.
Tarsus is situated in a plain. It was founded by Argives, who accompanied Triptolemus in his search after Io. The Cydnus flows through the middle of it, close by the gymnasium of the young men. As the source is not far distant, and the stream passing through a deep valley, then flows immediately into the city, the water is cold and rapid in its course; hence it is of advantage to men and beasts affected with swellings of the sinews, fluxions, and gout.
The inhabitants of this city apply to the study of philosophy and to the whole encyclical compass of learning with so much ardour, that they surpass Athens, Alexandreia, and every other place which can be named where there are schools and lectures of philosophers.
+It differs however so far from other places, that the studious are all natives, and strangers are not inclined to resort thither. Even the natives themselves do not remain, but travel abroad to complete their studies, and having completed them reside in foreign countries. Few of them return.
+The contrary is the case in the other cities which I have mentioned, except Alexandreia; for multitudes repair to them, and reside there with pleasure; but you would observe that few of the natives travel abroad from a love of learning, or show much zeal in the pursuit of it on the spot. But both these things are to be seen at Alexandreia, a large number of strangers is received, (into their schools,) and not a few of their own countrymen are sent out to foreign countries (to study). They have schools of all kinds, for instruction in the liberal arts. In other respects Tarsus is well peopled, extremely powerful, and has the character of being the capital.
The Stoic philosophers Antipater, Archedemus, and Nestor were natives of Tarsus: and besides these, the two Athenodori, one of whom, Cordylion, lived with Marcus Cato, and died at his house; the other, the son of Sandon, called Cananites, from some village, was the preceptor of Cæsar,Achilles, Agamemnon, and Ulysses, so have I sung yours. I therefore ought not to be brought before you on such a charge.
The accuser answered, Homer did not steal oil from Agamemnon
Yet he contrived to avert the displeasure of Antony by courteous offices, and continued to plunder the city until the death of his protector.
Athenodorus found the city in this state, and for some time attempted to control Boëthus and his accomplices by argument; but finding that they continued to commit all kinds of injustice, he exerted the power given to him by Cæsar, condemned them to banishment, and expelled them. They had previously caused to be written upon the walls, Action for the young, counsel for the middle-aged, discharging wind for the
but Athenodorus, accepting it as a jest, gave orders to inscribe by the side of it, Thunder for the old.
Some one, however, in contempt for his good manners, having a lax state of body, bespattered the gate and wall of his house as he passed by it at night. Athenodorus, in an assembly of the people, accusing persons of being factiously disposed, said, We may perceive the sickly condition of the city, and its bad habit of body, from many circumstances, but particularly from its discharges.
These men were Stoics, but Nestor, of our time, the tutor of Marcellus, son of Octavia, the sister of Cæsar, was of the Academic sect. He was also at the head of the government, having succeeded Athenodorus, and continued to be honoured both by the Roman governors and by the citizens.
Among the other philosophers,
were Plutiades and Diogenes, who went about from city to city, instituting schools of philosophy as the opportunity occurred. Diogenes, as if inspired by Apollo, composed and rehearsed poems, chiefly of the tragic kind, upon any subject that was proposed. The grammarians of Tarsus, whose writings we have, were Artemidorus and Diodorus. But the best writer of tragedy, among those enumerated in Those whom I know, and could in order name,
The Pleiad,
was Dionysides. Rome is best able to inform us what number of learned men this city has produced, for it is filled with persons from Tarsus and Alexandreia.
Such then is Tarsus.
After the Cydnus follows the Pyramus,
Crates the grammarian was a native of this place, and Panætius is said to have been his disciple.
Above this coast is situated the Aleian plain, over which Philotas conducted Alexander's cavalry, he himself leading the phalanx from Soli along the sea-coast and the territory of Mallus to Issus, against the forces of Darius. It is said that Alexander performed sacrifices in honour of Amphilochus, on account of their common affinity to Argos. Hesiod says that Amphilochus was killed by Apollo at Soli; according to others, at the Aleian plain; and others again say, in Syria, upon his quitting the Aleian plain on account of the quarrel.
Mallus is followed by Ægææ, a small town
Next to Ægææ is Issus, a small town with a shelter for vessels, and a river, the Pinarus.
In Cilicia are the temple of the Sarpedonian Artemis and an oracle. Persons possessed with divine inspiration deliver the oracles.
After Cilicia, the first Syrian city is Seleucia-in-Pieria;
Since the Cilicians of the Troad, whom Homer mentions, are situated at a great distance from the Cilicians without the Taurus, some writers declare that the leaders of the latter colony were Cilicians of the Troad, and point to Thebe and Lyrnessus in Pamphylia, places bearing the same name as those in the Troad; other authors are of a contrary opinion, and (considering the Cilicians of the Troad as descendants of those from beyond the Taurus) point to an Aleian plain (in support of their hypothesis).
Having described the parts of the before-mentioned Chersonesus without the Taurus, I must add these particulars.
+Apollodorus, in his work on the catalogue of the ships mentioned in Homer, relates, that all the allies of the Trojans, who came from Asia, inhabited, according to the poet, the peninsula of which at its narrowest part is the isthmus between the innermost recess of the bay at Sinope and Issus. The exterior sides (of this peninsula), which is of a triangular shape, are unequal. Of these, one extends from Cilicia to Chelidoniæ, (islands,) another thence to the mouth of the Euxine, and the third from the mouth of the Euxine to Sinope.
+The assertion that the allies were only those who occupied the peninsula may be proved to be erroneous by the same arguments by which we before showed that those who lived within the Halys were not the only allies. For the places about Pharnacia, where we said the Halizoni lived, are situated without the Halys, and also without the isthmus, for they
But the greatest absurdity is this, that after having said that the peninsula was of a triangular shape, he speaks of three The Circuit of the Earth.
He is still liable to the same charge of ignorance, even if we should suppose the isthmus to be contracted to its least dimensions, and follow writers who erroneously estimate the distance at one-half of the sum, namely
Besides, Artemidorus has not correctly described the exterior sides; one side, he says, extends from Issus to the Chelidoniæ islands, although the whole Lycian coast, and the country opposite to Rhodes as far as Physcus, lies in a straight line with, and is a continuation of it; the continent then makes a bend at Physcus, and forms the commencement of the second or western side, extending to the Propontis and Byzantium.
Ephorus had said that this peninsula was inhabited by sixteen tribes, three of which were Grecian, and the rest barbarous, with the exception of the mixed nations; he placed
But Apollodorus does not seem to have carefully examined the statements of Ephorus, for he confounds and misrepresents the words of Homer. He ought first to have inquired of Ephorus why he placed the Chalybes within the peninsula, who were situated at a great distance from Sinope, and Amisus towards the east. Those who describe the isthmus of this peninsula to be on the line drawn from Issus to the Euxine, lay down this line as a sort of meridian line, which some suppose to pass through Sinope, others through Amisus; but no one through the Chalybes, for such a line would be altogether an oblique line. For the meridian passing through the Chalybes, drawn through the Lesser Armenia, and the Euphrates, would comprise (on the east) the whole of Cappadocia, Commagene, Mount Amanus, and the Bay of Issus.
where are they to be placed? Nor does he say whether the Lydians and the Meonians are two nations or the same nation, or whether they live separately by themselves or are comprehended in another tribe. For it was impossible for Ephorus to be ignorant of so celebrated a nation, and does he not, by passing it over in silence, appear to omit a most important fact? men, who know not the sea, nor have ever eaten food seasoned with salt,
But who are the mixed nations
? For we cannot say that he either named or omitted others, besides those already mentioned, whom we should call mixed nations. Nor, indeed, should we say that they were a part of those nations whom he has either mentioned or omitted. For if they were a mixed people, still the majority constituted them either Greeks or Barbarians. We know nothing of a third mixed people.
But how (according to Ephorus) are there three tribes of Greeks who inhabit the peninsula? Is it because anciently the Athenians and Ionians were the same people? In that case the Dorians and the Æolians should be considered as the same nation, and then there would be (only) two tribes (and not three, inhabiting the peninsula). But if, following modern
It was worth while to controvert the positions of Ephorus, Apollodorus however disregards all this, and adds a seventeenth to the sixteen nations, namely, the Galatians; although it is well to mention this, yet it is not required in a discussion of what Ephorus relates or omits; Apollodorus has assigned as the reason of' the omission, that all these nations settled in the peninsula subsequently to the time of Ephorus.
Passing then to Homer, Apollodorus is correct in saying that there was a great intermixture and confusion among the barbarous nations, from the Trojan war to the present time, on account of the changes which had taken place; for some nations had an accession of others, some were extinct or dispersed, or had coalesced together.
+But he is mistaken in assigning two reasons why the poet does not mention some nations, namely, either because the place was not then occupied by the particular people, or because they were comprehended in another tribe. Neither of these reasons could induce him to be silent respecting Cappadocia or Cataonia, or Lycaonia itself, for we have nothing of the kind in history relating to these countries. It is ridiculous to be anxious to find excuses why Homer has omitted to speak of Cappadocia [Cataonia] and Lycaonia, and not to inform us why Ephorus omitted them, particularly as the proposed object of Apollodorus was to examine and discuss the opinions of Ephorus; and to tell us why Homer mentions Mæonians instead of Lydians, and also not to remark that Ephorus has not omitted to mention either Lydians or Mæonians.
Apollodorus remarks, that Homer mentions certain unknown nations, and he is right in specifying Caucones, Solymi, Ceteii, Leleges, and the Cilicians from the plain of Thebe; but the Halizones are a fiction of his own, or rather of those who, not knowing who the Halizones were, frequently altered the mode of writing the name, and invented the existence of
With this vain intention they collected the stories related by the Scepsian, (Demetrius,) and taken from Callisthenes and other writers, who did not clear them from false notions respecting the Halizones; for example, the wealth of Tantalus and of the Pelopidæ was derived, it is said, from the mines about Phrygia and Sipylus; that of Cadmus from the mines about Thrace and Mount Pangæum; that of Priam from the gold mines at Astyra, near Abydos (of which at present there are small remains, yet there is a large quantity of matter ejected, and the excavations are proofs of former workings); that of Midas from the mines about Mount Bermium; that of Gyges, Alyattes, and Crœsus, from the mines in Lydia and the small deserted city between Atarneus and Pergamum, where are the sites of exhausted mines.
We may impute another fault to Apollodorus, that although he frequently censures modern writers for introducing new readings at variance with the meaning of Homer, yet in this instance he not only neglects his own advice, but actually unites together places which are not so represented (by Homer).
+(For example), Xanthus the Lydian says, that after the Trojan times the Phrygians came from Europe (into Asia) and the left (western) side of the Euxine, and that their leader Scamandrius conducted them from the Berecynti and Ascania. Apollodorus adds, that Homer mentions the same Ascania as Xanthus,
If this be so, the migration (from Europe to Asia) must be later than the Trojan war; but in the Trojan war the auxiliaries mentioned by the poet came from the opposite continent, from the Berecynti and Ascania. Who then were the Phrygians, Phorcys and the divine Ascanius led the Phrygians from the distant Ascania.
when Priam says, who were then encamped on the banks of the Sangarius,
And I joined them with these troops as an auxiliary
?
Apollodorus, after having spoken of the Phrygians in this manner, introduces an account concerning the Mysians which contradicts this. He says that there is a village of Mysia called Ascania, near a lake of the same name,
and by Alexander of Ætolia: near the waters of the Mysian Ascanius;
The district, he says, about Cyzicus, on the road to Miletopolis, is called Dolionis and Mysia.they who dwell on the stream of Ascanius, on the brink of the Ascanian lake, where lived Dolion, the son of Silenus and Melia.
If this is the case, and if it is confirmed by existing places and by the poets, what prevented Homer, when he mentioned this Ascania, from mentioning the Ascania also of which Xanthus speaks?
+I have already spoken of these places in the description of Mysia and Phrygia, and shall here conclude the discussion.
IT remains for me to describe the island Cyprus, which adjoins this peninsula on the south. I have already said, that the sea comprised between Egypt, Phœnice, Syria, and the remainder of the coast as far as that opposite to Rhodes, con-
In this sea lies the island Cyprus, having its northern side approaching to Cilicia Tracheia, and here also it approaches nearest to the continent; on the east it is washed by the Bay of Issus, on the west by the Pamphylian sea, and on the south by that of Egypt. The latter sea is confluent on the west with the Libyan and Carpathian seas. On its southern and eastern parts is Egypt, and the succeeding tract of coast as far as Seleucia and Issus. On the north is Cyprus, and the Pamphylian sea.
+The Pamphylian sea is bounded on the north by the extremities of Cilicia Tracheia, of Pamphylia, and of Lycia as far as the territory opposite to Rhodes; on the west, by the island of Rhodes; on the east, by the part of Cyprus near Paphos, and the Acamas; on the south, it unites with the Egyptian sea.
The circumference of Cyprus is 3420 stadia, including the winding of the bays. Its length from Cleides
The Cleides are two small islands lying in front of Cyprus on the eastern side, at the distance of 700 stadia from the Pyramus.
The Acamas is a promontory with two paps, and upon it is a large forest. It is situated at the western part of the island, but extends towards the north, approaching very near Selinus in Cilicia Tracheia, for the passage across is only 1000 stadia; to Side in Pamphylia the passage is
The figure of the whole island is oblong, and in some places on the sides, which define its breadth, there are isthmuses.
+We shall describe the several parts of the island briefly, beginning from the point nearest to the continent.
We have said before, that opposite to Anemyrium, a promontory of Cilicia Tracheia, is the extremity of Cyprus, namely, the promontory of Crommyon,
From the cape, keeping the island on the right hand, and
In the interval is the city Lapathus,
Near and in front lie the Cleides, and many other islands; next are the Carpasian islands, and after these Salamis, the birth-place of Aristus the historian; then Arsinoë, a city with a harbour; next Leucolla, another harbour; then the promontory Pedalium, above which is a hill, rugged, lofty, and table-shaped, sacred to Venus; to this hill from Cleides are 680 stadia. Then to Citium
Here we may observe the negligence of the author, whether Hedylus, or whoever he was, of the elegiac lines which begin,
He says, that the hinds ran down from the Corycian heights, We hinds, sacred to Phœbus, hither came in our swift course; we traversed the broad sea, to avoid the arrows of our pursuers.
For it is possible (by doubling the cape) to sail round from Corycus to the beach of Curias, but not with the assistance of the west wind, nor by keeping the island on the right, but on' the left hand; and there is no (direct) passage across.That it was a cause of vast surprise to men to think how we scoured the trackless waves, aided by the vernal Zephyrs.
At Curium is the commencement of the voyage towards the west in the direction of Rhodes; then immediately follows a promontory, whence those who touch with their hands the altar of Apollo are precipitated. Next are Treta,
But why should we be surprised at poets, and those particularly who study modes of expression only, when we compare them with Damastes? The latter gives the length of the island from north to south, from Hierocepia, as he says, to Cleides.
+Nor does even Eratosthenes give it exactly. For, when
Such then is the position of Cyprus.
It is not inferior in fertility to any one of the islands, for it produces good wine and oil, and sufficient corn to supply the wants of the inhabitants. At Tamassus there are abundant mines of copper, in which the calcanthus is found, and rust of copper, useful for its medicinal properties.
+Eratosthenes says, that anciently the plains abounded with timber, and were covered with forests, which prevented cultivation; the mines were of some service towards clearing the surface, for trees were cut down to smelt the copper and silver. Besides this, timber was required for the construction of fleets, as the sea was now navigated with security and by a large naval force; but when even these means were insufficient to check the growth of timber in the forests, permission was given to such as were able and inclined, to cut down the trees and to hold the land thus cleared as their own property, free from all payments.
Formerly the Cyprian cities were governed by tyrants, but from the time that the Ptolemaic kings were masters of Egypt, Cyprus also came into their power, the Romans frequently affording them assistance. But when the last Ptolemy that was king, brother of the father of Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt in our time, had conducted himself in a disorderly manner, and was ungrateful to his benefactors, he was deposed, and the Romans took possession of the island, which became a Prætorian province by itself.
+The chief author of the deposition of the king was Pub. Claudius Pulcher, who having fallen into the hands of the Cilician pirates, at that time at the height of their power, and a ransom being demanded of him, despatched a message to the king, entreating him to send it for his release. The king sent a ransom, but of so small an amount, that the pirates disdained to accept it, and returned it, but they dismissed Pulcher without any payment. After his escape, he remembered what he owed to both parties; and when he became tribune of the people, he had sufficient influence to have Mar-
From this time the island became, as it is at present, a Prætorian province. During a short intervening period Antony had given it to Cleopatra and her sister Arsinoë, but upon his death all his arrangements were annulled.
SUMMARY.
+The Fifteenth Book contains India and Persia.
THE parts of Asia which remain to be described are those without the Taurus, except Cilicia, Pamphylia, and Lycia; extending from India to the Nile, and situated between the Taurus and the exterior Southern Sea.
Next to Asia is Africa, which I shall describe hereafter. At present I shall begin from India, the first and the largest country situated towards the east.
The reader must receive the account of this country with indulgence, for it lies at a very great distance, and few persons of our nation have seen it; those also who have visited it have seen only some portions of it; the greater part of what they relate is from report, and even what they saw, they became acquainted with during their passage through the country with an army, and in great haste. For this reason they do not agree in their accounts of the same things, although they write about them as if they had examined them with the greatest care and attention. Some of these writers were fellow-soldiers and fellow-travellers, as those who belonged to the army which, under the command of Alexander, conquered Asia; yet they frequently contradict each other. If, then, they differ so much respecting things which they had seen, what must we think of what they relate from report?
Nor do the writers who, many ages since Alexander's time, have given an account of these countries, nor even those who at present make voyages thither, afford any precise information.
+Apollodorus, for instance, author of the Parthian History, when he mentions the Greeks who occasioned the revolt of Bactriana from the Syrian kings, who were the successors of
Very few of the merchants who now sail from Egypt by the Nile and the Arabian Gulf to India have proceeded as far as the Ganges; and, being ignorant persons, were not qualified to give an account of places they have visited. From one place in India, and from one king, namely, Pandion, or, according to others,
If, then, we set aside these stories, and direct our attention to accounts of the country prior to the expedition of Alexander, we shall find them still more obscure. It is probable that Alexander, elated by his extraordinary good fortune, believed these accounts.
+According to Nearchus, Alexander was ambitious of conducting his army through Gedrosia,
But how can we place any just confidence in the accounts Ptolemy indicates the existence of Pillars,
which he calls the Pillars of Alexander,
above Albania and Iberia, at the commencement of the Asiatic Sarmatia. But as it is known that Alexander never penetrated into these regions, it is clear that the title of Alexander
was added by the Greeks to the names of mountains, which separated a country partly civilized from that entirely occupied by hordes of savages. Everything therefore seems to show, that these Pillars near Iberia in Asia, and not the Pillars of Hercules in Europe, formed the boundary of the expeditions of Sesostris, Tearcho, and Nabuchodonosor.—
Megasthenes, and a few others, think the stories respecting Hercules and Bacchus to be credible, but the majority of writers, among whom is Eratosthenes, regard them as incredible and fabulous, like the Grecian stories. Dionysus, in the Bacchæ of Euripides, makes this boasting speech:
In Sophocles, also, a person is introduced speaking the praises of Nysa,'whence I beheld the famed Nysa, the resort of the Bacchanalian bands, which the horned Iacchus makes his most pleasant and beloved retreat, where no bird's clang is heard,"
and so on. [He is called also Merotraphes.]
Homer also mentions Lycurgus the Edonian in these words, who formerly pursued the nurses of the infuriate Bacchus along the sacred mountain Nysa.
So much respecting Bacchus. But with regard to Hercules, some persons say, that he penetrated to the opposite extremities on the west only, while others maintain that he also advanced to those of the east.
From such stories as those related above, they gave the name of Nysæans to some imaginary nation, and called their city Nysa, founded by Bacchus; a mountain above the city they called Meron, alleging as a reason for imposing these names that the ivy and vine grow there, although the latter does not perfect its fruit; for the bunches of grapes, in consequence of excessive rains, drop off before they arrive at maturity.
+They say, also, that the Sydracæ (Oxydracæ) are descendants of Bacchus, because the vine grows in their country, and because their kings display great pomp in setting out on their warlike expeditions, after the Bacchie manner; whenever they appear in public, it is with beating of drums, and are dressed in flowered robes, which is the common custom among the other Indians.
They pretended that the Sibæ This people appear to have been driven towards the east by one of those revolutions so frequent in all Asia. At least, to the north of Delhi, and in the neighbourhood of Hardouar, a district is found bearing the name of Siba.white,
to the great chain of mountains covered with snow, from whence the Indus, and the greater part of the rivers which feed it, descend.
That these are the inventions of the flatterers of Alexander is evident, first, because the writers do not agree with one another, some of whom speak of these things; others make no mention of them whatever. For it is not probable, that actions so illustrious, and calculated to foster pride and vanity, should be unknown, or if known, that they should not be thought worthy of record, especially by writers of the greatest credit.
+Besides, the intervening people, through whose country the armies of Bacchus and Hercules must have marched in their
Under such circumstances, therefore, we must receive everything that approaches nearest to probability. I have already discussed this subject to the extent of my ability at the beginning of this work;
It appeared from the former discussion, that in the summary given by Eratosthenes, in the third book of his Geography, is contained the most credible account of the country considered as India at the time of its invasion by Alexander.
+At that period the Indus was the boundary of' India and of Ariana,
The account of Eratosthenes is as follows:—
The boundaries of India, on the north, from Ariana to the Eastern Sea,covered with snow.
The western side, from the Caucasian mountains to the Southern Sea, is estimated at 13,000 stadia, along the river Indus to its mouth; wherefore the eastern side opposite, with the addition of the 3000 stadia of the promontory, will be 16,000 stadia in extent. This is both the smallest and greatest breadth of India.
The whole, on the shortest computation, will amount to 16,000 stadia, according to Eratosthenes, who says that he took it from the register of the Stathmi (or the several stages from place to place),
From what has been said, we may perceive how the opinions of the other writers differ from one another. Ctesias says that India is not less than the rest of Asia; Onesicritus regards it as the third part of the habitable world; Nearchus says that it is a march of four months through the plain only. The computations of Megasthenes and Deïmachus are more moderate, for they estimate the distance from the Southern Sea to Caucasus
We have replied to these writers in the early part of this work.
The whole of India is watered by rivers, some of which empty themselves into the two largest, the Indus and the Ganges; others discharge themselves into the sea by their own mouths. But all of them have their sources in the Caucasus. At their commencement their course is towards the south; some of them continue to flow in the same direction, particularly those which unite with the Indus; others turn to the east, as the Ganges. This, the largest of the Indian rivers, descends from the mountainous country, and when it reaches the plains, turns to the east, then flowing past Palibothra, a very large city, proceeds onwards to the sea in that quarter, and discharges its waters by a single mouth. The Indus falls into the Southern Sea, and empties itself by two mouths, encompassing the country called Patalene, which resembles the Delta of Egypt.
+By the exhalation of vapours from such vast rivers, and by
The inhabitants of the south resemble the Ethiopians in colour, but their countenances and hair are like those of other people. Their hair does not curl, on account of the humidity of the atmosphere. The inhabitants of the north resemble the Egyptians.
Taprobane
This is the account of Eratosthenes. The accounts of other writers, in addition to this, whenever they convey exact information, will contribute to form the description
Onesicritus, for example, says of Taprobane, that its magnitude is 5000 stadia, without distinction of length or breadth, and that it is distant twenty days' sail from the continent, but that it was a voyage performed with difficulty and danger by vessels with sails ill constructed, and built with prows at each end, but without holds and keels;
Nearchus, speaking of the accretion of earth form-
Aristobulus, however, says, that rain and snow fall only on the mountains and the country immediately below them, and that the plains experience neither one nor the other, but are overflowed only by the rise of the waters of the rivers; that the mountains are covered with snow in the winter; that the rains set in at the commencement of spring, and continue to increase; that at the time of the blowing of the Etesian winds they pour down impetuously, without intermission, night and day till the rising of Arcturus,
These things, he says, were observed by himself and by others on their journey into India from the Paropamisadæ. This was after the setting of the Pleiades,
Nearchus gives the same account, but does not agree with Aristobulus respecting the rains in summer, but says that the plains are watered by rain in the summer, and that they are without rain in winter. Both writers, however, speak of the rise of the rivers. Nearchus says, that the men encamped upon the Acesines
Aristobulus gives even the measure of the height to which the river rises, namely, forty cubits, of which twenty would fill the channel beyond its previous depth up to the margin, and the other twenty are the measure of the water when it overflows the plains.
+They agree also in saying that the cities placed upon mounds become islands, as in Egypt and Ethiopia, and that the inundation ceases after the rising of Arcturus, when the waters recede. They add, that the ground when half dried is sowed, after having been prepared by the commonest labourer, yet the plant comes to perfection, and the produce is good. The rice, according to Aristobulus, stands in water in an enclosure. It is sowed in beds. The plant is four cubits in height, with many ears, and yields a large produce. The harvest is about the time of the setting of the Pleiades, and the grain is beaten out like barley. It grows in Bactriana, Babylonia, Susis, and in the Lower Syria. Megillus says that it is sowed before the rains, but does not require irrigation or transplantation, being supplied with water from tanks.
+The bosmorum, according to Onesicritus, is a kind of corn smaller than wheat, and grows in places situated be-
Aristobulus, when comparing the circumstances in which this country resembles, and those in which it differs from, Egypt and Ethiopia, and observing that the swelling of the Nile is occasioned by rains in the south, and of the Indian rivers by rains from the north, inquires why the intermediate places have no rain; for it does not rain in the Thebais as far as Syene, nor at the places near Meroe, nor in the parts of India from Patalene to the Hydaspes. But the country situated above these parts,
It is probable from what he relates that the country is subject to shocks of earthquakes, that the ground is loose and hollow by excess of moisture, and easily splits into fissures, whence even the course of rivers is altered.
+He says that when he was despatched upon some business into the country, he saw a tract of land deserted, which contained more than a thousand cities with their dependent villages; the Indus, having left its proper channel, was diverted into another, on the left hand, much deeper, and precipitated itself into it like a cataract, so that it no longer watered the country by the (usual) inundation on the right hand, from which it had receded, and this was elevated above the level, not only of the new channel of the river, but above that of the (new) inundation.
The account of Onesicritus confirms the facts of the rising of the rivers and of the absence of land breezes. He says that the sea-shore is swampy, particularly near the mouths of rivers, on account of the mud, tides, and the force of the winds blowing from the sea.
+Megasthenes also indicates the fertility of India by the circumstance of the soil producing fruits and grain twice a year. Eratosthenes relates the same facts, for he speaks of a winter and a summer sowing, and of the rain at the same
An abundance of fruit is produced by trees; and the roots of plants, particularly of large reeds, possess a sweetness, which they have by nature and by coction; for the water, both from rains and rivers, is warmed by the sun's rays. The meaning of Eratosthenes seems to be this, that what among other nations is called the ripening of fruits and juices, is called among these
India produces many singular trees. There is one whose branches incline downwards, and whose leaves are not less in size than a shield. Onesicritus, describing minutely the country of Musicanus, which he says is the most southerly part
Aristobulus also, where he mentions the Acesines, and its confluence with the Hyarotis, speaks of trees with their boughs bent downwards and of a size that fifty, but, accord-
Aristobulus mentions another tree, not large, bearing great pods, like the bean, ten fingers in length, full of honey,
Aristobulus says of the wool-bearing trees, that the flower pod contains a kernel, which is taken out, and the remainder is combed like wool.
In the country of Musicanus there grows, he says, spontaneously grain resembling wheat, and a vine that produces wine, whereas other authors affirm that there is no wine in India. Hence, according to Anacharsis, they had no pipes, nor any musical instruments, except cymbals, drums, and crotala, which were used by jugglers.
+Both Aristobulus and other writers relate that India produces many medicinal plants and roots, both of a salutary and noxious quality, and plants yielding a variety of colours. He adds, that, by a law, any person discovering a deadly substance is punished with death unless he also discover an antidote; in case he discovers an antidote, he is rewarded by the king.
+Southern India, like Arabia and Ethiopia, produces cinnamon, nard, and other aromatics. It resembles these countries as regards the effect of the sun's rays, but it surpasses them in having a copious supply of water, whence the atmosphere is humid, and on this account more conducive to fertility and fecundity; and this applies to the earth and to the water, hence those animals which inhabit both one and the other are of a larger size than are found in other countries. The Nile contributes to fecundity more than other rivers, and among other animals of large bulk, produces the amphibious kind. The Egyptian women also sometimes have four children at a birth, and Aristotle says that one woman had seven children at one birth.
It is perhaps owing to this cause that the water of the Nile boils, as he says, with one half of the heat which other water requires. In proportion however, he says, as the water of the Nile traverses in a straight line, a long and narrow tract of country, passing through a variety of climates and of atmosphere, while the Indian rivers are poured forth into wider and more extensive plains, their course being delayed a long time in the same climate, in the same degree the waters of India are more nutritious than those of the Nile; they produce larger animals of the cetaceous kind, and in greater number (than the Nile), and the water which descends from the clouds has already undergone the process of coction.
This would not be admitted by the followers of Aristobulus, who say that the plains are not watered by rain. Onesicritus, however, thinks that rain-water is the cause of the peculiar properties of animals, and alleges in proof, that the colour of foreign herds which drink of it is changed to that of the native animals.
+This is a just remark; but it is not proper to attribute to the power of the water merely the cause of the black complexion and the woolly hair of the Ethiopians, and yet he censures Theodectes, who refers these peculiarities to the effects of the sun, in these words,
There may be reason in this, for he says that the sun does not approach nearer to the Ethiopians than to other nations, but shines more perpendicularly, and that on this account the heat is greater; indeed, it cannot be correctly said that the sun approaches near to the Ethiopians, for he is at an equal distance from all nations. Nor is the heat the cause of the black complexion, particularly of children in the womb, who are out of the reach of the sun. Their opinion is to be preferred, who attribute these effects to the sun and to intense solar heat, causing a great deficiency of moisture on the sur-
With respect to children in the womb, they resemble their parents (in colour) according to a seminal disposition and constitution, on the same principle that hereditary diseases, and other likenesses, are explained.
+The equal distance of the sun from all nations (according to Onesicritus) is an argument addressed to the senses, and not to reason. But it is not an argument addressed to the senses generally, but in the meaning that the earth bears the proportion of a point to the sun, for we may understand such a meaning of an argument addressed to the senses, by which we estimate heat to be more or less, as it is near or at a distance, in which cases it is not the same; and in this meaning, not in that of Onesicritus, the sun is said to be near the Ethiopians.
It is admitted by those who maintain the resemblance of India to Egypt and Ethiopia, that the plains which are not overflowed do not produce anything for want of water.
+Nearchus says, that the old question respecting the rise of the Nile is answered by the case of the Indian rivers, namely, that it is the effect of summer rains; when Alexander saw crocodiles in the Hydaspes, and Egyptian beans in the Acesines, he thought that he had discovered the sources of the Nile, and was about to equip a fleet with the intention of sailing by this river to Egypt; but he found out shortly after- wards that his design could not be accomplished,
into which all the Indian rivers discharge themselves; then Ariana, the Persian and Arabian Gulfs, all Arabia and Troglodytica.for in midway were vast rivers, fearful waters, and first the ocean,
The above is what has been said on the subject of winds and rains, the rising of rivers, and the inundation of plains.
We must describe these rivers in detail, with the particulars, which are useful for the purposes of geography, and which have been handed down to us by historians.
+Besides this, rivers, being a kind of physical boundaries of the size and figures of countries, are of the greatest use in
We shall speak of the rivers deserving notice, which flow into the Indus, and of the countries which they traverse; with regard to the rest we know some particulars, but are ignorant of more. Alexander, who discovered the greatest portion of this country, first of all resolved it to be more expedient to pursue and destroy those who had treacherously killed Darius, and were meditating the revolt of Bactriana. He approached India therefore through Ariana, which he left on the right hand, and crossed the Paropamisus to the northern parts, and to Bactriana.
He therefore returned, crossing over the same mountains by other and shorter roads, having India on the left hand; he then immediately turned towards it, and towards its western boundaries and the rivers Cophes and Choaspes.
He was informed that the mountainous and northern parts were the most habitable and fertile, but that the southern part was either without water, or liable to be overflowed by rivers at one time, or entirely burnt up at another, more fit to be the haunts of wild beasts than the dwellings of men. He resolved therefore to get possession of that part of India first which had been well spoken of, considering at the same time that the rivers which it was necessary to pass, and which flowed
Next to the Cophes was the Indus, then the Hydaspes, the Acesines, the Hyarotis, and last, the Hypanis. He was prevented from proceeding farther, partly from regard to some oracles, and partly compelled by his army, which was exhausted by toil and fatigue, but whose principal distress arose from their constant exposure to rain. Hence we became acquainted with the eastern parts of India on this side the Hypanis, and whatever parts besides which have been described by those who, after Alexander, advanced beyond the Hypanis to the Ganges and Palibothra.
+After the river Cophes, follows the Indus. The country lying between these two rivers is occupied by Astaceni, Masiani, Nysæi, and Hypasii.
Between the Indus and the Hydaspes is Taxila, a large city, and governed by good laws. The neighbouring country is crowded with inhabitants and very fertile, and here unites with the plains. The people and their king Taxiles received Alexander with kindness, and obtained in return more presents than they had offered to Alexander; so that the Macedonians became jealous, and observed, that it seemed as if Alexander had found none on whom he could confer favours before he passed the Indus. Some writers say that this country is larger than Egypt.
+Above this country among the mountains is the territory of Abisarus,
Other writers also mention the hunting of serpents in the Emodi mountains,
Between the Hydaspes and Acesines is the country of Porus,
The other city he called Nicæa from the victory,
In the forest before mentioned it is said there is a vast number of monkeys,
The chase of this animal is conducted in two different manners. It is an imitative creature, and takes refuge up among the trees. The hunters, when they perceive a monkey seated on a tree, place in sight a basin containing water, with which they wash their own eyes; then, instead of water, they put a basin of bird-lime, go away, and lie in wait at a distance. The animal leaps down, and besmears itself with the bird-lime, and when it winks, the eyelids are fastened together; the hunters then come upon it, and take it.
+The other method of capturing them is as follows: the hunters dress themselves in bags like trowsers, and go away, leaving behind them others which are downy, with the inside smeared over with bird-lime. The monkeys put them on, and are easily taken.
Some writers place Cathaia
A very singular usage is related of the high estimation in which the inhabitants of Cathaia hold the quality of
They dye their heads with various and the most florid colours, for the purpose of improving their appearance. This custom prevails elsewhere among many of the Indians, who pay great attention to their hair and dress; and the country produces colours of great beauty. In other respects the people are frugal, but are fond of ornament.
+A peculiar custom is related of the Cathæi. The bride and the husband are respectively the choice of each other, and the wives burn themselves with their deceased husbands. The reason assigned for this practice is, that the women sometimes fell in love with young men, and deserted or poisoned their husbands. This law was therefore established in order to check the practice of administering poison; but neither the existence nor the origin of the law are probable facts.
+It is said, that in the territory of Sopeithes there is a mountain composed of fossile salt, sufficient for the whole of India. Valuable mines also both of gold and silver are situated, it is said, not far off among other mountains, according to the testimony of Gorgus, the miner (of Alexander). The Indians, unacquainted with mining and smelting, are ignorant of their own wealth, and therefore traffic with greater simplicity.
The dogs in the territory of Sopeithes are said to possess remarkable courage: Alexander received from Sopeithes a present of one hundred and fifty of them. To prove them, two were set at a lion; when these were mastered, two others were set on; when the battle became equal, Sopeithes ordered a man to seize one of the dogs by the leg, and to drag him away; or to cut off his leg, if he still held on. Alexander at first refused his consent to the dog's leg being cut off, as he wished to save the dog. But on Sopeithes saying, I will give you four in the place of it,
Alexander consented; and he saw the dog permit his leg to be cut off by a slow incision, rather than loose his hold.
The direction of the march, as far as the Hydaspes, was for the most part towards the south. After that, to the Hypanis, it was more towards the east. The whole of it, however, was much nearer to the country lying at the foot of the mountains than to the plains. Alexander therefore, when he returned from the Hypanis to the Hydaspes and the station of his vessels, prepared his fleet, and set sail on the Hydaspes.
+All the rivers which have been mentioned (the last of which is the Hypanis) unite in one, the Indus. It is said that there are altogether fifteen
Alexander's intention was to relinquish the march towards the parts situated to the east, first, because he was prevented from crossing the Hypanis; next, because he learnt by experience the falsehood of the reports previously received, to the effect that the plains were burnt up with fire, and more fit for the haunts of wild beasts than for the habitation of man. He therefore set out in this direction, relinquishing the other track; so that these parts became better known than the other.
The territory lying between the Hypanis and the Hydaspes is said to contain nine nations and five thousand cities, not less in size than Cos Meropis;
Below, and next in order, are the people called Sibæ, whom we formerly mentioned,
Near Patalene is placed the country of Musicanus, that of Sabus,
Onesicritus says, that the greatest part of the coast in this quarter abounds with swamps, particularly at the mouths of the river, which is owing to the mud, the tides, and the want of land breezes; for these parts are chiefly under the influence of winds blowing from the sea.
+He expatiates also in praise of the country of Musicanus, and relates of the inhabitants what is common to other Indian tribes, that they are long-lived, and that life is protracted even to the age of 130 years, (the Seres,
The following are their peculiarities : to have a kind of Lacedæmonian common meal, where they eat in public. Their food consists of what is taken in the chase. They make no use of gold nor silver, although they have mines of these metals. Instead of slaves, they employed youths in the flower of their age, as the Cretans employ the Aphamiotæ, and the Lacedæmonians the Helots. They study no science with attention but that of medicine; for they consider the excessive pursuit of some arts, as that of war, and the like, to be committing evil. There is no process at law but against murder and outrage, for it is not in a person's own power to escape either one or the other; but as contracts are in the power of each individual, he must endure the wrong, if good faith is violated by another; for a man should be cautious whom he trusts, and not disturb the city with constant disputes in courts of justice.
+Such are the accounts of the persons who accompanied Alexander in his expedition.
A letter of Craterus to his mother Aristopatra is circulated, which contains many other singular circumstances, and differs from every other writer, particularly in saying that Alexander advanced as far as the Ganges. Craterus says, that he himself saw the river, and the whaleswhales or cetaceous animals,
Groskurd proposes and speaks of what he saw on it, of its magnitude,
&c.
At the confluence of the Ganges and of another river (the Erannoboas
Such also is the custom among the Parthians; for all have the name Arsacæ,
All the country on the other side of the Hypanis is allowed to be very fertile, but we have no accurate knowledge of it. Either through ignorance or from its remote situation, everything relative to it is exaggerated or partakes of the wonderful. As, for example, the stories of myrmeces (or ants),
According to Megasthenes, the largest tigers are found among the Prasii, almost twice the size of lions, and of such strength that a tame one led by four persons seized a mule by its hinder leg, overpowered it, and dragged it to him. The monkeys are larger than the largest dogs; they are of a white colour, except the face, which is black. The contrary is observed in other places. Their tails are more than two cubits in length. They are very tame, and not of a mischievous disposition. They neither attack people, nor steal.
+Stones are found there of the colour of frankincense, and sweeter than figs or honey.
+In some places there are serpents of two cubits in length, with membraneous wings like bats. They fly at night, and let fall drops of urine or sweat, which occasions the skin of per-
Ebony grows there. There are also dogs of great courage, which do not loose their hold till water is poured into their nostrils: some of them destroy their sight, and the eyes of others even fall out, by the eagerness of their bite. Both a lion and a bull were held fast by one of these dogs. The bull was caught by the muzzle, and died before the dog could be loosened.
In the mountainous country is a river, the Silas, on the surface of which nothing will float. Democritus, who had travelled over a large part of Asia, disbelieves this, and Aristotle does not credit it, although atmospheres exist so rare, that no bird can sustain its flight in them. Vapours also, which ascend (from some substances), attract and absorb, as it were, whatever is flying over them; as amber attracts straw, and the magnet iron, and perhaps there may be in water a similar power.
+As these matters belong to physics and to the question of floating bodies, these must be referred to them. At present we must proceed to what follows, and to the subjects more nearly relating to geography.
It is said that the Indians are divided into seven castes. The first in rank, but the smallest in number, are the philosophers. Persons who intend to offer sacrifice, or to perform any sacred rite, have the services of these persons on their private account; but the kings employ them in a public capacity at the time of the Great Assembly, as it is called, where at the beginning of the new year all the philosophers repair to the king at the gate, and anything useful which they have committed to writing, or observed, tending to improve the productions of the earth or animals, or of advantage to the government of the state, is then publicly declared.
+Whoever has been detected in giving false information thrice is enjoined silence by law during the rest of his life; but he who has made correct observations is exempted from all contributions and tribute.
The second caste is that of husbandmen, who constitute- the majority of natives, and are a most mild and gentle people, as they are exempted from military service, and cultivate
The third caste consists of shepherds and hunters, who alone are permitted to hunt, to breed cattle, to sell and to let out for hire beasts of burden. In return for freeing the country from wild beasts and birds, which infest sown fields, they receive an allowance of corn from the king. They lead a wandering life, and dwell in tents. No private person is allowed to keep a horse or an elephant. The possession of either one or the other is a royal privilege, and persons are appointed to take care of them.
The manner of hunting the elephant is as follows: Round a bare spot a ditch is dug, of about four or five stadia in extent, and at the place of entrance a very narrow bridge is constructed. Into the enclosure three or four of the tamest female elephants are driven. The men themselves lie in wait under cover of concealed huts. The wild elephants do not approach the females by day, but at night they enter the enclosure one by one; when they have passed the entrance, the men secretly close it. They then introduce the strongest of the tame combatants, the drivers of which engage with the wild animals, and also wear them out by famine; when the latter are exhausted by fatigue, the boldest of the drivers gets down unobserved, and creeps under the belly of his own elephant. From this position he creeps beneath the belly of the wild elephant, and ties his legs together; when this is done, a signal is given to the tame elephants to beat those which are tied by the legs, till they fall to the ground. After they have fallen down, they fasten the wild and tame elephants together by the neck with thongs of raw cow-hide, and, in order that they may not be able to shake off those who are attempting to mount them, cuts are made round the neck, and thongs of leather are put into these incisions, so that they submit to their bonds through pain, and so remain quiet. Among the ele-
They copulate like horses, and produce young chiefly in the spring. It is the season for the male, when he is in heat and is ferocious. At this period he discharges some fatty matter through an opening in the temples. It is the season also for the females, when this same passage is open, Eighteen months is the longest, and sixteen the shortest period that they go with young. The dam suckles her young six years, Many of them live as long as men who attain to the greatest longevity, some even to the protracted age of two hundred years.
+They are subject to many diseases, which are difficult to be cured. A remedy for diseases of the eye is to bathe them with cow's milk. For complaints in general, they drink dark wine. In cases of wounds, they drink butter; for it draws out iron instruments, Their sores are fomented with swine's flesh.
+Onesicritus says, that they live three hundred years, and rarely five hundred; and that they go with young ten years. He and other writers say, that they are larger and stronger than the African elephants. They will pull down with their trunks battlements, and uproot trees, standing erect upon their bind feet.
+According to Nearchus, traps are laid in the hunting grounds, at certain places where roads meet; the wild elephants are forced into the 'oils by the tame elephants, which as camels.
Coraÿ changes the last word to
A woman is greatly honoured who receives from her lover a present of an elephant, but this does not agree with what he said before, that a horse and an elephant are the property of kings alone.
This writer says that he saw skins of the myrmeces (or ants), which dig up gold, as large as the skins of leopards. Megasthenes, however, speaking of the myrmeces, says, among the Derdæ a populous nation of the Indians, living towards the east, and among the mountains, there was a mountain plain of about 3000 stadia in circumference; that below this plain were mines containing gold, which the myrmeces, in size not less than foxes, dig up. They are excessively fleet, and subsist on what they catch. In winter they dig holes, and pile up the earth in heaps, like moles, at the mouths of the openings.
+The gold-dust which they obtain requires little preparation by fire. The neighbouring people go after it by stealth, with beasts of burden; for if it is done openly, the myrmeces fight furiously, pursuing those that run away, and if they seize them, kill them and the beasts. In order to prevent discovery, they place in various parts pieces of the flesh of wild beasts, and when the myrmeces are dispersed in various directions. they take away the gold-dust, and, not being acquainted with the mode of smelting it, dispose of it in its rude state at any price to merchants.
Having mentioned what Megasthenes and other writers relate of the hunters and the beasts of prey, we must add the following particulars.
+Nearchus is surprised at the multitude and the noxious nature of the tribe of reptiles. They retreat from the plains to the settlements, which are not covered with water at the period of inundations, and fill the houses. For this reason the inhabitants raise their beds at some height from the
Aristobulus says, that he saw no animals of these pretended magnitudes, except a snake, which was nine cubits and a span in length. And I myself saw one in Egypt, nearly of the same size, which was brought from India. He says also, that he saw many serpents of a much inferior size, and asps and large scorpions. None of these, however, are so noxious as the slender small serpents, a span long, which are found concealed in tents, in vessels, and in hedges. Persons wounded by them bleed from every pore, suffering great pain, and die, unless they have immediate assistance; but this assistance is easily obtained, by means of the virtues of the Indian roots and drugs.
+Few crocodiles, he says, are found in the Indus, and these are harmless, but most of the other animals, except the hippopotamus, are the same as those found in the Nile; but Onesicritus says that this animal also is found there.
+According to Aristobulus, none of the sea fish ascend the Nile from the sea, except the shad,to a mountain.
Coraÿ changes the last word to the name of a people,
So much then on the subject of the wild animals of India. We shall return to Megasthenes, and resume our account where we digressed.
After the hunters and the shepherds, follows the fourth caste, which consists, he says, of those who work at trades, retail wares, and who are employed in bodily labour. Some of these pay taxes, and perform certain stated services. But the armour-makers and ship-builders receive wages and provisions from the king, for whom only they work. The general-in-chief furnishes the soldiers with arms, and the admiral lets out ships for hire to those who undertake voyages and traffic as merchants.
The fifth caste consists of fighting men, who pass the time not employed in the field in idleness and drinking, and are maintained at the charge of the king. They are ready whenever they are wanted to march on an expedition, for they bring nothing of their own with them, except their bodies.
The sixth caste is that of the Ephori, or inspectors. They are intrusted with the superintendence of all that is going on, and it is their duty to report privately to the king. The city inspectors employ as their coadjutors the city courtesans; and the inspectors of the camp, the women who follow it. The best and the most faithful persons are appointed to the office of inspector.
The seventh caste consists of counsellors and assessors of the king. To these persons belong the offices of state, tribunals of justice, and the whole administration of affairs.
+It is not permitted to contract marriage with a person of another caste, nor to change from one profession or trade to another, nor for the same person to undertake several, except he is of the caste of philosophers, when permission is given, on account of his superior qualifications.
Of the magistrates, some have the charge of the market, others of the city, others of the soldiery. Some have the care of the rivers, measure the land, as in Egypt, and inspect the closed reservoirs, from which water is distributed by canals, so that all may have an equal use of it. These persons have charge also of the hunters, and have the power of rewarding or punishing those who merit either. They collect the taxes, and superintend the occupations connected with land, as woodcutters, carpenters, workers in brass, and miners. They
Those who have charge of the city are divided into six bodies of five each. The first has the inspection of everything relating to the mechanical arts; the second entertain strangers, assign lodgings, observe their mode of life, by means of attendants whom they attach to them, escort them out of the country on their departure; if they die, take charge of their property, have the care of them when sick, and when they die, bury them.
+The third class consists of those who inquire at what time and in what manner births and deaths take place, which is done with a view to tax (on these occasions), and in order that the deaths and births of persons both of good and bad character should not be concealed.
+The fourth division consists of those who are occupied in sales and exchanges; they have the charge of measures, and of the sale of the products in season, by a signal. The same person is not allowed to exchange various kinds of articles, except he pays a double tax.
+The fifth division presides over works of artisans, and disposes of articles by public notice. The new are sold apart from the old, and there is a fine imposed for mixing them together. The sixth and last comprises those who collect the tenth of the price of the articles sold. Death is the punishment for committing a fraud with regard to the tax.
+These are the peculiar duties performed by each class, but in their collective capacity they have the charge both of their own peculiar province and of civil affairs, the repairs of public works, priceswalls,
in place of, prices.
Next to the magistrates of the city is a third body of governors, who have the care of military affairs. This class also consists of six divisions, each composed of five persons. One division is associated with the chief naval superintendent, another with the person who has the charge of the bullock-teams, by which military engines are transported, of provisions both for the men and beasts, and other requisites for the army. They furnish attendants, who beat a drum, and carry gongs;a bell,
or gong, or trumpet?
All the Indians are frugal in their mode of life, and especially in camp. They do not tolerate useless and undisciplined multitudes, and consequently observe good order. Theft is very rare among them. Megasthenes, who was in the camp of Sandrocottus, which consisted of 400,000 men, did not witness on any day thefts reported, which exceeded the sum of two hundred drachmae, and this among a people who have no written laws, who are ignorant even of writing, and regulate everything by memory. They are, however, happy on account of their simple manners and frugal way of life. They never drink wine, but at sacrifices. Their beverage is made from rice instead of barley, and their food consists for the most part of rice pottage. The simplicity of their laws and contracts appears from their not having many law-suits. They have no suits respecting pledges and deposits, nor do they require witnesses or seals, but make their deposits, and confide in one another. Their houses and property are unguarded. These things denote temperance and sobriety; others no one would approve, as their eating always alone, and their not having all of them one common hour for their meals, but each taking it as he likes. The contrary custom is more agreeable to the habits of social and civil life.
As an exercise of the body they prefer friction in various ways, but particularly by making use of smooth sticks of ebony, which they pass over the surface of the body.
Their sepulchres are plain, and the tumuli of earth low.
+In contrast to their parsimony in other things, they indulge in ornament. They wear dresses worked with gold and precious stones, and flowered (variegated) robes, and are attended by persons following them with umbrellas; for as they highly esteem beauty, everything is attended to, which can improve their looks.
+They respect alike truth and virtue; therefore they do not assign any privilege to the old, unless they possess superior wisdom.
+They marry many wives, who are purchased from their parents, and give in exchange for them a yoke of oxen. Some marry wives to possess obedient attendants, others with a view to pleasure and numerous offspring, and the wives prostitute themselves, unless chastity is enforced by compulsion.
+No one wears a garland when sacrificing, or burning incense, or pouring out a libation. They do not stab, but strangle the victim, that nothing mutilated, but that which is entire, may be offered to the Deity.
+A person convicted of bearing false testimony suffers a mutilation of his extremities. He who has maimed another not only undergoes in return the loss of the same limb, but his hand also is cut off. If he has caused a workman to lose his hand or his eye, he is put to death.
+Megasthenes says, that none of the Indians employ slaves. But, according to Onesicritus, this is peculiar to the people in the territory of Musicanus. He speaks of this as an excellent rule, and mentions many others to be found in that country, as the effects of a government by good laws.
The care of the king's person is committed to women, who are also purchased of their parents. The body-guard, and the rest of the military, are stationed without the gates. A woman, who puts to death a king when drunk, is rewarded by becoming the wife of his successor. The sons succeed the father. The king may not sleep during the day-time, and at night he is obliged from time to time to change his bed, from dread of treachery.
+The king leaves his palace in time of war; he leaves it also when he goes to sit in his court as a judge. He remains there all day thus occupied, not suffering himself to be interrupted even though the time arrives for attending to his per-
Another occasion of leaving his palace is to offer sacrifice.
+The third is a sort of Bacchanalian departure to the chace. Crowds of women surround him, and on the outside (of these) are spear-men. The road is set off with ropes; a man, or even a woman, who passes within the ropes is put to death.
+The king is preceded by drums and gongs. He hunts in the enclosures, and discharges his arrows from a high seat. Near him stand two or three armed women. When hunting in the open ground, he shoots his arrows from an elephant; of the women some are in chariots, some on horses, and others on elephants; they are provided with all kinds of weapons, as if they were going on a military expedition.
These customs when compared with ours are very strange, but the following are still more extraordinary. According to Megasthenes, the nations who inhabit the Caucasus have commerce with women in public; and eat the bodies of their relatives; the monkeys climb precipices, and roll down large stones upon their pursuers; most of the animals which are tame in our country are wild in theirs; the horses have a single horn, with heads like those of deer; reeds which grow to the height of thirty orguiæ,
He then deviates into fables, and says that there are men of five, and even three spans in height, some of whom are without nostrils, with only two breathing orifices above the mouth. Those of three spans in height wage war with the cranes (described by Homer) and with the partridges, which are as large as geese; these people collect and destroy the eggs of the cranes which lay their eggs there; and nowhere else are the eggs or the young cranes to be found; frequently a crane escapes from this country with a brazen point of a weapon in its body, wounded by these people.
+Similar to this is the account of the Enotocoitæ,
With respect to the other singular animals, the philosophers informed him of a people called Ocypodæ, so swift of foot that they leave horses behind them; of Enotocoitæ, or persons having ears hanging down to their feet, so that they lie and sleep upon them, and so strong as to be able to pluck up trees and to break the sinew string of a bow; of others (Monommati) who have only one eye, and the ears of a dog, the eye placed in the middle of the forehead, the hair standing erect, and the breasts shaggy; of others (Amycteres) without nostrils, devouring everything, eaters of raw meat, short-lived, and dying before they arrive at old age; the upper part of their mouths projects far beyond the lower lip.
+With respect to the Hyperboreans, who live to the age of a thousand years, his description is the same as that of Simonides, Pindar, and other mythological writers.
+The story told by Timagenes of a shower of drops of brass, which were raked together, is a fable. The account of Megasthenes is more probable, namely, that the rivers bring down gold-dust, a part of which is paid as a tax to the king; and this is the case in Iberia (of Armenia).
Speaking of the philosophers, he says, that those who inhabit the mountains are worshippers of Bacchus, and show as a proof (of the god having come among them) the wild vine, which grows in their country only; the ivy, the laurel, the myrtle, the box-tree, and other evergreens, none of which are found beyond the Euphrates, except a few in parks, which are only preserved with great care. To wear robes and turbans, to use perfumes, and to be dressed in dyed and flowered garments, for their kings to be preceded when they leave their palaces, and appear abroad, by gongs and drums, are Bacchanalian customs. But the philosophers who live in the plains worship Hercules.
+These are fabulous stories, contradicted by many writers,
Megasthenes divides the philosophers again into two kinds, the Brachmanes
The philosophers live in a grove in front of the city within a moderate-sized enclosure. Their diet is frugal, and they lie upon straw pallets and on skins. They abstain from animal food, and from sexual intercourse with women; their time is occupied in grave discourse, and they communicate with those who are inclined to listen to them; but the hearer is not permitted to speak or cough, or even to spit on the ground; otherwise, he is expelled that very day from their society, on the ground of having no control over himself. After living thirty-seven years in this manner, each individual retires to his own possessions, and lives with less restraint, wearing robes of fine linen, and rings of gold, but without profuseness, upon the hands and in the ears. They eat the flesh of animals, of those particularly which do not assist man in his labour, and abstain from hot and seasoned food. They have as many wives as they please with a view to numerous offspring, for from many wives greater advantages are derived.
+As they have no slaves, they require more the services, which are at hand, of their children.
+The Brachmanes do not communicate their philosophy to their wives, for fear they should divulge to the profane, if
They discourse much on death, for it is their opinion that the present life is the state of one conceived in the womb, and that death to philosophers is birth to a real and a happy life. They therefore discipline themselves much to prepare for death, and maintain that nothing which happens to man is bad or good, for otherwise the same things would not be the occasion of sorrow to some and of joy to others, opinions being merely dreams, nor that the same persons could be affected with sorrow and joy by the same things, on different occasions.
+With regard to opinions on physical phenomena, they display, says Megasthenes, great simplicity, their actions being better than their reasoning, for their belief is chiefly founded on fables. On many subjects their sentiments are the same as those of the Greeks. According to the Brachmanes, the world was created, and is liable to corruption; it is of a spheroïdal figure; the god who made and governs it pervades the whole of it; the principles of all things are different, but the principle of the world's formation was water; in addition to the four elements there is a fifth nature, of which the heavens and the stars are composed; the earth is situated in the centre of the universe. Many other peculiar things they say of the principle of generation and of the soul. They invent fables also, after the manner of Plato, on the immortality of the soul, and on the punishments in Hades, and other things of this kind. This is the account which Megasthenes gives of the Brachmanes.
Of the Garmanes, the most honourable, he says, are the Hylobii, who live in the forests, and subsist on leaves and wild fruits: they are clothed with garments made of the bark of trees,
Second in honour to the Hylobii, are the physicians, for they apply philosophy to the study of the nature of man. They are of frugal habits, but do not live in the fields, and subsist upon rice and meal, which every one gives when asked, and receive them hospitably. They are able to cause persons to have a numerous offspring, and to have either male or female children, by means of charms. They cure diseases by diet, rather than by medicinal remedies. Among the latter, the most in repute are unguents and cataplasms. All others they suppose partake greatly of a noxious nature.
+Both this and the other class of persons practise fortitude, as well in supporting active toil as in enduring suffering, so that they will continue a whole day in the same posture, without motion.
+There are enchanters and diviners, versed in the rites and customs relative to the dead, who go about villages and towns begging. There are others who are more civilized and better informed than these, who inculcate the vulgar opinions concerning Hades, which, according to their ideas, tend to piety and sanctity. Women study philosophy with some of them, but abstain from sexual intercourse.
Aristobulus says, that he saw at Taxila two sophists (wise men), both Brachmanes, the elder had his head shaved, but the younger wore his hair; both were attended by disciples. When not otherwise engaged, they spent their time in the market-place. They are honoured as public counsellors, and have the liberty of taking away, without payment, whatever article they like which is exposed for sale; when any one accosts them, he pours over them oil of jessamine, in such profusion that it runs down from their eyes. Of honey and sesamum, which is exposed for sale in large quantity, they take enough to make cakes, and are fed without expense.
+They came up to Alexander's table and took their meal standing, and they gave an example of their fortitude by retiring to a neighbouring spot, where the elder, falling on the ground supine, endured the sun and the rain, which had now set in, it being the commencement of spring. The other stood on one leg, with a piece of wood three cubits in length raised in both hands; when one leg was fatigued he changed the support to the other, and thus continued the whole day. The younger appeared to possess much more self-command; for,
Aristobulus relates also some strange and unusual customs of the people of Taxila. Those, who through poverty are unable to marry their daughters, expose them for sale in the market-place, in the flower of their age, to the sound of shell trumpets and drums, with which the war-note is given. A crowd is thus assembled. First her back, as far as the shoulders, is uncovered, then the parts in front, for the examination of any man who comes for this purpose. If she pleases him, he marries her on such conditions as may be determined upon.
+The dead are thrown out to be devoured by vultures. To have many wives is a custom common to these and to other nations. He says, that he had heard, from some persons, of wives burning themselves voluntarily with their deceased husbands; and that those women who refused to submit to this custom were disgraced. The same things have been told by other writers.
Onesicritus says, that he himself was sent to converse with these wise men. For Alexander heard that they went about naked, practised constancy and fortitude, and were held in the highest honour; that, when invited, they did not go to other persons, but commanded others to come to them, if they wished to participate in their exercises or their conversation. Such being their character, Alexander did not consider it to be consistent with propriety to go to them, nor to compel them to do anything contrary to their inclination or against the custom of their country; he therefore despatched Onesicritus to them.
+Onesicritus found, at the distance of 20 stadia from the city, fifteen men standing in different postures, sitting or
He conversed with Calanus, one of these sophists, who accompanied the king to Persia, and died after the custom of his country, being placed on a pile of [burning] wood. When Onesicritus came, he was lying upon stones. Onesicritus approached, accosted him, and told him that he had been sent by the king, who had heard the fame of his wisdom, and that he was to give an account of his interview, if there were no objection, he was ready to listen to his discourse. When Calanus saw his mantle, head-covering, and shoes, he laughed, and said, Formerly, there was abundance everywhere of corn and barley, as there is now of dust; fountains then flowed with water, milk, honey, wine, and oil, but mankind by repletion and luxury became proud and insolent. Jupiter, indignant at this state of things, destroyed all, and appointed for man a life of toil. On the reappearance of temperance and other virtues, there was again an abundance of good things. But at present the condition of mankind approaches satiety and insolence, and there is danger lest the things which now exist should disappear.
When he had finished, he proposed to Onesicritus, if he wished to hear his discourse, to strip off his clothes, to lie down naked by him on the same stones, and in that manner to listen to him; while he was hesitating what to do, Mandanis,
The tendency of his discourse,
he said, was this, that the best philosophy was that which liberated the mind from pleasure and grief; that grief differed from labour, in that the former was inimical, the latter friendly to men; for that men exercised their bodies with labour in order to strengthen the mental powers, by which means they would be able to put an end to dissensions, and give good counsel to all, to the public and to individuals; that he certainly should at present advise Taxiles to receive Alexander as a friend; for if he entertained a person better than himself, he might be improved; but if a worse person, he might dispose him to good.
After this Mandanis inquired, whether such doctrines were taught among the Greeks. Onesicritus answered, that Pythagoras taught a similar doctrine, and enjoined his disciples to abstain from whatever has life; that Socrates and Diogenes, whose discourses he had heard, held the same opinions. Mandanis replied, that in other respects he thought them wise, but that in one thing they were mistaken, namely, in preferring custom to nature, for otherwise they would not be ashamed of going naked, like himself, and of subsisting on frugal fare; for the best house was that which required least repairs.
He says also that they employ themselves much on natural subjects, as prognostics, rain, drought, and diseases. When they repair to the city, they disperse themselves in the market-places; if they meet any one carrying figs or bunches of grapes, they take what is offered gratuitously; if it is oil, it is poured over them, and they are anointed with it. Every wealthy house, even to the women's apartment, is open to them; when they enter it, they engage in conversation, and partake of the repast. Disease of the body they regard as most disgraceful, and he who apprehends it, after preparing a pyre, destroys himself by fire; he (previously) anoints himself, and sitting down upon it orders it to be lighted, remaining motionless while he is burning.
Nearchus gives the following account of the Sophists. The Brachmanes engage in public affairs, and attend the kings as counsellors; the rest are occupied in the study of nature.
Of the customs of the other Indians, he says, that their laws, whether relating to the community or to individuals, are not committed to writing, and differ altogether from those of other people. For example, it is the practice among some tribes, to propose virgins as prizes to the conquerors in a trial of skill in boxing; wherefore they marry without portions; among other tribes the ground is cultivated by families and in common; when the produce is collected, each takes a load sufficient for his subsistence during the year; the remainder is burnt, in order to have a reason for renewing their labour, and not remaining inactive. Their weapons consist of a bow and arrows, which are three cubits in length, or a javelin, and a shield, and a sword three cubits long. Instead of bridles, they use muzzles,
Nearchus, producing proofs of their skill in works of art, says, that when they saw sponges in use among the Macedonians, they imitated them by sewing hairs, thin threads, and strings in wool; after the wool was felted, they drew out the hairs, threads, and strings, and dyed it with colours. There quickly appeared also manufactures of brushes for the body, and of vessels for oil (lecythi). They write, he says, letters upon cloth, smoothed by being well beaten, although other authors affirm that they have no knowledge of writing. They use brass, which is cast, and not wrought; he does not give the reason of this, although he mentions the strange effect, namely, if that vessels of this description fall to the ground, they break like those made of clay.
+This following custom also is mentioned in accounts of India, that, instead of prostrating themselves before their kings, it is usual to address them, and all persons in authority and high station, with a prayer.
+The country produces precious stones, as crystal, carbuncles of all kinds, and pearls.
As an instance of the disagreement among historians,
Others say, that a chamber was constructed of wood, which was filled with the leaves of trees, and a pyre being raised upon the roof, he was shut up in it, according to his directions, after the procession, with which he had been accompanied, had arrived at the spot. He threw himself upon the pyre, and was consumed like a log of wood, together with the chamber.
+Megasthenes says, that self-destruction is not a dogma of the philosophers, and that those who commit this act are accounted fool-hardy; that some, who are by nature harsh, inflict wounds upon their ,bodies, or cast themselves down precipices; those who are impatient of pain drown themselves; those who can endure pain strangle themselves; and those of ardent tempers throw themselves into the fire. Of this last description was Calanus, who had no control over himself, and was a slave to the table of Alexander. Calanus is censured, while Mandanis is applauded. When Alexander's messengers invited the latter to come to the son of Jove, promising a reward if he would comply, and threatening punishment if he refused, he answered, Alexander was not the son of Jove, for he did not govern even the smallest portion of the earth; nor did he himself desire a gift of one who
Alexander commended and pardoned him. who required nothing;
but
Historians also relate that the Indians worship Jupiter Ombrius (or, the Rainy), the river Ganges, and the indigenous deities of the country; that when the king washes his hair,
They say, that some of the gold-digging myrmeces (ants) have wings; and that the rivers, like those of Iberia,
In processions at their festivals, many elephants are in the train, adorned with gold and silver, numerous carriages drawn by four horses and by several pairs of oxen; then follows a body of attendants in full dress, (bearing) vessels of gold, large basins and goblets, an orguiahump-backed oxen,
or zebus.
Cleitarchus speaks of four-wheeled carriages bearing trees with large leaves, from which were suspended (in cages) different kinds of tame birds, among which the orion
Opposed to the Brachmanes there are philosophers, called Pramnæ, contentious people, and fond of argument. They ridicule the Brachmanes as boasters and fools for occupying themselves with physiology and astronomy. Some of the Pramnæ are called Pramnæ of the mountains, others Gymnetæ, others again are called Townsmen and Country-
The Gymnetæ, as their name imports, are naked and live chiefly in the open air, practising fortitude for the space of thirty-seven years; this I have before mentioned; women live in their society, but without cohabitation. The Gymnetæ are held in singular estimation.
The (Pramnæ) Townsmen are occupied in civil affairs, dwell in cities, and wear fine linen, or (as Countrymen they live) in the fields, clothed in the skins of fawns or antelopes. In short, the Indians wear white garments, white linen and muslin, contrary to the accounts of those who say that they wear garments of a bright colour; all of them wear long hair and long beards, plait their hair, and bind it with a fillet.
Artemidorus says that the Ganges descends from the Emoda mountains and proceeds towards the south; when it arrives at the city Ganges,
This writer states that at Antioch, near Daphne,
Eight naked servants, with girdles round their waists, and fragrant with perfumes, presented the gifts which were brought. The presents were a Hermes (i. e. a man) born without arms, whom I have seen, large snakes, a serpent ten cubits in length, a river tortoise of three cubits in length, and a partridge (?) larger than a vulture. They were accompanied by the person, it is said, who burnt himself to death at Athens. This is the practice with persons in distress, who seek escape from existing calamities, and with others in prosperous circumstances, as was the case with this man. For as everything hitherto had succeeded with him, he thought it necessary to depart, lest some unexpected calamity should happen to him by continuing to live; with a smile, therefore, naked, anointed, and with the girdle round his waist, he leaped upon the pyre. On his tomb was this inscription,—ZARMANOCHEGAS,
NEXT to India is Ariana, the first portion of the country subject to the Persians, lying beyondBeyond,
as Strabo has just been speaking of India, with reference to which Ariana is to the west of the Indus.
The southern side begins from the mouths of the Indus, and from Patalene, and terminates at Carmania and the mouth of the Persian Gulf, by a promontory projecting a considerable distance to the south. It then makes a bend towards the gulf in the direction of Persia.
+The Arbies, who have the same name as the river Arbis,
The greater part of the country inhabited by the Ichthyophagi is on a level with the sea. No trees, except palms and a kind of thorn, and the tamarisk, grow there. There is also a scarcity of water, and of food produced by cultivation. Both they and their cattle subsist upon fish, and are supplied by rain water and wells. The
Above the Ichthyophagi is situated Gedrosia,
The summer was purposely chosen for leaving India, for at that season it rains in Gedrosia, and the rivers and wells are filled, but in winter they fail. The rain falls in the higher parts to the north, and near the mountains: when the rivers swell, the plains near the sea are watered, and the wells are also filled. Alexander sent persons before him into the desert country to dig wells and to prepare stations for himself and his fleet.
Having separated his forces into three divisions, he set out with one division through Gedrosia, keeping at the utmost from the sea not more than 500 stadia, in order to secure the coast for his fleet; but he frequently approached the sea-side, although the beach was impracticable and rugged. The second division he sent forward under the command of Craterus through the interior, with a view of reducing Ariana, and of proceeding to the same places to which he himself was directing his march. (The third division), the fleet he intrusted to Nearchus and Onesicritus, his master pilot, giving them orders to
5 Nearchus says, that while Alexander was on his march, he himself commenced his voyage, in the autumn, about the achronical rising of the Pleiades,
Alexander was greatly distressed throughout the whole march, as his road lay through a barren country. The supplies of provisions which he obtained came from a distance, and were scanty and unfrequent, so much so that the army suffered greatly from hunger, the beasts of burden dropped down, and the baggage was abandoned, both on the march and in the camp. The army was saved by eating dates and the marrow of the palm-tree.
Alexander however (says Nearchus), although acquainted with the hardships of the enterprise, was ambitious of conducting this large army in safety, as a conqueror, through the same country where, according to the prevailing report, Semiramis escaped by flight from India with about twenty, and Cyrus with about seven men.
Besides the want of provisions, the scorching heat was distressing, as also the deep and burning sand. In some places there were sand-hills, so that in addition to the difficulty of lifting the legs, as out of a pit, there were ascents and descents. It was necessary also, on account of the watering places, to make long marches of two, four, and sometimes even of six hundred stadia, for the most part during the night. Frequently the encampment was at a distance of 30 stadia from the watering places, in order that the soldiers might
The guides, through ignorance, deviated so far into the interior, that the sea was no longer in sight. The king, perceiving the danger, immediately set out in search of the coast; when he had discovered it, and by sinking wells had found water fit for drinking, he sent for the army: afterwards he continued his march for seven days near the shore, with a good supply of water. He then again returned into the interior.
There was a plant resembling the laurel, which if eaten by the beasts of burden caused them to die of epilepsy, accompanied with foaming at the mouth. A thorn also, the fruit of which, like gourds, strewed the ground, and was full of a juice; if drops of it fell into the eyes of any kind of animal it became completely blind. Many persons were suffocated by eating unripe dates. Danger also was to be apprehended from serpents; for on the sand-hills there grew a plant, underneath which they crept and hid themselves. The persons wounded by them died.
+The Oritæ, it was said, smeared the points of their arrows, which were of wood hardened in the fire, with deadly poisons. When Ptolemy was wounded and in danger of his life a person appeared in a dream to Alexander, and showed him a root with leaves and branches, which he told him to bruise and place upon the wound. Alexander awoke from his dream, and remembering the vision, searched and found the root growing in abundance, of which both he and others made use;
Having arrived at the palace
The position of the southern side of Ariana is thus situated, with reference to the sea-coast, the country of the Gedrosii and the Oritæ lying near and above it. A great part of Gedrosia extends into the interior until it touches upon the Drangæ, Arachoti, and Paropamisadæ, of whom Eratosthenes speaks in the following manner: we cannot give a better description. Ariana,
he says, "is bounded on the east by the Indus, on the south by the Great Sea, on the north by the Paropamisus and the succeeding chain of mountains as far as the Caspian Gates, on the west by the same limits
The breadth of the country is the length of the Indus, reckoned from the Paropamisus as far as the mouths of that river, and amounts to 12,000, or according to others to 13,000, stadia. The length, beginning from the Caspian Gates, as it is laid down in Asiatic Stathmi,
The order in which these nations are disposed is as follows. Along the Indus are the Paropamisadæ, above whom lies the mountain Paropamisus; then towards the south are the Arachoti; then next to these towards the south, the Gedroseni, together with other tribes who occupy the sea-coast; the Indus runs parallel along the breadth of these tracts. The Indians occupy [in part]
The Arii are situated on the west, by the side of the Paropamisadæ, and the Drangæ
We shall better understand the position of the places about the above-mentioned mountainous tract, if we further examine the route which Alexander took from the Parthian territory to Bactriana, when he was in pursuit of Bessus. He came first to Ariana, next to the Drangæ, where he put to death Philotas, the son of Parmenio, having detected his traitorous intentions. He despatched persons to Ecbatana
The Drangæ resemble the Persians in all other respects in their mode of life, except that they have little wine. Tin is found in the country.
Alexander next went from the Drangæ to the Euergetæ,benefactors,
in consideration of the services which they had rendered in his expedition against the Scythians.
The southern parts of the Paropamisus belong to India and Ariana; the northern parts towards the west belong to Bactriana [towards the east to Sogdiana * *
Chaarene is situated somewhere about this part of the country bordering upon India. This, of all the places subject to the Parthians, lies nearest to India. It is distant 10,000 or
It is probable that those who sailed in the expedition greatly exaggerated many circumstances; yet their statements prove the sufferings to which they were exposed, and that their apprehensions were greater than the real danger. That which alarmed them the most was the magnitude of the whales, which occasioned great commotion in the sea from their numbers; their blowing was attended with so great a darkness, that the sailors could not see where they stood. But when the pilots informed the sailors, who were terrified at the sight and ignorant of the cause, that they were animals which might easily be driven away by the sound of a trumpet, and by loud noises, Nearchus impelled the vessels with violence in the direction of the impediment, and at the same time frightened the animals with the sound of trumpets. The whales dived, and again rose at the prow of the vessels, so as to give the appearance of a naval combat; but they soon made off.
Those who now sail to India speak of the size of these animals and their mode of appearance, but as coming neither in bodies nor frequently, yet as repulsed by shouts and by the sound of trumpets. They affirm that they do not approach the land, but that the bones of those which die, bared of flesh, are readily thrown up by the waves, and supply the Ichthyophagi with the above-mentioned material for the construction of their cabins. According to Nearchus, the size of these animals is three and twenty orguiæ in length.
Nearchus says that he proved the confident belief of the sailors in the existence of an island situated in the passage, and destructive to those who anchored near it, to be false.
+A bark in its course, when it came opposite to this island, was never afterwards seen, and some men who were sent in search did not venture to disembark upon the island, but shouted and called to the crew, when, receiving no answer, they returned. But as all imputed this disappearance to the island, Nearchus said that he himself sailed to it, went ashore, disembarked with a part of his crew, and went round it. But not discovering any trace of those of whom he was in search, he abandoned the attempt, and informed his men that no fault was to be imputed to the island (for otherwise destruction would have come upon himself and those who disembarked with him), but that some other cause (and innumerable others were possible) might have occasioned the loss of the vessel.
Carmania is the last portion of the sea-coast which begins from the Indus. Its first promontory projects towards the south into the Great Sea.Sea
words which he thinks are here omitted; upon insufficient grounds, however, according to Kramer.
Carmania is large, situated in the interior, and extending itself between Gedrosia and Persia, but stretches more to the north than Gedrosia. This is indicated by its fertility, for it not only produces everything, but the trees are of a large size, excepting however the olive; it is also watered by rivers. Gedrosia also differs little from the country of the Ichthyophagi, so that frequently there is no produce from the ground. They therefore keep the annual produce in store for several years.
+Onesicritus says, that a river in Carmania brings down gold-dust; that there are mines of silver, copper, and minium; and that there are two mountains, one of which contains arsenic, the other salt.
+There belongs to it a desert tract, which is contiguous to Parthia and Parætacene. The produce of the ground is like that of Persia; and among other productions the vine. The
Asses, on account of the scarcity of horses, are generally made use of even in war. They sacrifice an ass to Mars, who is the only deity worshipped by them, for they are a warlike people. No one marries before he has cut off the head of an enemy and presented it to the king, who deposits the scull in the royal treasury. The tongue is minced and mixed with flour, which the king, after tasting it, gives to the person who brought it, to be eaten by himself and his family. That king is the most highly respected, to whom the greatest number of heads are presented.
+According to Nearchus, most of the customs and the language of the inhabitants of Carmania resemble those of the Persians and Medes.
+The passage across the mouth of the Persian Gulf does not occupy more than one day.
NEXT to Carmania is Persis. A great part of it extends along the coast of the Gulf, which has its name from the country, but a much larger portion stretches into the interior, and particularly in its length, reckoned from the south, and Carmania to the north, and to the nations of Media.
+It is of a threefold character, as we regard its natural condition and the quality of the air. First, the coast, extending for about 4400 or 4300 stadia, is burnt up with heat; it is sandy, producing little except palm trees, and terminates at the greatest river in those parts, the name of which is Oroatis.
The third portion lies towards the north, and is bleak and mountainous. On its borders live the camel-breeders.
Its length, according to Eratosthenes, towards the north and Media,Media
for Caspian Gates
in the text: and insert 9000 stadia,
here from b. ii. c. i. § 26, and, following the same authority, 3000 for 2000 stadia in the text below.
The tribes inhabiting this country are those called the Pateischoreis, the Achæmenidæ, and Magi; these last affect a sedate mode of life; the Curtii and Mardi are robbers, the rest are husbandmen.
Susis also is almost a part of Persis. It lies between Persis and Babylonia, and has a very considerable city, Susa. For the Persians and Cyrus, after the conquest of the Medes, perceiving that their own country was situated towards the extremities, but Susis more towards the interior, nearer also to Babylon and the other nations, there placed the royal seat of the empire. They were pleased with its situation on the confines of Persis, and with the importance of the city; besides the consideration that it had never of itself undertaken any great enterprise, had always been in subjection to other people, and constituted a part of a greater body, except, perhaps, anciently in the heroic times.
+It is said to have been founded by Tithonus, the father of Memnon. Its compass was 120 stadia. Its shape was oblong. The Acropolis was called Memnonium. The Susians have the name also of Cissii. Æschylus
They embellished the palace at Susa more than the rest, but they did not hold in less veneration and honour the
This was the state of things during the empire of the Persians. But afterwards different princes occupied different palaces; some, as was natural, less sumptuous, after the power of Persis had been reduced first by the Macedonians, and secondly still more by the Parthians. For although the Persians have still a kingly government, and a king of their own, yet their power is very much diminished, and they are subject to the king of Parthia.
Susa is situated in the interior, upon the river Choaspes, beyond the bridge; but the territory extends to the sea: and the sea-coast of this territory, from the borders of the Persian coast nearly as far as the mouths of the Tigris, is a distance of about 3000 stadia.
+The Choaspes flows through Susis, terminating on the same coast, and has its source in the territory of the Uxii.
Polycletus says, that the Choaspes, and the Eulæus,
According to Nearchus, the sea-coast of Susis is swampy, and terminates at the river Euphrates; at its mouth is a village, which receives the merchandise from Arabia; for the coast of Arabia approaches close to the mouths of the Euphrates and the Pasitigris; the whole intermediate space is occupied by a lake which receives the Tigris; on sailing up the Pasitigris 150 stadia is the bridge of rafts leading to Susa from Persis, and is distant from Susa 60 (600?) stadia; the Pasitigris is distant from the Oroatis about 2000 stadia; the ascent through the lake to the mouth of the Tigris is 600 (6000?) stadia;
Onesicritus says that all the rivers discharge themselves into the lake, both the Euphrates and the Tigris; and that the Euphrates, again issuing from the lake, discharges itself into the sea by a separate mouth.
There are many other narrow defiles in passing out through the territory of the Uxii, and entering Persis. These Alexander forced in his march through the country at the Persian Gates, and at other places, when he was hastening to see the principal parts of Persis, and the treasure-holds, in which wealth had been accumulated during the long period that Asia was tributary to Persis.
+He crossed many rivers, which flow through the country and discharge themselves into the Persian Gulf.
+Next to the Choaspes are the Copratas
He next came to Pasargadæ,
Such is the account of Aristobulus, who records the following inscription on the tomb. "O MAN, I AM CYRUS,Son of Cambyses.
Onesicritus however says that the tower had ten stories, that Cyrus lay in the uppermost, and that there was an inscription in Greek, cut in Persian letters, I CYRUS, KING OF KINGS, LIE HERE.
And another inscription to the same effect in the Persian language.
Onesicritus mentions also this inscription on the tomb of Darius: "I WAS A FRIEND TO MY FRIENDS, I WAS THE FIRST OF HORSEMEN AND ARCHERS, I EXCELLED AS HUNTER, I COULD DO EVERYTHING.
Aristus of Salamis, a writer of a much later age than these, says, that the tower consisted of two stories, and was large; that it was built at the time the Persians succeeded to the kingdom (of the Medes); that the tomb was preserved; that the above-mentioned inscription was in the Greek, and that there was another to the same purport in the Persian language.
+Cyrus held in honour Pasargadæ, because he there conquered, in his last battle, Astyages the Mede, and transferred to himself the empire of Asia; he raised it to the rank of a city, and built a palace in memory of his victory.
Alexander transferred everything that was precious in Persis to Susa, which was itself full of treasures and costly materials; he did not, however, consider this place, but Babylon, as the royal residence, and intended to embellish it. There too his treasure was deposited.
+They say that, besides the treasures in Babylon and in the camp of Alexander, which were not included in the sum, the treasure found at Susa and in Persis was reckoned to amount to 40,000, and according to some writers to 50,000, talents. But others say, that the whole treasure, collected from all quarters, and transported to Ecbatana, amounted to 180,000 talents, and that the 8,000 talents which Darius carried away with him in his flight from Media became the booty of those who put him to death.
Alexander preferred Babylon, because he saw that it far surpassed the other cities in magnitude, and had other advantages. Although Susis is fertile, it has a glowing and scorching atmosphere, particularly near the city, as he (Aristobulus?) says. Lizards and serpents at mid-day in the summer, when the sun is at its greatest height, cannot cross the streets of the city quick enough to prevent their being burnt to death mid-way by the heat. This happens nowhere in Persis, although it lies more towards the south.
+Cold water for baths is suddenly heated by exposure to the sun. Barley spread out in the sun is roasted
The beam made of the palm tree has a peculiar property, for although it retains its solidity, it does not as it grows old give way downwards, but curves upwards with the weight, and is a better support to the roof.
+The cause of the scorching heat is said to be high, overhanging mountains on the north, which intercept the northern winds. These, blowing from the tops of the mountains at a great height, fly over without touching the plains, to the more southern parts of Susis. There the air is still, particularly when the Etesian winds cool the other parts of the country which are burnt up by heat.
Susis is so fertile in grain, that barley and wheat produce, generally, one hundred, and sometimes two hundred fold. Hence the furrows are not ploughed close together, for the roots when crowded impede the sprouting of the plant.
+The vine did not grow there before the Macedonians planted it, both there and at Babylon. They do not dig trenches, but thrust down into the ground iron-headed stakes, which when drawn out are immediately replaced by the plants.
+Such is the character of the inland parts. The sea-coast is marshy and without harbours; hence Nearchus says, that he met with no native guides, when coasting with his fleet from India to Babylonia, for nowhere could his vessels put in, nor was he able to procure persons who could direct him by their knowledge and experience.
The part of Babylonia formerly called Sitacene, and afterwards Apolloniatis,
Above both, on the north and towards the east, are the Elymæi
Such is the nature of the countries of Persis and Susiana.
The manners and customs of the Persians are the same as those of the Susians and the Medes, and many other people; and they have been described by several writers, yet I must mention what is suitable to my purpose.
+The Persians do not erect statues nor altars, but, considering the heaven as Jupiter, sacrifice on a high place.
After the Magus, who directs the sacrifice, has divided the flesh, each goes away with his share, without setting apart any portion to the gods; for the god, they say, requires the soul of the victim, and nothing more. Nevertheless, according to some writers, they lay a small piece of the caul upon the fire.
But it is to fire and water especially that they offer sacrifice. They throw upon the fire dry wood without the bark, and place fat over it; they then pour oil upon it, and light it below; they do not blow the flame with their breath, but fan it; those who have blown the flame with their breath, or thrown any dead thing or dirt upon the fire, are put to death.
+They sacrifice to water by going to a lake, river, or fountain; having dug a pit, they slaughter the victim over it, taking care that none of the pure water near be sprinkled with blood, and thus be polluted. They then lay the flesh in order upon myrtle or laurel branches; the Magi touch it with slender twigs,
15 In Cappadocia (for in this country there is a great body of Magi, called Pyræthi,who kindle fire.
The Persians have also certain large shrines, called Pyrætheia.
The Persians never pollute a river with urine, nor wash nor bathe in it; they never throw a dead body, nor anything unclean, into it. To whatever god they intend to sacrifice, they first address a prayer to fire.
They are governed by hereditary kings. Disobedience is punished by the head and arms being cut off, and the body cast forth. They marry many women, and maintain at the same time a great number of concubines, with a view to a numerous offspring.
+The kings propose annual prizes for a numerous family of children. Children are not brought into the presence of their parents until they are four years old.
+Marriages are celebrated at the beginning of the vernal equinox. The bridegroom passes into the bride-chamber, having previously eaten some fruit, or camel's marrow, but nothing else during the day.
From the age of five to twenty-four years they are taught to use the bow, to throw the javelin, to ride, and to speak the truth. They have the most virtuous preceptors,
The youths are called to rise before day-break, at the sound of brazen instruments, and assemble in one spot, as if for arming themselves or for the chase. They are arranged in companies of fifty, to each of which one of the king's or a satrap's son is appointed as leader, who runs, followed at command by the others, an appointed distance of thirty or forty stadia.
+They require them to give an account of each lesson, when they practise loud speaking, and exercise the breath and lungs. They are taught to endure heat, cold, and rains; to cross torrents, and keep their armour and clothes dry; to pasture animals, to watch all night in the open air, and to eat wild fruits, as the terminthus,
[These persons are called Cardaces, who live upon plunder, for carda
means a manly and warlike spirit.]Barbari milites quos Persæ Cardacas appellant,
(Cornel. Nepos,) without doubt were Assyrian and Armenian Carduci. See b. xvi. c. i. § 24, and Xenoph. Anab. iv. 3. Later Gordyæi or Gordyeni, now the Kurds.
The daily food after the exercise of the gymnasium is bread, a cake, cardamum,lepidum perfoliatum
of Linnæus, or the nasturtium orientale
of Tournefort. Xenophon also, Expedit. Cyr. iii. 5 and vii. 8, speaks of the great use made of this plant by the Persians.
Their mode of hunting is by throwing spears from horseback, or with the bow or the sling.
+In the evening they are employed in planting trees, cutting roots, fabricating armour, and making lines and nets. The youth do not eat the game, but carry it home. The king gives rewards for running, and to the victors in the other contests of the pentathla (or five games). The youths are adorned with gold, esteeming it for its fiery appearance. They do not ornament the dead with gold, nor apply fire to them, on account of its being an object of veneration.
They serve as soldiers in subordinate stations, and in
The dress of the chiefs consists of triple drawers, a double tunic with sleeves reaching to the knees; the under garment is white, the upper of a variegated colour. The cloak for summer is of a purple or violet colour, but for winter of a variegated colour. The turbans are similar to those of the Magi; and a deep double shoe. The generality of people wear a double tunic reaching to the half of the leg. A piece of fine linen is wrapped round the head. Each person has a bow and a sling.
+The entertainments of the Persians are expensive. They set upon their table entire animals in great number, and of various kinds. Their couches, drinking-cups, and other articles are so brilliantly ornamented that they gleam with gold and silver.
Their consultations on the most important affairs are carried on while they are drinking, and they consider the resolutions made at that time more to be depended upon than those made when sober.
+On meeting persons of their acquaintance, and of equal rank with themselves, on the road, they approach and kiss them, but to persons of an inferior station they offer the cheek, and in that manner receive the kiss. But to persons of still lower condition they only bend the body.
+Their mode of burial is to smear the bodies over with wax, and then to inter them. The Magi are not buried, but the birds are allowed to devour them. These persons, according to the usage of the country, espouse even their mothers.
+Such are the customs of the Persians.
The following, mentioned by Polycletus, are perhaps customary practices:
+At Susa each king builds in the citadel, as memorials of the administration of his government, a dwelling for himself, treasure-houses, and magazines for tribute collected (in kind).
+From the sea-coast they obtain silver, from the interior the Longhand
here given to Darius are assigned by others to Artaxerxes. It was in fact the latter to whom this surname was given, according to Plutarch, in consequence of the right arm being longer than the left. Therefore Falconer considers this passage an interpolation.
Their habits are in general temperate. But their kings, from the great wealth which they possessed, degenerated into a luxurious way of life. They sent for wheat from Assos in Æolia, for ChalybonianThe Chalybonean wine, Posidonius says, is made in Damascus in Syria, from vines which were planted there by the Persians.
Of the barbarians the Persians were the best known to the Greeks, for none of the other barbarians who governed Asia governed Greece. The barbarians were not acquainted with the Greeks, and the Greeks were but slightly acquainted, and by distant report only, with the barbarians. As an instance, Homer was not acquainted with the empire of the Syrians nor of the Medes, for otherwise as he mentions the wealth of Egyptian Thebes and of Phœnicia, he would not have passed over in silence the wealth of Babylon, of Ninus, and of Ecbatana.
+The Persians were the first people that brought Greeks under their dominion; the Lydians (before them) did the
The Persians, (on the contrary, increased in power and,)as soon as they had destroyed the Median empire, subdued the Lydians and brought the Greeks of Asia under their dominion. At a later period they even passed over into Greece and were worsted in many great battles, but still they continued to keep possession of Asia, as far as the places on the sea-coast, until they were completely subdued by the Macedonians.
The founder of their empire was Cyrus. He was succeeded by his son Cambyses, who was put to death by the Magi. The seven Persians who killed the Magi delivered the kingdom into the hands of Darius, the son of Hystaspes. The succession terminated with Arses, whom Bagous the eunuch having killed set up Darius, who was not of the royal family. Alexander overthrew Darius, and reigned himself twelve years.ten or eleven years,
which reading is contrary to all other authorities, and is rejected by Kramer.
At present the Persians are a separate people, governed by kings, who are subject to other kings; to the kings of Macedon in former times, but now to those of Parthia.
SUMMARY.
+The sixteenth Book contains Assyria, in which are the great cities Babylon and Nisibis; Adiabene, Mesopotamia, all Syria; Phœnicia, Palestine; the whole of Arabia; all that part of India which touches upon Arabia; the territory of the Saracens, called by our author Scenitis; and the whole country bordering the Dead and Red Seas.
ASSYRIA is contiguous to Persia and Susiana. This name is given to Babylonia, and to a large tract of country around; this tract contains Aturia,
The name of Syrians seems to extend from Babylonia as far as the Bay of Issus, and, anciently, from this bay to the Euxine.
+Both tribes of the Cappadocians, those near the Taurus and those near the Pontus, are called to this time Leuco-Syrians (or White Syrians),
When the historians of the Syrian empire say that the Medes were overthrown by the Persians, and the Syrians by the Medes, they mean no other Syrians than those who built the royal palaces at Babylon and Nineveh; and Ninus, who built Nineveh in Aturia, was one of these Syrians. His wife, who succeeded her husband, and founded Babylon, was Semiramis. These sovereigns were masters of Asia. Many other works of Semiramis, besides those at Babylon, are extant in almost every part of this continent, as, for example, artificial mounds, which are called mounds of Semiramis, and walls
The empire they left continued with their successors to the time of [the contest between] Sardanapalus and Arbaces.
The city Nineveh was destroyed immediately upon the overthrow of the Syrians.
In Aturia is situated Gaugamela, a village where Darius was defeated and lost his kingdom. This place is remarkable for its name, which, when interpreted, signifies the Camel's House. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, gave it this name, and assigned (the revenues of) the place for the maintenance of a camel, which had undergone the greatest possible labour and fatigue in the journey through the deserts of Scythia, when carrying baggage and provision for the king. The Macedonians, observing that this was a mean village, but Arbela a considerable settlement (founded, as it is said, by Arbelus, son of Athmoneus), reported that the battle was fought and the victory obtained near Arbela, which account was transmitted to historians.
After Arbela and the mountain Nicatorium
Babylon itself also is situated in a plain. The wall is 385
The ascent to the highest story is by stairs, and at their side are water engines, by means of which persons, appointed expressly for the purpose, are continually employed in raising water from the Euphrates into the garden. For the river, which is a stadium in breadth, flows through the middle of the city, and the garden is on the side of the river. The tomb also of Belus is there. At present it is in ruins, having been demolished, as it is said, by Xerxes. It was a quadrangular pyramid of baked brick, a stadium in height, and each of the sides a stadium in length. Alexander intended to repair it. It was a great undertaking, and required a long time for its completion (for ten thousand men were occupied two months in clearing away the mound of earth), so that he was not able to execute what he had attempted, before disease hurried him rapidly to his end. None of the persons who succeeded him attended to this undertaking; other works also were neglected, and the city was dilapidated, partly by the Persians, partly by time, and, through the indifference of the Macedonians to things of this kind, particularly after Seleucus Nicator had fortified Seleucia on the Tigris near Babylon, at the distance of about 300 stadia.
+Both this prince and all his successors directed their care to that city, and transferred to it the seat of empire. At present it is larger than Babylon; the other is in great part deserted, so that no one would hesitate to apply to it what one of the comic writers said of Megalopolitæ in Arcadia,
On account of the scarcity of timber, the beams and pillars of the houses were made of palm wood. They wind ropes of twisted reed round the pillars, paint them over with colours, and draw designs upon them; they cover the doors with a coat of asphaltus. These are lofty, and all the houses are vaulted on account of the want of timber. For the country is bare, a great part of it is covered with shrubs, and produces The great city is a great desert.
They do not use tiles for their houses, because there are no great rains. The case is the same in Susiana and in Sitacene.
In Babylon a residence was set apart for the native philosophers called Chaldæans, who are chiefly devoted to the study of astronomy. Some, who are not approved of by the rest, profess to understand genethlialogy, or the casting of nativities. There is also a tribe of Chaldæans, who inhabit a district of Babylonia, in the neighbourhood of the Arabians, and of the sea called the Persian Sea.
Borsippa is a city sacred to Diana and Apollo. Here is a large linen manufactory. Bats of much larger size than those in other parts abound in it. They are caught and salted for food.
The country of the Babylonians is surrounded on the east by the Susans, Elymæi, and Parætaceni; on the south by the Persian Gulf, and the Chaldæans as far as the Arabian Meseni; on the west by the Arabian Scenitæ as far as Adiabene and Gordyæa; on the north by the Armenians and Medes as far as the Zagrus, and the nations about that river.
The country is intersected by many rivers, the largest of which are the Euphrates and the Tigris: next to the Indian rivers, the rivers in the southern parts of Asia are said to hold the second place. The Tigris is navigable upwards from its mouth to Opis,
It is not, perhaps, possible to prevent inundations of this kind altogether, but it is the duty of good princes to afford all possible assistance. The assistance required is to prevent excessive overflow by the construction of dams, and to obviate the filling of rivers, produced by the accumulation of mud, by cleansing the canals, and removing stoppages at their mouths. The cleansing of the canals is easily performed, but the construction of dams requires the labour of numerous workmen. For the earth being soft and yielding, does not support the superincumbent mass, which sinks, and is itself carried away, and thus a difficulty arises in making dams at the mouth. Expedition is necessary in closing the canals to prevent all the water flowing out. When the canals dry up in the summer time, they cause the river to dry up also; and if the river is low (before the canals are closed), it cannot supply the canals in time with water, of which the country, burnt up and scorched, requires a very large quan-
Aristobulus relates that Alexander himself, when he was sailing up the river, and directing the course of the boat, inspected the canals, and ordered them to be cleared by his multitude of followers; he likewise stopped up some of the mouths, and opened others. He observed that one of these canals, which took a direction more immediately to the marshes, and to the lakes in front of Arabia, had a mouth very difficult to be dealt with, and which could not be easily closed on account of the soft and yielding nature of the soil; he (therefore) opened a new mouth at the distance of 30 stadia, selecting a place with a rocky bottom, and to this the current was diverted. But in doing this he was taking precautions that Arabia should not become entirely inaccessible in consequence of the lakes and marshes, as it was already almost an island from the quantity of water (which surrounded it). For he contemplated making himself master of this country; and he had already provided a fleet and places of rendezvous; and had built vessels in Phœnicia and at Cyprus, some of which were in separate pieces, others were in parts, fastened together by bolts. These, after being conveyed to Thapsacus in seven distances of a day's march, were then to be transported down the river to Babylon. He constructed other boats in Babylonia, from cypress trees in the groves and parks, for there is a scarcity of timber in Babylonia. Among the Cossæi, and some other tribes, the supply of timber is not great,
+The pretext for the war, says Aristobulus, was that the Arabians were the only people who did not send their ambassadors to Alexander; but the true reason was his ambition to be lord of all.
+When he was informed that they worshipped two deities only, Jupiter and Bacchus, who supply what is most requisite for the subsistence of mankind, he supposed that, after his conquests, they would worship him as a third, if he permitted
Eratosthenes, when he is speaking of the lakes near Arabia, says, that the water, when it cannot find an outlet, opens passages underground, and is conveyed through these as far as the Cœle-Syrians,Joppa in Cœle-Syria;
and Polybius, v. 80, § 2, of Rhinocolura, the first of the cities in Cœle-Syria;
and Josephus, Ant. Jud. xiii. 13, § 2, of Scythopolis of Cœle-Syria.
Rhinocolura in Cœle-Syria and Mt. Casius,
the Casius near Egypt. Our author properly observes that the length and nature of the course contradicts this hypothesis: but, misled by the names Cœle-Syria and Casius, he forgets that the Casius of Egypt and the district bordering upon Egypt, improperly called Cœle-Syria, are here in question; he transfers the first name to Cœle-Syria of Libanus, and the second to Mt. Casius near Seleucia and Antioch, and adds that, according to the notion of Eratosthenes, the waters of the Euphrates would have to traverse Libanus, Antilibanus, and the Casius (of Syria), whilst Eratosthenes has not, and could not, say any such thing. The hypothesis of Eratosthenes could not, indeed, be maintained, but Strabo renders it absurd. The error of our author is the more remarkable, as the name of the city Rhinocolura ought necessarily to have suggested to him the sense in which the words Casius and Cœle Syria should be understood.
Such, then, are the accounts of Eratosthenes and Aristobulus.
But Polycleitus says, that the Euphrates does not overflow its banks, because its course is through large plains; that of the mountains (from which it is supplied), some are distant 2000, and the Cossæan mountains scarcely 1000 stadia, that they are not very high, nor covered with snow to a great depth, and therefore do not occasion the snow to melt in great masses, for the most elevated mountains are in the northern parts above Ecbatana; towards the south they are divided, spread out, and are much lower; the Tigris also receives the greater part of the water [which comes down from them], and thus overflows its banks.
The last assertion is evidently absurd, because the Tigris descends into the same plains (as the Euphrates); and the above-mentioned mountains are not of the same height, the northern being more elevated, the southern extending in breadth, but are of a lower altitude. The quantity of snow is not, however, to be estimated by altitude only, but by aspect. The same mountain has more snow on the northern than on the southern side, and the snow continues longer on the former than on the latter. As the Tigris therefore receives from the most southern parts of Armenia, which are near Babylon, the water of the melted snow, of which there is no great quantity, since it comes from the southern side, it should overflow in a less degree than the Euphrates, which receives the water from both parts (northern and southern); and not from a single mountain only, but from many, as I have mentioned in the description of Armenia. To this we must add the length of the river, the large tract of country which it traverses in the Greater and in the Lesser Armenia, the large space it takes in its course in passing out of the Lesser Armenia and Cappadocia, after issuing out of the Taurus in its way to Thapsacus (forming the boundary between Syria below and Mesopotamia), and the large remaining portion of country as far as Babylon and to its mouth, a course in all of 36,000 stadia.
+This, then, on the subject of the canals (of Babylonia).
Babylonia produces barley in larger quantity than any other
It is said that there is a Persian song in which are reckoned up 360 useful properties of the palm.
+They employ for the most part the oil of sesamum, a plant which is rare in other places.
Asphaltus is found in great abundance in Babylonia. Eratosthenes describes it as follows.
+The liquid asphaltus, which is called naphtha, is found in Susiana; the dry kind, which can be made solid, in Babylonia. There is a spring of it near the Euphrates. When this river overflows at the time of the melting of the snow, the spring also of asphaltus is filled, and overflows into the river, where large clods are consolidated, fit for buildings constructed of baked bricks. Others say that the liquid kind also is found in Babylonia. With respect to the solid kind, I have described its great utility in the construction of buildings. They say that boats (of reeds) are woven,
Poseidonius says that there are springs of naphtha in Babylonia, some of which produce white, others black, naphtha; the first of these, I mean the white naphtha, which attracts flame,
In former times the capital of Assyria was Babylon; it is now called Seleuceia upon the Tigris. Near it is a large village called Ctesiphon. This the Parthian kings usually made their winter residence, with a view to spare the Seleucians the burden of furnishing quarters for the Scythian soldiery. In consequence of the power of Parthia, Ctesiphon
The kings usually passed the winter there, on account of the salubrity of the air, and the summer at Ecbatana and in Hyrcania,the royal seat of the Parthians,
and which shared with Ecbatana the honour of being a residence of the Parthian kings. The name Hyrcania has here a wide meaning; the proper name would have been Parthia.
As we call the country Babylonia, so we call the people Babylonians, not from the name of the city, but of the country; the case is not precisely the same, however, as regards even natives of Seleuceia, as, for instance, Diogenes, the stoic philosopher [who had the appellation of the Babylonian, and not the Seleucian].
At the distance of 500 stadia from Seleuceia is Artemita, a considerable city, situated nearly directly to the east, which is the position also of Sitacene.
Persis, which is a large country, encompasses Carmania on the [west]
The Cossæi, like the neighbouring mountaineers, are for the most part archers, and are always out on foraging parties. For as they occupy a country of small extent, and barren, they are compelled by necessity to live at the expense of others. They are also necessarily powerful, for they are all fighting men. When the Elymæi were at war with the Babylonians and Susians, they supplied the Elymæi with thirteen thousand auxiliaries.
+The Parætaceni attend to the cultivation of the ground more than the Cossæi, but even these people do not abstain from robbery.
+The Elymæi occupy a country larger in extent, and more varied, than that of the Parætaceni. The fertile part of it is inhabited by husbandmen. The mountainous tract is a nursery for soldiers, the greatest part of whom are archers. As it is of considerable extent, it can furnish a great military force; their king, who possesses great power, refuses to be subject, like others, to the king of Parthia. The country was similarly independent in the time of the Persians, and afterwards
There are three convenient entrances into this country; one from Media and the places about the Zagrus, through Massabatice; a second from Susis, through the district Gabiane. Both Gabiane and Massabatice are provinces of Elymæa. A third passage is that from Persis. Corbiane also is a province of Elymaïs.
+Sagapeni and Silaceni, small principalities, border upon Elymaïs.
+Such, then, is the number and the character of the nations situated above Babylonia towards the east.
+We have said that Media and Armenia lie to the north, and Adiabene and Mesopotamia to the west of Babylonia.
The greatest part of Adiabene consists of plains, and, although it is a portion of Babylon, has its own prince. In some places it is contiguous to Armenia.
The Parthians subdued the Medes and Babylonians, but never at any time conquered the Armenians. They made frequent inroads into their country, but the people were not subdued, and Tigranes, as I have mentioned in the description of Armenia,
Such is the nature of Adiabene. The Adiabeni are also called Saccopodes.
We shall describe Mesopotamia and the nations towards
Their other customs are like those of the Persians, but this is peculiar to themselves: three discreet persons, chiefs of each tribe, are appointed, who present publicly young women who are marriageable, and give notice by the crier, beginning with those most in estimation, of a sale of them to men intending to become husbands. In this manner marriages are contracted.
+As often as the parties have sexual intercourse with one another, they rise, each apart from the other, to burn perfumes. In the morning they wash, before touching any household vessel. For as ablution is customary after touching a dead body, so is it practised after sexual intercourse.
There are three tribunals, one consisting of persons who are past military service, another of nobles, and a third of old men, besides another appointed by the king. It is the business of the latterof the first,
and for of another,
of the second.
The sick are brought out of their houses into the highways, and inquiry is made of passengers whether any of them can give information of a remedy for the disease. There is no one so ill-disposed as not to accost the sick person, and ac-
Their dress is a tunic reaching to the feet, an upper garment of wool, [and] a white cloak. The hair is long. They wear a shoe resembling a buskin. They wear also a seal, and carry a staff not plain, but with a figure upon the top of it, as an apple, a rose, a lily, or something of the kind. They anoint themselves with oil of sesamum. They bewail the dead, like the Egyptians and many other nations. They bury the body in honey, first besmearing it with wax.
+There are three communities which have no corn. They live in the marshes, and subsist on fish. Their mode of life is like that of the inhabitants of Gedrosia.
Mesopotamia has its name from an accidental circumstance. We have said that it is situated between the Euphrates and the Tigris, that the Tigris washes its eastern side only, and the Euphrates its western and southern sides. To the north is the Taurus, which separates Armenia from Mesopotamia. The greatest distance by which they are separated from each other is that towards the mountains. This distance may be the same which Eratosthenes mentions, and is reckoned from Thapsacus,
The Tigris flows through the middle of the lake called Thopitis
The contracted shape of Mesopotamia extends far in length, and somewhat resembles a ship. The Euphrates forms the larger part of its boundary. The distance from Thapsacus to Babylon, according to Eratosthenes, is 4800
The country lying at the foot of the mountains is very fertile. The people, called by the Macedonians Mygdones, occupy the parts towards the Euphrates, and both Zeugmata, that is, the Zeugma in Commagene, and the ancient Zeugma at Thapsacus. In their territory is Nisibis,
Near the Tigris are the places belonging to the Gordyæi,Gagates lapis;
a name derived, according to Dioscorides, from a river Gagas in Lycia.
Gordys, the son of Triptolemus, is related to have colonized Gordyene. The Eretrians
The parts of Mesopotamia inclining to the south, and
Between the Tigris and the Euphrates flows a river, called Basileios (or the Royal river), and about Anthemusia another called the Aborrhas.vis-á-vis,
opposite to,
might be given to it.—
The Scenitæ exact a moderate tribute from merchants, but [otherwise] do not molest them: the merchants, therefore, avoid the country on the banks of the river, and risk a journey through the desert, leaving the river on the right hand at a distance of nearly three days' march. For the chiefs of the tribes living on both banks of the river, who occupy not indeed a fertile territory, yet one less sterile than the rest (of the country), are settled in the midst of their own peculiar domains, and each exacts a tribute of no moderate amount for himself. And it is difficult among so large a body of people, and of such daring habits, to establish any common standard of tribute advantageous to the merchant.
+Scene is distant from Seleuceia 18 schœni.
The Euphrates and its eastern banks are the boundaries of the Parthian empire. The Romans and the chiefs of the Arabian tribes occupy the parts on this side the Euphrates as far as Babylonia. Some of the chiefs attach themselves in preference to the Parthians, others to the Romans, to whom they adjoin. The Scenitæ nomades, who live near the river, are less friendly to the Romans than those tribes who are situated at a distance near Arabia Felix. The Parthians were once solicitous of conciliating the friendship of the Romans, but having repulsed Crassus,the son of Orodes,
are omitted after Pacorus
above, and his
in the translation would then refer to Orodes.
The surviving sons, who live at Rome, are entertained as princes at the public expense. The other kings (his successors) have continued to send ambassadors (to Rome), and to hold conferences (with the Roman prefects).
SYRIA is bounded on the north by Cilicia and the mountain Amanus; from the sea to the bridge on the Euphrates (that is, from the Issic Bay to the Zeugma in Commagene) is a distance of
Beginning from Cilicia and Mount Amanus, we set down as parts of Syria, Commagene, and the Seleucis of Syria, as it is called, then Cœle-Syria, lastly, on the coast, Phœnicia, and in the interior, Judæa. Some writers divide the whole of Syria into Cœlo-Syrians, Syrians, and Phœnicians, and say that there are intermixed with these four other nations, Jews, Idumæans, Gazæans, and Azotii, some of whom are husbandmen, as the Syrians and Cœlo-Syrians, and others merchants, as the Phœnicians.
This is the general description [of Syria].Syria between the rivers;
that to the west was called by the general name Cœle-Syria, and although Phœnicia and Palestine were sometimes separated from it, yet it often comprehended the whole country as far as Egypt. Strabo below, c. ii. § 21, refers to this ancient division, when he says that the name Cœle-Syria extends to the whole country as far as Egypt and Arabia, although in its peculiar acceptation it applied only to the valley between Libanus and Antilibanus.
In describing it in detail, we say that Commagene is rather a small district. It contains a strong city, Samosata, in which was the seat of the kings. At present it is a (Roman) province. A very fertile but small territory lies around it. Here is now the Zeugma, or bridge, of the Euphrates, and near it is situated Seleuceia, a fortress of Mesopotamia, assigned by Pompey to the Commageneans. Here Tigranes confined in prison for some time and put to death Selene, surnamed Cleopatra, after she was dispossessed of Syria.
Seleucis is the best of the above-mentioned portions of Syria. It is called and is a Tetrapolis, and derives its name from the four distinguished cities which it contains; for there are more than four cities, but the four largest are Antioch Epidaphne,
In conformity with its character of Tetrapolis, Seleucis, according to Poseidonius, was divided into four satrapies; Cœle-Syria into the same number, but [Commagene, like] Mesopotamia, consisted of one.Commagene, like Mesopotamia, consisted of one satrapy.
Groskurd's emendation of the text is followed, although not approved of, by Kramer.
Antioch also is a Tetrapolis, consisting (as the name im-
[Seleucus] Nicator founded the first of these portions, transferring thither settlers from Antigonia, which a short time before Antigonus, son of Philip, had built near it. The second was built by the general body of settlers; the third by Seleucus, the son of Callinicus; the fourth by Antiochus, the son of Epiphanes.
Antioch is the metropolis of Syria. A palace was constructed there for the princes of the country. It is not much inferior in riches and magnitude to Seleuceia on the Tigris and Alexandreia in Egypt.
+[Seleucus] Nicator settled here the descendants of Triptolemus, whom we have mentioned a little before.
Daphne,
The river Orontes flows near the city. Its source is in Cœle-Syria. Having taken its course under-ground, it reäppears, traverses the territory of Apameia to Antioch, approaching the latter city, and then descends to the sea at Seleuceia. The name of the river was formerly Typhon, but was changed to Orontes, from the name of the person who constructed the bridge over it.
+According to the fable, it was somewhere here that Typhon was struck with lightning, and here also was the scene of the fable of the Arimi, whom we have before mentioned.
On the west the sea, into which the Orontes discharges itself, is situated below Antioch in Seleuceia, which is distant from the mouth of the river 40, and from Antioch 120 stadia. The ascent by the river to Antioch is performed in one day.
+To the east of Antioch are the Euphrates, Bambyce,
Then follows the district of Cyrrhestica,
Pagræ,
Above these places is a hill called Trapezon from its form,
After these places, near the sea, are Seleuceia
Seleuceia formerly had the name of Hydatopotami (rivers of water). It is a considerable fortress, and may defy all attacks; wherefore Pompey, having excluded from it Tigranes, declared it a free city.
+To the south of Antioch is Apameia, situated in the interior, and to the south of Seleuceia, the mountains Casius and Anti-Casius.
+Still further on from Seleuceia are the mouths of the Orontes, then the Nymphæum, a kind of sacred cave, next Casium, then follows Poseidium
Then follows Laodiceia, situated on the sea; it is a very well-built city, with a good harbour; the territory, besides its fertility in other respects, abounds with wine, of which the greatest part is exported to Alexandreia. The whole mountain overhanging the city is planted almost to its summit with vines. The summit of the mountain is at a great distance from Laodiceia, sloping gently and by degrees upwards from the city; but it rises perpendicularly over Apameia.
+Laodiceia suffered severely when Dolabella took refuge there. Being besieged by Cassius, he defended it until his death, but he involved in his own ruin the destruction of many parts of the city.
In the district of Apameia is a city well fortified in almost every part. For it consists of a well-fortified hill, situated in a hollow plain, and almost surrounded by the Orontes, which, passing by a large lake in the neighbourhood, flows through wide-spread marshes and meadows of vast extent, affording pasture for cattle and horses.
It was formerly called Pella by the first Macedonians, because most of the soldiers of the Macedonian army had settled there; for Pella, the native place of Philip and Alexander, was held to be the metropolis of the Macedonians. Here also the soldiers were mustered, and the breed of horses kept up. There were in the royal stud more than thirty thousand brood mares and three hundred stallions. Here were employed colt-breakers, instructors in the method of fighting in heavy armour, and all who were paid to teach the arts of war.
+The power Trypho, surnamed Diodotus, acquired is a proof of the influence of this place; for when he aimed at the empire of Syria, he made Apameia the centre of his operations. He was born at Casiana, a strong fortress in the Apameian district, and educated in Apameia; he was a favourite of the king and the persons about the court. When he attempted to effect a revolution in the state, he obtained his supplies from Apameia and from the neighbouring cities, Larisa,Arabian dynast.
Falconer therefore inferred that here we ought to read
The tract called Parapotamia, belonging to the Arab chiefs, and Chalcidica, extending from the Massyas, border upon the district of Apameia on the east; and nearly all the country further to the south of Apameia belongs to the Scenitæ, who resemble the Nomades of Mesopotamia. In proportion as the nations approach the Syrians they become more civilized, while the Arabians and Scenitæ are less so. Their
Such is the nature of the interior parts of the district of Seleuceia.
+The remainder of the navigation along the coast from Laodiceia is such as I shall now describe.
+Near Laodiceia are the small cities, Poseidium, Heracleium, and Gabala. Then follows the maritime tract
Aradus is in front of a rocky coast without harbours, and situated nearly between its arsenal
The Aradii were anciently governed by their own kings in the same manner as all the other Phœnician cities. Afterwards the Persians, Macedonians, and now the Romans have changed the government to its present state.
+The Aradii, together with the other Phœnicians, consented to become allies of the Syrian kings; but upon the dissension of the two brothers, Callinicus Seleucus and Antiochus Hierax, as he was called, they espoused the party of Callinicus; they entered into a treaty, by which they were allowed to receive persons who quitted the king's dominions, and took refuge among them, and were not obliged to deliver them up against their will. They were not, however, to suffer them to embark and quit the island without the king's permission. From this they derived great advantages; for those who took refuge there were not ordinary people, but persons who had held the highest trusts, and apprehended the worst consequences (when they fled). They regarded those who received them with hospitality as their benefactors; they acknowledged their preservers, and remembered with gratitude the kindness which they had received, particularly after their return to their own country. It was thus that the Aradii acquired possession of a large part of the opposite continent, most of which they possess even at present, and were otherwise suc-
After Orthosia and the river Eleutherus is Tripolis, which has its designation from the fact of its consisting of three cities, Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus. Contiguous to Tripolis is Theoprosopon,
There are two mountains, which form Cœle-Syria, as it is called, lying nearly parallel to each other; the commencement of the ascent of both these mountains, Libanus and Antilibanus, is a little way from the sea; Libanus rises above the sea near Tripolis and Theoprosopon, and Antilibanus, above the sea near Sidon. They terminate somewhere near the Arabian mountains, which are above the district of Damascus and the Trachones as they are there called, where they form fruitful hills. A hollow plain lies between them, the breadth of which towards the sea is 200 stadia, and the length from the sea to the interior is about twice that number of stadia. Rivers flow through it, the largest of which is the Jordan, which water a country fertile and productive of all things. It contains also a lake, which produces the aromatic rush and reed. In it are also marshes. The name of the lake is Gennesaritis. It produces also balsamum.it produces also,
refer to the lake, our author would contradict himself; for below, § 41, he says that Jericho alone produces it. They must therefore be referred to a hollow plain
above; and the fact that they do so arises from the remarkable error of Strabo, in placing Judæa in the valley formed by Libanus and Antilibanus. From the manner in which he expresses himself, it is evident that he supposed the Jordan to flow, and the Lake Gennesaret to be situated, between these two mountains. As to the Lycus (the Nahr el Kelb), Strabo, if he had visited the country, would never have said that the Arabians transported upon it their merchandise. It is evident that he has confused the geography of all these districts, by transferring Judæa, with its lakes and rivers, to Cœle-Syria Proper; and here probably we may find the result of his first error in confounding Cœle-Syria Pro per with Cœle-Syria understood in a wider meaning. See above, c. i § 12.
Among the rivers is the Chrysorrhoas, which commences
The Lycus
Of the plains, the first reckoning from the sea is called Macras and Macra-pedium. Here Poseidonius says there was seen a serpent lying dead, which was nearly a plethrum in length, and of such a bulk and thickness that men on horseback standing on each side of its body could not see one another; the jaws when opened could take in a man on horseback, and the scales of the skin were larger than a shield.
Next to the plain of Macras is that of Massyas, which also contains some mountainous parts, among which is Chalcis, the acropolis, as it were, of the Massyas. The commencement of this plain is at Laodiceia,
Byblus, the royal seat of Cinyrus, is sacred to Adonis. Pompey delivered this place from the tyranny of Cinyrus, by striking off his head. It is situated upon an eminence at a little distance from the sea.
After Byblus is the river Adonis,
Above the Massyas is the Royal Valley, as it is called, and the territory of Damascus, so highly extolled. Damascus is a considerable city, and in the time of the Persian empire was nearly the most distinguished place in that country.
+Above Damascus are the two (hills) called Trachones; then, towards the parts occupied by Arabians and Ituræans promiscuously, are mountains of difficult access, in which were caves extending to a great depth. One of these caves was capable of containing four thousand robbers, when the territory of Damascus was subject to incursions from various quarters. The Barbarians used to rob the merchants most generally on the side of Arabia Felix,
The whole country
Having described Cœle-Syria properly so called, we pass on to Phœnicia, of which we have already described
Next to Berytus is Sidon, at the distance of 400 stadia. Between these places is the river Tamyras,
Next to Sidon is Tyre,
Tyre is wholly an island, built nearly in the same manner as Aradus. It is joined to the continent by a mound, which Alexander raised, when he was besieging it. It has two harbours, one close, the other open, which is called the Egyptian harbour. The houses here, it is said, consist of many stories, of more even than at Rome; on the occurrence, therefore, of an earthquake, the city was nearly demolished.
Such then are the Tyrians.
The Sidonians are said by historians to excel in various kinds of art, as the words of Homer also imply.
If we are to believe Poseidonius, the ancient opinion about atoms originated with Mochus, a native of Sidon, who lived before the Trojan times. Let us, however, dismiss subjects relating to antiquity. In my time there were distinguished philosophers, natives of Sidon, as Boethus, with whom I studied the philosophy of Aristotle,
Tyre is distant from Sidon not more than 200 stadia. Between the two is situated a small town, called Ornithopolis, (the city of birds); next a river
Then follows Ptolemaïs, a large city, formerly called Ace.
A phenomenon
A similar phenomenon took place at Mount Casium in Egypt. The ground, to a considerable distance, after a violent and single shock fell in parts, at once exchanging places; the elevated parts opposed the access of the sea, and parts which had subsided admitted it. Another shock occurred, and the place recovered its ancient position, except that there was an alteration (in the surface of the ground) in some places, and none in others. Perhaps such occurrences are connected with periodical returns the nature of which is unknown to us. This is said to be the case with the rise of the waters of the Nile, which exhibits a variety in its effects, but observes (in general) a certain order, which we do not comprehend.
Next to Ace is the Tower of Strato, with a station for
Then Joppa,
Thence to Casium,
In the interval is Gadaris,
Next and near Ascalon is the harbour of the Gazæi. The city is situated inland at the distance of seven stadia. It was once famous, but was razed by Alexander, and remains uninhabited. There is said to be a passage thence across, of
Next to Gaza is Raphia,
The whole country from Gaza is barren and sandy, and still more so is that district next to it, which contains the lake Sirbonis,
The Casium is a sandy hill without water, and forms a promontory: the body of Pompey the Great is buried there, and on it is a temple of Jupiter Casius.
Such is the nature of Phœnicia. Artemidorus says, that from Orthosia to Pelusium is 3650 stadia, including the winding of the bays, and from Melænæ or Melania in Cilicia to Celenderis,
The western extremities of Judæa towards Casius are occupied by Idumæans, and by the lake [Sirbonis]. The Idumæans are Nabatæans. When driven from their country
An Egyptian priest named Moses, who possessed a portion of the country called the Lower [Egypt] * * * *, being dissatisfied with the established institutions there, left it and came to Judæa with a large body of people who worshipped the Divinity. He declared and taught that the Egyptians and Africans entertained erroneous sentiments, Judæi mente solâ, unumque numen intelligent, summum illud et eternum, neque mutabile, neque interiturum.
Tacitus, Hist. v. c. 5.
By such doctrine Moses
Instead of arms, he taught that their defence was in their sacred things and the Divinity, for whom he was desirous of finding a settled place, promising to the people to deliver such a kind of worship and religion as should not burthen those who adopted it with great expense, nor molest them with [so-called] divine possessions, nor other absurd practices.
+Moses thus obtained their good opinion, and established no ordinary kind of government. All the nations around willingly united themselves to him, allured by his discourses and promises.
His successors continued for some time to observe the same conduct, doing justly, and worshipping God with sincerity. Afterwards superstitious persons were appointed to the priesthood, and then tyrants. From superstition arose abstinence from flesh, from the eating of which it is now the custom to refrain, circumcision, excision,
Respect, however, was paid to the Acropolis; it was not abhorred as the seat of tyranny, but honoured and venerated as a temple.
This is according to nature, and common both to Greeks and barbarians. For, as members of a civil community, they live according to a common law; otherwise it would be impossible for the mass to execute any one thing in concert (in which consists a civil state), or to live in a social state at all. Law is twofold, divine and human. The ancients regarded and respected divine, in preference to human, law; in those times, therefore, the number of persons was very great who consulted oracles, and, being desirous of obtaining the advice of Jupiter, hurried to Dodona,
The parent went to Delphi,
while the child itself
And Minos among the Cretans,
every nine years, as Plato says, ascended to the cave of Jupiter, received ordinances from him, and conveyed them to men. Lycurgus, his imitator, acted in a similar manner; for he was often accustomed, as it seemed, to leave his own country to inquire of the Pythian goddess what ordinances he was to promulgate to the Lacedæmonians.
What truth there may be in these things I cannot say; they have at least been regarded and believed as true by mankind. Hence prophets received so much honour as to be thought worthy even of thrones, because they were supposed to communicate ordinances and precepts from the gods, both during their lifetime and after their death; as for example Teiresias,
Such was Moses and his successors; their beginning was good, but they degenerated.
When Judæa openly became subject to a tyrannical government, the first person who exchanged the title of priest for that of king was Alexander.
Jericho is a plain encompassed by a mountainous district, which slopes towards it somewhat in the manner of a theatre. Here is the Phœnicon (or palm plantation), which contains various other trees of the cultivated kind, and producing excellent fruit; but its chief production is the palm tree. It is 100 stadia in length; the whole is watered with streams, and filled with dwellings. Here also is a palace and the garden of the balsamum.
The Lake Sirbonis
Such are the phenomena. But Posidonius says, that the people being addicted to magic, and practising incantations, (by these means) consolidate the asphaltus, pouring upon it urine and other fetid fluids, and then cut it into pieces. (Incantations cannot be the cause), but perhaps urine may have some peculiar power (in effecting the consolidation) in the
It is natural for these phenomena to take place in the middle of the lake, because the source of the fire is in the centre, and the greater part of the asphaltus comes from thence. The bubbling up, however, of the asphaltus is irregular, because the motion of fire, like that of many other vapours, has no order perceptible to observers. There are also phenomena of this kind at Apollonia in Epirus.
Many other proofs are produced to show that this country is full of fire. Near Moasadathe fire which fell down on the five cities.
But Eratosthenes asserts, on the contrary, that the country was once a lake, and that the greater part of it was uncovered by the water discharging itself through a breach, as was the case in Thessaly.
In the Gadaris, also, there is a lake of noxious water. If beasts drink it, they lose their hair, hoofs, and horns. At the place called Taricheæ,The salting station,
on the lake of Gennesareth.
Pompey curtailed the territory which had been forcibly appropriated by the Jews, and assigned to Hyrcanus the priesthood. Some time afterwards, Herod, of the same family, and a native of the country, Strabo does not appear to have been acquainted with the history of the two brothers after their return to Judæa; for otherwise he would not have omitted to mention the exile of Antipas. This tetrarch, it is known, went to Rome A. D.
ABOVE Judæa and Cœle-Syria, as far as Babylonia and the river tract, along the banks of the Euphrates towards the south, lies the whole of Arabia, except the Scenitæ in Mesopotamia. We have already spoken of Mesopotamia, and of the nations that inhabit it.
The parts on the other (the eastern) side of the Euphrates, towards its mouth, are occupied by Babylonians and the nation of the Chaldæans. We have spoken of these people also.
Of the rest of the country which follows after Mesopotamia, and extends as far as Cœle-Syria, the part approaching the river, as well as [a part of] Mesopotamia,
The Persian Gulf has the name also of the Sea of Persia. Eratosthenes speaks of it in this manner: "They say that the mouth is so narrow, that from Harmozi,Asaborum promontorium
of Ptolemy.
"He says that Androsthenes, who had navigated the gulf with a fleet, relates, that in sailing from Teredon with the continent on the right hand, an island Icaros
"Having coasted the shore of Arabia to the distance of 2400 stadia, there lies, in a deep gulf, a city of the name of Gerrha,
"On sailing further, there are other islands, Tyre
"Nearchus and Orthagoras relate, that an island Ogyris lies to the south, in the open sea, at the distance of 2000 stadia
Along the whole coast of the Red Sea, in the deep part of the water grow trees resembling the laurel and the olive. When the tide ebbs, the whole trees are visible above the water, and at the full tide they are sometimes entirely covered. This is the more singular because the coast inland has no trees.
This is the description given by Eratosthenes of the Persian Sea, which forms, as we have said, the eastern side of Arabia Felix.
Nearchus says, that they were met by Mithropastes, in company with Mazenes, who was governor of one of the islands, called Doracta (Oaracta?)
Nearchus also mentions an island, met with at the recommencement of the voyage along the coast of Persia, where are found pearls in large quantities and of great value; in other islands there are transparent and brilliant pebbles; in the islands in front of the Euphrates there are trees which send forth the odour of frankincense, and from their roots, when bruised, a (perfumed) juice flows out; the crabs and sea hedgehogs are of vast size, which is common in all the exterior seas, some being larger than Macedonian hats;
ARABIA commences on the side of Babylonia with Mæcene.
I return to the opinions of Eratosthenes, which he next delivers respecting Arabia. He is speaking of the northern and desert part, lying between Arabia Felix, Cœle-Syria, and Judæa, to the recess of the Arabian Gulf.
+From Heroopolis, situated in that recess of the Arabian Gulf which is on the side of the Nile, to Babylon, towards Petra of the Nabatæi, are 5600 stadia. The whole tract lies in the direction of the summer solstice (i. e. east and west), and passes through the adjacent Arabian tribes, namely Nabatæi, Chaulotæi, and Agræi. Above these people is Arabia Felix, stretching out 12,000 stadia towards the south to the Atlantic Sea.
The first people, next after the Syrians and Jews, who occupy this country are husbandmen. These people are succeeded by a barren and sandy tract, producing a few palms, the acanthus,
Four of the most populous nations inhabit the extremity of the above-mentioned country; namely, the Minæi the part towards the Red Sea, whose largest city is Carna or Carnana.Mariana oppidum,
says Pliny, vi. 32, significat dominos omnium.
The capital was called Saba, now Sabbea; and the country in which it is situated is called Sabieh.
All these cities are governed by one monarch, and are flourishing. They are adorned with beautiful temples and palaces. Their houses, in the mode of binding the timbers together, are like those in Egypt. The four countries comprise a greater territory than the Delta of Egypt.
The son does not succeed the father in the throne, but the son who is born in a family of the nobles first after the accession of the king. As soon as any one is invested with the government, the pregnant wives of the nobles are registered, and guardians are appointed to watch which of them is first delivered of a son. The custom is to adopt and educate the
Cattabania produces frankincense, and Chatramotitis myrrh; these and other aromatics are the medium of exchange with the merchants. Merchants arrive in seventy days at Minæa from Ælana.
The part of the Arabian Gulf along the side of Arabia, if we reckon from the recess of the Ælanitic bay, is, according to the accounts of Alexander and Anaxicrates, 14,000 stadia in extent; but this computation is too great. The part opposite to Troglodytica, which is on the right hand of those who are sailing from Heroopolisneck,
so called from its position on a headland of the same name, was a town situated on the African shore of the straits of Babel-Mandeb, at their narrowest part.
The straits at Deire are contracted to the width of 60 stadia; not indeed that these are now called the Straits, for ships proceed to a further distance, and find a passage of about 200
Artemidorus
In sailing from Heroopolis along Troglodytica, a city is met with called Philotera,
After the bay is the island Ophiodes,
Next after this island follow many tribes of Ichthyophagi and of Nomades; then succeeds the harbour of the goddess Soteira (the Preserver), which had its name from the circumstance of the escape and preservation of some masters [of vessels] from great dangers by sea.
+After this the coast and the gulf seem to undergo a great change: for the voyage along the coast is no longer among rocks, and approaches almost close to Arabia; the sea is so shallow as to be scarcely of the depth of two orguiæ,
Next are two mountains,
In the intervening space, a branch of the river Astaborasthe island of soldiers.
As the island of Strato is named only in this extract from Artemidorus, we might be tempted to correct the text of Strabo by the text of Pliny. But as it is not certain that the two authors speak of one and the same island, it is more prudent to make no change.
Near Meroë is the confluence of the Astaboras,
On the banks of these rivers live the Rhizophagi (or root-eaters) and Heleii (or marsh-men). They have their name from digging roots in the adjacent marsh, bruising them with stones, and forming them into cakes, which they dry in the sun for food. These countries are the haunts of lions. The wild beasts are driven out of these places, at the time of the rising of the dog-star, by large gnats.
+Near these people live the Spermophagi (or seed-eaters), who, when seeds of plants fail, subsist upon seeds of trees,the fruit falling from the trees.
The Periplus adds another tribe, the Hylophagi, wood-eaters,
who subsisted on the tender branches of certain trees. Strabo refers to them, b. xvii. c. ii. § 2, but without giving their name. The pods of the Lotus Zizyphus are eatable, and may here be meant.
Next to Elæa are the watch-towers of Demetrius, and the altars of Conon. In the interior Indian reeds grow in abundance. The country there is called the country of Coracius.
+Far in the interior was a place called Endera, inhabited by a naked tribe,
Next to the altars of Conon is the port of Melinus, and above it is a fortress called that of Coraus and the chase of Coraus, also another fortress and more hunting-grounds. Then follows the harbour of Antiphilus, and above this a tribe, the Creophagi, deprived of the prepuce, and the women are excised after the Jewish custom.
Further still towards the south are the Cynamolgi,
Next to the harbour of Antiphilus is a port called the Grove of the Colobi (or the Mutilated), the city Berenice
Above is the city Darada, and a hunting-ground for elephants, called At the Well.
The district is inhabited by the Elephantophagi (or Elephant-eaters), who are occupied in hunting them. When they descry from the trees a herd of elephants directing their course through the forest, they do not [then] attack, but they approach by stealth and hamstring the hindmost stragglers from the herd. Some kill them with bows and arrows, the latter being dipped in the gall of serpents. The shooting with the bow is performed by three men, two, advancing in front, hold the bow, and one draws the string. Others remark the trees against which the elephant is accustomed to rest, and, approaching on the opposite side, cut the trunk of the tree low down. When the animal comes and leans against it, the tree and the elephant fall down together. The elephant is unable to rise, because its legs are formed of one piece of bone which is inflexible; the hunters leap down from the trees, kill it, and cut it in pieces. The Nomades call the hunters Acatharti, or impure.
Above this nation is situated a small tribe the Struthophagi
Bordering on this people is a nation blacker in complexion than the others,
Above these people is situated a desert tract with extensive pastures. It was abandoned in consequence of the multitudes of scorpions and tarantulas, called tetragnathi (or fourjawed), which formerly abounded to so great a degree as to occasion a complete desertion of the place long since by its inhabitants.
Next to the harbour of Eumenes, as far as Deire and the straits opposite the six islands,
Many hunting-grounds for elephants, and obscure cities and islands, lie in front of the coast.
+The greater part are Nomades; husbandmen are few in number. In the country occupied by some of these nations styrax grows in large quantity. The Icthyophagi, on the ebbing of the tide, collect fish, which they cast upon the rocks and dry in the sun. When they have well broiled them, the bones are piled in heaps, and the flesh trodden with the feet is made into cakes, which are again exposed to the sun and used as food. In bad weather, when fish cannot be procured, the bones of which they have made heaps are pounded, made into cakes and eaten, but they suck the fresh bones. Some also live upon shell-fish, when they are fattened, which is done by throwing them into holes and standing pools of the sea, where they are supplied with small fish, and used as food when other fish are scarce. They have various kinds of places for preserving and feeding fish, from whence they derive their supply.
+Some of the inhabitants of that part of the coast which is without water go inland every five days, accompanied by all
The Chelonophagi (or Turtle-eaters) live under the cover of shells (of turtles), which are large enough to be used as boats. Some make of the sea-weed, which is thrown up in large quantities, lofty and hill-like heaps, which are hollowed out, and underneath which they live. They cast out the dead, which are carried away by the tide, as food for fish.
+There are three islands which follow in succession, the island of Tortoises, the island of Seals, and the island of Hawks. Along the whole coast there are plantations of palm trees, olive trees, and laurels, not only within, but in a great part also without the straits.
+There is also an island [called the island] of Philip, opposite to it inland is situated the hunting-ground for elephants, called the chase of Pythangelus; then follows Arsinoë, a city with a harbour; after these places is Deire, and beyond them is a hunting-ground for elephants.
+From Deire, the next country is that which bears aromatic plants. The first produces myrrh, and belongs to the Icthyophagi and the Creophagi. It bears also the persea, peach or Egyptian almond,
On this coast there are two very large lakes extending as far as the promontory Pytholaus.
Next is the mountain Elephas,
Along the coast there are both pillars and altars of Pytholaus, Lichas, Pythangelus, Leon, and Charimortus, that is, along the known coast from Deire as far as Notu-ceras; but the distance is not determined. The country abounds with elephants and lions called myrmeces (ants).
It produces also leopards of great strength and courage, and the rhinoceros. The rhinoceros is little inferior to the elephant; not, according to Artemidorus, in length to the crest,from the head to the tail.
a span less.
Camel-leopards are bred in these parts, but they do not in any respect resemble leopards, for their variegated skin is more like the streaked and spotted skin of fallow deer. The
This country, continues Artemidorus, produces also sphinxes,on Custom,
is like fable, and is to be disregarded.
Artemidorus mentions serpents also of thirty cubits in length, which can master elephants and bulls: in this he does not exaggerate.
The mode of life among the Troglodytæ is nomadic. Each tribe is governed by tyrants. Their wives and children are common, except those of the tyrants. The offence of corrupting the wife of a tyrant is punished with the fine of a sheep.
+The women carefully paint themselves with antimony. They wear about their necks shells, as a protection against fascination by witchcraft. In their quarrels, which are for pastures, they first push away each other with their hands, they then use stones, or, if wounds are inflicted, arrows and daggers. The women put an end to these disputes, by going into the midst of the combatants and using prayers and en- treaties.
Their food consists of flesh and bones pounded together, wrapped up in skins and then baked, or prepared after many other methods by the cooks, who are called Acatharti, or impure. In this way they eat not only the flesh, but the bones and skins also.
+They use (as an ointment for the body ?) a mixture of blood and milk ; the drink of the people in general is an infusion of the paliurus (buckthorn);
Their winter sets in when the Etesian winds begin to blow (for they have rain), and the remaining season is summer.
+They go naked, or wear skins only, and carry clubs. They deprive themselves of the prepuce,
They travel by night; the male cattle have bells fastened to them, in order to drive away wild beasts with the sound. They use torches also and arrows in repelling them. They watch during the night, on account of their flocks, and sing some peculiar song around their fires.
Having given this account of the Troglodytæ and of the neighbouring Ethiopians, Artemidorus returns to the Arabians. Beginning from Poseidium, he first describes those who border upon the Arabian Gulf, and are opposite to the Troglodytæ. He says that Poseidium is situated within the bay of [Heroopolis],Ælanitic bay,
which is an error of the author or of the copyist.
Next is the island of Phocæ (Seals),Saspirene insula
of Ptolemy.
Next is another tract of sea-coast, formerly called the coast of the Maranitæ,
Next is the ÆlaniticLight vessels.
Diodorus Sic.
Next is a plain, well wooded and well supplied with water; it abounds with cattle of all kinds, and, among other animals, mules, wild camels, harts, and hinds; lions also, leopards, and wolves are frequently to be found. In front lies an island called Dia. Then follows a bay of about 500 stadia in extent, closed in by mountains, the entrance into which is of difficult access. About it live people who are hunters of wild animals.
+Next are three desert islands, abounding with olive trees, not like those in our own country, but an indigenous kind, which we call Ethiopic olives, the tears (or gum) of which have a medicinal virtue.
+Then follows a stony beach, which is succeeded by a rugged coast,
Next is a bay in which are some scattered islands,Iambia
of Ptolemy, which now, from the accumulation of soil, is more than a day's journey into the interior of the country. It is in a fertile territory. The Arabs call it Iambo el Nakel, or Iambo of Palm Trees, to distinguish it from the new Iambo situated on an arid soil on the seacoast. Al Charm, in Arabic, signifies a fissure or opening in the mountains. It seems as if the Greeks had formed the name Charmothas from this word, mistaking the epithet given to the narrow entrance of the harbour of Iambo for the name of the town itself.
Then follows a rugged coast, and after that are some bays and a country belonging to Nomades, who live by their camels. They fight from their backs; they travel upon them, and subsist on their milk and flesh. A river flows
I do not mention the greater part
Near these people is a nation more civilized, who inhabit a district with a more temperate climate ; for it is well watered, and has frequent showers.produces everything,
following the fragments of Agatharchides and Diodorus Sic. b. iii. 44.for ten times the quantity of silver,
according to Bochart, and approved by Kramer.
The country of the Sabæi, Milton appears to have been acquainted with the following passage from Diodorus Siculus, b. iii. 46, descriptive of Sabæa : It is impossible to enumerate the peculiarities and nature of all these trees and plants, on account of the surpassing variety and body of perfume which fall upon and excite the senses, in a manner divine and beyond description. The mariner, as he sails even at a distance along the coast, has his share of enjoyment; for when the breezes of spring blow from off the land, the fragrance of the trees and shrubs is carried down to the shore; nor is it of the kind with which we are acquainted, proceeding from old and stored aromatics, but fresh and in full perfection from new-blown flowers, striking the inmost sense.
On account of the abundance which the soil produces, the people are lazy and indolent in their mode of life. The lower class of people live on roots, and sleep on the trees.
+The people who live near each other receive, in continued succession, the loads [of perfumes] and deliver them to others, who convey them as far as Syria and Mesopotamia. When the carriers become drowsy by the odour of the aromatics, the drowsiness is removed by the fumes of asphaltus and of goat's beard.
+Mariaba,
The people cultivate the ground, or follow the trade of dealing in aromatics, both the indigenous sort and those brought from Ethiopia; in order to procure them, they sail through the straits in vessels covered with skins. There is such an abundance of these aromatics, that cinnamon, cassia, and other spices are used by them instead of sticks and firewood.
+In the country of the Sabæans is found the larimnum, a most fragrant perfume.
+By the trade [in these aromatics] both the Sabæans and the Gerrhæi have become the richest of all the tribes, and possess a great quantity of wrought articles in gold and silver,
This is the account of Artemidorus.
Some of these say, that the sea is red from the colour arising from reflection either from the sun, which is vertical, or from the mountains, which are red by being scorched with intense heat; for the colour, it is supposed, may be produced by both these causes. Ctesias of Cnidus speaks of a spring which discharges into the sea a red and ochrous water. Agatharchides, his fellow-citizen, relates, on the authority of a person of the name of Boxus, of Persian descent, that when a troop of horses was driven by a lioness in heat as far as the sea, and had passed over to an island, a Persian of the name of Erythras constructed a raft, and was the first person who crossed the sea to it; perceiving the island to be well adapted for inhabitants, he drove the herd back to Persia, and sent out colonists both to this and the other islands and to the coast. He [thus] gave his own name to the sea. But according to others, it was Erythras the son of Perseus who was the king of this country.
+According to some writers, from the straits in the Arabian Gulf to the extremity of the cinnamon country is a distance of 5000 stadia,
It is said also that the emerald and the beryl are found in the gold mines. According to Poseidonius, an odoriferous salt is found in Arabia.
The Nabatæans and Sabæans, situated above Syria, are the first people who occupy Arabia Felix. They were frequently in the habit of overrunning this country before the Romans became masters of it, but at present both they and the Syrians are subject to the Romans.
+The capital of the Nabatæans is called Petra. It is situated on a spot which is surrounded and fortified by a smooth and level rock (petra), which externally is abrupt and precipitous, but within there are abundant springs of water both for domestic purposes and for watering gardens. Beyond the enclosure the country is for the most part a desert, particularly towards Judæa. Through this is the shortest road to Jericho, a journey of three or four days, and five days to the Phœnicon (or palm plantation). It is always governed by a king of the royal race. The king has a minister who is one of the Companions, and is called Brother. It has excellent laws for the administration of public affairs.
+Athenodorus, a philosopher, and my friend, who had been at Petra, used to relate with surprise, that he found many Romans and also many other strangers residing there. He observed the strangers frequently engaged in litigation, both with one another and with the natives; but the natives had never any dispute amongst themselves, and lived together in perfect harmony.
The late expeditionThe interest attaching to this expedition, which promises so much for the elucidation of the classical geography of Arabia, has hitherto served only still further to perplex it.
The author of the article Marsyabæ in
Upon these inducements Gallus set out on the expedition. But he was deceived by Syllæus, the [king's] minister of the Nabatæans, who had promised to be his guide on the march, and to assist him in the execution of his design. Syllæus was however treacherous throughout; for he neither guided them by a safe course by sea along the coast, nor by a safe road for the army, as he promised, but exposed both the fleet and the army to danger, by directing them where there was no road, or the road was impracticable, where they were obliged to make long circuits, or to pass through tracts of country destitute of everything ; he led the fleet along a rocky coast without harbours, or to places abounding with rocks concealed under water, or with shallows. In places of this description particularly, the flowing and ebbing of the tide did them the most harm.
+The first mistake consisted in building long vessels [of war] at a time when there was no war, nor any likely to occur by sea. For the Arabians, being mostly engaged in traffic and commerce, are not a very warlike people even on land, much less so at sea. Gallus, notwithstanding, built not less than eighty biremes and triremes and galleys (phaseli) at Cleopatris,
Another cause of the failure of the expedition was the fact of king Obodas not paying much attention to public affairs, and especially to those relative to war (as is the custom with all Arabian kings), but placed everything in the power of Syllæus the minister. His whole conduct in command of the army was perfidious, and his object was, as I suppose, to examine as a spy the state of the country, and to destroy, in concert with the Romans, certain cities and tribes; and when the Romans should be consumed by famine, fatigue, and disease, and by all the evils which he had treacherously contrived, to declare himself master of the whole country.
+Gallus however arrived at Leuce-Come, with the army labouring under stomacacce and scelotyrbe, diseases of the country, the former affecting the mouth, the other the legs, with a kind of paralysis, caused by the water and the plants [which the soldiers had used in their food]. He was therefore compelled to pass the summer and the winter there, for the recovery of the sick.
+Merchandise is conveyed from Leuce-Come to Petra, thence to Rhinocolura in Phœnicia, near Egypt, and thence to other nations. But at present the greater part is transported by the Nile to Alexandreia. It is brought down from Arabia and India to Myus Hormus, it is then conveyed on camels to Coptus
The next country to which he came belonged to Nomades, and was in great part a complete desert. It was called Ararene. The king of the country was Sabos. Gallus spent fifty days in passing through this territory, for want of roads, and came to a city of the Negrani, and to a fertile country peacefully disposed. The king had fled, and the city was taken at the first onset. After a march of six days from thence, he came to the river. Here the barbarians attacked the Romans, and lost about ten thousand men; the Romans lost only two men. For the barbarians were entirely inexperienced in war, and used their weapons unskilfully, which were bows, spears, swords, and slings; but the greater part of them wielded a double-edged axe. Immediately afterwards he took the city called Asca, which had been abandoned by the king. He thence came to a city Athrula, and took it without resistance; having placed a garrison there, and collected provisions for the march, consisting of corn and dates, he proceeded to a city Marsiaba, belonging to the nation of the Rhammanitæ, who were subjects of Ilasarus. He assaulted and besieged it for six days, but raised the siege in consequence of a scarcity of water. He was two days' march from the aromatic region, as he was informed by his prisoners. He occupied in his marches a period of six months, in consequence of the treachery of his guides. This he discovered when he was returning; and although he was late in discovering the design against him, he had time to take another road back; for he arrived in nine days at Negrana, where the battle was fought, and thence in eleven days he came to the Seven Wells,
as the place is called from the fact of their existing there. Thence he marched through a desert country, and came to Chaalla a village, and then to another called Malothas, situated on a river. His road then lay through a desert country, which had only a few watering-places, as far as EgraMire corrupta est hæc ultima libri pars.
Syllæus, the author of these disasters, was punished for his treachery at Rome. He affected friendship, but he was convicted of other offences, besides perfidy in this instance, and was beheaded.
The aromatic country, as I have before said,
According to another partition of the country, the whole of Arabia Felix is divided into five kingdoms (or portions), one of which comprises the fighting men, who fight for all the rest; another contains the husbandmen, by whom the rest are supplied with food; another includes those who work at mechanical trades. One division comprises the myrrh region; another the frankincense region, although the same tracts produce cassia, cinnamon, and nard. Trades are not changed from one family to another, but each workman continues to exercise that of his father.
+The greater part of their wine is made from the palm.
+A man's brothers are held in more respect than his children. The descendants of the royal family succeed as kings, and are invested with other governments, according to primogeniture. Property is common among all the relations. The eldest is the chief. There is one wife among them all. He who enters
A daughter of one of the kings was of extraordinary beauty, and had fifteen brothers, who were all in love with her, and were her unceasing and successive visitors; she, being at last weary of their importunity, is said to have employed the following device. She procured staves to be made similar to those of her brothers; when one left the house, she placed before the door a staff similar to the first, and a little time afterwards another, and so on in succession, but making her calculation so that the person who intended to visit her might not have one similar to that at her door. On an occasion when the brothers were all of them together at the market-place, one left it, and came to the door of the house; seeing the staff there, and conjecturing some one to be in her apartment, and having left all the other brothers at the marketplace, he suspected the person to be an adulterer ; running therefore in haste to his father, he brought him with him to the house, but it was proved that he had falsely accused his sister.
The Nabatæans are prudent, and fond of accumulating property. The community fine a person who has diminished his substance, and confer honours on him who has increased it. They have few slaves, and are served for the most part by their relations, or by one another, or each person is his own servant; and this custom extends even to their kings. They eat their meals in companies consisting of thirteen persons. Each party is attended by two musicians. But the king gives many entertainments in great buildings. No one drinks more than eleven [appointed] cupfuls, from separate cups, each of gold.
+The king courts popular favour so much, that he is not only his own servant, but sometimes he himself ministers to others. He frequently renders an account [of his administration] before the people, and sometimes an inquiry is made into his mode of life.
Some merchandise is altogether imported into the country, others are not altogether imports, especially as some articles are native products, as gold and silver, and many of the aromatics; but brass and iron, purple garments, styrax, saffron, and costus (or white cinnamon), pieces of sculpture, paintings, statues, are not to be procured in the country.
+They look upon the bodies of the dead as no better than dung, according to the words of Heracleitus, dead bodies more fit to be cast out than dung;
wherefore they bury even their kings beside dung-heaps. They worship the sun, and construct the altar on the top of a house, pouring out libations and burning frankincense upon it every day.
When the poet says,
it is doubtful, what people he means by Sidonians, whether those who lived near the Persian Gulf, a colony from which nation are the Sidonians in our quarter (in the same manner as historians relate, that some Tyrian islanders are found there, and Aradii, from whom the Aradii in our country derive their origin), or whether the poet means actually the Sidonians themselves.I went to the country of the Ethiopians, Sidonians, and Erembi,
But there is more doubt about the Erembi, whether we are to suppose that he means the Troglodytæ, according to the opinion of those who, by a forced etymology, derive the word Erembi from entering into the earth,
or whether he means the Arabians. Zeno the philosopher of our sect alters the reading in this manner, And Sidoni, and Arabes;
as if the poet gave the name Arambi to the present Arabians, from their being so called by others in his time. He says also, that the situation of these three nations close to one another indicates a descent from some common stock, and that on this account they are called by names having a resemblance to one another, as Armenii, Aramæi, Arambi. For as we may suppose one nation to have been divided into three (according to the differences of latitude [in which they lived], which successively became more marked [in proceeding from one to the other]), so in like manner we may suppose that several names were adopted in place of one. The proposed change of reading to Eremni is not probable, for that name is more applicable to the Ethiopians. The poet mentions also the Arimi, whom Poseidonius says are meant here, and not a place in Syria or Cilicia, or any other country, but Syria itself. For the Aramæi lived there. Perhaps these are the people whom the Greeks called Arimæi or Arimi. But the alterations of names, especially of barbarous nations, are frequent, Thus Darius was called Darieces; Parysatis, Pharziris; Athara, Atargata, whom Ctesias again calls Derceto.And Sidonii, and Arambi,
Alexander might be adduced to bear witness to the wealth of the Arabians, for he intended, it is said, after his return from India, to make Arabia the seat of empire. All his enterprises terminated with his death, which happened suddenly; but certainly one of his projects was to try whether the Arabians would receive him voluntarily, or resist him by force of arms; for having found that they did not send ambassadors to him, either before or after his expedition to India, he was beginning to make preparations for war, as we have said in a former part of this work.
SUMMARY.
+The Seventeenth Book contains the whole of Egypt and Africa.
WHEN we were describing Arabia, we included in the description the gulfs which compress and make it a peninsula, namely the Gulfs of Arabia and of Persis. We described at the same time some parts of Egypt, and those of Ethiopia, inhabited by the Troglodytæ, and by the people situated next to them, extending to the confines of the Cinnamon country.
We are now to describe the remaining parts contiguous to these nations, and situated about the Nile. We shall then give an account of Africa, which remains to complete this treatise on Geography.
+Procopius, a learned writer, estimates a day's march at 210 stadia; and the employment of this value, in the whole course of his history, proves that it was generally adopted. Now, if we multiply 60 by 210, we shall have 12,600 stadia, and dividing 12,900 by 60, we have 215 stadia, or nearly the amount of a day's march according to Procopius. I am therefore of opinion that Eratosthenes did nothing more than multiply 210 or 215 by the number of 60 days, furnished by Timosthenes ; and as the excessive length of 12,900 stadia could not agree with the 5000 stadia, which he had calculated in a straight line for the same interval, he imagined this great difference arose from the excessive winding course of the Nile; consequently he supposed the Nile to change frequently the direction of its course. This opinion had its influence in the construction of Ptolemy's map, which presents to us nearly all the inflexions which Eratosthenes imagined; in calculating the intervals of positions assigned by Ptolemy along the river, we find a total of According to this hypothesis, the distance in Strabo will be thus divided: Setting out from Meroë, the Nile runs,
+
which nearly corresponds with the account of Timosthenes. The number of days corresponds tolerably well with the distance given by the explorers sent by Nero for the discovery of Meroë: they reported the distance to be 873 miles. If we divide this number by 60, we shall have for the day's mean march 14ċ55 Roman miles, or 11ċ64 geographical miles, which is in fact the day's mean march, according to Major Rennell.
In carefully measuring, upon a large map of Egypt in 47 sheets, the course of the Nile through all its windings, and with the compass opened to 1000 metres, I find—
We observe, moreover, as I have already often observed, that the use of the stadium of 500 to the degree is anterior to the Alexandrine school; for at the time of Eratosthenes the stadium of 700 was more particularly made use of in Egypt.
Two rivers empty themselves into it, which issue out of some lakes towards the east, and encircle Meroë, a consider-
The lower parts of the country on each side Meroë, along the Nile towards the Red Sea, are occupied by Megabari and Blemmyes, who are subject to the Ethiopians, and border upon the Egyptians; about the sea are Troglodytæ. The Troglodytæ, in the latitude of Meroë, are distant ten or twelve days' journey from the Nile. On the left of the course of the Nile live Nubæ in Libya, a populous nation. They begin
The extent of Egypt along the sea, from the Pelusiac to the Canobic mouth, is
Such is the account of Eratosthenes.
We must, however, enter into a further detail of particulars. And first, we must speak of the parts about Egypt, proceeding from those that are better known to those which follow next in order.
+The Nile produces some common effects in this and the contiguous tract of country, namely, that of the Ethiopians above it, in watering them at the time of its rise, and leaving those parts only habitable which have been covered by the inundation; it intersects the higher lands, and all the tract elevated above its current on both sides, which however are uninhabited and a desert, from an absolute want of water. But the Nile does not traverse the whole of Ethiopia, nor alone, nor in a straight line, nor a country which is well inhabited. But Egypt it traverses both alone and entirely, and in a straight line, from the lesser cataract above Syene and Elephantina, (which are the boundaries of Egypt and Ethiopia,) to the mouths by which it discharges itself into the sea. The Ethiopians at present lead for the most part a wandering life, and are destitute of the means of subsistence, on account of the barrenness of the soil, the disadvantages of climate, and their great distance from us.
+Now the contrary is the case with the Egyptians in all these respects. For they have lived from the first under a regular form of government, they were a people of civilized manners, and were settled in a well-known country; their institutions have been recorded and mentioned in terms of praise, for they seemed to have availed themselves of the fertility of their country in the best possible manner by the partition of it (and by the classification of persons) which they adopted, and by their general care.
+When they had appointed a king, they divided the people into three classes, into soldiers, husbandmen, and priests. The latter had the care of everything relating to sacred things (of the gods), the others of what related to man; some had the
The priests devoted themselves to the study of philosophy and astronomy, and were companions of the kings.
+The country was at first divided into nomes. The extent and number of the nomes cannot be ascertained. They probably varied with the political state of Egypt. See præfectura oppidorum
by the Romans. Each had its civil governor, the Nomarch, who collected the crown revenues, and presided in the local capital and chief court of justice. Each nome too had its separate priesthood, its temple, chief and inferior towns, its magistrates, registration and peculiar creed, ceremonies and customs; and each was apparently independent of every other nome. At certain seasons, delegates from the various cantons met in the palace of the Labyrinth, for consultation on public affairs (b. xvii. c. i. § 37). According to Diodorus, the nomes date from Sesostris. But they did not originate from that monarch, but emanated probably from the distinctions of animal worship; and the extent of the local worship probably determined the boundary of the nome. Thus in the nome of Thebais, where the ram-headed deity was worshipped, the sheep was sacred, the goat was eaten and sacrificed: in that of Mendes, where the goat was worshipped, the sheep was a victim and an article of food. Again, in the nome of Ombos, divine honours were paid to the crocodile: in that of Tentyra, it was hunted and abominated: and between Ombos and Tentyra there existed an internecine feud.
An exact and minute division of the country was required by the frequent confusion of boundaries occasioned at the time of the rise of the Nile, which takes away, adds, and alters the various shapes of the bounds, and obliterates other marks by which the property of one person is distinguished
As the whole population of the country, so the separate population in each nome, was divided into three classes ; the territory also was divided into three equal portions.
+The attention and care bestowed upon the Nile is so great as to cause industry to triumph over nature. The ground by nature, and still more by being supplied with water, produces a great abundance of fruits. By nature also a greater rise of the river irrigates a larger tract of land; but industry has completely succeeded in rectifying the deficiency of nature, so that in seasons when the rise of the river has been less than usual, as large a portion of the country is irrigated by means of canals and embankments, as in seasons when the rise of the river has been greater.
+Before the times of Petronius there was the greatest plenty, and the rise of the river was the greatest when it rose to the height of fourteen cubits; but when it rose to eight only, a famine ensued. During the government of Petronius, however, when the Nile rose twelve cubits only, there was a most abundant crop; and once when it mounted to eight only, no famine followed. Such then is the nature of this provision for the physical state of the country. We shall now proceed to the next particulars.
The Nile, when it leaves the boundaries of Ethiopia, flows in a straight line towards the north, to the tract called the Delta, then cloven at the head,
(according to the expression of Plato,) makes this point the vertex, as it were, of a triangle, the sides of which are formed by the streams, which separate on each side, and extend to the sea, one on the right hand to Pelusium, the other on the left to Canobus and the neighbouring Heracleium, as it is called ; the base is the coast lying between Pelusium and the Heracleium.
An island was therefore formed by the sea and by both streams of the river, which is called Delta from the resemblance of its shape to the letter (
These then are two mouths of the Nile, one of which is called the Pelusiac, the other the Canobic and Heracleiotic mouth. Between these are five other outlets, some of which are considerable, but the greater part are of inferior importance. For many others branch off from the principal streams, and are distributed over the whole of the island of the Delta, and form many streams and islands; so that the whole Delta is accessible to boats, one canal succeeding another, and navigated with so much ease, that some persons make use of raftsearthen-ware ferry boats.
The translation is not literal, but a paraphrase.
Juv xv. 12i.
The whole island is about 3000 stadia in circumference, and is called, as also the lower country, with the land on the opposite sides of the streams, the Delta.
+But at the time of the rising of the Nile, the whole country is covered, and resembles a sea, except the inhabited spots, which are situated upon natural hills or mounds ; and considerable cities and villages appear like islands in the distant prospect.
+The water, after having continued on the ground more than forty days in summer, then subsides by degrees, in the same manner as it rose. In sixty days the plain is entirely exposed to view, and dries up. The sooner the land is dry, so much the sooner the ploughing and sowing are accomplished, and it dries earlier in those parts where the heat is greater.
+The country above the Delta is irrigated in the same manner, except that the river flows in a straight line to the distance of about 4000 stadia in one channel, unless where some island intervenes, the most considerable of which comprises the Heracleiotic Nome; or, where it is diverted by a canal into a large lake, or a tract of country which it is capable of irrigating, as the lake Mœris and the Arsinoïte Nome, or where the canals discharge themselves into the Mareotis.
In short, Egypt, from the mountains of Ethiopia to the vertex of the Delta, is merely a river tract on each side of the Nile, and rarely if anywhere comprehends in one continued line a habitable territory of 300 stadia in breadth. It resembles, except the frequent diversions of its course, a bandage rolled out.lengthened out.
Alii alia proposuerunt, infelicia omnia.
The mountains on each side (of the Nile), which descend from the parts about Syene to the Egyptian Sea,
The ancients understood more by conjecture than otherwise, but persons in later times learnt by experience as eyewitnesses, that the Nile owes its rise to summer rains, which fall in great abundance in Upper Ethiopia, particularly in the most distant mountains. On the rains ceasing, the fulness of the river gradually subsides. This was particularly observed by those who navigated the Arabian Gulf on their way to the Cinnamon country, and by those who were sent out to hunt elephants, or for such other purposes as induced the Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, to despatch persons in that direction. These sovereigns had directed their attention to objects of this kind, particularly Ptolemy surnamed Philadelphus, who was a lover of science, and on account of bodily infirmities always in search of some new diversion and amusement. But the ancient kings paid little attention to such inquiries, although both they and the priests, with whom they passed the greater part of their lives, professed to be devoted to the study of philosophy. Their ignorance therefore is more surprising, both on this account and because Sesostris had traversed the whole of Ethiopia as far as the Cinnamon country, of which expedition monuments exist even to the present day, such as pillars and inscriptions. Cambyses also, when he was in possession of Egypt, had advanced with the Egyptians as far even as heaven-descended:
But I quit this subject, since it has been discussed by many writers, among whom it will be sufficient to specify two, who have (each) composed in our times a treatise on the Nile, Eudorus and Aristo the Peripatetic philosopher. [They differ little from each other] except in the order and disposition of the works, for the phraseology and execution is the same in both writers. (I can speak with some confidence in this matter), for when at a loss (for manuscripts) for the purpose of comparison and copy, I collated both authors.back to Egypt's heaven-descended stream.
The ancients gave the name of Egypt to that country only which was inhabited and watered by the Nile, and the extent they assigned to it was from the neighbourhood of Syene to the sea. But later writers, to the present time, have included on the eastern side almost all the tract between the Arabian Gulf and the Nile (the Æthiopians however do not make much use of the Red Sea); on the western side, the tract extending to the Auases and the parts of the sea-coast from the Canobic mouth of the Nile to Catabathmus, and the kingdom of Cyrenæa. For the kings who succeeded the race of the Ptolemies had acquired so much power, that they became masters of Cyrenæa, and even joined Cyprus to Egypt. The Romans, who succeeded to their dominions, separated Egypt, and confined it within the old limits.
+The Egyptians give the name of Auases (Oases) to certain inhabited tracts, which are surrounded by extensive deserts, and appear like islands in the sea. They are frequently met with in Libya, and there are three contiguous to Egypt, and dependent upon it.
+This is the account which we have to give of Egypt in general and summarily. I shall now describe the separate parts of the country and their advantages.
As Alexandreia and its neighbourhood occupy the greatest and principal portion of the description, I shall begin with it.
+In sailing towards the west, the sea-coast from Pelusium to the Canobic mouth of the Nile is about
Pharos is a small oblong island, and lies quite close to the continent, forming towards it a harbour with a double entrance. For the coast abounds with bays, and has two promontories projecting into the sea. The island is situated between these, and shuts in the bay, lying lengthways in front of it.
+Of the extremities of the Pharos, the eastern is nearest to the continent and to the promontory in that direction, called Lochias, which is the cause of the entrance to the port being narrow. Besides the narrowness of the passage, there are rocks, some under water, others rising above it, which at all times increase the violence of the waves rolling in upon them Sostratus of Cnidus, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods preservers,
are rejected by Kramer as being introduced from the margin.
The western mouth does not afford an easy entrance, but it does not require the same degree of caution as the other. It forms also another port, which has the name of Eunostus, or Happy Return: it lies in front of the artificial and close harbour. That which has its entrance at the above-mentioned tower of Pharos is the great harbour. These (two) lie contiguous in the recess called Heptastadium, and are separated from it by a mound. This mound forms a bridge from the continent to the island, and extends along its western side, leaving two passages only through it to the harbour of Eunostus, which are bridged over. But this work served not only as a bridge, but as an aqueduct also, when the island was inhabited. Divus Cæsar devastated the island, in his war against the people of Alexandreia, when they espoused the party of the kings. A few sailors live near the tower.
+The great harbour, in addition to its being well enclosed by the mound and by nature, is of sufficient depth near the shore to allow the largest vessel to anchor near the stairs. It is also divided into several ports.
+The former kings of Egypt, satisfied with what they possessed, and not desirous of foreign commerce, entertained a dislike to all mariners, especially the Greeks (who, on account of the poverty of their own country, ravaged and coveted the property of other nations), and stationed a guard here, who had orders to keep off all persons who approached. To the guard was assigned as a place of residence the spot called Rhacotis, which is now a part of the city of Alexandreia, situated above the arsenal. At that time, however, it was a village. The country about the village was given up to herds-
When Alexander arrived, and perceived the advantages of the situation, he determined to build the city on the (natural) harbour. The prosperity of the place, which ensued, was intimated, it is said, by a presage which occurred while the plan of the city was tracing. The architects were engaged in marking out the line of the wall with chalk, and had consumed it all, when the king arrived; upon which the dispensers of flour supplied the workmen with a part of the flour, which was provided for their own use; and this substance was used in tracing the greater part of the divisions of the streets. This, they said, was a good omen for the city.
The advantages of the city are of various kinds. The site is washed by two seas; on the north, by what is called the Egyptian Sea, and on the south, by the sea of the lake Mareia, which is also called Mareotis. This lake is filled by many canals from the Nile, both by those above and those at the sides, through which a greater quantity of merchandise is imported than by those communicating with the sea. Hence the harbour on the lake is richer than the maritime harbour. The exports by sea from Alexandreia exceed the imports. This any person may ascertain, either at Alexandreia or Dicæarchia, by watching the arrival and departure of the merchant vessels, and observing how much heavier or lighter their cargoes are when they depart or when they return.
+In addition to the wealth derived from merchandise landed at the harbours on each side, on the sea and on the lake, its fine air is worthy of remark: this results from the city being on two sides surrounded by water, and from the favourable effects of the rise of the Nile. For other cities, situated near lakes, have, during the heats of summer, a heavy and suffocating atmosphere, and lakes at their margins become swampy by the evaporation occasioned by the sun's heat. When a large quantity of moisture is exhaled from swamps, a noxious vapour rises, and is the cause of pestilential disorders. But at Alexandreia, at the beginning of summer, the Nile, being full, fills the lake also, and leaves no marshy matter which is likely to occasion malignant exhalations. At the same period, the Etesian winds blow from the north, over a large expanse of sea, and the Alexandrines in consequence pass their summer very pleasantly.
The shape of the site of the city is that of a chlamys or military cloak. The sides, which determine the length, are surrounded by water, and are about thirty stadia in extent; but the isthmuses, which determine the breadth of the sides, are each of seven or eight stadia, bounded on one side by the sea, and on the other by the lake. The whole city is intersected by roads for the passage of horsemen and chariots. Two of these are very broad, exceeding a plethrum in breadth, and cut one another at right angles. It contains also very beautiful public grounds and royal palaces, which occupy a fourth or even a third part of its whole extent. For as each of the kings was desirous of adding some embellishment to the places dedicated to the public use, so, besides the buildings already existing, each of them erected a building at his own expense; hence the expression of the poet may be here applied,
All the buildings are connected with one another and with the harbour, and those also which are beyond it.one after the other springs.
The Museum is a part of the palaces. It has a public walk and a place furnished with seats, and a large hall, in which the men of learning, who belong to the Museum, take their common meal. This community possesses also property in common; and a priest, formerly appointed by the kings, but at present by Cæsar, presides over the Museum.
+A part belonging to the palaces consists of that called Sema, an enclosure, which contained the tombs of the kings and that of Alexander (the Great). For Ptolemy the son of Lagus took away the body of Alexander from Perdiccas, as he was conveying it down from Babylon; for Perdiccas had turned out of his road towards Egypt, incited by ambition and a desire of making himself master of the country. When Ptolemy had attacked [and made him prisoner], he intended to [spare his life and] confine him in a desert island, but he met with a miserable end at the hand of his own soldiers, who rushed upon and despatched him by transfixing him with the long Macedonian spears. The kings who were with him, Aridæus, and the children of Alexander, and Roxana his wife, departed to Macedonia. Ptolemy carried away the body
In the great harbour at the entrance, on the right hand, are the island and the Pharos tower; on the left are the reef of rocks and the promontory Lochias, with a palace upon it: at the entrance, on the left hand, are the inner palaces, which are continuous with those on the Lochias, and contain numerous painted apartments and groves. Below lies the artificial and close harbour, appropriated to the use of the kings; and Antirrhodus a small island, facing the artificial harbour, with a palace on it, and a small port. It was called Antirrhodus, a rival as it were of Rhodes.
+Above this is the theatre, then the Poseidium, a kind of elbow projecting from the Emporium, as it is called, with a temple of Neptune upon it. To this Antony added a mound, projecting still further into the middle of the harbour, and built at the extremity a royal mansion, which he called Timonium. This was his last act, when, deserted by his partisans, he retired to Alexandreia after his defeat at Actium, and intended, being forsaken by so many friends, to lead the [solitary] life of Timon for the rest of his days.
+Next are the Cæsarium, the Emporium, and the Apostaseis, or magazines: these are followed by docks, extending to the Heptastadium. This is the description of the great harbour.
Next after the Heptastadium is the harbour of Eunostus, and above this the artificial harbour, called Cibotus (or the Ark), which also has docks. At the bottom of this harbour is a navigable canal, extending to the lake Mareotis. Beyond the canal there still remains a small part of the city. Then follows the suburb Necropolis, in which are numerous gardens, burial-places, and buildings for carrying on the process of embalming the dead.
+On this side the canal is the Sarapium and other ancient sacred places, which are now abandoned on account of the erection of the temples at Nicopolis; for [there are situated] an amphitheatre and a stadium, and there are celebrated
In short, the city of Alexandreia abounds with public and sacred buildings. The most beautiful of the former is the Gymnasium, with porticos exceeding a stadium in extent. In the middle of it are the court of justice and groves. Here also is a Paneium, an artificial mound of the shape of a fir-cone, resembling a pile of rock, to the top of which there is an ascent by a spiral path. From the summit may be seen the whole city lying all around and beneath it.
+The wide street extends in length along the Gymnasium from the Necropolis to the Canobic gate. Next is the Hippodromos (or race-course), as it is called, and other buildings
Alexander was succeeded by Ptolemy the son of Lagus, the son of Lagus by Philadelphus, Philadelphus by Euergetes; next succeeded Philopator the lover
As a husband for the daughter established on the throne, the Alexandrines invited one Cybiosactes from Syria, who pretended to be descended from the Syrian kings. The queen after a few days, unable to endure his coarseness and vulgarity, rid herself of him by causing him to be strangled. She afterwards married Archelaus, who also pretended to be the son of Mithridates Eupator, but he was really the son of that Archelaus
At this time Pompey the Great entertained Auletes as his guest on his arrival at Rome, and recommended him to the senate, negotiated his return, and contrived the execution of most of the deputies, in number a hundred, who had undertaken to appear against him: at their head was Dion the academic philosopher.
+Ptolemy (Auletes) on being restored by Gabinius, put to death both Archelaus and his daughter;
The Alexandrines declared as sovereigns the eldest son and Cleopatra. But the adherents of the son excited a se-
It was about this time that Pompey the Great, in his flight from Palæ-pharsalus,
After the death of Cæsar and the battle at Pharsalia, Antony passed over into Asia; he raised Cleopatra to the highest dignity, made her his wife, and had children by her. He was present with her at the battle of Actium, and accompanied her in her flight. Augustus Cæsar pursued them, put an end to their power, and rescued Egypt from misgovernment and revelry.
At present Egypt is a (Roman) province, pays considerable tribute, and is well governed by prudent persons, who are sent there in succession. The governor thus sent out has the rank of king. Subordinate to him is the administrator of justice, who is the supreme judge in many causes. There is another officer, who is called Idiologus, whose business it is to inquire into property for which there is no claimant, and which of right falls to Cæsar. These are accompanied by Cæsar's freedmen and stewards, who are intrusted with affairs of more or less importance.
+Three legions are stationed in Egypt, one in the city, the rest in the country. Besides these there are also nine Roman cohorts, three quartered in the city, three on the borders of Ethiopia in Syene, as a guard to that tract, and three in other parts of the country. There are also three bodies of cavalry distributed in convenient posts.
+Of the native magistrates in the cities, the first is the expounder of the law, who is dressed in scarlet; he receives the customary honours of the country, and has the care of providing what is necessary for the city. The second is the writer of records, the third is the chief judge. The fourth is the commander of the night guard. These magistrates existed in the time of the kings, but in consequence of the bad administration of affairs by the latter, the prosperity of the city was ruined by not understanding or ill-adapted for the duties of citizens,
suggested by Kramer.The way to Egypt is long and vexatious.
Such then, if not worse, was the condition of the city under the last kings. The Romans, as far as they were able, corrected, as I have said, many abuses, and established an orderly government, by appointing vice-governors, nomarchs, and ethnarchs, whose business it was to superintend affairs of minor importance.
+The greatest advantage which the city possesses arises from its being the only place in all Egypt well situated by nature for communication with the sea by its excellent harbour, and with the land by the river, by means of which everything is easily transported and collected together into this city, which is the greatest mart in the habitable world.
+These may be said to be the superior excellencies of the city. Cicero, in one of his orations,
Next to it is Cyrenæa, and the neighboring barbarians, the Marmaridæ.
From the CatabathmusAlexander, after passing
Wines which have been very carefully prepared with sea-water never cause head-aches.
Next is the harbour Derrhis,Hellanicus says that the vine was first discovered in Plinthine, a city of Egypt,
and that for those who, on account of their poverty, could not get wine, there was introduced a custom of drinking beer made of barley.
The lake Mareia, which extends as far as this place, is more than 150 stadia in breadth, and in length less than 300 stadia. It contains eight islands. The whole country about it is well inhabited. Good wine also is produced here, and in such quantity that the Mareotic wine is racked in order that it may be kept to be old.The Mareotic wine is erroneously stated by Athenæus (p. 55. Bohn's Classical Library) to have obtained its name from a fountain called Marea. The fountain and town derived their name from Maro, who was one of the companions of Bacchus.
The wine is praised by Horace, Odes I.xxxvii. 14:
Virgil, Geor. ii. 91, calls a vine by this name: Sunt Thasiæ vites, sunt et Mareotides albæ.
The byblusThere is also the ciborium. Hegesander the Delphian says that Euphorion the poet, when supping with Prytanis, his host, exhibited to him some ciboria, which appeared to be made in a most exquisite and costly manner. Didymus says that it is a kind of drinking-cup, and perhaps it may be the same as that which is called scyphium, which derives its name from being contracted to a narrow space at the bottom, like the Egyptian ciboria.
The byblus does not grow here in great abundance, for it is not cultivated. But it abounds in the lower parts of the Delta. There is one sort inferior to the other.
On passing through the Canobic gate of the city, on the right hand is the canal leading to Canobus, close to the lake. They sail by this canal to Schedia, to the great river, and to Canobus, but the first place at which they arrive is Eleusis. This is a settlement near Alexandreia and Nicopolis, and situated on the Canobic canal. It has houses of entertainment which command beautiful views, and hither
At a little distance from Eleusis, on the right hand, is the canal leading towards Schedia. Schedia is distant four schoeni from Alexandreia. It is a suburb of the city, and has a station for the vessels with cabins, which convey the governors when they visit the upper parts of the country. Here is collected the duty on merchandise, as it is transported up or down the river. For this purpose a bridge of boats is laid across the river, and from this kind of bridge the place has the name of Schedia.
+Next after the canal leading to Schedia, the navigation thence to Canobus is parallel to the sea-coast, extending from Pharos to the Canobic mouth. For between the sea and the canal, is a narrow band of ground, on which is situated the smaller Taposeiris, which lies next after Nicopolis, and Zephyrium a promontory, on which is a small temple dedicated to Venus Arsinoë.
+Anciently, it is said, a city called Thonis stood there, which bears the name of the king, who entertained as his guests Menelaus and Helen. The poet thus speaks of the drugs which were given to Helen, the potent drugs, which Polydamna, the wife of Thon, gave to Helen.
Canobus is a city, distant by land from Alexandreia 120 stadia. It has its name from Canobus, the pilot of Menelaus, who died there. It contains the temple of Sarapis, held in great veneration, and celebrated for the cure of diseases; persons even of the highest rank confide in them, and sleep there themselves on their own account, or others for them. Some persons record the cures, and others the veracity of the oracles which are delivered there. But remarkable above everything else is the multitude of persons who resort to the public festivals, and come from Alexandreia by the canal. For day and night there are crowds of men and women in boats, singing and dancing, without restraint, and with the utmost licentiousness. Others, at Canobus itself, keep hostelries situated on the banks of the canal, which are well adapted for such kind of diversion and revelry.
Next to Canobus is Heracleium, in which is a temple
On the right of the Canobic canal is the Menelaïte Nome, so called from the brother of the first Ptolemy, but certainly not from the hero (Menelaus), as some writers assert, among whom is Artemidorus.
+Next to the Canobic mouth is the Bolbitine, then the Sebennytic, and the Phatnitic, which is the third in magnitude compared with the first two, which form the boundaries of the Delta. For it branches off into the interior, not far from the vertex of the Delta. The Mendesian is very near the Phatnitic mouth; next is the Tanitic, and lastly the Pelusiac mouth. There are others, which are of little consequence, between these, since they are as it were false mouths.
+The mouths have entrances which are not capable of admitting large vessels, but lighters only, on account of the shallows and marshes. The Canobic mart is principally used as a mart for merchandise, the harbours at Alexandreia being closed, as I have said before.
+After the Bolbitine mouth there runs out to a great distance a low and sandy promontory. It is called Agnu-ceras (or Willow Point). Then follows the watch-tower of Perseus,
Next after the fortress of the Milesians, in proceeding towards the Sebennytic mouth, are lakes, one of which is called Butice, from the city Butus; then the city Sebennytice and Sais, the capital of the lower country; here Minerva is worshipped. In the temple there of this goddess, is the tomb of Psammitichus. Near Butus is Hermopolis, situated in an island, and at Butus is an oracle of Latona.
In the interior above the Sebennytic and Phatnitic mouths is Xoïs, both an island and a city in the Sebennytic Nome. There are also Hermopolis, Lycopolis, and Mendes, where Pan
Near Mendes are Diospolis, and the lakes about it, and Leontopolis; then further on, the city Busiris,
Eratosthenes says, That to repel strangers is a practice common to all barbarians, but that this charge against the Egyptians is derived from fabulous stories related of (one) Busiris and his people in the Busirite Nome, as some persons in later times were disposed to charge the inhabitants of this place with inhospitality, although in truth there was neither king nor tyrant of the name of Busiris: that besides there was a common saying,
'The way to Egypt is long and vexatious,'
which originated in the want of harbours, and in the state of the harbour at Pharos, which was not of free access, but watched and guarded by herdsmen, who were robbers, and attacked those who attempted to sail into it. The Carthaginians drown [he says] any strangers who sail past, on their voyage to Sardinia or to the Pillars. Hence much of what is related of the parts towards the west is discredited. The Persians also were treacherous guides, and conducted the ambassadors along circuitous and difficult ways.
Contiguous to the Busirite Nome are the Athribite Nome and the city Athribis; next the Prosopite Nome, in which latter is Aphroditopolis (the city of Venus). Above the Mendesian and the Tanitic mouths are a large lake, and the Mendesian and Leontopolite Nomes, and a city of Aphrodite (or Venus) and the Pharbetite Nome. Then follows the Tanitic, which some call the Saitic mouth, and the Tanite Nome,
Between the Tanitic and the Pelusiac mouths are lakes
The country between the Nile and the Arabian Gulf is Arabia, and at its extremity is situated Pelusium. But the whole is desert, and not passable by an army. The isthmus between Pelusium and the recess of the Arabian Gulf near Heroopolis is 1000 stadia; but, according to Poseidonius, less than
In sailing up the river from Schedia to Memphis,
Above Momemphis are two nitre mines, which furnish nitre in large quantities, and the Nitriote Nome. Here Sarapis is worshipped, and they are the only people in Egypt who sacrifice a sheep. In this nome and near this place is a city called Menelaus. On the left hand in the Delta, upon the river, is Naucratis. At the distance of two schœni from the river is Saïs, Saïs was one of the sacred cities of Egypt: its principal deities were Neith, who gave oracles there, and Isis. The mysteries of the latter were celebrated with unusual pomp on the evening of the Feast of Lamps. Herodotus (ii. 59) terms this festival the third of the great feasts in the Egyptian calendar. It was held by night; and every one intending to be present at the sacrifices was required to light a number of lamps in the open air around his house. At what season of the year the feast of burning lamps was celebrated, Herodotus knew, but deemed it wrong to tell (ii. 62); it was, however, probably at either the vernal or autumnal equinox, since it apparently had reference to one of the capital revolutions in the solar course. An inscription, in the temple of Neith, declared her to be the Mother of the Sun. It ran thus, I am the things that have been, and that are, and that will be; no one has uncovered my skirts; the fruit which I brought forth became the Sun.
It is probable. accordingly, that the kindling of the lamps referred to Neith, as the author of light. On the same night, apparently, were performed what the Egyptians designated as the Mysteries of Isis.
Sais was one of the supposed places of interment of Osiris, for that is evidently the deity whom Herodotus will not name (ii. 171), when he says that there is a burial- place of
This is the description of the country from Alexandreia to the vertex of the Delta.
+Artemidorus says, that the navigation up the river is 28 schœni, which amount to 840 stadia, reckoning the schœnus at 30 stadia. When we ourselves sailed up the river, schoeni of different measures were used at different places in giving the distances, so that sometimes the received schœnus was a measure of 40 stadia and even more. That the measure of the schœnus was unsettled among the Egyptians, Artemidorus himself shows in a subsequent place. In reckoning the distance from Memphis to Thebais, he says that each schœnus consists of 120 stadia, and from the Thebaïs to Syene of 60 stadia. In sailing up from Pelusium to the same vertex of the Delta, is a distance, he says, of 25 schœni, or 750 stadia, and he employs the same measure.
+On setting out from Pelusium, the first canal met with is that which fills the lakes, near the marshes,
as they are called. There are two of these lakes, situated upon the left hand of the great stream above Pelusium in Arabia. He mentions other lakes also, and canals in the same parts beyond the Delta.
The Sethroïte Nome extends along one of the two lakes. He reckons this as one of the ten nomes in the Delta. There are two other canals, which discharge themselves into the same lakes.
There is another canal also, which empties itself into the Red Sea, or Arabian Gulf, near the city Arsinoë, which some call Cleopatris.
The canal was first cut by Sesostris before the Trojan times, but according to other writers, by the son of The immediate communication therefore between the sea and the canal was cut off by a lock; and as there must have been two, there would be a flux and reflux of water between them on the passage of vessels. This probably suggested to our author the word Euripus, and is to be understood as applying to that portion of the canal included between the locks. By the word Euripus is generally understood the channel between Negropont and the mainland, which is subject to an ebb and flow of the sea. The storing up of water, and the distribution of it for the purposes of irrigation, was no doubt well known to the Egyptians. Diodorus, b. i. 19, ascribes to Osiris the invention. "Osiris confined the Nile by embankments on both sides, so that at the period of its rising it might not inconveniently spread over the country, but that, by gates (closed the Euripus.
Diodorus Siculus, i. 33, thus speaks of this same work. Darius the Persian left the canal unfinished, as he was informed by some persons, that by cutting through the isthmus he would be the cause of inundating Egypt; for they pointed out to him that the Red Sea was higher than the level of Egypt. The second Ptolemy afterwards completed the canal, and in the most convenient part constructed an artfully contrived barrier, (
We have spoken of the surfaces of bodies of water in the first part of this work.
Near Arsinoë are situated in the recess of the Arabian Gulf towards Egypt, Heroopolis and Cleopatris; harbours,
There also are the city Bubastus
The plan of the temples is as follows.
+At the entrance into the temenus is a paved floor, in breadth about a plethrum, or even less; its length is three or four times as great, and in some instances even more. This part is called Dromos, and is mentioned by Callimachus,
Throughout the whole length on each side are placed stone sphinxes, at the distance of 20 cubits or a little more from each other, so that there is one row of sphinxes on the right hand, and another on the left. Next after the sphinxes is a large propylon, then on proceeding further, another propylon, and then another. Neither the number of the propyla nor of the sphinxes is determined by any rule. They are different in different temples, as well as the length and breadth of the Dromi. this is the Dromos, sacred to Anubis.
Next to the propyla is the naos, which has a large and considerable pronaos; the sanctuary in proportion; there is no statue, at least not in human shape, but a representation of some of the brute animals. On each side of the pronaos project what are called the wings. These are two walls of equal height with the naos. At first the distance between them is a little more than the breadth of the foundation of the naos.
There is also a building with a great number of pillars, as at Memphis, in the barbaric style; for, except the magnitude and number and rows of pillars, there is nothing pleasing nor easily described,
At Heliopolis we saw large buildings in which the priests lived. For it is said that anciently this was the principal residence of the priests, who studied philosophy and astronomy. But there are no longer either such a body of persons or such pursuits. No one was pointed out to us on the spot, as presiding over these studies, but only persons who performed sacred rites, and who explained to strangers [the peculiarities of] the temples.
+A person of the name of Chæremon accompanied the governor, Ælius Gallus, in his journey from Alexandreia into Egypt, and pretended to some knowledge of this kind, but he was generally ridiculed for his boasting and ignorance. The houses of the priests, and the residences of Plato and of Eudoxus, were shown to us. Eudoxus came here with Plato, and, according to some writers, lived thirteen years in the society of the priests. For the latter were distinguished for their knowledge of the heavenly bodies, but were mysterious and uncommunicative, yet after a time were prevailed upon by courtesy to acquaint them with some of the principles of their science, but the barbarians concealed the greater part of them. They had, however, communicated the knowledge of the additional
After Heliopolis is the Nile above the Delta.
The country on the right hand, as you go up the Nile, is called Libya, as well as that near Alexandreia and the lake Mareotis; the country on the left hand is called Arabia. The territory belonging to Heliopolis is in Arabia, but the city Cercesura is in Libya, and situated opposite to the observatory of Eudoxus. For there is shown an observing station in front of Heliopolis, as there is in front of Cnidus, where Eudoxus marked certain motions of the heavenly bodies. This is the Letopolite Nome.
In sailing up the river we meet with Babylon, a strong fortress, built by some Babylonians who had taken refuge there, and had obtained permission from the kings to establish a settlement in that place. At present it is an encampment for one of the three legions which garrison Egypt. There is a mountainous ridge, which extends from the encampment as far as the Nile. At this ridge are wheels and screws, by which water is raised from the river, and one hundred and fifty prisoners are [thus] employed.
+The pyramids on the other side [of the river] at Memphis may be clearly discerned from this place, for they are not far off.
Memphis itself also, the residence of the kings of Egypt, is near, being only three schœni distant from the Delta. It contains temples, among which is that of Apis, who is the same as Osiris. Here the ox Apis is kept in a sort of sanctuary, and is held, as I have said, to be a god. The forehead and some other small parts of its body are white; the other parts are black. By these marks the fitness of the successor
The temple of Apis is near the Hephæsteium (or temple of Vulcan); the HephæsteiumSesoosis (Sesostris) raised two obelisks of hard stone, 120 cubits in height, on which were inscribed the greatness of his power, the amount of his revenue, and the number of the nations which he had conquered. At Memphis, in the temple of Vulcan, he erected monolithe images of himself and his wife, 30 cubits in height, and images of his sons, 20 cubits in height,
in memory of his escape from fire when his brother Armais attempted to burn him with his wife and children. Diod. Sic. i. 57.
At Memphis also there is a temple of Venus, who is accounted a Grecian deity. But some say that it is a temple dedicated to Selene, or the moon.
There is also a temple of Sarapis, situated in a very sandy spot, where the sand is accumulated in masses by the wind. Some of the sphinxes which we saw were buried in this sand up to the head, and one half only of others was visible. Hence we may conceive the danger, should any one, in his way to the temple, be surprised by a [sand] storm.
+The city is large and populous; it ranks next to Alexandreia, and, like that place, is inhabited by mixed races of people. There are lakes in front of the city and of the palaces, which at present are in ruins and deserted. They are situated upon an eminence, and extend as far as the lower part of the city.
+Close to this place are a grove and a lake.
At the distance of 40 stadia from Memphis is a brow The base and height being given, we find for the solid contents—
+
So that if a wall of (three metres) about 9 1/4 feet in height, and a foot ii thickness, were built with the materials of these pyramids, we should have a wall—
The stones, therefore, of the three pyramids would form such a wall 2910 miles in length, or one sufficient to reach from Alexandreia to the coast of Guinea.
the sides are rather greater than the height;but all that he says respecting the pyramids is vague and inexact.
moderately,in which it is also used in b. xi. c. ii. § 18.
The kings who succeeded to the possession of the country, (The moveable stone has been taken away, and the aperture is at most at about one-twelfth the whole height of the pyramid from its base.me/sws e)/pratton ) were moderately successful.
On the death of this king, he was succeeded by his brother Chephren, who reigned 56 years. According to some writers, it was not a brother, but a son, named Chabryis, who was his successor. But all agree that the successor, whoever he was, desired to imitate his predecessor's conception, and built the second pyramid, which resembled the first in its artificial construction, but was inferior to it in size, the sides of the base being a stadium each in length.
+On the greater pyramid is an inscription which states the amount expended on herbs and radishes for the workmen, and it informs us that
The lesser pyramid bears no inscription, and it has an ascent formed in it through an opening in one of the sides. But although the kings built these pyramids for their own tombs, yet it has so happened that none of them have ever been buried in them. For the population, in consequence of the misery to which these works exposed them, and of the cruelty and tyranny of the kings, were incensed against them as the causes of their sufferings; and moreover threatened to tear their bodies in pieces, and to cast them out with insult from their place of burial. Every king therefore, on the approach of death, enjoined his relations to bury his body secretly in a place undistinguished by marks.
+These were succeeded by king Mycerinus, (whom some call Mecherinus,) son of the king who built the first pyramid. He designed to build a third, but died before he accomplished it. Each side of the base of this pyramid was three plethra in length, and fifteen tiers of the building were raised of black stone like the Thebaic stone, but the rest was filled up with a stone resembling that of the other pyramids. This work is inferior to the two former in size, but far surpasses them in artificial construction and in the expensiveness of the stone. On its northern side the name of Mycerinus is inscribed, as the person who caused it to be built. He is said to have held in abhorrence the cruelty of his predecessors, and to have been ambitious of leading a just life, and beneficial to his subjects. He performed many actions by which he called forth the affection of his people towards him; and among others he expended a great sum of money in public causes, rewarding the judges who delivered upright judgments, which was not commonly the case.
+There are three other pyramids, the sides of which are two plethra in length; in workmanship they entirely resemble the others, except in magnitude. These pyramids, it is said, were built by the three before-mentioned kings in honour of their own wives. These works by universal consent are the most remarkable in Egypt, not only in their ponderous construction, but also in the art displayed. We ought, we are told, to admire more the architects than the kings, who supplied the means, for the architects brought their designs to completion by force of mind and the influence of an honourable ambition, but the kings by the power of that wealth which was their portion, or by injuries inflicted on others. There is no agreement whatever, either between the natives of the country or between authors, respecting the pyramids; for some assert that the kings before mentioned built them, others that they were not the builders, but that Armæus built the first and largest; Amasis, the second; and Inaro, the third: but this last is said by some to be the burial-place of Rhodopis, a courtesan, whose lovers were certain governors of nomes, who from affection towards her undertook this great work, and completed it at their common charge. Diodorus Siculus, b. . 63, 64.
One extraordinary thing which I saw at the pyramids must not be omitted. Heaps of stones from the quarries lie in front of the pyramids. Among these are found pieces which in shape and size resemble lentils.testacea fossilia kakiensia.
Diodorus, as quoted above, says that there are no vestiges of fragments.tufstein.
It is said that the captives from Babylon revolted from the king (Sesostris), being unable to endure the sufferings to which they were exposed in the public works. They seized upon a strong place on the banks of the river, and maintained for some time a contest with the Egyptians, destroying the neighbouring district. At last, having obtained security from molestation, they made a regular settlement of the place, and called it Babylon, after their native city. Under similar circumstances, it is said, a place received the name of Troy which still exists on the banks of the Nile. For Menelaus, on his return from Troy with captives, came to Egypt. The Trojan captives revolted, took up a position, and carried on a war, until having obtained safety for themselves by treaty, they founded a city bearing the name of their native place.
I am aware that Ctesias gives a different account of these cities, and says that some of the soldiers who accompanied Semiramis in her invasion of Egypt founded these cities, and gave to them the names of their native cities. Diod. Sic. i. 56.
Next to Memphis is the city Acanthus, situated also in Libya, and the temple of Osiris, and the grove of the Thebaïc acantha, from which gum is procured. Next is the Aphroditopolite Nome, and the city in Arabia of the same name, where is kept a white cow, considered sacred. Then follows the Heracleote Nome, in a large island, near which is the canal on the right hand, which leads into Libya, in the direction of the Arsinoïte Nome; so that the canal has two entrances, a part of the island on one side being interposed between them.
We have treated these subjects at length in the First Book of the Geography. At present we shall make a few remarks on the operations of nature and of Providence conjointly.—On the operations of nature, that all things converge to a point, namely, the centre of the whole, and assume a spherical shape around it. The earth is the densest body, and nearer the centre than all others: the less dense and next to it is water; but both land and water are spheres, the first solid, the second hollow, containing the earth within it.—On the operations of Providence, that it has exercised a will, is disposed to variety, and is the artificer of innumerable works. In the first rank, as greatly surpassing all the rest, is the generation of animals, of which the most excellent are gods and men, for whose sake the rest were formed. To the gods Providence assigned heaven; and the earth to men, the extreme parts of the world; for the extreme parts of the sphere are the centre and the circumference. But since water encompasses the earth, and man is not an aquatic, but a land-animal, living in the air, and requiring much light, Providence formed many eminences and cavities in the earth, so that these cavities should receive the whole or a great part of the water which covers the land beneath it; and that the eminences should rise and conceal the water beneath them, except so much as was necessary for the use of the human race, the animals and plants about it.
+But as all things are in constant motion, and undergo great changes, (for it is not possible that things of such a nature, so numerous and vast, could be otherwise regulated in the world,) we must not suppose the earth or the water always to continue in this state, so as to retain perpetually the same bulk, without increase or diminution, or that each preserves the same fixed place, particularly as the reciprocal change of one into the other is most consonant to nature from their proximity; but that much of the land is changed into water, and a great portion of water becomes land, just as we observe great differences in the earth itself. For one kind of earth crumbles easily, another is solid and rocky, and contains iron; and so of others. There is also a variety in the quality of water; for some waters are saline, others sweet and potable, others
The lake Mœris, by its magnitude and depth, is able to sustain the superabundance of water which flows into it at the time of the rise of the river, without overflowing the inhabited and cultivated parts of the country. On the decrease of the water of the river, it distributes the excess by the same canal at each of the mouths; and both the lake and the canal preserve a remainder, which is used for irrigation. These are the natural and independent properties of the lake, but in addition, on both mouths of the canal are placed locks, by which the engineers store up and distribute the water which enters or issues from the canal.
+We have here also the Labyrinth, a work equal to the Pyramids, and adjoining to it the tomb of the king who constructed the Labyrinth.
At the end of this building, which occupies more than a stadium, is the tomb, which is a quadrangular pyramid, each side of which is about four plethra in length, and of equal height. The name of the person buried there is Imandes.
Sailing along to the distance of 100 stadia, we come to the city Arsinoë, formerly called Crocodilopolis; for the inhabitants of this nome worship the crocodile. The animal is accounted sacred, and kept apart by himself in a lake; it is tame, and gentle to the priests, and is called Suchus. It is fed with bread, flesh, and wine, which strangers who come to see it always present. Our host, a distinguished person, who was our guide in examining what was curious, accompanied us to the lake, and brought from the supper table a small cake, dressed meat, and a small vessel containing a mixture of honey and milk. We found the animal lying on the edge of the lake. The priests went up to it; some of them opened its mouth, another put the cake into it, then the meat, and afterwards poured down the honey and milk. The animal then leaped into the lake, and crossed to the other side. When another stranger arrived with his offering, the priests took it, and running round the lake, caught the crocodile, and gave him what was brought, in the same manner as before.
Next after the Arsinoïte and Heracleotic Nomes, is the city of Hercules, in which the ichneumon is worshipped, in opposition to the Arsinoïtes, who worship crocodiles;
They lie in wait for the crocodiles, when the latter are basking in the sun with their mouths open; they then drop into their jaws, and eating through their intestines and belly, issue out of the dead body.
Next follows the Cynopolite Nome and Cynopolis, where they worship the dog Anubis, and pay certain honours to dogs; a subsistence is there provided for them, as sacred animals.
+On the other side of the river is the city Oxyrynchus,
Then follows the Hermopolite Castle, a place where is collected the toll on merchandise brought down from the Thebaïs. At this place begins the reckoning by schœni of sixty stadia each, which is continued to Syene and Elephantina. Next is the Thebaïc Keep, and a canal leading to Tanis. Then follow Lycopolis, Aphroditopolis, and Panopolis, an old settlement belonging to masons and weavers of linen.
Then follows Ptolemaïs,
There is a canal which leads to this place from the great river. About the canal is a grove of Egyptian acanthus, dedicated to Apollo. Abydos seems once to have been a large city, second to Thebes. At present it is a small town. But if, as they say, Memnon is called Ismandes by the Egyptians, the Labyrinth might be a Memnonium, and the work of the same person who constructed those at Abydos and at Thebes; for in those places, it is said, are some Memnonia. In the latitude of Abydos is the first Auasis (Oasis) of the three which are said to be in Africa. It is distant from Abydos a journey of seven days through a desert. It is an inhabited place, well supplied with good water and wine, and sufficiently provided with other articles. The second is that near the lake Mœris. The third is that at the oracle of Ammon: these are considerable settlements.
Having before spoken at length of the temple of Ammon, we wish to add this only, that in ancient times divination in general and oracles were held in greater esteem than at present. Now they are greatly neglected ; for the Romans are satisfied with the oracles of the Sibyl, and with Tyrrhenian divination by the entrails of animals, the flight of birds, and portentous appearances. Hence the oracle of Ammon, which was formerly held in great esteem, is now nearly deserted. This
the prophet imitating Jupiter. This, however, the man told the king, in express terms, that he was the son of Jupiter. Callisthenes adds, (after the exaggerating style of tragedy,) that when Apollo had deserted the oracle among the Branchidæ, on the temple being plundered by the Branchidæ (who espoused the party of the Persians in the time of Xerxes,) and the spring had failed, it then re-appeared (on the arrival of Alexander); that the ambassadors also of the Milesians carried back to Memphis numerous answers of the oracle respecting the descent of Alexander from Jupiter, and the future victory which he should obtain at Arbela, the death of Darius, and the political changes at Lacedæmon. He says also that the Erythræan Athenais, who resembled the ancient Erythræan Sibyl, had declared the high descent of Alexander. Such are the accounts of historians. the son of Saturn nodded with his sable brows,
At Abydos Osiris is worshipped; but in the temple of Osiris no singer, nor player on the pipe, nor on the cithara, is permitted to perform at the commencement of the ceremonies celebrated in honour of the god, as is usual in rites celebrated in honour of the other gods. Next to Abydos is
Then follows the isthmus, extending to the Red Sea near Berenice,stations for the service of travellers on foot and on camels.
Veneris Portus
of Pliny. It was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. Harbour of the Mouse,
but more probably it means the Harbour of the Mussel,
(
Formerly, the camel-merchants travelled in the night, directing their course by observing the stars, and, like mariners, carried with them a supply of water. But now watering-places are provided: water is also obtained by digging to a great depth, and rain-water is found, although rain rarely falls, which is also collected in reservoirs. It is a journey of six or seven days.
+On this isthmus are mines, in which the emeralds and other precious stones are found by the Arabians, who dig deep subterraneous passages.
Next to the city of Apollo is Thebes, now called Diospolis,
according to Homer, who mentions also its wealth; with her hundred gates, through each of which issue two hundred men, with horses and chariots,
not all the wealth the palaces of Egyptian Thebes contain.
Other writers use the same language, and consider Thebes as the metropolis of Egypt. Vestiges of its magnitude still exist, which extend 80 stadia in length. There are a great number of temples, many of which Cambyses mutilated. The spot is at present occupied by villages. One part of it, in which is the city, lies in Arabia; another is in the country on the other side of the river, where is the Memnonium. Here are two colossal figures near one another, each consisting of a single stone. One is entire; the upper parts of the other, from the chair, are fallen down, the effect, it is said, of an earthquake. It is believed, that once a day a noise as of a slight blow issues from the part of the statue which remains
Above the Memnonium are tombs of kings in caves, and hewn out of the stone, about forty in number; they are executed with singular skill, and are worthy of notice. Among the tombstombs,
in the text, Kramer is of opinion that we should read
The priests there are said to be, for the most part, astronomers and philosophers. The former compute the days, not by the moon, but by the sun, introducing into the twelve months of thirty days each five days every year. But in order to complete the whole year, because there is (annually) an excess of a part of a day, they form a period from out of whole days and whole years, the supernumerary portions of which in that period, when collected together, amount to a day. On the one hand, it is certain that Strabo, who visited Egypt a short time after the conquest of the country by the Romans, would not have omitted to attribute to them the institution of this year, if it really belonged to them. So far from doing so, he says (above, § 29) distinctly, that this method of intercalation was known and practised by the priests of Heliopolis and Thebes. Diodorus Siculus, who visited Egypt just at the time of the first arrival of the Romans, gives the same account as Strabo. Can we therefore believe that the Egyptians before this period were ignorant of the bissextile intercalation? On the other hand; it is not less certain that this method of intercalation was only introduced into civil use at Alexandria from the time of Julius Cæsar: before this period, the incomplete year of 365 days was adopted throughout the whole of Egypt, as is attested by a host of authorities, and confirmed by the date of the Rosetta stone, which only applies to this method of reckoning. Hence we see (I.) that Julius Cæsar really obtained the idea of a fixed year of 365 1/4 days from the Egyptians, where it was employed for scientific or religious purposes only, whilst the incomplete year was the vulgar and common year; (II.) that he made this fixed year the common year, both among the Romans and Alexandrines, who were a people most readily disposed to adopt foreign innovations. It is, however, probable that the rest of Egypt preserved the ancient use of the incomplete year.
Next after Thebes is the city Hermonthis, in which both Apollo and Jupiter are worshipped. They also keep an ox there (for worship).
+Next is the city of Crocodiles, the inhabitants of which worship this animal; then Aphroditopolis (the city of Venus),
Syene is a city situated on the borders of Ethiopia and Egypt. Elephantina is an island in the Nile, at the distance of half a stadium in front of Syene; in this island is a city with a temple of Cnuphis, and a nilometer like that at Memphis. The nilometer is a well upon the banks of the Nile, constructed of close-fitting stones, on which are marked the greatest, least, and mean risings of the Nile; for the water in the well and in the river rises and subsides simultaneously. Upon the wall of the well are lines, which indicate the complete rise of the river, and other degrees of its rising. Those signs.
Coraÿ proposes measures.
The expression in the text is obscure, and the translation is a conjecture of the meaning.
At Syene there is a well which indicates the summer solstice, because these places lie under the tropical circle, At the time of Eratosthenes, the obliquity of the ecliptic was 23° 45′ 17″. Syene was therefore 20′ 6″ from being exactly under the tropic; for 24° 5′ 23″ (latitude of Syene)—23° 45′ 17″ = 20′ 6″. This would be the distance of the centre of the sun from the zenith of Syene; whence it follows that the northern limb of the sun was about 5′ from it. In the time of Strabo, the obliquity was only 23° 42′ 22″; the difference between the zenith of Syene and the northern limb of the sun was about 8′. Lastly, about 140 of the vulgar era, the obliquity was reduced to 23° 41′ 7″. Syene was then 24′ 16″ from the tropic, and its zenith was about 10′ from the northern limb of the sun; when the shadows of gnomons of any tolerable size must have been perceptible, and Syene could not have been any longer considered as lying under the tropic. As regards the well which served to ascertain the instant of the solstice, Pliny and Arrian both mention it. The formation of it no doubt belonged to a very remote period. In the time of Strabo, the rays of the sun could not have reached entirely to the bottom, but the shadow was so small that it was not sufficient to shake the ancient opinion. In fact, the angle being about 8′, and supposing the depth to have been 50 feet, the northern side would have projected a shadow of about 18 lines; the rest would have remained in fill light, and the reflexion would have caused the whole circumference of the well to appear illuminated.
Here are stationed three Roman cohorts as a guard.
A little above Elephantine is the lesser cataract, where the boatmen exhibit a sort of spectacle to the governors.
+The cataract is in the middle of the river, and is formed by a ridge of rock, the upper part [or commencement] of which is level, and thus capable of receiving the river, but terminating in a precipice, where the water dashes down. On each side towards the land there is a stream, up which is the chief ascent for vessels. The boatmen sail up by this stream, and, dropping down to the cataract, are impelled with the boat to the precipice, the crew and the boats escaping unhurt.
+A little above the cataract is Philæ, a common settlement, like Elephantina, of Ethiopians and Egyptians, and equal in size, containing Egyptian temples, where a bird, which they call hierax, (the hawk,) is worshipped; but it did not appear to me to resemble in the least the hawks of our country nor of Egypt, for it was larger, and very different in the marks of its plumage. They said that the bird was Ethiopian, and is brought from Ethiopia when its predecessor dies, or before its death. The one shown to us when we were there was sick and nearly dead.
We came from Syene to Philæ in a waggon, through a very flat country, a distance of about 100 stadia.
Throughout the whole of Egypt, the palm tree is of a bad species, and produces no good edible fruit in the places about the Delta and Alexandreia; yet the best kind is found in the Thebais. It is a subject of surprise how countries in the same latitude as Judæa, and bordering upon the Delta and Alexandreia, should be so different; for Judæa, in addition to other kinds of date-palms, produces the caryotic, which is not inferior to the Babylonian. There are, however, two kinds of dates in the Thebaïs and in Judæa, the caryotic and another. The Thebaic is firmer, but the flavour is more agreeable. There is an island remarkable for producing the best dates, and it also furnishes the largest revenue to the governors. It was appropriated to the kings, and no private person had any share in the produce; at present it belongs to the governors.
Herodotus
Egypt was from the first disposed to peace, from having resources within itself, and because it was difficult of access to strangers. It was also protected on the north by a harbourless coast and the Egyptian Sea; on the east and west by the desert mountains of Libya and Arabia, as I have said before.
At present the whole country is in the same pacific state, a proof of which is, that the upper country is sufficiently guarded by three cohorts, and these not complete. Whenever the Ethiopians have ventured to attack them, it has been at the risk of danger to their own country. The rest of the forces in Egypt are neither very numerous, nor did the Romans ever once employ them collected into one army. For neither are the Egyptians themselves of a warlike disposition, nor the surrounding nations, although their numbers are very large.
+Cornelius Gallus, the first governor of the country appointed by (Augustus) Cæsar, attacked the city Heroopolis, which had revolted,
We have before
The Ethiopians, emboldened in consequence of a part of the forces in Egypt being drawn off by Ælius Gallus, who was engaged in war with the Arabs, invaded the Thebais, and attacked the garrison, consisting of three cohorts, near Syene; surprised and took Syene, Elephantina, and Philæ, by a sudden inroad; enslaved the inhabitants, and threw down the statues of Cæsar. But Petronius, marching with less than 10,000 infantry and 800 horse against an army of 30,000 men, first compelled them to retreat to Pselchis, an Ethiopian city. He then sent deputies to demand restitution of what they had taken, and the reasons which had induced them to begin the
From Pselchis Petronius went to Premnis, Among the ruins which probably cover the site of the ancient Napata are two lions of red granite, one bearing the name of Amuneph Ill., the other Amuntuonch. They were brought to England by Lord Prudhoe, and now stand at the entrance of the Gallery of Antiquities in the British Museum. See Smith's Diet., art.
In the mean time Candace
IN the preceding part
In general, then, the extreme parts of the habitable world adjacent to the intemperate region, which is not habitable by reason either of heat or cold, must necessarily be defective and inferior, in respect to physical advantages, to the temper- the inhabitants also are small.
They live on millet and barley, from which also a drink is prepared. They have no oil, but use butter and fat instead.
Their largest royal seat is the city of Meroë, of the same name as the island. The shape of the island is said to be that of a shield. Its size is perhaps exaggerated. Its length is about 3000, and its breadth 1000 stadia. It is very mountainous, and contains great forests. The inhabitants are nomades, who are partly hunters and partly husbandmen. There are also mines of copper, iron, gold, and various kinds of precious stones. It is surrounded on the side of Libya by great hills of sand, and on that of Arabia by continuous precipices. In the higher parts on the south, it is bounded by the confluentis within the compass of.
Above Meroë is Psebo,
The Ethiopians use bows of wood four cubits long, and hardened in the fire. The women also are armed, most of whom wear in the upper lip a copper ring. They wear sheepskins, without wool; for the sheep have hair like goats. Some go naked, or wear small skins or girdles of well-woven hair round the loins.
+They regard as God one being who is immortal, the cause of all things; another who is mortal, a being without a name, whose nature is not clearly understood.
+In general they consider as gods benefactors and royal persons, some of whom are their kings, the common saviours and guardians of all; others are private persons, esteemed as gods by those who have individually received benefits from them.
+Of those who inhabit the torrid region, some are even supposed not to acknowledge any god, and are said to abhor even the sun, and to apply opprobrious names to him, when they behold him rising, because he scorches and tortures them with his heat; these people take refuge in the marshes.
+The inhabitants of Meroë worship Hercules, Pan, and Isis, besides some other barbaric deity.
Some tribes throw the dead into the river; others keep them in the house, enclosed in hyalus (oriental alabaster ?).
Kings are appointed from among persons distinguished for their personal beauty, or by their breeding of cattle, or for their courage, or their riches.
+In Meroë the priests anciently held the highest rank, and sometimes sent orders even to the king, by a messenger, to put an end to himself, when they appointed another king in his place. At last one of their kings abolished this custom, by going with an armed body to the temple where the golden shrine is, and slaughtering all the priests.
+The following custom exists among the Ethiopians. If a king is mutilated in any part of the body, those who are most attached to his person, as attendants, mutilate themselves in the same manner, and even die with him. Hence the king is guarded with the utmost care. This will suffice on the subject of Ethiopia.
To what has been said concerning Egypt, we must add these peculiar products; for instance, the Egyptian bean, as it is called, from which is obtained the ciborium,
There are in the Nile fish in great quantity and of different kinds, having a peculiar and indigenous character. The best known are the oxyrynchus,
The animals peculiar to the country are the ichneumon and the Egyptian asp, having some properties which those in other places do not possess. There are two kinds, one a span in length, whose bite is more suddenly mortal than that of the other; the second is nearly an orguia
Among the birds, are the ibis and the Egyptian hawk, which, like the cat, is more tame than those elsewhere. The nycticorax is here peculiar in its character; for with us it is as large as an eagle, and its cry is harsh; but in Egypt it is the size of a jay, and has a different note. The tamest animal, however, is the ibis; it resembles a stork in shape and size. There are two kinds, which differ in colour; one is like a stork, the other is entirely black. Every street in Alexandreia is full of them. In some respects they are useful; in others troublesome. They are useful, because they pick up all sorts of small animals and the offal thrown out of the butchers' and cooks' shops. They are troublesome, because they devour everything, are dirty, and with difficulty prevented from polluting in every way what is clean and what is not given to them.
Herodotus
The coccina are Egyptian textures made of some plant,cuci
(b. xiii. 9): At e diverse, cuci in magno honore, palmæ similis, quando et ejus foliis utuntur ad textilia.
Barley beet is a preparation peculiar to the Egyptians. It is common among many tribes, but the mode of preparing it differs in each.
+This, however, of all their usages is most to be admired, that they bring up all children that are born. They circumcise the males, and spay the females, as is the custom also among the Jews, who are of Egyptian origin, as I said when I was treating of them.
According to Aristobulus, no fishes ascend the Nile from the sea, except the cestreus, the thrissa, and dolphins, on account of the crocodiles; the dolphin, because it can get the better of the crocodile; the cestreus, because it is accompanied by the chœri along the bank, in consequence of some physical affinity subsisting between them. The crocodiles abstain from doing any hurt to the chœri, because they are of a round shape, and have spines on their heads, which are dangerous to them.. The cestreus runs up the river in spring, when in spawn; and descends a little before the setting of the pleiad, in great numbers, when about to cast it, at which time they are taken in shoals, by falling into inclosures (made for catching them). Such also, we may conjecture, is the reason why the thrissa is found there.
+So much then on the subject of Egypt.
WE shall next describe Africa, which is the remaining portion of the whole description of the earth.
+We have before said much respecting it; but at present I shall further describe what suits my purpose, and add what has not been previously mentioned.
The writers who have divided the habitable world according to continents, divide it unequally. But a threefold division denotes a division into three equal parts. Africa, however, wants so much of being a third part of the habitable world, that, even if it were united to Europe, it would not be equal to Asia; perhaps it is even less than Europe; in resources it is very much inferior, for a great part of the inland and maritime country is desert. It is spotted over with small habitable parts, which are scattered about, and mostly belonging to nomade tribes. Besides the desert state of the country, its being a nursery of wild beasts is a hindrance to settlement in parts which could be inhabited. It comprises also a large part of the torrid zone.
+All the sea-coast in our quarter, situated between the Nile and the Pillars, particularly that which belonged to the Carthaginians, is fertile and inhabited. And even in this tract, some spots destitute of water intervene, as those about the Syrtes, the Marmaridæ, and the Catabathmus.
+The shape of Africa is that of a right-angled triangle, if we imagine its figure to be drawn on a plane surface. Its base is the coast opposite to us, extending from Egypt and the Nile to Mauretania and the Pillars; at right angles to this is a side formed by the Nile to Ethiopia, which side we continue to the ocean; the hypothenuse of the right angle is the whole tract of sea-coast lying between Ethiopia and Mauretania.
+As the part situated at the vertex of the above-mentioned figure, and lying almost entirely under the torrid zone, is inaccessible, we speak of it from conjecture, and therefore cannot say what is the greatest breadth of the country. In a former
Here dwell a people called by the Greeks Maurusii, and by the Romans and the natives Mauri, a populous and flourishing African nation, situated opposite to Spain, on the other side of the strait, at the Pillars of Hercules, which we have frequently mentioned before. On proceeding beyond the strait at the Pillars, with Africa on the left hand, we come to a mountain which the Greeks call Atlas, and the barbarians Dyris. Thence projects into the sea a point formed by the foot of the mountain towards the west of Mauretania, and called the Coteis.
Historians, beginning with the voyage of Ophelas (Apellas ?),
It is said, that the Sinus Emporicus (or merchants' bay) has a cave which admits the sea at high tide to the distance even of seven stadia, and in front of this bay a low and level tract with an altar of Hercules upon it, which, they say, is not covered by the tide. This I, of course, consider to be one of the fictitious stories. Like this is the tale, that on other bays in the succeeding coast there were ancient settlements of Tyrians, now abandoned, which consisted of not less than three hundred cities, and were destroyed by the PharusiiThe men of Pheres (the common version reads Persia) and Lud and Phut were in thine armies.
These Pheres thus joined with Phut, or Mauretanians, and the Ludim, who were nomads of Africa (the Septuagint and the Vulgate understand the Lydians), may be reasonably supposed to belong to the same region. Without the vowel points, the name will represent the powerful and warlike tribe whom the Greeks call Pharusii.
Writers in general are agreed that Mauretania is a fertile country, except a small part which is desert, and is supplied with water by rivers and lakes. It has forests of trees of vast size, and the soil produces everything. It is this country which furnishes the Romans with tables, formed of one piece of wood, of the largest dimensions, and most beautifully variegated. The rivers are said to contain crocodiles and other kinds of animals similar to those in the Nile. Some suppose that even the sources of the Nile are near the extremities of Mauretania. In a certain river leeches are bred seven cubits in length, with gills, pierced through with holes, through which they respire. This country is also said to
Above Mauretania, on the exterior sea (the Atlantic), is the country of the western Ethiopians, as they are called, which, for the most part, is badly inhabited. Iphicrates
On sailing into the interior sea, from Lynx, there are ZelisNear the river is a large promontory, and a neighbouring settlement called Metagonium.
Kramer's proposed correction is followed.
Although the Mauretanians inhabit a country, the greatest part of which is very fertile, yet the people in general continue even to this time to live like nomades. They bestow care to improve their looks by plaiting their hair, trimming their beards, by wearing golden ornaments, cleaning their teeth, and paring their nails; and you would rarely see them
They fight for the most part on horseback, with a javelin; and ride on the bare back of the horse, with bridles made of rushes. They have also swords. The foot-soldiers present against the enemy, as shields, the skins of elephants. They wear the skins of lions, panthers, and bears, and sleep in them. These tribes, and the Masæsylii next to them, and for the most part the Africans in general, wear the same dress and arms, and resemble one another in other respects; they ride horses which are small, but spirited and tractable, so as to be guided by a switch. They have collarsof cotton.
They have a small shield of leather, and small lances with broad heads. Their tunics are loose, with wide borders; their cloak is a skin, as I have said before, which serves also as a breastplate.
+The Pharusii and Nigretes, who live above these people, near the western Ethiopians, use bows and arrows, like the Ethiopians. They have chariots also, armed with scythes. The Pharusii rarely have any intercourse with the Mauretanians in passing through the desert country, as they carry skins filled with water, fastened under the bellies of their horses. Sometimes, indeed, they come to Cirta,
Artemidorus censures Eratosthenes for saying that there is a city called Lixus, and not Lynx, near the extremities of Mauretania; that there are a very great number of Phoenician cities destroyed,there existed in the Bay Emporicus very many Phœnician cities.
Gabinius, the Roman historian, indulges in relating marvellous stories of Mauretania. He speaks of a sepulchre of Antæus at Lynx, and a skeleton of sixty feet in length, which Sertorius exposed, and afterwards covered it with earth.
Next to Mauretania is the country of the Masesylii, beginning from the river Molocath, and ending at the promontory which is called Tretum,
Upon the sea-coast are many cities and rivers, and a country which is very fertile. It will be sufficient to mention the most renowned. The city of Siga.
Deep in the interior of the country are mountainous and desert tracts scattered here and there, some of which are inhabited and occupied by Gætuli extending to the Syrtes. But the parts near the sea are fertile plains, in which are numerous cities, rivers, and lakes.
Poseidonius says, but I do not know whether truly, that Africa is traversed by few, and those small rivers; yet he speaks of the same rivers, namely those between Lynx and Carthage, which Artemidorus describes as numerous and large. This may be asserted with more truth of the interior of the country, and he himself assigns the reason of it, namely, that in the northern parts of Africa (and the same is said of Ethiopia) there is no rain; in consequence therefore of the drought, pestilence frequently ensues, the lakes are filled with mud only, and locusts appear in clouds.
+Poseidonius besides asserts that the eastern parts are moist, because the sun quickly changes its place after rising; and that the western parts are dry, because the sun there turns in his course. Now, drought and moisture depend upon the abundance or scarcity of water, and on the presence or absence of the sun's rays. But Poseidonius means to speak of the effects produced by the sun, which all writers determine by the latitude, north or south; but east and west, as applied to the residence of men, differ in different places, according to
Somewhere there, also, are copper mines; and a spring of asphaltus; scorpions of enormous size,of seven joints
in the tail; the correction of Letronne, which Kramer supports, is adopted. Groskurd however retains the text, and reads of enormous size, and sometimes of seven joints.
On this coast was a city called Iol,
The country on the side of Mauretania produced a greater revenue and was more powerful, whilst that near Carthage and of the Masylies was more flourishing and better furnished with buildings, although it suffered first in the Carthaginian wars, and subsequently during the war with Jugurtha, who successfully besieged Adarbal in Ityca (Utica),Douar,
which has a holy tomb called Boushatter, and with this view many writers have agreed. Adherbal, however, was besieged and captured in Cirta (Constantine), B. C.
After Tretum follows the territory of the Masylies, and that of the Carthaginians which borders upon it. In the interior is Cirta, the royal residence of Masanasses and his successors. It is a very strong place and well provided with everything, which it principally owes to Micipsa, who established a colony of Greeks in it, and raised it to such importance, that it was capable of sending out 10,000 cavalry and twice as many infantry. Here, besides Cirta, are the two cities Hippo,
Carthage is situated upon a peninsula, comprising a circuit of 360 stadia, with a wall, of which sixty stadia in length are upon the neck of the peninsula, and reach from sea to sea. Here the Carthaginians kept their elephants, it being a wide open place. In the middle of the city was the acropolis, which they called Byrsa, a hill of tolerable height with dwellings round it. On the summit was the temple of Esculapius, which was destroyed when the wife of Asdrubas burnt herself to death there, on the capture of the city. Below the Acropolis were the harbours and the Cothon, a circular island, surrounded by a canal communicating with the sea (Euripus), and on every side of it (upon the canal) were situated sheds for vessels.
Carthage was founded by Dido, who brought her people from Tyre. Both this colony and the settlements in Spain and beyond the Pillars proved so successful to the Phoenicians, that even to the present day they occupy the best parts on the continent of Europe and the neighbouring islands. They obtained possession of the whole of Africa, with the exception of such parts as could only be held by nomade tribes. From the power they acquired they raised a city to rival Rome, and waged three great wars against her. Their power became most conspicuous in the last war, in which they were vanquished by Scipio Æmilianus, and their city was totally destroyed. For at the commencement of this war, they possessed 300 cities in Africa, and the population of Carthage amounted to 700,000 inhabitants. After being besieged and compelled to surrender, they delivered up 200,000 complete suits of armour and 3000
Carthage, though so great, was yet taken and levelled to the ground.
+The Romans made a province of that part of the country which had been subject to Carthage, and appointed ruler of the rest Masanasses and his descendants, beginning with Micipsa. For the Romans paid particular attention to Masanasses on account of his great abilities and friendship for them. For
About the middle of the gulf of Carthage is the island Corsura. Ægimurus is the small island Zembra, near Cape Bon; near it is also another small low rocky island. From the shape and appearance of the former, more especially in some positions, we may attribute the name Aræ (altars), given to them, as in Pliny: Ægimuree Aræ, scopuli verius quam insulæ;
and they are the Aræ
of Virgil, Æn. i. 108.
Close, in the neighbourhood (of these islands), is the Little Syrtis, which is also called the Syrtis Lotophagitis (or the lotus-eating Syrtis). The circuit of this gulf is lotus-zizyphus
or the carob now common in the islands of the Mediterranean and on the continent.land of the lotus-eaters
After the Syrtis, follows the lake Zuchis, 400 stadia (in circuit?), with a narrow entrance, where is situated a city of the same name, containing factories for purple dyeing and for salting of all kinds; then follows another lake much smaller; after this the city Abrotonon
Above the sea-coast from Carthage to Cephalæ (on the one hand) and to the territory of the Masæsyli (on the other) lies the territory of the Libo-Phœnicians, extending (into the interior) to the mountainous country of the Gætuli, which belongs to Africa Proper. Above the Gætuli is the country of the Garamantes, lying parallel to the former, and from whence are brought the Carthaginian pebbles (carbuncles). The Garamantes are said to be distant from the Ethiopians, who live on the borders of the ocean, nine or ten days' journey, and from the temple of Ammon fifteen days. Between the Gætuli and the coast of our sea (the Mediterranean) there are many plains and many mountains, great lakes and rivers, some of which sink into the earth and disappear. The inhabitants are simple in their mode of life and in their dress; they marry numerous wives, and have a numerous offspring; in other respects they resemble the nomade Arabians. The
The breeding of horses is most carefully attended to by the kings (of the country); so much so, that the number of colts is yearly calculated at 100,000. Sheep are fed with milk and flesh, particularly near Ethiopia. These are the customs of the interior.
The circuit of the Great Syrtis is about 3930 stadia,
On a promontory called Pseudopenias is situated Berenice, near a lake Tritonis, in which is to be observed a small island with a temple of Venus upon it. There also is a lake of the Hesperides, into which flows a river (called) Lathon. On this side of Berenice is a small promontory called Boreion
Cyrene was founded by the inhabitants of Thera,
The harbour of Cyrene is situated opposite to Criu-Metopon,Calliste once its name, but Thera in later times, the mother of my home, famed for its steeds.
Bordering upon Cyrenaica is the district which produces silphium, and the juice called Cyrenaic, which the silphium discharges from incisions made in it. The plant was once
Remarkable persons of Cyrene were Aristippus,
The rest of the sea-coast of Cyrene from Apollonia to Catabathmus is 2200 stadia in length; it does not throughout afford facilities for coasting along it; for harbours, anchorage, habitations, and watering-places are few. The places most in repute along the coast are the Naustathmus,
The country deep in the interior, and above the Syrtis and Cyrenæa, a very sterile and dry tract, is in the possession of Libyans. First are the Nasamones, then Psylli, and some Gætuli, then Garamantes; somewhat more towards the east (than the Nasamones) are the Marmaridæ, who are situated for the most part on the boundaries of Cyrenæa, and extend to the temple of Ammon. It is asserted, that persons directing their course from the recess of the Great Syrtis, (namely,) from about the neighbourhood of Automala,
Above these parts is the district which produces silphium, then follows the uninhabited tract, and the country of the Garamantes. The district which produces silphium is narrow, long, and dry, extending in an easterly direction about 1000 stadia, but in breadth 300 stadia, or rather more, at least as far as has been ascertained. For we may conjecture that all countries which lie on the same parallel (of latitude) have the same climate, and produce the same plants; but since many deserts intervene, we cannot know every place. In like manner, we have no information respecting the country beyond (the temple of) Ammon, nor of the oases, as far as Ethiopia, nor can we state distinctly what are the boundaries of Ethiopia, nor of Africa, nor even of the country close upon Egypt, still less of the parts bordering on the ocean.
Such, then, is the disposition of the parts of the world which we inhabit.We call that (part of the temperate zone) the habitable earth (
The latitudes of Athens and Washington do not differ by one degree.
It has been already stated
Of the three continents, they possess nearly the whole of Europe, with the exception only of the parts beyond the Danube, (to the north,) and the tracts on the verge of the ocean, comprehended between the Rhine and the Tanaïs (Don).
+Of Africa, the whole sea-coast on the Mediterranean is in their power; the rest of that country is uninhabited, or the inhabitants only lead a miserable and nomade life.
+Of Asia likewise, the whole sea-coast in our direction (on the west) is subject to them, unless indeed any account is to be taken of the Achei, Zygi, and Heniochi,
Of all these countries some are governed by (native) kings, but the rest are under the immediate authority of Rome, under the title of provinces, to which are sent governors and collectors of tribute; there are also some free cities, which from the first sought the friendship of Rome, or obtained their freedom as a mark of honour. Subject to her also are some princes, chiefs of tribes, and priests, who (are permitted) to live in conformity with their national laws.
The division into provinces has varied at different periods, but at present it is that established by Augustus Cæsar; for after the sovereign power had been conferred upon him by his country for life, and he had become the arbiter of peace and war, he divided the whole empire into two parts, one of which he reserved to himself, the other he assigned to the (Roman) people. The former consisted of such parts as required military defence, and were barbarian, or bordered upon nations not as yet subdued, or were barren and uncultivated, which though ill provided with everything else, were yet well furnished with strongholds. and might thus dispose provinces of Cæsar
and provinces of the People.
To the former provinces Cæsar appoints governors and administrators, and divides the (various) countries sometimes in one way, sometimes in another, directing his political conduct according to circumstances.
+But the people appoint commanders and consuls to their own provinces, which are also subject to divers divisions when expediency requires it.
+(Augustus Cæsar) in his first organization of (the Empire) created two consular governments, namely, (1.) the whole of Africa in possession of the Romans, excepting that part which was under the authority, first of Juba, but now of his son Ptolemy; and (2.) Asia within the Halys and Taurus, except the Galatians and the nations under Amyntas, Bithynia, and the Propontis. He appointed also ten consular governments in Europe and in the adjacent islands. Iberia Ulterior (Further Spain) about the river Bætis
Cæsar possesses other provinces, to the government of which he appoints men of consular rank, commanders of armies, or knights;
The philosophical sect to which he belonged was the Stoic, - -as plainly appears from many passages in his Geography. -
He wrote a History, which he describes (vol. i. p. 21) as
-
-composed in a lucid style; it is cited by Plutarch, and also by
-
-
-
-
Strabo was a great traveller, and apparently had no professional or other occupation. We may therefore conclude
-
-that his father left him a good property. Much of his geographical information is the result of personal observation.
-
-In a passage of his 2nd bookOur descriptions shall consist of what we ourselves have observed in
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-our travels by land and sea, and of what we conceive to be
-
-credible in the statements and writings of others; for in a westerly direction we have travelled from Armenia to that part of
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-Tyrrhenia which is over against Sardinia; and southward, from
-
-the Euxine to the frontiers of Ethiopia. Of all the writers on
-
-geography, not one can be mentioned who has travelled over
-
-a wider extent of the countries described than we have. Some
-
-may have gone farther to the west, but then they have never
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-been so far east as we have; again, others may have been
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-farther east, but not so far west; and the same with respect
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-to north and south. However, in the main, both we and they
-
-have availed ourselves of the reports of others, from which to
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-describe the form, size, and other peculiarities of the country.
-
-He mentions having been in Egypt, the island Gyarus, Populonium near Elba, Comana in Cappadocia, Ephesus, Mylasa,
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-Nysa, and Hierapolis in Phrygia. He visited Corinth, Argos,
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-Athens, and Megara; but, on the whole, he does not appear to
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-have seen more of Greece than in passing through it on his
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-way to Brundusium, while proceeding to Rome. Populonium
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-and Luna in Italy were the limit of his travels northwards.
-
-It is probable he obtained his information as to Spain, France,
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-Britain, and Germany, while staying at Rome.
-
The first systematic writer on geography was Eratosthenes,
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-who died at the age of 80, about B. C.
There is no ground for considering the Geography of Strabo
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-an improved edition of that of Eratosthenes. Strabo's work
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-was intended for the information of persons in the higher departments of administration, and contains such geographical
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-and historical information as those engaged in political em-
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-
-
-
Strabo's authorities are for the most part Greek, and he
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-seems to have neglected the Latin memoirs and historical
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-narratives of the campaigns of the Romans, which might have
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-furnished him with many valuable geographical facts for the
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-countries as well of Asia as of Europe. He made some use
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-of Cæsar's description of France, the Alps, and Britain; he
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-alludes to the voyage of Publius Crassus in speaking of the
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-Cassiterides, and also the writings of Asinius Pollio, Fabius
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-Pictor, and an anonymous writer whom he calls the Chorographer; but he might have obtained much additional inform-
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-
-
-
Strabo considered that mathematical and astronomical
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-knowledge was indispensable to the science of geography; he
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-says in book i.,our
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-gnomons are, among other things, evidence of the revolution
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-of the heavenly bodies, and common sense at once shows us
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-that if the depth of the earth were infinite, such a revolution
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-could not take place.
With regard to the lost continent of Atlantis, Strabo is
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-very cautious in criticisinghe
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-did well, too, in citing the opinion of Plato, that the tradition
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-concerning the island of Atlantis might be received as something more than a mere fiction, it having been related by
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-Solon, on the authority of the Egyptian priests, that this
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-island, almost as large as a continent, was formerly in existence, although now it had disappeared,
and remarks that
-
-Poseidonius thought it better to quote this than to say, He
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-who brought it into existence can also cause it to disappear,
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-as the poet did the wall of the Achivi.
-
The measure adopted by Strabo was the stadium. In book
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-
-
-From Apollonia to Macedonia is
-
-the Egnatian Way; its direction is towards the east, and the
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-distance is measured by pillars at every mile, as far as Cypsela and the river Hebrus. The whole distance is 535 miles.
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-But reckoning, as the generality of persons do, a mile at eight
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-stadia, there may be 4280 stadia. And, according to Polybius, who adds two plethra, which are a third of a stadium,
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-to every eight stadia we must add 178 stadia more,—a third
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-part of the number of miles.
In book xi. chap. xi. § 5, he
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-compares the parasang with the stadium, and states that some
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-writers reckoned it at 60, others at 40, and others at 30 stadia.
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Dr. Smith, in his Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, says, We think that Ukert has satisfactorily shown
-
-an accurate description of a place should be particular to add
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-its astronomical and geometrical relations, explaining care
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-fully its extent, distance, degrees of latitude, and temperature
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-of atmosphere. He says likewise, as the size of the earth has
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-been demonstrated by other writers, we shall take for granted
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-that the Greeks had not different standards of length, but
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-always used the Olympic stadium and the foot corresponding
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-to it. He states that the stadium was equal to 600 Greek, or
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-625 Roman feet, or to 125 Roman paces, and the Roman
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-mile contained 8 stadia. Hence the stadium contained 606
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-feet 9 inches, English. This standard prevailed throughout
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-Greece under the name of the Olympic stadium, because it
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-was the exact length of the stadium or foot-race course at
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-Olympia, measured between the pillars at the two extremities
-
-of the course.
Still Dr. Smith further observes, But although
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-the stadium and the foot connected with it were single definite
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-measures throughout Greece, yet we find in the eastern countries, Babylon, Syria, and Egypt, and in some neighboring
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-Greek states, feet longer than the Olympic, the origin of which
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-is to be explained by the coëxistence, in the Babylonian system, of a
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We may conclude that Strabo's stadium varied considerably,
-
-as he sometimes received his distance from personal observation or credible report, and often quoted other writers, and
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-reduced other standards, as the mile, the parasang, and the
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-
-
-
Siebenkees and Heeren (De Fontibus Geographicorum Strabonis) have examined the authorities to which Strabo had, or - -might have had, access, and Groskurd has availed himself - -of their researches. -
The following is a short summary of the seventeen books - -from these sources, but for a more detailed account of their - -contents the translation itself must be referred to. -
The first two books may be considered as an independent - -treatise, and by themselves form a remarkable contrast with - -the rest of the work, in the manner of treating the subjects, - -and in the difficulties which they present both of language - -and matter. -
In the 1st book, the author enters into a long discussion
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-on the merits of Homer, whom he considers to have been
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-the earliest geographer, and defends him against the errors
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-and misconceptions of Eratosthenes. He corrects some faults
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-of Eratosthenes, and, in his inquiry concerning the natural
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-changes of the earth's surface defends Eratosthenes against
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-Hipparchus. In conclusion, he again corrects Eratosthenes
-
-as regards the magnitude and divisions of the inhabited world.
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-The most remarkable passage in this book is that in which
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-he conjectures the existence of the great Western Continents.
The 2nd book is chiefly occupied with some accounts of
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-mathematical geography, and the Author defends against
-
-Hipparchus the division of the inhabited world adopted by
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-Eratosthenes into sections. Then follows a criticism of the
-
-division of the earth into six zones, as taught by Poseidonius
-
-and Polybius. The pretended circumnavigation of Africa by
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-Eudoxus is referred to, as well as some geographical errors of
-
-Polybius. He makes observations of his own on the form and
-
-size of the earth in general, as well as of the inhabited portion
-
-of it, describing the method of representing it on a spherical
-
-or plane surface. A short outline is given of seas, countries,
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-
-
-
The 3rd book commences with Iberia, and the subject of - -Europe is continued to the end of the 10th book. His references - -are the Periplus of Artemidorus, Polybius, and Poseidonius; - -all three of whom wrote as eye-witnesses. For descriptions and - -measurement of distances, Artemidorus is chiefly depended - -upon. The information possessed by Eratosthenes of these - -countries was meagre and uncertain. For the nations of - -southern Iberia, he adopts the account of Asclepiades of Myrlea, - -who had lived and been educated there. Some statements also - -are borrowed from Roman authors. -
The 4th book contains Gallia, according to the four divisions then existing, viz. Gallia Narbonensis, Acquitanensis, - -Lugdunensis, and the Belgæ; also Britain, with Ierne, and - -Thule; and lastly, the Alps. -
Here Eratosthenes and Ephorus are of little service. His
-
-chief guide is Julius Caesar, whom he frequently quotes
The 5th book commences with a general sketch of Italy, - -and refers principally to northern Italy. Dividing its history - -into ancient and modern, his chief reference for the former is - -Polybius, and for the latter we are indebted to the observations of the author himself, or to accounts received from others. - -Still the description of Upper Italy is poor and unsatisfactory, - -from the author not sufficiently availing himself of Roman - -resources. Then follows some account of Etruria with its - -neighbouring islands, Umbria, Samnium, Latium, and Rome, - -chiefly the result of the author's own researches and observations. The book concludes with some remarks on the inhabitants of the mountainous districts of Samnium and Campania. -
The 6th book is a continuation of the same subject. Magna
-
-Græcia, Sicily, and the adjacent islands, are noticed, and the
-
-author concludes with a short discussion on the extent of the
-
-Roman Empire. Descriptions of some places are from his
-
-own observations; but the sources whence he takes his
-
-
-
-
The 7th book relates, first, to the people north of the Danube, - -—the Germans, Cimbri, Getæ, Dacians (particularly the European Scythians), and the Crimea; secondly, to the people - -south of the Danube, viz. those inhabiting Illyricum, Pannonia, Dalmatia, the eastern coast of Thrace to the Euxine, Epirus, Macedonia, Thrace, and the Hellespont. The latter part - -of this book is not preserved entire in any manuscript, but - -Kramer has, in his own opinion, succeeded in restoring from - -the epitomes left to us the greater part of what was wanting. - -Of Germany, Strabo had tolerable information, but he nowhere states whence it is derived; he may have been partly - -indebted to Asinius Pollio, whose work he had already examined for the Rhine. For the remaining northern countries, - -he had Poseidonius and the historians of the Mithridatic war. - -For the southern countries, he had a lost work of Aristotle on - -forms of government, Polybius, Poseidonius, and his chief - -disciples, Theopompus and Ephorus. Incidentally also he - -quotes Homer and his interpreters, and Philochorus. -
The three following books are dedicated to the description of
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-Greece, with the adjacent islands. The 8th comprises the
-
-Peloponnesus and its well-known seven provinces, Elis, Messenia, Laconia, Argolis, Corinthia with Sicyonia, Achaia, and
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-Arcadia: the 9th, Attica, with Megaris, Bœotia, Phocis, both
-
-Locri and Thessaly: the 10th, Eubœa, Ætolia, and Acarnania,
-
-with the islands. After a long digression on the subject of
-
-the Curetes, the description of Europe closes with some account of Crete and the islands of the Ægean Sea. The design
-
-and construction of these three books differ considerably from
-
-the preceding. Homer is adopted as the foundation of his
-
-geographical descriptions; some things Strabo must have
-
-learnt as an eye-witness, but more from
The 11th book commences with the description of the countries separated from Europe by the Tanaïs or Don. Asia is divided by our author (who here follows Eratosthenes) into two - -parts by the Taurus, which runs in a direction east and west. - -The northern part of Asia (or this side Taurus) is divided into - -four parts. The first part comprises the countries lying between the Don, the Sea of Azoff, the Euxine, and the Caspian; - -the second, the countries east of the Caspian; and the third, - -the countries south of Caucasus. These three parts of the - -first or northern division of Asia are contained in the 10th - -book; the remaining fourth part occupies the 12th, 13th, and - -14th books. -
The chief authorities for the first part are, besides information obtained from travellers and merchants at Amasia, - -Herodotus for the Don; Artemidorus and Eratosthenes for - -distances; Poseidonius and Theophanes of Mitylene, historians, - -of the Mithridatic war; Metrodorus of Skepsis; Hypsicrates - -of Amisus; and Cleitarchus for the digression on the Amazons. -
For the second part, are principally Patrocles and Aristobulus, historians of the Asiatic campaigns of Alexander. - -For the third part, or Media and Armenia, are, Dellius, who - -wrote a history of the war against the Parthians, in which he - -had served under Antony; Apollonides of Nicæa, who wrote - -a Periplus of Europe; and other writers before mentioned. -
The 12th book commences with a detailed account of Anatolia, and contains the northern part. It was to have been
-
-expected that Strabo would have described most of these
-
-countries as an eye-witness, lying, as they do, so near his native country, Cappadocia. But this expectation vanishes,
-
-when we discover the meagreness of his account. With the
-
-exception of Pontus and Cappadocia, he had seen little of the
-
-rest, and depends upon historians and oral information. For
-
-earlier times, his authorities are Herodotus, Hellanicus, Theopompus, Ephorus, Artemidorus, Apollodorus, and Demetrius
-
-of Skepsis; for later times, historians of the wars of Mithridates and Pompey. For the ancient history of the Mysians
-
-and Phrygians, he is indebted to the celebrated Lydian historian Xanthus, and Menecrates.
-
-
-
-
The 13th book continues the description of Anatolia. The - -greater part of the book is occupied with a dissertation on the - -Troad. Strabo had travelled over the country himself, but - -his great authority is Homer and Demetrius of Skepsis, the - -author of a work in twenty-six books, containing an historical - -and geographical commentary on that part of the second book - -of the Iliad, in which the forces of the Trojans are enumerated. - -A learned digression on the Leleges, Cilices, and Pelasgi, who - -preceded the Æolians and Ionians in the occupation of the - -country, is principally taken from Menecrates and Demetrius - -of Skepsis. The description then turns to the interior, and - -the account of the Æolian cities is probably due to Poseidonius. Throughout this book are evidences of great care and - -desire for accuracy. -
The 14th book continues with the remainder of Anatolia, - -and an account of the islands Samos, Chios, Rhodes, and Cyprus. - -The authorities followed are, on the whole, the same as in the - -previous book—Herodotus, Thucydides, Ephorus, Artemidorus, - -Eratosthenes, and Poseidonius; besides Pherecydes of Syros - -who wrote on the Ionian migration, and Anaximenes of Lampsacus, the author of a history in Greek of the Milesian colonies. For Caria, he had the historians of Alexander and an - -author named Philip, who wrote on the Leleges and Carians. - -For Cyprus he had Damastes and Eratosthenes. -
The 15th and 16th books contain a description of the second
-
-portion of Asia, namely, the southern or the other side of
-
-Taurus. In the 15th book, Strabo describes India and Persia,
-
-the latter in two chief divisions, viz. Ariana or East Persia,
-
-and Persis or West Persia. These countries Strabo never
-
-saw; his description, therefore, is founded on the authority of
-
-travellers and historians. The topography of India is meagre,
-
-and limited to a few towns and rivers; but his account of the
-
-people of the country is more copious, he being supplied
-
-with materials from the historians of Alexander and of the
-
-campaigns of Seleucus in India. He looks on Megasthenes,
-
-Onesicritus, Deimachus, and Cleitarchus as fabulous writers:
-
-but his confidence rests chiefly on Patrocles, Aristobulus (one of
-
-the companions and historians of Alexander), and Nearchus,
-
-the chief commander of Alexander's fleet. Artemidorus
-
-and Nicolaus of Damascus are occasionally consulted. For
-
-Ariana or East Persia, he had for his principal authority Era-
-
-
-
-
In the 16th book, he describes the westerly half of south - -Asia, viz. Assyria with Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Syria, - -Phoenicia, and Palestine, the Persian and Arabian Gulfs, the - -coast of Ethiopia, and lastly, Arabia. For the three first countries (the old Assyrian kingdom), his chief authorities are, - -besides some of Alexander's historians, Eratosthenes, Poseidonius, and Herodotus; for the remainder he had, in addition to - -the same writers, Artemidorus, and probably also Nicolaus of - -Damascus. The account of Moses and the Jews, Heeren surmises, comes from Poseidonius, but it probably proceeds from - -oral communication had in Egypt; of these countries our author - -could describe nothing as an eye-witness, except the northwest of Syria. The accounts of Arabia, the Indian and the - -Red Seas, are from Agatharchides; and much that he describes - -of Arabia was obtained from his friends, Ælius Gallus and - -the Stoic, Athenodorus. -
The 17th book concludes the work with the description of
-
-Egypt, Ethiopia, and the north coast of Africa. Strabo had
-
-travelled through the whole of Egypt, as far as Syene and
-
-Philæ, and writes with the decided tone of an eye-witness.
-
-Much verbal information, also, he collected at Alexandria.
-
-His most important written authorities are, for the Nile, Eratosthenes (who borrowed from Aristotle), Eudoxus, and Aristo.
-
-For the most remarkable events of Egyptian history, he had
-
-Polybius, and for later times probably Poseidonius, besides
For the oracle at Ammon, he had the historians of Alexander; for Ethiopia, the accounts of Petronius, who had carried on war there, Agatharchides, and Herodotus. Of Libya - -or Africa Proper he had nothing new or authentic to say. - -Besides Eratosthenes, Artemidorus, and Poseidonius, his chief - -authorities, he had Iphicrates, who wrote on the plants and - -animals of Libya. The whole concludes with a short notice - -of the Roman Empire. -
The dates at which particular books were written, as attempted to be given by Groskurd and Coraÿ, must be received with caution. -
In book iv. c. vi. § 9, Strabo says that the Carni and Tau-
-
-
-
-
In book vi. c. iv. § 2, Cæsar Germanicus is spoken of as
-
-still living. He died in Syria, A. D.
In book xii. c. viii. § 11, Strabo says that Cyzicus was
-
-still a free state. It lost its liberty A. D.
The codices or manuscripts which exist of Strabo's work
-
-appear to be copies of a single manuscript existing in the
-
-middle ages, but now lost. From the striking agreement of
-
-errors and omissions in all now extant (with such differences
-
-only as can be accounted for, arising from the want of ability
-
-or carelessness of the copyist), it appears most probable that
-
-to this single manuscript we are indebted for the preservation
-
-of the work. Strabo himself describes the carelessness of
-
-bad scribes both at Rome and Alexandria,Some vendors of books, also, employed
-
-bad scribes and neglected to compare the copies with the
-
-originals. This happens in the case of other books, which
-
-are copied for sale both here and at Alexandria.
After what
-
-Kramer has done for the text, we can hope for little improvement, unless, what is beyond all expectation, some other
-
-manuscript should be discovered which is either derived from
-
-another source, or is a more correct copy.
-
The following is some account of those in existence:— -
Codices in the Imperial Library, Paris: -
No.
No.
No.
No.
No. the gift
-
-of Antony the Eparch to Francis the great and illustrious
-
-king of France.
Partly collated by Kramer.
-
No.
No.
Codices in the Vatican: -
No.
No. 174 is of the 15th century, and contains the seventeen - -books: the first nine books are written by one transcriber, the - -list eight by another hand. The first nine books have been - -collated by Kramer. -
No. 173 contains the first ten books, and is of the middle of
-
-the 15th century. It is badly and incorrectly written. The
-
-last seven books, which would complete the codex, are, as
-
-Kramer conjectures from the paper and handwriting, in the
-
-Library of the Grand Duchy of Parma. From a note in Greek
-
-at the end of the 10th book, it appears to have been brought
-
-to Rome A. D.
No. 81 is tolerably well and correctly written. It contains - -the last eight books, and is of the end of the 15th century. It - -appears to be a copy of, or served as a copy to, the codex in - -the Laurentian Library, No. 19. Partially collated by Kramer. -
Medicean Codices, in the Laurentian Library, Florence: -
Codex 5 is elegantly and correctly written; it is of the beginning, probably, of the 15th century, and contains the first - -ten books. The 8th and 9th books are not entire; passages - -are curtailed, and much is omitted, to which the attention is - -not drawn, the lines being run on without spaces left to mark - -omissions. Errors of the first transcriber are corrected by a - -later hand, and noticed in the margin or between the lines. - -Collated by Bandini for Falconer, and almost the whole by - -Kramer. -
Codex 40 contains the first ten books; a copy, probably, of - -the former. It was written after the middle of the 15th - -century -
Codex 15 is of the middle of the 15th century, and contains - -the last seven books. It is not in any way remarkable. -
Codex 19, written at the end of the 15th century. It contains the last eight books, and resembles No. 81 of the Vatican.
-
-Collated by Bandini for Falconer.
-
-
-
-
Venetian Codices: -
No. 377 of the catalogue contains the first twelve books, - -and is written in the 15th century. Formerly the property - -of Cardinal Bessarion. -
No. 378 contains the seventeen books, of which the first - -twelve are apparently copies of the above, No. 377; the remaining five are transcribed from some other codex. This was, also, - -formerly the property of Cardinal Bessarion. -
No. 640 contains the last eight books. It was written, as
-
-appears from a note A. D.
No. 379 is of the 15th century. It contains the Epitome of
-
-Gemistus Pletho of the first ten books, and the whole of the
-
-last seven books. It is the codex which served for the copy,
-
-No.
No. 606 contains the last eight books, and was written towards the end of the 15th century. It contains nothing which - -is not to be found in other manuscripts. -
Codices in the Ambrosian Library, Milan: -
Codex M. 53 contains all but book ii., and is of the 15th - -century. The books are not written on paper of the same - -size, nor in consecutive order, although by the same hand. - -Book ii. is to be found in Codex N. 289, together with - -portions of other authors, written by a different transcriber, - -no doubt with the intention of completing this codex. According to Kramer, the first ten books are copied from Codex - -5 of the Medici MS. The 13th, 14th, 12th books (the order - -in which they stand) from the Medici MS. 19, and the - -11th, 15th, 16th, 17th, from the Medici MS. 15. Partly - -collated by Kramer. -
Codex G. 53 contains the seventeen books, and is of the - -end of the 15th century. Five leaves at the beginning, and - -two at the end, are destroyed by damp, traces of which are to - -be seen throughout. Partly collated by Kramer. -
In the Library of Eton College is a codex containing the
-
-first ten books; it was written at Constantinople. Kramer,
-
-
-
-
In the Library of the Escurial is a codex completed, as we
-
-are informed by a note at the end, A. D.
The Madrid Library possesses a codex written in the latter part of the 15th century, containing the seventeen books. -
In the Library at Moscow is a codex containing the seventeen
-
-books; it was written at the end of the 15th or beginning
-
-of the 16th century. The first nine books resemble the Paris
-
-Codex, No.
A codex also is yet to be found in one of the monasteries
-
-of Mount Athos. From the accounts of learned travellers
-
-(Zacharias,
Besides the above codices, there exist four epitomes of the - -Geography of Strabo, of which, -
The Epitome Palatina, in the Heidelberg Library, is the - -oldest of all MSS. of this work. It is probably of the beginning of the 10th century, although Dodwell places it between - -976 and 996. The codex from which it was copied appears - -to have been perfect, and contained the whole of the 7th book, - -which is imperfect in all other codices. It is, however, to be - -regretted that the author did not confine himself to following - -the text of Strabo; he has not only indulged in curtailing, - -transposing, and changing the words and sentences of the - -original, but has sometimes also added expressions of his own. -
The Vatican Epitome is of more value than the preceding; the extracts are more copious, the author seldom
-
-wanders from the text of Strabo, and in no instance inserts
-
-language of his own. The codex which served as the basis
-
-for the Epitome contained the 7th book entire, and from this
-
-
-
-
The Parisian Epitome, on which no great value is placed - -by Kramer. -
The Epitome of Gemistus Pletho, referred to above, is - -of great value, and held in the highest estimation by all - -editors. -
The first appearance of Strabo's work in print was a Latin
-
-translation by Guarini, of Verona, and Gregorio of Tiferno.
-
-Of this, thirteen editions were printed, the first in
The first edition of the Greek text was printed at Venice
-
-by Aldus in
The seventh edition was that of Thomas Falconer of Ches-
-
-
-
-It has everything that is valuable in Casaubon's edition,
-
-besides having corrected numberless typographical errors.
-
-In the account given of it, the public are as much wronged
-
-as we are abused; for no view whatever is laid before
-
-them of its nature or its merits.
A Reply to the Calumnies of the Edinburgh Review against Oxford,
page 98, by Dr. Copleston, late Bishop of Landaff. Oxford,
The eighth edition was that of Professor J. P. Siebenkees,
-
-of which great expectations were formed. The deficiencies of
-
-his performance are strongly commented on by Kramer. Siebenkees lived to complete only the first six books; the remainder of the work was undertaken by Tzchucke, and conducted with greater skill and ability than by his predecessor.
-
-It was published in
The ninth edition is that by Coraÿ, Paris,
The tenth edition is that by Professor Gustavus Kramer,
-
-in 3 vols. 8vo, the first of which appeared in
A. Meineke published at Leipsic, in 3 vols., Vindiciarum Straboniarum Liber.
Berlin,
C. Miller and F. Dübner have also published the first vol.,
-
-Paris,
In modern languages, we have a translation by Alfonso
-
-Buonacciuoli, of Ferrara, in Italian, 2 vols. 8vo, Venice,
A translation in French was published at Paris in five
-
-vols. 4to, from the year
A translation by F. Ambrosoli, forming part of the Collana degli Antichi Storici Greci,
was published in
In conclusion, I have to acknowledge considerable obligations to the notes and prefaces of Groskurd, Kramer, the - -French translators, and others. -
The part of the translation for which I am responsible - -commences at chap. iv. book vii., vol. i. p. 473, to the end of - -the work, and is partly based on an incomplete translation in - -MS. by my late father, the Rev. Dr. T. Falconer. The previous portion is the work of Hans C. Hamilton, Esq., F. S. A., - -to whom I am indebted for his continued interest in the - -translation throughout, for his care in correcting the press, - -and for valuable suggestions. -
A complete index, which concludes the third volume, has - -been compiled with the greatest regard to accuracy, by a - -gentleman of tried skill and ability. It contains every geographical name mentioned by Strabo; and the modern names, - -printed in italics, are also added, as far as can be ascertained: - -they are not given with perfect confidence in all cases; discussion on doubtful points would have exceeded the limits of - -this work; and reference may be advantageously made, where - -more minute detail is required, to the able articles in Dr. W. - -Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. -
SUMMARY.
- -That geographical investigation is not inconsistent with philosophy.—That - -Homer gives proof of it throughout his poems.—That they who first wrote - -on the science have omitted much, or given disjointed, defective, false, or - -inconsistent accounts.—Proofs and demonstrations of the correctness of - -this statement, with general heads containing a summary description of the - -disposition of the whole habitable earth.—Credit to be attached to the - -probabilities and evident proofs that in many regions the land and sea have - -been shifted, and exchanged places with each other.
Nor is the great learning, through which alone this subject can be approached, possessed by any but a person acquainted with both human and divine things,the productions of nature and art.
Admitting this, let us examine more in detail the points - -we have advanced. -
And first, [we maintain,] that both we and our predecessors,
-
-amongst whom is Hipparchus, do justly regard Homer as the
-
-founder of geographical science, for he not only excelled all,
-
-ancient as well as modern, in the sublimity of his poetry, but
-
-also in his experience of social life. Thus it was that he not
-
-only exerted himself to become familiar with as many historic facts as possible, and transmit them to posterity, but also
-
-with the various regions of the inhabited land and sea, some
-
-intimately, others in a more general manner. For otherwise
-
-he would not have reached the utmost limits of the earth, traversing it in his imagination.
-
-
First, he stated that the earth was entirely encompassed
-
-by the ocean, as in truth it is; afterwards he described the
-
-countries, specifying some by name, others more generally by
-
-various indications, explicitly defining Libya,Then indeed the sun freshly struck the fields [with its rays], ascending heaven from the calmly-flowing, deep-moving ocean.
And the bright light of the sun fell into the ocean, drawing dark
-
-night over tile fruitful earth.
He portrays the happiness of the people of the West, and
-
-the salubrity of their climate, having no doubt heard of the
-
-abundance of Iberia,But the immortals will send you to the Elysian
-plain, and the boundaries of the Earth, where is auburn-haired Rhadamanthus;
-there of a
- truth is the most easy life for men. There is nor snow, nor long
-winter,
- nor even a shower, but every day the ocean sends forth the gently
-blowing
- breezes of the west wind to refresh men."
The Isles of the Blest
He tells us also, that the Ethiopians are far removed, and
-
-bounded by the ocean: far removed,—
-
-
-
-The Ethiopians, who are divided into two divisions, the most distant of men.
For yesterday Jove went to Oceanus, to the blameless Ethiopians,
-
-to a banquet.
But it alone is free from the baths of the ocean.
Bear
and the Wain,
he means the Arctic
-
-Circle; otherwise he would never have said, It
when such an
-
-
-replacing The Bear
-
-is the limit of the dawn and of the evening, and from the re-
-
-gion of the Bear we have fine weather.
Now it is not the
-
-constellation of the Bear, but the Arctic Circle, which is the
-
-limit of the rising and the setting stars.
-
By the Bear, then, which he elsewhere calls the Wain,
-
-and describes as pursuing Orion, Homer means us to under-
-
-stand the Arctic Circle; and by the ocean, that horizon into
-
-which, and out of which, the stars rise and set. When he
-
-says that the Bear turns round and is deprived of the ocean,
-
-he was aware that the Arctic Circle [always] extended to the
-
-sign opposite the most northern point of the horizon. Adapting the words of the poet to this view, by that part of the
-
-earth nearest to the ocean we must understand the horizon, and
-
-by the Arctic Circle that which extends to the signs which
-
-seem to our senses to touch in succession the most northern
-
-point of the horizon. Thus, according to him, this portion of
-
-the earth is washed by the ocean. With the nations of the
-
-North he was well acquainted, although he does not mention
-
-them by name, and indeed at the present day there is no regular title by which they are all distinguished. He informs
-
-us of their mode of life, describing them as wanderers,
-
-noble milkers of mares,
living on cheese,
and without
-
-wealth.
In the following speech of Juno, he states that the ocean
-
-surrounds the earth.
-
-
-
-For I go to visit the limits of the fertile earth, and Oceanus, the
-
-parent of the gods.
Does he not here assert that ocean bounds all its extremities,
-
-and does it not surround these extremities? Again, in the
-
-
-
- Gosselin remarks, the ebbing ocean.
Thrice indeed each day it lets loose its waves, and thrice it ebbs
-
-them back.
I do not find any thing in these different passages of
-
-Homer to warrant the conclusion that he was aware of the ebb and flow
-
-of the tide; every one knows that the movement is hardly perceptible in
-
-the Mediterranean. In the Euripus, which divides the Isle of Negropont
-
-from Bœotia, the waters are observed to flow in opposite directions several times a day. It was from this that Homer probably drew his ideas;
-
-and the regular current of the Hellespont, which carries the waters of the
-
-Black Sea into the Mediterranean, led him to think that the whole ocean,
-
-or Mediterranean, had one continued flow like the current of a river.
But when the ship left the stream of the river-ocean, and entered
-
-on the wave of the wide-wayed sea.
Perception and experience alike inform us, that the earth
-
-we inhabit is an island: since wherever men have approached
-
-the termination of the land, the sea, which we designate ocean,
-
-has been met with: and reason assures us of the similarity of
-
-those places which our senses have not been permitted to survey. For in the east
We must not credit Hipparchus, who combats this opinion,
-
-denying that the ocean is every where similarly affected; or that
-
-even if it were, it would not follow that the Atlantic flowed in
-
-a circle, and thus continually returned into itself. Seleucus,
-
-the Babylonian, is his authority for this assertion. For a further
-
-investigation of the ocean and its tides we refer to Posidonius
-
-and Athenodorus, who have fully discussed this subject: we
-
-will now only remark that this view agrees better with the uniformity of the phenomenon; and that the greater the amount
-
-of moisture surrounding the earth, the easier would the
-
-heavenly bodies be supplied with vapours from thence.
-
-
Homer, besides the boundaries of the earth, which he
-
-fully describes, was likewise well acquainted with the Mediterranean. Starting from the Pillars, "Eratosthenes of Cyrene was, according to Suidas, the son of Aglaus,
-
-according to others, the son of Ambrosius, and was born B. C. "It is supposed that Eratosthenes suggested to Ptolemy Euergetes the
-
-construction of the large "We still possess under the name of Eratosthenes a work, entitled
-
- "The greatest work of Eratosthenes, and that which must always make
-
-his name conspicuous in scientific history, is the attempt which he made
-
-to measure the magnitude of the earth, in which he brought forward and
-
-used the method which is employed to this day. Whether or no he was
-
-successful cannot be told, as we shall see; but it is not the less true that
-
-he was the originator of the process by which we now know, very nearly
-
-indeed, the magnitude of our own planet. Delambre says that if it were
-
-he who advised the erection of the circular instruments above alluded to,
-
-he must be considered as the founder of astronomy: to which it may be
-
-added, that he was the founder of geodesy without any "At Syene in Upper Egypt, which is supposed to be the same as, or near
-
-to, the town of Assouan, (Lat. 24° 10′ N., Long. 32° 59′ E. of Greenwich,)
-
-Eratosthenes was told (that he observed is very doubtful) that deep wells
-
-were enlightened to the bottom on the day of the summer solstice, and
-
-that vertical objects cast no shadows. He concluded therefore, that Syene
-
-was on the tropic, and its latitude equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic,
-
-which, as we have seen, he had determined: he presumed that it was in
-
-the same longitude as Alexandria, in which he was out about 3°, which
-
-is not enough to produce what would at that time have been a sensible
-
-error. By observations made at Alexandria, he determined the zenith of
-
-that place to be distant by the fiftieth part of the circumference from the
-
-solstice, which was equivalent to saying that the arc of the meridian between the two places is 7° 12′. Cleomedes says that he used the They are covered with shadows and darkness, nor does the shining
-
-sun behold them with his beams,............ but pernicious night
-
-is spread over hapless mortals.
The result is 250,000 stadia for the circumference of the earth, which
-
-Eratosthenes altered into 252,000, that his result might give an exact
-
-number of stadia for the degree, namely, 700; this of course should
-
-have been 694 4/9. Pliny calls this 31,500 Roman miles, and therefore
-
-supposes the stadium to be the eighth part of a Roman mile, or takes
-
-for granted that Eratosthenes used the Olympic stadium. It is likely
-
-enough that the Ptolemies naturalized this stadium in Egypt; but nevertheless, it is not unlikely that an Egyptian stadium was employed. If
-
-we assume the Olympic stadium, (202 1/4 yards,) the degree of Eratosthenes is more than 79 miles, upwards of 10 miles too great. Nothing
-
-is known of any Egyptian stadium. Pliny asserts that Hipparchus, but
-
-for what reason he does not say, wanted to add 25,000 stadia to the circumference as found by Eratosthenes. According to Plutarch, Eratosthenes made the sun to be 804 millions of stadia from the earth, and the
-
-moon 780,000. According to Macrobius, he made the diameter of the
-
-sun to be 27 times that of the earth. With regard to the other merits of
-
-Eratosthenes, we must first of all mention what he did for geography,
-
-which was closely connected with his mathematical pursuits. It was
-
-Eratosthenes who raised geography to the rank of a science; for previous to his time it seems to have consisted, more or less, of a mass of in-
-
-formation scattered in books of travel, descriptions of particular countries,
-
-and the like. All these treasures were accessible to Eratosthenes in the
-
-libraries of Alexandria; and he made the most profitable use of them,
-
-by collecting the scattered materials, and uniting them into an organic
-
-system of geography, in his comprehensive work entitled
What we have already advanced is sufficient to prove
-
-that poet the father of geography. Those who followed in
-
-
-
-
Many have testified to the amount of knowledge which
-
-this subject requires, and Hipparchus, in his Strictures on
-
-Eratosthenes, well observes, that no one can become really
-
-proficient in geography, either as a private individual or as a
-
-professor, without an acquaintance with astronomy, and a
-
-knowledge of eclipses. For instance, no one could tell whether Alexandria in Egypt were north or south of Babylon,
-
-nor yet the intervening distance, without observing the latitudes.
Such are the very words
-
-of Hipparchus.
-
-
Every one who undertakes to give an accurate description of a place, should be particular to add its astronomical
-
-and geometrical relations, explaining carefully its extent, distance, degrees of latitude, and climate.
The [motions] of the sun and stars, and the centripetal
-
-
-
-
He who has thus elevated his mind, will he be satisfied
-
-with any thing less than the whole world? If in his anxiety
-
-accurately to portray the inhabited earth, he has dared to
-
-survey heaven, and make use thereof for purposes of instruction, would it not seem childish were he to refrain from examining the whole earth, of which the inhabited is but a part,
-
-its size, its features, and its position in the universe; whether
-
-other portions are inhabited besides those on which we dwell,
-
-and if so, their amount? What is the extent of the regions
-
-not peopled? what their peculiarities, and the cause of their
-
-remaining as they are? Thus it appears that the knowledge
-
-of geography is connected with meteorology
To the various subjects which it embraces let us add - -natural history, or the history of the animals, plants, and - -other different productions of the earth and sea, whether serviceable or useless, and my original statement will, I think, - -carry perfect conviction with it. -
That he who should undertake this work would be a benefactor to mankind, reason and the voice of antiquity agree. The poets feign that they were the wisest heroes who travelled and wandered most in foreign climes: and to be familiar with many countries, and the disposition of the inhabitants,
-
-is, according to them, of vast importance. Nestor prides him-
-
-
-
-having been invited thither from the Apian
-
So does Menelaus:—
-
-
-
- Strabo, by omitting the word Having wandered to Cyprus, and Phœnice, and the Egyptians, I
-
-came to the Ethiopians, and Sidonians, and Erembi, and Libya, where
-
-the lambs immediately become horned.
Where the sustaining earth is most prolific.
-
-
-
-
Such information greatly enlarges our sphere of knowledge,
-
-by informing us of the nature of the country, its botanical and
-
-zoological peculiarities. To these should be added its marine
-
-history; for we are in a certain sense amphibious, not exclusively connected with the land, but with the sea as well.
-
-Hercules, on account of his vast experience and observation,
-
-was described as skilled in mighty works.
All that we have previously stated is confirmed both by the
-
-testimony of antiquity and by reason. One consideration
-
-however appears to bear in a peculiar manner on the case in
-
-point; viz. the importance of geography in a political view.
-
-For the sea and the earth in which we dwell furnish theatres
-
-
-
-
Even if we descend to the consideration of such trivial
-
-matters as hunting, the case is still the same; for he will be
-
-most successful in the chase who is acquainted with the size
-
-and nature of the wood, and one familiar with the locality
-
-will be the most competent to superintend an encampment,
-
-an ambush, or a march. But it is in great undertakings that
-
-the truth shines out in all its brilliancy, for here, while the
-
-success resulting from knowledge is grand, the consequences
-
-of ignorance are disastrous. The fleet of Agamemnon, for instance, ravaging Mysia, as if it had been the Trojan territory,
-
-was compelled to a shameful retreat. Likewise the Persians
-
-and Libyans,
As we have said, this science has an especial reference
-
-to the occupations and requirements of statesmen, with whom
-
-also political and ethical philosophy is mainly concerned; and
-
-here is an evidence. We distinguish the different kinds of
-
-civil government by the office of their chief men, denominating one government a monarchy, or kingdom, another an
-
-aristocracy, a third a democracy; for so many we consider
-
-are the forms of government, and we designate them by
-
-these names, because from them they derive their primary
-
-characteristic. For the laws which emanate from the sovereign, from the aristocracy, and from the people all are different. The law is in fact a type of the form of government.
-
-It is on this account that some define right to be the interest of the strongest. If, therefore, political philosophy
-
-is advantageous to the ruler, and geography in the actual
-
-government of the country, this latter seems to possess some
-
-little superiority. This superiority is most observable in
-
-real service.
-
-
But even the theoretical portion of geography is by no
-
-means contemptible. On the one hand, it embraces the arts,
-
-mathematics, and natural science; on the other, history and
-
-fable. Not that this latter can have any distinct advantage:
-
-for instance, if any one should relate to us the wanderings of
-
-Ulysses, Menelaus, and Jason, he would not seem to have
-
-added directly to our fund of practical knowledge thereby,
-
-(which is the only thing men of the world are interested in,)
-
-unless he should convey useful examples of what those wanderers were compelled to suffer, and at the same time afford
-
-matter of rational amusement to those who interest themselves
-
-in the places which gave birth to such fables. Practical men
-
-interest themselves in these pursuits, since they are at once
-
-commendable, and afford them pleasure; but yet not to any
-
-great extent. In this class, too, will be found those whose
-
-main object in life is pleasure and respectability: but these
-
-
-
-
Geometry and astronomy, as we before remarked, seem
-
-absolutely indispensable in this science. This, in fact, is evident, that without some such assistance, it would be impossible to be accurately acquainted with the configuration of the
-
-earth; its climata,
As the size of the earth has been demonstrated by other
-
-writers, we shall here take for granted and receive as accurate
-
-what they have advanced. We shall also assume that the
-
-earth is spheroidal, that its surface is likewise spheroidal, and
-
-above all, that bodies have a tendency towards its centre,
-
-which latter point is clear to the perception of the most average understanding. However we may show summarily that
-
-the earth is spheroidal, from the consideration that all things
-
-however distant tend to its centre, and that every body is attracted towards its centre of gravity; this is more distinctly
-
-proved from observations of the sea and sky, for here the
-
-evidence of the senses, and common observation, is alone requisite. The convexity of the sea is a further proof of this
-
-to those who have sailed; for they cannot perceive lights at a
-
-distance when placed at the same level as their eyes, but if
-
-raised on high, they at once become perceptible to vision,
-
-though at the same time further removed. So, when the eye
-
-is raised, it sees what before was utterly imperceptible.
-
-Homer speaks of this when he says,
-
-
-
-
Every information respecting the climataTreatises on Positions.
Now there are some facts which we take to be established, viz. those with which every politician and general
-
-should be familiar. For on no account should they be so
-
-uninformed as to the heavens and the position of the earth,On Ports,
and Voyages Round the World,
have
-
-performed their task imperfectly, since they have omitted to
-
-supply the requisite information from mathematics and astronomy.*Having already compiled,
&c. The alteration is borne
-
-out by the French and German translators.
The present undertaking is composed in a lucid style,
-
-suitable alike to the statesman and the general reader, after
-
-the fashion of my History.
Having already compiled our Historical Memoirs, which,
-
-as we conceive, are a valuable addition both to political and
-
-moral philosophy, we have now determined to follow it up with
-
-the present work, which has been prepared on the same system as the former, and for the same class of readers, but more
-
-particularly for those who are in high stations of life. And
-
-as our former production contains only the most striking
-
-events in the lives of distinguished men, omitting trifling and
-
-unimportant incidents; so here it will be proper to dismiss
-
-small and doubtful particulars, and merely call attention
-
-to great and remarkable transactions, such in fact as are use-
-
-
-
-
We now think we have demonstrated that our present undertaking is one that requires great care, and is well worthy - -of a philosopher. - - -
No one can [justly] blame us for having undertaken to
-
-write on a subject already often treated of, unless it appears
-
-that we have done nothing more than copy the works of former
-
-writers. In our opinion, though they may have perfectly
-
-treated some subjects, in others they have still left much to
-
-be completed; and we shall be justified in our performance,
-
-if we can add to their information even in a trifling degree.
-
-At the present moment the conquests of the Romans and Parthians have added much to our knowledge, which (as was well
-
-observed by Eratosthenes) had been considerably increased by
-
-the expedition of Alexander. This prince laid open to our
-
-view the greater part of Asia, and the whole north of Europe
-
-as far as the Danube. And the Romans [have discovered to us]
-
-the entire west of Europe as far as the river Elbe, which divides Germany, and the country beyond the Ister to the river
-
-Dniester. The country beyond this to the Mæotis,
Let us first examine Eratosthenes, reviewing at the same
-
-time what Hipparchus has advanced against him. Eratosthenes is much too creditable an historian for us to believe
-
-what Polemon endeavours to charge against him, that he had
-
-not even seen Athens. At the same time he does not merit
-
-that unbounded confidence which some seem to repose in him,
-
-although, as he himself tells us, he passed much of his time
-
-with first-rate [characters]. Never, says he, at one period,
-
-and in one city, were there so many philosophers flourishing
-
-together as in my time. In their number was Ariston and
-
-Arcesilaus. This, however, it seems is not sufficient, but you
-
-must also be able to choose who are the real guides whom it is
-
-your interest to follow. He considers Arcesilaus and Ariston
-
-to be the coryphæi of the philosophers who flourished in his
-
-time, and is ceaseless in his eulogies of Apelles and Bion,
-
-
-
-How great is Bion in spite of
-
-his rags!
-
-
-Cowper.
Although at Athens he became a disciple of ZenoMoral Philosophy.
First, then, let us return to the point which we lately deferred.
-
-
Eratosthenes says that the poet directs his whole attention to the amusement of the mind, and not at all to its instruction. In opposition to his idea, the ancients define poesy
-
-as a primitive philosophy, guiding our life from infancy, and
-
-pleasantly regulating our morals, our tastes, and our actions.
-
-The [Stoics] of our day affirm that the only wise man is the
-
-poet. On this account the earliest lessons which the citizens
-
-of Greece convey to their children are from the poets; cer-
-
-
-
-
Of this number was the guardian of Clytemnestra, to
-
-whom the son of Atreus, when he set out for Troy, gave
-
-earnest charge to preserve his wife,
leading the bard to a desert island,
-
-he left him,
But apart from all such considerations, Eratosthenes contradicts himself; for a little previously to the sentence which
-
-we have quoted, at the commencement of his Essay on Geography, he says, that all the ancient poets took delight in
-
-showing their knowledge of such matters. Homer inserted
-
-into his poetry all that he knew about the Ethiopians, Egypt,
-
-and Libya. Of all that related to Greece and the neighbouring places he entered even too minutely into the details, describing Thisbe as
But in pursuing this method, what object has he
-
-in view, to amuse [merely], or to instruct? The latter, doubtless. Well, perhaps he has told the truth in these instances,
-
-but in what was beyond his observation both he and the other
-
-writers have indulged in all the marvels of fable. If such be
-
-the case the statement should have been, that the poets relate
-
-some things for mere amusement, others for instruction; but
-
-he affirms that they do it altogether for amusement, without
-
-any view to information; and by way of climax, inquires,
-
-What can it add to Homer's worth to be familiar with many
-
-
-
-abounding in doves,
Haliartus, grassy,
-
-Anthedon, the far distant,
Litæa, situated on the sources
-
-of the Cephissus,
As far as this goes, Eratosthenes, you are right enough;
-
-not so, however, when you not only deny that Homer was
-
-possessed of these vast acquirements, but represent poetry in
-
-general as a tissue of old wives' fables, where, to use your
-
-own expression, every thing thought likely to amuse is
-
-cooked up. I ask, is it of no value to the auditors
One thing is certain, that the poet has bestowed all these
-
-gifts upon Ulysses, whom beyond any of his other [heroes]
-
-he loves to adorn with every virtue. He says of him, that he
-
-
-
-the destroyer of cities,
and
-
-as having vanquished Troy, by his counsels, his advice, and
-
-his deceptive art. Diomede says of him,
-
-
-
-
That eloquence is regarded as the wisdom of speech,
-
-Ulysses manifests throughout the whole poem, both in the
-
-Trial,But when he did send forth the mighty voice from his breast, and
-
-words like unto wintry flakes of snow, no longer then would another
-
-mortal contend with Ulysses.
Are we not all agreed that the chief merit of a poet consists in his accurate representation of the affairs of life? Can - -this be done by a mere driveller, unacquainted with the world? -
The excellence of a poet is not to be measured by the same
-
-standard as that of a mechanic or a blacksmith, where honour
-
-and virtue have nothing to do with our estimate. But the
-
-poet and the individual are connected, and he only can become a good poet, who is in the first instance a worthy man.
-
-
To deny that our poet possesses the graces of oratory is
-
-using us hardly indeed. What is so befitting an orator, what
-
-so poetical as eloquence, and who so sweetly eloquent as Homer? But, by heaven! you'll say, there are other styles of
-
-eloquence than those peculiar to poetry. Of course [I admit
-
-this]; in poetry itself there is the tragic and the comic style;
-
-in prose, the historic and the forensic. But is not language
-
-
-
-to sing,
to designate eloquence of style, this
-
-in itself is an evidence that poetry is the source and origin
-
-of all ornamented and rhetorical language. Poetry in ancient days was on every occasion accompanied by melody.
-
-The song or ode was but a modulated speech, from whence the
-
-words rhapsody, tragedy, comedy,foot-soldier,
signifies also
-
-prose composition.
Hence Strabo's allusion to the chariot. The
-
-Latins borrowed the expression, and used sermo pedestris in the same
-
-sense.
Homer accurately describes many distant countries, and
-
-not only Greece and the neighbouring places, as Eratosthenes
-
-asserts. His romance, too, is in better style than that of his successors. He does not make up wondrous tales on every occasion,
-
-
-
-
To begin. The poets were by no means the first to - -avail themselves of myths. States and lawgivers had taken - -advantage of them long before, having observed the constitutional bias of mankind. Man is eager after knowledge, and - -the love of legend is but the prelude thereto. This is why - -children begin to listen [to fables], and are acquainted with - -them before any other kind of knowledge; the cause of this is - -that the myth introduces them to a new train of ideas, relating - -not to every-day occurrences, but something in addition to - -these. -
A charm hangs round whatever is new and hitherto unknown, inspiring us with a desire to become acquainted with - -it, but when the wonderful and the marvellous are likewise - -present, our delight is increased until at last it becomes a - -philtre of study. To children we are obliged to hold out such - -enticements, in order that in riper years, when the mind is - -powerful, and no longer needs such stimulants, it may be - -prepared to enter on the study of actual realities. -
Every illiterate and uninstructed man is yet a child, and
-
-takes delight in fable. With the partially informed it is much
-
-the same; reason is not all-powerful within him, and he still
-
-possesses the tastes of a child. But the marvellous, which
-
-is capable of exciting fear as well as pleasure, influences not
-
-childhood only, but age as well. As we relate to children
-
-pleasing tales to incite them [to any course] of action, and
-
-frightful ones to deter them, such as those of Lamia,
Such was mythology; and when our ancestors found it capable of subserving the purposes of social and political life,
-
-and even contributing to the knowledge of truth, they continued the education of childhood to maturer years, and maintained that poetry was sufficient to form the understanding of
-
-every age. In course of time history and our present philosophy were introduced; these, however, suffice but for the
-
-chosen few, and to the present day poetry is the main agent
-
-which instructs our people and crowds our theatres. Homer
-
-here stands pre-eminent, but in truth all the early historians
-
-and natural philosophers were mythologists as well.
-
-
Thus it is that our poet, though he sometimes employs
-
-fiction for the purposes of instruction, always gives the preference to truth; he makes use of what is false, merely tolerating it in order the more easily to lead and govern the multitude. As a man
-
-
-
-
Being acquainted with Colchis, and the voyage of Jason to Æa, and also with the historical and fabulous relations - -concerning Circe and Medea, their enchantments and their - -various other points of resemblance, he feigns there was a - -relationship between them, notwithstanding the vast distance - -by which they were separated, the one dwelling in an inland - -creek of the Euxine, and the other in Italy, and both of them - -beyond the ocean. -
It is possible that Jason himself wandered as far as Italy,
-
-for traces of the Argonautic expedition are pointed out
-
-near the CeraunianThe powerful Shaker of the Earth, as he was returning from the
-
-Ethiopians, beheld him from a distance, from the mountains of the Solymi.
It is probable he took his account of the one-eyed Cyclopæ
-
-from Scythian history, for the Arimaspi, whom Aristæus
-
-of Proconnesus describes in his Tales of the Arimaspi, are
-
-said to be distinguished by this peculiarity.
-
-
Having premised thus much, we must now take into
-
-consideration the reasons of those who assert that Homer
-
-
-
-
Eratosthenes, though on no sufficient grounds for so
-
-doing, rejects both these opinions, endeavouring in his attack
-
-on the latter, to refute by lengthened arguments what is manifestly absurd and unworthy of consideration, and in regard to
-
-the former, maintaining a poet to be a mere gossip, to whose
-
-worth an acquaintance with science or geography could not
-
-add in the least degree: since the scenes of certain of Homer's
-
-fables are cast in actual localities, as Ilium,Of this latter class,
he says, are the
-
-places mentioned in the wanderings of Ulysses, and those who
-
-pretend that they are not mere fabrications of the poet, but
-
-
-
-
-
-Now, in the first place, this rock is not three-peaked, nor
-
-does it form a crest at the summit at all, but a long and narrow angle reaching from the territory of Surrentum
Further, if those who describe the geography of certain
-
-places do not agree in every particular, are we justified in at
-
-once rejecting their whole narration? Frequently this is a
-
-reason why it should receive the greater credit. For example, in the investigation whether the scene of Ulysses' wanderings were Sicily or Italy, and the proper position of the
-
-Sirenes, they differ in so far that one places them at Pelorus,
-
-and the other at Sirenussæ, but neither of them dissents from
-
-the idea that it was some where near Sicily or Italy. They
-
-add thereby strength to this view, inasmuch as though they
-
-are not agreed as to the exact locality, neither of them makes
-
-any question but that it was some where contiguous to Italy or
-
-Sicily. If a third party should add, that the monument of
-
-Parthenope, who was one of the Sirens, is shown at Naples,
-
-this only confirms us the more in our belief, for though a
-
-third place is introduced to our notice, still as Naples is situated in the gulf called by Eratosthenes the Cumæan, and
-
-
-
-
That the poet did not search for accuracy in every minor
-
-detail we admit, but neither ought we to expect this of him;
-
-at the same time we are not to believe that he composed his
-
-poem without inquiring into the history of the Wandering,
-
-nor where and how it occurred.
-
-
Eratosthenes thinks it probable that Hesiod, having
-
-heard of the wanderings of Ulysses, and of their having taken
-
-place near to Sicily and Italy, embraced this view of the case,
-
-and not only describes the places spoken of by Homer, but
-
-also Ætna, the Isle of Ortygia,
What! are then
-
-Ætna and Tyrrhenia such well-known places, and Scyllæum,
-
-Charybdis, Circæum,
The conjecture of Polybius in regard to the particulars - -of the wandering of Ulysses is excellent. He says that Æolus - -instructed sailors how to navigate the strait, a difficult matter - -on account of the currents occasioned by the ebb and flow. - -and was therefore called the dispenser of the winds, and reputed their king. -
In like manner Danaus for pointing out the springs of
-
-water that were in Argos, and Atreus for showing the retrograde movement of the sun in the heavens, from being
-
-mere soothsayers and diviners, were raised to the dignity of
-
-kings. And the priests of the Egyptians, the Chaldeans,
-
-and Magi, distinguished for their wisdom above those around
-
-them, obtained from our predecessors honour and authority;
-
-
-
-
Having thus introduced his subject, he does not allow us to
-
-consider the account of Æolus, nor yet the rest of the Odyssey, as altogether mythical. There is a spice of the fabulous
-
-here, as well as in the Trojan War,that
-
-we may hope to discover the whereabout of Ulysses' wanderings, when we can find the cobbler who sewed up the winds
-
-in the leathern sack.
"And [adds Polybius] his description
-
-of the hunt of the galeotesAnd fishes there, watching about the rock for dolphins and dogs, and
-
-if she can any where take a larger whale.
He then goes on to describe the manner in which they
-
-catch the sword-fish at Scyllæum. One look-out directs the
-
-whole body of fishers, who are in a vast number of small
-
-boats, each furnished with two oars, and two men to each
-
-boat. One man rows, the other stands on the prow, spear in
-
-hand, while the look-out has to signal the appearance of a
-
-sword-fish. (This fish, when swimming, has about a third of
-
-its body above water.) As it passes the boat, the fisher darts
-
-the spear from his hand, and when this is withdrawn, it leaves
-
-the sharp point with which it is furnished sticking in the flesh
-
-
-
-
The customs of the inhabitants of Meninx
It is most probable that the line
-
-
-
-And from thence I was carried for nine days over t' fishy sea by
-
-baleful winds.
And,
-
-says Polybius, allowing the distance from Malea
-
-
Such are the sentiments of Polybius; and in many
-
-respects they are correct enough; but when he discusses the
-
-voyage beyond the ocean, and enters on minute calculations
-
-of the proportion borne by the distance to the number of days,
-
-he is greatly mistaken. He alleges perpetually the words of
-
-the poet,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-but at the same time he takes no notice of this expression,
-
-which is his as well,
-
-
-
-But when the ship left the stream of the river ocean.
And we dwell at a distance, the farthest in the sea of many waves,
-
-nor does any other of mortals mingle with us.
These passages clearly refer to the Atlantic Ocean,
Eratosthenes seems to have had something like this
-
-view of the case himself, when he says, Any one would believe that the poet intended the western regions as the scene
-
-of Ulysses' wanderings, but that he has departed from fact,
-
-sometimes through want of perfect information, at other times
-
-because he wished to give to scenes a more terrific and marvellous appearance than they actually possessed.
So far
-
-this is true, but his idea of the object which the poet had in
-
-
-
-
On the whole, however, it is not proper to place the - -works of Homer in the common catalogue of other poets, - -without challenging for him a superiority both in respect of - -his other [excellences] and also for the geography on which - -our attention is now engaged. -
If any one were to do no more than merely read through
-
-the Triptolemus of Sophocles, or the prologue to the Bacchæ
-
-of Euripides, and then compare them with the care taken by
-
-Homer in his geographical descriptions, he would at once
-
-perceive both the difference and superiority of the latter, for
-
-wherever there is necessity for arrangement in the localities
-
-he has immortalized, he is careful to preserve it as well in
-
-regard to Greece, as to foreign countries.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-In the Catalogue he does not describe his cities in regular
-
-order, because here there was no necessity, but both the
-
-people and foreign countries he arranges correctly. Having
-
-wandered to Cyprus, and Phœnice, and the Egyptians, I came
-
-to the Ethiopians, and Sidonians, and Erembi, and Libya.
And having left the wealthy lands of the Lydians and
-
-Phrygians, and the sunny plains of the Persians and the Bactrian walls, and having come over the stormy land of the
-
-Medes, and the Happy Arabia.
Further, in respect to the winds and climates, Homer shows
-
-the wide extent of his geographical knowledge, for in his
-
-
-
-But it lies low, the highest in the sea towards the west, but those
-
-that are separated from it [lie] towards the east and the sun.
-Vide
Which I very little regard, nor do I care for them whether they fly
-
-to the right, towards the morn and the sun, or to the left, towards the
-
-darkening west.
O my friends, since we know not where is the west, nor where the
-
-morning, nor where the sun.
The north and west winds, which both blow from Thrace.
Zephyr blows from the west, and off Spain, and Thrace does
-
-not extend so far.
Does he then think that Homer was not
-
-aware that Zephyr came from the west, notwithstanding the
-
-careful manner in which he distinguishes its position when he
-
-writes as follows:
-
-
-
-And the south-east and the south rushed together, and the hard-
-
-blowing west, and the cold-producing north.
And the assembly was moved, as the great waves of the Icarian sea.
-
Some writers tell us there are but two principal winds, - -the north and south, and that the other winds are only a - -slight difference in the direction of these two. That is, (supposing only two winds, the north and south,) the south wind - -from the commencement of the summer quarter blows in a - -south-easterly direction; and from the commencement of the - -winter quarter from the east. The north wind from the decline of the summer, blows in a westerly direction, and from - -the decline of the winter, in a north-westerly direction. -
In support of this opinion of the two winds they adduce
-
-Thrasyalces and our poet himself, forasmuch as he mentions
-
-the north-west with the south,
-
-
-
-The north and west winds, which both blow from Thrace.
But Posidonius remarks that none of those who are really
-
-acquainted with these subjects, such as Aristotle, Timosthenes,
-
-
-
-
When our poet makes use of the expression stormy zephyr,
-
-he means the wind which is now called by us the north-west;
-
-and by the clear-blowing zephyr
our west wind; our Leuco-
-
-notus is his Argestes-notus, or clearing south wind,As when the west wind agitates the light clouds of the clearing
-
-south, striking them with a dreadful gale.
The statements made by Eratosthenes in the first book of
-
-his Geography, require some such correction as this.
-
-
Persisting in his false views in relation to Homer, he
-
-goes on to say, He was ignorant that the Nile separated into
-
-many mouths, nay, he was not even acquainted with the name
-
-of the river, though Hesiod knew it well, for he even
-
-mentions it.
But is it not inconceivable that Homer
-
-should describe Ethiopia, and the Sidonians, the Erembi, and
-
-the Exterior Sea,
Certainly not, his not describing
-
-these things is no proof that he was not acquainted with them.
-
-He does not tell us of his own country, nor yet many other
-
-things. The most probable reason is, they were so generally
-
-known that they did not appear to him worth recording.
Again, they are entirely wrong when they allege as a
-
-mark of Homer's ignorance, that he describes the island of
-
-PharosThe priests stated also that Menes was the first of mortals that
-
-ever ruled over Egypt; to this they added that in the days of that
-
-king, all Egypt, with the exception of the Thebaic nome, was but a
-
-morass; and that none of the lands now seen below Lake Mœris, then
-
-existed; from the sea up to this place is a voyage by the river of seven
-
-days. I myself am perfectly convinced the account of the priests in this
-
-particular is correct; for the thing is evident to every one who sees and
-
-has common sense, although he may not have heard the fact, that the
-
-Egypt to which the Hellenes navigate, is a land annexed to the Egyptians, and a gift from the river; and that even in the parts above the lake
-
-just mentioned, for three days' sail, concerning which the priests relate
-
-nothing, the country is just of the same description.
Herod. ii. § 5.
They are again mistaken when they say that he was
-
-not aware of the isthmus between the sea of Egypt and the
-
-Arabian Gulf, and that his description is false,
-
-
-
-The Ethiopians, who are divided into two parts, the most distant of
-
-men, some at the setting of the sun, others at the rising.
-
-
-
-and Crates,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-However, in regard to their hypotheses, it makes no difference
-
-whether the passage were written this way or that. One of
-
-them, in fact, takes what he considers the mathematical
-
-view of the case, and says that the torrid zone is occupied by
-
-the ocean,as well in the west as also
-
-in the east,
because as the celestial zodiac always corresponds
-
-to the terrestrial, and never exceeds in its obliquity the space
-
-occupied by the two Ethiopias, the sun's entire course must
-
-necessarily be within this space, and also his rising and setting,
-
-as it appears to different nations according to the sign which
-
-he may be in.
-
He (Crates) adopted this version, because he considered it
-
-the more astronomical. But it would have maintained his
-
-opinion of the division of the Ethiopians into two parts, and
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-which also means, that whether east or west, on either side
-
-of the ocean, Ethiopians dwell. But Aristarchus rejects this
-
-hypothesis. He says, The Ethiopians with whom we are
-
-acquainted, and who are farthest south from the Greeks,
-
-are those described by the poet as being separated into two
-
-divisions. But Ethiopia is not so separated as to form two
-
-countries, one situated towards the west, the other towards
-
-the east, but only one, that which lies south of the Greeks
-
-and adjoins Egypt; but of this the poet was ignorant, as well
-
-as of other matters enumerated by Apollodorus, which he has
-
-falsely stated concerning various places in his second book,
-
-containing the catalogue of the ships.
-
-
To refute Crates would require a lengthened argument, which here perhaps may be considered out of place.
-
-Aristarchus we commend for rejecting the hypothesis of
-
-Crates, which is open to many objections, and for referring
-
-the expression of the poet to our Ethiopia. But the remainder of his statement we must discuss. First, his minute examination of the reading is altogether fruitless, for whichever
-
-way it may have been written, his interpretation is equally
-
-applicable to both; for what difference is there whether you
-
-say thus—In our opinion there are two Ethiopias, one towards the east, the other to the west; or thus—For they
-
-are as well towards the east as the west? Secondly, He
-
-makes false assumptions. For admitting that the poet was
-
-ignorant of the isthmus,
-
-
-
-And what else is Egypt, with the exception of the island
-
-formed by the river and overflowed by its waters; does it not
-
-lie on either side of the river both east and west?
-
Ethiopia runs in the same direction as Egypt, and resembles it both in its position with respect to the Nile, and
-
-in its other geographical circumstances. It is narrow, long,
-
-and subject to inundation; beyond the reach of this inundation it is desolate and parched, and unfitted for the habitation
-
-of man; some districts lying to the east and some to the west
-
-of [the river]. How then can we deny that it is separated into
-
-two divisions? Shall the Nile, which is looked upon by some
-
-people as the proper boundary line between Asia and Libya,
But besides these there is another method of dividing
-
-Ethiopia. All those who have sailed along the coasts of
-
-Libya, whether starting from the Arabian Gulf,We are they who fled before the brigand Joshua, the son of
-
-Naue (Nun).
It does not concern us to inquire whether these columns
-
-actually existed in the time of Procopius, but merely to remark two independent facts. The first is the tradition generally received for more
-
-than twenty centuries, that the coming of the Israelites into Palestine
-
-drove one body of Canaanites, its ancient inhabitants, to the extremities
-
-of the Mediterranean, while another party went to establish, among the
-
-savage tribes of the Peloponnesus and Attica, the earliest kingdoms known
-
-in Europe. The second observation has reference to the name of Ethiopians given by Ephorus to this fugitive people, as confirming what we
-
-have before stated, that the environs of Jaffa, and possibly the entire of
-
-Palestine, anciently bore the name of Ethiopia: and it is here we must
-
-leek for the Ethiopians of Homer, and not in the interior of Africa.The Ethiopians, the farthest removed of men, separated into two divisions.
-
-
-
-
These and other more stringent arguments may be
-
-urged against Aristarchus and those of his school, to clear
-
-our poet from the charge of such gross ignorance. I assert
-
-that the ancient Greeks, in the same way as they classed all
-
-the northern nations with which they were familiar under the
-
-one name of Scythians, or, according to Homer, Nomades, and
-
-
-
-There [is] the sacred wave, and the coralled bed of the Erythræan
-
-Sea, and [there] the luxuriant marsh of the Ethiopians, situated near
-
-the ocean, glitters like polished brass; where daily in the soft and tepid
-
-stream, the all-seeing sun bathes his undying self, and refreshes his weary
-
-steeds.
-
-
-
-And as the ocean holds the same position in respect to the
-
-sun, and serves the same purpose throughout the whole southern region,
And Euripides in his Phaeton
-
-
-
-Here the poet merely describes them as the common stables
-
-of the Morning and of the Sun; but further on he tells us
-
-they were near to the dwellings of Merops, and in fact the
-
-whole plot of the piece has reference to this. This does not
-
-therefore refer alone to the [land] next to Egypt, but rather
-
-to the whole southern country extending along the sea-coast.
-
-
Ephorus likewise shows us the opinion of the ancients
-
-respecting Ethiopia, in his Treatise on Europe. He says, If
-
-the whole celestial and terrestrial globe were divided into
-
-four parts, the Indians would possess that towards the east,
-
-the Ethiopians towards the south, the Kelts towards the
-
-west, and the Scythians towards the north.
He adds that
-
-Ethiopia is larger than Scythia; for, says he, it appears that
-
-the country of the Ethiopians extends from the rising to the
-
-setting of the sun in winter; and Scythia is opposite to it.
-
-
-
-towards the west,
and allusion in the passage is made to Ithaca as lying west of Greece.
-
-
-
-by which he means the whole southern hemisphere: and again
-
-when he says,
-
-
-
-Whether they fly to the right towards the morn and the sun, or to
-
-the left towards the darkening west.
O my friends! since we know not where is the west, nor where the
-
-morning, nor where the sun that gives light to mortals descends beneath
-
-the earth, nor where he rises up again.
When therefore he says,
-
-
-
-For yesterday Jove went to Oceanus to the blameless Ethiopians, to
-
-a banquet.
The powerful shaker of the earth, as he was returning from the
-
-Ethiopians, beheld him from a distance, from the mountains of the Solymi,
-
in his return from the southern
-
-regions,
Which, after they have escaped the winter and immeasurable shower,
-
-with a clamour wing their way towards the streams of the ocean bearing
-
-slaughter and fate to the Pygmæan men.
It is quite irrational to suppose that he could be accurately acquainted with Egyptian Thebes,Read 4000, as in lib. xvii. This correction is indicated by the following measure given by Herodotus:
-
-
-
-
This reasoning seems very plausible, but we must remark that
-
-Col. Leake, in a valuable paper
-
-
-
-
-The stadium made use of in Egypt at the time of Herodotus consisted of
-
-On the Stade as a Linear Measure,
-
-published in vol. ix. of the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, is
-
-of opinion that Gosselin's system of stadia of different lengths cannot be
-
-maintained.
These Egyptians and Syrians
Our poet applies to rivers the epithet of heaven-sent.
-
-And this not only to mountain torrents, but to all rivers alike,
-
-since they are all replenished by the showers. But even what
-
-
-
-lighter than the shadow of
-
-a cork,
more timid than a Phrygian hare,
to possess an
-
-estate shorter than a Lacedæmonian epistle;
so excellence
-
-becomes more excellent, when the title of heaven-sent
is
-
-given to the Nile. The mountain torrent has a better claim
-
-to be called heaven-sent than other rivers, but the Nile exceeds the mountain torrents, both in its size and the lengthened
-
-period of its overflow. Since, then, the wonders of this river
-
-were known to our poet, as we have shown in this defence,
-
-when he applies this epithet to the Nile, it must only be understood in the way we have explained. Homer did not
-
-think it worth mentioning, especially to those who were acquainted with the fact, that the Nile had many mouths, since
-
-this is a common feature of numerous other rivers. Alcæus
It is clear that Homer was only acquainted with the rising
-
-and deposit of the river in a general way, and concluding
-
-from what he heard that the island had been further removed
-
-in the time of Menelaus from the mainland, than it was in
-
-his own, he magnified the distance, simply that he might
-
-heighten the fiction. Fictions however are not the offspring
-
-of ignorance, as is sufficiently plain from those concerning
-
-Proteus, the Pygmies, the efficacy of charms, and many others
-
-similar to these fabricated by the poets. They narrate these
-
-things not through ignorance of the localities, but for the sake
-
-of giving pleasure and enjoyment. But [some one may in-
-
-quire], how could he describe [Pharos], which is without
-
-water as possessed of that necessary?
-
-
-
-But in it there is a haven with good mooring, from whence they takes
-
-equal ships into the sea, having drawn black water.
As his description of the wanderings of Menelaus may
-
-seem to authenticate the charge of ignorance made against
-
-him in respect to those regions, it will perhaps be best to
-
-point out the difficulties of the narrative, and their explanation, and at the same time enter into a fuller defence of our
-
-poet. Menelaus thus addresses Telemachus, who is admiring
-
-the splendour of his palace:
-
-
-
-Certainly having suffered many things, and having wandered much,
-
-I was brought in my ships, and I returned in the eighth year; having
-
-wandered to Cyprus, and Phœnice, and the Egyptians, I came to the
-
-Ethiopians and Sidonians, and Erembians, and Libya.
It is asked, What Ethiopians could he have met with on
-
-his voyage from Egypt? None are to be found dwelling by our
-
-sea,Thus far he, collecting much property and gold, wandered with his
-
-ships.
As to the navigation of the isthmus, or one of the canals,
-
-if it had been related by Homer himself, we should have
-
-counted it a myth; but as he does not relate it, we regard
-
-it as entirely extravagant and unworthy of belief. We
-
-say unworthy of belief, because at the time of the Trojan war
-
-no canal was in existence. It is recorded that Sesostris, who
-
-had planned the formation of one, apprehending that the level
-
-of the sea was too high to admit of it, desisted from the undertaking.
Moreover the isthmus itself was not passable for ships, and
-
-Eratosthenes is unfortunate in his conjecture, for he considers that the strait at the Pillars was not then formed,
-
-
-
-
But what account have we of the formation of this strait,
-
-supposing it were not in existence prior to the Trojan war?
-
-Is it likely that our poet would make Ulysses sail out through
-
-the Strait [of Gibraltar] into the Atlantic Ocean, as if that
-
-strait already existed, and at the same time describe Menelaus conducting his ships from Egypt to the Red Sea, as if it
-
-did not exist. Further, the poet introduces Proteus as saying to him,
-
-
-
-But the immortals will send you to the Elysian plain, and the boundaries of the earth.
But ever does the ocean send forth the gently blowing breezes of the
-
-west wind.
But if our poet speaks of the Isthmus of Suez as ever
-
-having been the strait of confluence between the Mediterranean and the Red Seas, how much more credit may we attribute to his division of the Ethiopians into two portions, being
-
-thus separated by so grand a strait! And what commerce
-
-could he have carried on with the Ethiopians who dwelt by
-
-the shores of the exterior sea and the ocean? Telemachus
-
-and his companions admire the multitude of ornaments that
-
-were in the palace,
-
-
-
-
But [we reply], Homer was not acquainted with India, or
-
-he would have described it. And though he knew of the
-
-Arabia which is now named Felix, at that time it was by no
-
-means wealthy, but a wild country, the inhabitants of which
-
-dwelt for the most part in tents. It is only a small district
-
-which produces the aromatics from which the whole territory
-
-afterwards received its name,the port of Menelaus.
When, after mentioning Phoenicia, he talks of Sidon,
-
-its metropolis, he merely employs a common form of expression, for example,
-
-
-
-For the sons of magnanimous Œneus were no more, nor was he himself
-
-surviving; moreover, fair-haired Meleager was dead.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
But he had some other cause besides this for mentioning
-
-Sidon immediately after having spoken of the Phoenicians:
-
-for had he merely desired to recount the nations in order, it
-
-would have been quite sufficient to say,
-
-
-
-Having wandered to Cyprus, Phœnice, and the Egyptians, I came to the Ethiopians.
-
-
-
But that he might record his sojourn amongst the Sidonians,
-
-which was considerably prolonged, he thought it well to refer
-
-to it repeatedly. Thus he praises their prosperity and skill
-
-in the arts, and alludes to the hospitality the citizens had
-
-shown to Helen and Alexander. Thus he tells us of the
-
-many [treasures]of this nature laid up in store by Alexander.Where were her variously embroidered robes, the works of Sidonian
-
-females, which godlike Alexander himself had brought from Sidon, sailing
-
-over the broad ocean, in that voyage in which he carried off Helen, sprung
-
-from a noble sire.
I will give thee a wrought bowl: it is all silver, and the lips are
-
-bound with gold; it is the work of Vulcan: the hero Phædimus, king
-
-of the Sidonians, gave it [to me], when his home sheltered me, as I was
-
-returning from thence. I wish to give this to thee.
work of Vulcan,
must be looked upon
-
-as a hyperbole: in the same way all elegant productions are
-
-
-
-But in beauty it much excelled [all] upon the whole earth, for the ingenious Sidonians had wrought it cunningly, and Phœnician men had carried it.
Many conjectures have been hazarded as to who the - -Erembi were: they who suppose the Arabs are intended, seem - -to deserve the most credit. -
Our Zeno reads the passage thus:—
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
But there is no occasion to tamper with the text, which is of
-
-great antiquity; it is a far preferable course to suppose a
-
-change in the name itself, which is of frequent and ordinary
-
-occurrence in every nation: and in fact certain grammarians
-
-establish this view by a comparison of the radical letters.
-
-Posidonius seems to me to adopt the better plan after all, in
-
-looking for the etymology of names in nations of one stock and
-
-community; thus between the Armenians, Syrians, and Arabians there is a strong affinity both in regard to dialect, mode
-
-of life, peculiarities of physical conformation, and above all
-
-in the contiguity of the countries. Mesopotamia, which is a
-
-motley of the three nations, is a proof of this; for the similarity amongst these three is very remarkable. And though in
-
-consequence of the various latitudes there may be some difference between those who dwell in the northHe saw the cities of many men, and learned their manners.
Having suffered many things, and having wandered much, I was brought.
And the daughter of Arabus, whom gracious Hermes and Thronia,
-
-descended from king Belus, brought forth.
-
-
-
-Thus, too, says Stesichorus. Whence it seems that at that
-
-time the country was from him named Arabia, though it is
-
-not likely this was the case in the heroic period.
There are many who would make the Erembi a tribe
-
-of the Ethiopians, or of the Cephenes, or again of the Pygmies,
-
-and a thousand other fancies. These ought to be regarded
-
-with little trust; since their opinion is not only incredible,
-
-but they evidently labour under a certain confusion as to the
-
-
-
-
Some again would transport Ethiopia into our Phœnicia,
-
-and make Joppa the scene of the adventures of Andromeda;
Homer has described to us the phenomena of the ocean
-
-under the form of a myth; this [art] is very desirable in a
-
-poet; the idea of his Charybdis was taken from the ebb
-
-and flow of the tide, and was by no means a pure invention of his own, but derived from what he knew concerning
-
-the Strait of Sicily.For thrice in a day she sends it out, and thrice she sucks it in.
-
For thrice in a day she sends it out, and thrice she sucks it in terribly.
-
-Mayest thou not come hither when she is gulping it; for not even Neptune could free thee from ill.
She gulped up the briny water of the sea; but I, raised on high to
-
-the lofty fig-tree, held clinging to it, as a bat.
So the poet,
-
-
-
-But I held without ceasing, until she vomited out again the mast and
-
-keel; and it came late to me wishing for it: as late as a man has risen
-
-from the forum to go to supper, adjudging many contests of disputing
-
-youths, so late these planks appeared from Charybdis.
Every word of this indicates a considerable length of time,
-
-especially when he prolongs it to the evening, not merely saying at that time when the judge has risen, but having adjudicated on a vast number of cases, and therefore detained
-
-longer than usual. Otherwise his account of the return of the
-
-wreck would not have appeared likely, if he had brought it
-
-back again with the return of the wave, before it had been
-
-first carried a long way off.
-
-
Apollodorus, who agrees with Eratosthenes, throws
-
-much blame upon Callimachus for asserting, in spite of his
-
-
-
-
This criticism is just if we suppose the wandering to have
-
-never actually occurred, and to be merely the result of Homer's imagination; but if it did take place, although in other
-
-regions, Apollodorus ought plainly to have stated which they
-
-were, and thus set right the mistake of Callimachus. Since,
-
-however, after such evidence as we have produced, we cannot
-
-believe the whole account to be a fiction, and since no other more
-
-likely places have as yet been named, we hold that the grammarian is absolved from blame.
-
-
Demetrius of Skepsis is also wrong, and, in fact, the
-
-cause of some of the mistakes of Apollodorus. He eagerly
-
-objects to the statement of Neanthes of Cyzicus, that the
-
-Argonauts, when they sailed to the Phasis,Eumelus, whom Alcestis, divine amongst women, most beautiful in
-
-form of the daughters of Pelias, brought forth to Admetus.
If, however, the expedition to the Phasis, fitted out by
-
-Pelias, its return, and the conquest of several islands, have at
-
-the bottom any truth whatever, as all say they have, so also
-
-has the account of their wanderings, no less than those of
-
-Ulysses and Menelaus; monuments of the actual occurrence
-
-of which remain to this day elsewhere than in the writings of
-
-Homer. The city of Æa, close by the Phasis, is still pointed
-
-Out Æetes is generally believed to have reigned in Colchis,
-
-the name is still common throughout the country, tales of the
-
-sorceress Medea are yet abroad, and the riches of the country
-
-in gold, silver, and iron, proclaim the motive of Jason's expedition, as well as of that which Phrixus had formerly undertaken. Traces both of one and the other still remain.
-
-Such is Phrixium,
-
-
-
-In the verses which commence,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-And again concerning the Colchians, who,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Some writers assert that Jason and his companions sailed
-
-high up the Ister, others say he sailed only so far as to be
-
-able to gain the Adriatic: the first statement results altogether
-
-from ignorance; the second, which supposes there is a second
-
-Ister having its source from the larger river of the same name,
-
-and discharging its waters into the Adriatic, is neither incredible nor even improbable.
Starting from these premises, the poet, in conformity
-
-both with general custom and his own practice, narrates some
-
-circumstances as they actually occurred, and paints others in
-
-the colours of fiction. He follows history when he tells us of
-
-Æetes and Jason also, when he talks of Argo, and on the authority of [the actual city of Æa], feigns his city of Ææa,
-
-when he settles Euneos in Lemnos, and makes that island
-
-friendly to Achilles, and when, in imitation of Medea, he makes
-
-the sorceress Circe
-
-
-
-the renowned Argo,
[Here follow the words of Demetrius.]
-
-
-
-
-
-And again:
-
-
-
-Nor as yet had Jason, having accomplished the arduous journey, carried off the splendid fleece from Æa, fulfilling the dangerous mission of
-
-the insolent Pelias, nor had they ploughed the glorious wave of the
-
-ocean.
-
-
-The city of Æetes, where the rays of the swift sun recline on their
-
-golden bed by the shore of the ocean, which the noble Jason visited.
ERATOSTHENES is guilty of another fault in so frequently referring to the works of men beneath his notice,
-
-sometimes for the purpose of refuting them; at others,
-
-when he agrees with them, in order to cite them as authorities. I allude to Damastes, and such as him, who even when
-
-they speak the truth, are utterly unworthy of being appealed
-
-to as authorities, or vouchers for the credibility of a statement.
-
-For such purposes the writings of trustworthy men should only
-
-be employed, who have accurately described much; and though
-
-perhaps they may have omitted many points altogether, and
-
-barely touched on others, are yet never guilty of wilfully falsifying their statements. To cite Damastes as an authority is
-
-little better than to quote the Bergæan,
However, this is not all we have to say against him.
-
-Of many places he tells us that nothing is known, when
-
-in fact they have every one been accurately described. Then
-
-he warns us to be very cautious in believing what we are
-
-told on such matters, and endeavours by long and tedious
-
-arguments to show the value of his advice; swallowing at
-
-the same time the most ridiculous absurdities himself concerning the Euxine and Adriatic. Thus he believed the
-
-Bay of Issus
Having remarked that the ancients, whether out on piratical
-
-
-
-
Again, having discoursed on the advance of knowledge
-
-respecting the Geography of the inhabited earth, between the
-
-time of Alexander and the period when he was writing, Eratosthenes goes into a description of the figure of the earth;
-
-not merely of the habitable earth, an account of which would
-
-have been very suitable, but of the whole earth, which should
-
-certainly have been given too, but not in this disorderly manner. He proceeds to tell us that the earth is spheroidal, not
-
-however perfectly so, inasmuch as it has certain irregularities, he then enlarges on the successive changes of its form,
-
-occasioned by water, fire, earthquakes, eruptions, and the
-
-like; all of which is entirely out of place, for the spheroidal
-
-form of the whole earth is the result of the system of the universe, and the phenomena which he mentions do not in the
-
-least change its general form; such little matters being entirely lost in the great mass of the earth. Still they cause
-
-various peculiarities in different parts of our globe, and result
-
-from a variety of causes.
-
-
He points out as a most interesting subject for disquisition the fact of our finding, often quite inland, two or three
-
-thousand stadia from the sea, vast numbers of muscle, oyster,
-
-and scallop-shells, and salt-water lakes.
In regard to Strato, however, we must remark that,
-
-leaving out of the question the many arguments he has properly stated, some of those which he has brought forward are
-
-quite inadmissible. For first he is inaccurate in stating that
-
-the beds of the interior and the exterior seas have not the
-
-same level, and that the depth of those two seas is different:
-
-whereas the cause why the sea is at one time raised, at another depressed, that it inundates certain places and again
-
-retreats, is not that the beds have different levels, some
-
-higher and some lower, but simply this, that the same beds
-
-are at one time raised, at another depressed, causing the sea
-
-to rise or subside with them; for having risen they cause
-
-an inundation, and when they subside the waters return to
-
-their former places. For if it is so, an inundation will of
-
-course accompany every sudden increase of the waters of
-
-the sea, [as in the spring-tides,] or the periodical swelling
-
-of rivers, in the one instance the waters being brought together from distant parts of the ocean, in the other, their
-
-volume being increased. But the risings of rivers are not
-
-violent and sudden, nor do the tides continue any length of
-
-time, nor occur irregularly; nor yet along the coasts of our
-
-sea do they cause inundations, nor any where else. Consequently we must seek for an explanation of the cause
-
-either in the stratum composing the bed of the sea, or in that
-
-which is overflowed; we prefer to look for it in the former,
-
-since by reason of its humidity it is more liable to shiftings
-
-and sudden changes of position, and we shall find that in these
-
-matters the wind is the great agent after all. But, I repeat
-
-it, the immediate cause of these phenomena, is not in the fact
-
-of one part of the bed of the ocean being higher or lower than
-
-another, but in the upheaving or depression of the strata on
-
-which the waters rest. Strato's hypothesis evidently originated
-
-in the belief that that which occurs in rivers is also the case in
-
-regard to the sea; viz. that there is a flow of water from the
-
-higher places. Otherwise he would not have attempted to account for the current he observed at the Strait of Byzantium in
-
-the manner he does, attributing it to the bed of the Euxine being
-
-
-
-
I rather make this inquiry:—If there were any reason
-
-why, before the outlet was opened at Byzantium, the bed of the
-
-Euxine (being deeper than either that of the Propontis
We would apply the same arguments to the whole of the
-
-Mediterranean and Atlantic, and account for the efflux of the
-
-former, not by any [supposed] difference between the elevation
-
-and inclination of its bed and of that of the Atlantic, but at-
-
-
-
-This
-
-shall occur when the wide waters of the Pyramus have enlarged
-
-their banks as far as sacred Cyprus.
These river deposits are prevented from advancing further into the sea by the regularity of the ebb and flow, which
-
-continually drive them back. For after the manner of living
-
-creatures, which go on inhaling and exhaling their breath continually, so the sea in a like way keeps up a constant motion
-
-in and out of itself. Any one may observe who stands on the
-
-sea-shore when the waves are in motion, the regularity with
-
-which they cover, then leave bare, and then again cover up
-
-his feet. This agitation of the sea produces a continual movement on its surface, which even when it is most tranquil has
-
-considerable force, and so throws all extraneous matters on
-
-to the land, and
-
-
-
-Being swollen it rises high around the projecting points, and spits
-
-from it the foam of the sea.
The lofty shores resound, the wave being ejected [upon the beach].
-
The wave, as it advances, possesses a kind of power,
-
-which some call the purging of the sea, to eject all foreign
-
-substances. It is by this force that dead bodies and wrecks
-
-are cast on shore. But on retiring it does not possess sufficient power to carry back into the sea either dead bodies,
-
-wood, or even the lightest substances, such as cork, which
-
-may have been cast out by the waves. And by this means
-
-when places next the sea fall down, being undermined by the
-
-wave, the earth and the water charged with it are cast back
-
-again; and the weight [of the mud] working at the same
-
-time in conjunction with the force of the advancing tide, it is
-
-the sooner brought to settle at the bottom, instead of being
-
-
-
-
Some, however, may be disinclined to admit this explanation, and would rather have proof from things more
-
-manifest to the senses, and which seem to meet us at every
-
-turn. Now deluges, earthquakes, eruptions of wind, and
-
-risings in the bed of the sea, these things cause the rising
-
-of the ocean, as sinking of the bottom causes it to become
-
-lower. It is not the case that small volcanic or other islands
-
-can be raised up from the sea, and not large ones, nor that
-
-all islands can, but not continents, since extensive sinkings
-
-of the land no less than small ones have been known;
-
-witness the yawning of those chasms which have ingulfed
-
-whole districts no less than their cities, as is said to have
-
-happened to Bura,
However, so nice a fellow is Eratosthenes, that though
-
-
-
-On Bodies in Suspension,
says that all liquids when left at rest assume a spherical
-
-form, having a centre of gravity similar to that of the earth.
-
-A dictum which is acknowledged by all who have the slightest pretensions to mathematical sagacity. He says that the
-
-Mediterranean, which, according to his own description, is one
-
-entire sea, has not the same level even at points quite close
-
-to each other; and offers us the authority of engineers for
-
-this piece of folly, notwithstanding the affirmation of mathematicians that engineering is itself only one division of the
-
-mathematics. He tells us that Demetrius
The nature of the ebb and flow has been sufficiently treated of by Posidonius and Athenodorus. Concerning the flux and
-
-reflux of the currents, which also may be explained by physics, it will suffice our present purpose to observe, that in the
-
-various straits these do not resemble each other, but each strait
-
-has its own peculiar current. Were they to resemble each other,.
-
-the current at the Strait of Sicily
To what we cited before concerning the temple of Ammon and Egypt, Eratosthenes adds, that to judge from appearances, Mount Casiusbut on the retiring of the Mediterranean,
&c.
On the other hand, Hipparchus understands by the term
-
-
Hipparchus rejects as false the [account] of the inscription on the dolphins by the delegates from Cyrene,
but the
-
-reason he assigns for this is insufficient, viz. that though Cyrene
-
-was built in times of which we have record, no one mentions the
-
-oracle,by the delegates from Cyrene?
In order to lessen surprise at such changes as we have
-
-mentioned as causes of the inundations and other similar
-
-phenomena which are supposed to have produced Sicily, the
-
-islands of Æolus,Defending from danger.
More probably, in this instance, the
-
-Securer of Foundations.
Many writers have recorded similar occurrences, but it - -will suffice us to narrate those which have been collected by - -Demetrius of Skepsis. -
Apropos of that passage of Homer:—
-
-
-
-And reached the two fair-flowing springs, where the two springs of
-
-the eddying Scamander rise. The one, indeed, flows with tepid water,
-
-and a steam arises from it around, as of burning fire; whilst the other
-
-flows forth in the summer time, like unto hail, or cold snow, or ice from
-
-water
During my stay at Alexandria in Egypt the sea rose so
-
-high near Pelusium
At the commencement of this work will be found some
-
-other narrations of a similar kind, which should be considered
-
-at the same time, and which will greatly tend to strengthen our
-
-belief both in these works of nature and also in its other changes.
-
-
The Piræus having been formerly an island, and lying
-
-And those who inhabited grape-clustered Arne, and those [who in-
-
-habited] Mideia.
Now there is a certain rocky island in the middle of the sea, between
-
-Ithaca and the rugged Samos, Asteris, not large; and in it there are
-
-havens fit for ships, with two entrances.
Myrsilus tells us that Antissa
-
-
-
-The light wave of the Euripus has divided the land of Eubœa from
-
-Bœotia; separating the projecting land by a strait.
Demetrius of Callatis, speaking of the earthquakes
-
-which formerly occurred throughout the whole of Greece,
-
-states that a great portion of the Lichadian Islands and of
-
-Kenæum
Those who desire to instil into us that more perfect freedom from [ignorant] wonder, which Democritus and all other
-
-philosophers so highly extol, should add the changes which have
-
-been produced by the migrations of various tribes: we should
-
-thus be inspired with courage, steadiness, and composure.
-
-For instance, the Western Iberians,Scythians.
Kimmerians,
-
-but he points it out as a manifest error; and refers to Herodotus i. 103.
We must now return to the point whence we digressed.
-
-Herodotus having observed that there could be no such people
-
-as Hyperborean, inasmuch as there were no Hypernotii,
It would indeed be strange, since winds blow under every
-
-latitude, and especially the southern wind called Notus, if any
-
-region could be found where this latter was not felt. On
-
-the contrary, not only does Ethiopia experience our Notus,
-
-but also the whole country which lies above as far as the
-
-equator.
If Herodotus must be blamed at all, it is for supposing that
-
-the Hyperboreans were so named in consequence of Boreas, or
-
-the north wind, not blowing upon them. The poets are allowed
-
-much licence in their modes of expression; but their commentators, who endeavour always to give us the correct view,
-
-tell us that the people who dwelt in the extreme north, were
-
-styled Hyperboreans. The pole is the boundary of the northern
-
-
-
-
Eratosthenes next finds fault with the writers who fill - -their narrative with stories evidently feigned and impossible; - -some as mere fable, but others as history, which did not deserve mention. In the discussion of a subject like his, he - -should not have wasted his time about such trifles. Such is - -the way in which this writer completes the First Book of his - -Memoirs. - - -
IN his Second Book Eratosthenes endeavours to correct
-
-some errors in geography, and offers his own views on the
-
-subject, any mistakes in which we shall endeavour in our turn
-
-to set right. He is correct in saying that the inductions of
-
-mathematics and natural philosophy should be employed, and
-
-that if the earth is spheroidal like the universe, it is inhabited
-
-in all parts; together with some other things of this nature.
-
-Later writers do not agree with him as to the size of the
-
-earth,
After this he proceeds to determine the breadth of the
-
-habitable earth: he tells us, that measuring from the meridian
-
-of Meroe
We will let pass the rest of his distances, since they are
-
-something near,—but that the Dnieper is under the same
-
-parallel as Thule, what man in his senses could ever agree to
-
-this? Pytheas, who has given us the history of Thule, is known
-
-to be a man upon whom no reliance can be placed, and other
-
-writers who have seen Britain and Ierne,
Further, Hipparchus and many others are of opinion
-
-that the parallel of latitude of the Dnieper does not differ
-
-
-
-
Eratosthenes being mistaken as to the breadth [of the
-
-habitable earth], is necessarily wrong as to its length. The
-
-most accurate observers, both ancient and modern, agree that
-
-the known length of the habitable earth is more than twice
-
-its breadth. Its length I take to be from the [eastern] extremity of India
Further, endeavouring to support the opinion that it
-
-is in accordance with natural philosophy to reckon the greatest dimension of the habitable earth from east to west, he
-
-says that, according to the laws of natural philosophy, the
-
-habitable earth ought to occupy a greater length from east to
-
-west, than its breadth from north to south. The temperate
-
-zone, which we have already designated as the longest zone,
-
-is that which the mathematicians denominate a continuous
-
-circle returning upon itself. So that if the extent of the
-
-Atlantic Ocean were not an obstacle, we might easily pass by
-
-sea from Iberia to India,
There has been much argument respecting the continents. Some, considering them to be divided by the rivers Nile
-
-and Tanais,
I take this last part first, and (to use Eratosthenes' own
-
-words, not those of Democritus) willing to pick my bone of contention, inquire, whether they who first made the division of
-
-the three continents were the same persons as those who first
-
-desired to distinguish their own land from that of the Carians
-
-opposite, or whether they were only acquainted with Greece,
-
-Caria, and some few other adjoining countries, and not with
-
-Europe, Asia, or Africa; but that others who followed them,
-
-and were able to write a description of the habitable earth,
-
-were the real authors of the division into three continents.
-
-How did he know that these were not the men who made this
-
-division of the habitable earth? And he who divided the
-
-earth into three parts, giving to each portion the name of
-
-continent,
could he not form in his mind a just idea of that
-
-taken as a whole, which he had so parcelled out. But if indeed he were not acquainted with the whole habitable earth,
-
-but merely made a division of some part thereof, pray what
-
-portion of that part did he denominate Asia, or Europe, or
-
-simply continent? Such talk is altogether nonsense.
-
-
The reasoning of Eratosthenes, however, is still more
-
-absurd, when he declares that he sees no advantage in being
-
-acquainted with the exact boundaries of countries, and then
-
-cites the example of Colyttus and Melitè, which prove just
-
-the contrary of his assertion. Surely if a want of certainty
-
-respecting the boundaries of Thyrea and Oropus gave rise to
-
-war, a knowledge of the limits of different districts must be
-
-of practical importance. Will he tell us that the boundaries
-
-of districts, or the limits of kingdoms, may be of some service,
-
-but when applied to continents it is carrying the matter too
-
-far. We reply, it is of equal consequence here. Suppose a
-
-dispute between two powerful princes, one claiming the possession of Asia and the other of Africa, to which of these should
-
-Egypt, I mean the country called Lower Egypt, appertain.
-
-Will any one paws over such cases on account of their rarity?
-
-By no means. It is acknowledged by every one that the
-
-limits of each continent ought to be defined by some notable
-
-boundary, indicated by the configuration of the whole habitable earth. In following out this principle, we should not be
-
-
-
-
At the close of the book Eratosthenes blames the system
-
-of those who would divide all mankind into Greeks and Barbarians, and likewise those who recommended Alexander to
-
-treat the Greeks as friends, but the Barbarians as enemies.since amongst the
-
-Greeks there are many worthless characters, and many highly
-
-civilized are to be found amongst the Barbarians; witness the
-
-Indians and Ariani,
But we would inquire whether
-
-those men who thus divided the human race, abandoning one
-
-portion to contempt, and exalting to dignity the other, were
-
-not actuated to this because they found that on one side justice,
-
-knowledge, and the force of reason reigned supreme, but their
-
-contraries on the other. Alexander did not disregard the
-
-advice tendered him, but gladly embraced and followed it,
-
-respecting the wisdom of those who gave it; and so far from
-
-taking the opposite course, he closely pursued that which they
-
-pointed out.
-
-
-
-
SUMMARY.
- -In the Second Book, having proposed for discussion the [opinions] of Eratosthenes, he examines and refutes whatever that writer may have incorrectly said, determined, or laid down. He likewise brings forward many - -statements of Hipparchus, which he disproves, and finishes with a short - -exposition or synopsis of the whole subject, namely, geographical knowledge.
IN the Third Book of his Geography Eratosthenes furnishes
-
-us with a chart of the habitable earth. This he divides into
-
-two portions, by a line running from east to west parallel to
-
-the equator. He makes the Pillars of Hercules the boundary
-
-of this line to the west, and to the east the farthest ridges of
-
-those mountains which bound India on the north. From the
-
-Pillars he draws the line through the Strait of Sicily,Through the whole of this
-
-distance the line mentioned is drawn across the sea
-
-
He then declares that the ancient geographical chart
-
-wants revision; that in it the eastern portion of the Taurus
-
-
-
-
But there is another method (says Eratosthenes) of
-
-proving this. The distance from the Gulf of Issus to the
-
-Euxine, proceeding in a northerly direction towards Amisus
Hipparchus tries to invalidate this view of Eratosthenes,
-
-by sneering at the proofs on which it rests. Patrocles, he
-
-says, merits little credit, being contradicted by the two writers
-
-
-
-
This argument, I think, is in many instances unfounded.
-
-Eratosthenes availed himself of the statements of many
-
-writers, although Hipparchus alleges he was solely led by
-
-Patrocles. Who then are the authors of the statement that
-
-the southern extremity of India is under the same parallel
-
-as Meroe; and who are they who estimateestimate at so much,
referring to the estimate at the
-
-conclusion of § 2.eastern ocean,
we must
-
-understand Strabo to mean the Bay of Bengal.
Besides, the credibility of Patrocles can be proved by a
-
-variety of evidence—the princes
Again, in the second volume of his Commentaries, Hipparchus accuses Eratosthenes of himself throwing discredit on
-
-the statement of Patrocles, on account of his differing with Megasthenes, as to the length of India on its northern side;
We reply, that [Eratosthenes] did not object [to the
-
-statement of Patrocles] merely because it differed [from that
-
-of Megasthenes], but because the statement of this latter as to
-
-the stadia was confirmed by the Itinerary, an authority of no
-
-mean importance. There is nothing wonderful in this, that
-
-though a certain statement may be credible, another may be
-
-more credible; and that while in some instances we follow the
-
-former, in others we may dissent from it on finding a more
-
-trust-worthy guide. It is ridiculous to say that the greater
-
-the difference of one writer from others, the less he should be
-
-trusted. On the contrary, such a rule would be more applicable in regard to small differences; for in little particulars
-
-the ordinary observer and the man of great ability are equally
-
-liable to err. On the other hand, in great matters, the ordinary run of men are more like to be deceived than the man
-
-of superior talent, to whom consequently in such cases greater
-
-deference is paid.
-
-
Generally speaking, the men who hitherto have written
-
-on the affairs of India, were a set of liars. Deimachus holds
-
-the first place in the list, Megasthenes comes next, while
-
-
-
-
In like manner, that the voyage from Amisus to
-
-Colchis, and the route to the Caspian, and thence on to
-
-Bactra, are both due east, is proved by the winds, the seasons, the fruits, and even the sun-risings. Frequently evidence such as this, and general agreement, are more to be
-
-relied on than the measurement taken by means of instruments. Hipparchus himself was not wholly indebted to
-
-instruments and geometrical calculations for his statement
-
-that the Pillars and Cilicia lie in a direct line due east. For
-
-
-
-
But the system of Hipparchus altogether teems with difficulties. Reflect for an instant on the following absurdity; after
-
-admitting that the southern extremity of India is under the
-
-same degree of latitude as Meroe, and that the distance from
-
-Meroe to the Strait of Byzantium is about 18,000
Again, we know that the Cinnamon Country is the
-
-most southerly point of the habitable earth. According to
-
-Hipparchus's own statement, the latitude of this country,
-
-which marks the commencement of the temperate zone, and
-
-likewise of the habitable earth, is distant from the equator
-
-about 8800 stadia.
Let us then transport ourselves to the land opposite the
-
-Cinnamon Country, and lying to the east under the same
-
-parallel of latitude; we shall there find the country named
-
-Taprobane.
That there are cold regions in the high and mountainous
-
-parts of these countries is not to be wondered at; since in the
-
-[more] southern climates the mountains, and even the tablelands, are cold. The districts next the Euxine, in Cappadocia,
-
-are much farther north than those adjoining the Taurus.
-
-Bagadania, a vast plain, situated between the mountains of
-
-Argæus
The Oxus,
Can one find any fertility to compare with this near
-
-to the Dnieper, or that part of Keltica next the ocean,
If any one doubts the intensity of our winter's cold, let
-
-him believe when he sees this vase. The priest Stratius
-
-placed it here, not because he considered it a worthy offering
-
-to the god, but as a proof of the severity of our winter.
-
Since therefore the provinces we have just enumerated
-
-[are so superior in climate, that they] cannot be compared
-
-with the countries surrounding the Bosphorus, nor even the
-
-regions of Amisus and Sinope, (for every one will admit that
-
-they are much superior to these latter,) it would be idle to
-
-compare them with the districts near the Borysthenes and
-
-the north of Keltica; for we have shown that their temperature is not so low as Amisus, Sinope, Byzantium, and
-
-Marseilles, which are universally acknowledged to be 3700
-
-stadia south of the Dnieper and Keltica.
-
-
If the followers of Deimachus add to the 30.000 stadia the distance to Taprobane and the boundaries of the
-
-torrid zone, which cannot be reckoned less than 4000 stadia, The great fertility of Bactriana, according to Strabo, appeared to be inconsistent with a position so far towards the north. In this he was
-
-correct.
-
-
-
-
-
Hipparchus narrates that at the Dnieper and [the
-
-north of] Keltica, during the whole of the summer nights there
-
-is one continued twilight from sun-set to sun-rise, but at the
-
-winter solstice the sun never rises more than nine cubits above
-
-the horizon.
Again, Eratosthenes wished to show the ignorance of
-
-Deimachus, and his want of information concerning such matters, as proved by his assertion that India lies between the
-
-autumnal equinox
It is by assuming as a fact that the southern extremity
-
-of India is under the same parallel as Meroe, a thing affirmed
-
-and believed by most writers, that we shall be best able to
-
-show the absurdities of the system of Hipparchus. In the first
-
-book of his Commentaries he does not object to this hypothesis, but in the second book he no longer admits it; we must
-
-examine his reasons for this. He says, when two countries
-
-are situated under the same parallel, but separated by a great
-
-distance, you cannot be certain that they are exactly under the
-
-same parallel, unless the
In the instances which follow, Hipparchus, treating of
-
-these subjects, either asserts things similar to those which we
-
-have already refuted, or takes for granted matters which are
-
-not so, or draws improper sequences. For instance, from the
-
-computation [of Eratosthenes] that the distance from Babylon to Thapsacus
Again, Hipparchus, ever anxious to defend the [accuracy of the] ancient charts, instead of fairly stating the words
-
-of Eratosthenes concerning his third section of the habitable
-
-earth, wilfully makes him the author of an assertion easy of
-
-disproof. For Eratosthenes, following the opinion we before
-
-mentioned, that a line drawn from the Pillars of Hercules
-
-across the Mediterranean, and the length of the Taurus, would
-
-
-
-
Having in this manner but imperfectly traced the outlines of his second section, the third section, for various reasons, is still less exact. The first cause has been already
-
-explained, viz. that the line from the Caspian Gates to Carmania is not clearly defined, as the side of the section is
-
-common both to the third and second sections. Secondly,
-
-on account of the Persian Gulf interrupting the continuity of
-
-
-
-
It is in this general kind of description of the third
-
-section that Eratosthenes supposes 10,000 stadia from the
-
-Caspian Gates to the Euphrates. This he again divides
-
-according to former admeasurements which he found preserved. Starting from the point where the Euphrates passes
-
-near to Thapsacus, he computes from thence to the place
-
-where Alexander crossed the Tigris 2400 stadia. The route
-
-
-
-
Thus, says Eratosthenes, we have given you a description
-
-of the northern side; as for the southern, we cannot take its
-
-measure along the sea, on account of the Persian Gulf,
-
-which intercepts [its continuity], but from Babylon through
-
-Susa and Persepolis to the confines of Persia and Carmania
-
-there are 9200 stadia. This he calls the southern side, but
-
-he does not say it is parallel to the northern. The difference of length between the northern and southern sides is
-
-caused, he tells us, by the Euphrates, which after running
-
-south some distance shifts its course almost due east.
-
-
Of the two remaining sides, he describes the western
-
-first, but whether we are to regard it as one single straight
-
-line, or two, seems to be undecided. He says,—From Thapsacus to Babylon, following the course of the Euphrates, there
-
-are 4800 stadia; from thence to the mouth of the Euphrates
In the Third Section it is true he does make some mistakes, which we shall take into consideration; but they are
-
-nothing like the amount which Hipparchus attributes to
-
-him. However, we will examine his objections. [In the
-
-first place,] he would have the ancient charts left just as
-
-they are, and by no means India brought more to the south,
-
-as Eratosthenes thinks proper. Indeed, he asserts that the
-
-very arguments adduced by that writer only confirm him the
-
-more in his opinion. He says, According to Eratosthenes,
-
-the northern side of the third section is bounded by a line of
-
-10,000 stadia drawn from the Caspian Gates to the Euphrates,
-
-the southern side from Babylon to the confines of Carmania
-
-is a little more than 9000 stadia. On the western side, following the course of the Euphrates, from Thapsacus to Babylon
-
-there are 4800 stadia, and thence to the outlets of the river
-
-3000 stadia more. Northward from Thapsacus [to the Gates
-
-of Armenia] is reckoned
-
-
We answer, that if the Caspian Gates and the boundary
-
-line of Carmania and Persia were exactly under the same meridian, and if right lines drawn in the direction of Thapsacus
-
-and Babylon would intersect such meridian at right angles,
-
-
-
-
But taking this for granted, and proving, as he imagines,
-
-that, according to Eratosthenes, Babylon is east of Thapsacus
-
-rather more than 1000 stadia, he draws from this false hypothesis a new argument, which he uses to the following
-
-purpose; and says, If we suppose a right line drawn from
-
-Thapsacus towards the south, and another from Babylon perpendicular thereto, a right-angled triangle would be the result;
-
-whose sides should be, 1. A line drawn from Thapsacus to
-
-Babylon; 2. A perpendicular drawn from Babylon to the
-
-meridian of Thapsacus; 3. The meridian line of Thapsacus.
-
-The hypotenuse of this triangle would be a right line drawn
-
-from Thapsacus to Babylon, which he estimates at 4800 stadia.
-
-The perpendicular drawn from Babylon to the meridian of
-
-Thapsacus is scarcely more than 1000 stadia; the same
-
-amount by which the line drawn [from the Caspian Gates] to
-
-
-
-
But here, for the formation of his right-angled triangle, Hipparchus not only makes use of propositions already overturned,
-
-but assumes what was never granted, namely, that the hypotenuse subtending his right angle, which is the straight line
-
-from Thapsacus to Babylon, is 4800 stadia in length. What
-
-Eratosthenes says is, that this route follows the course of the
-
-Euphrates, and adds, that Mesopotamia and Babylon are encompassed as it were by a great circle formed by the Euphrates and
-
-Tigris, but principally by the former of these rivers. So that
-
-a straight line from Thapsacus to Babylon would neither follow
-
-the course of the Euphrates, nor yet be near so many stadia
-
-in length. Thus the argument [of Hipparchus] is overturned.
-
-We have stated before, that supposing two lines drawn from
-
-
-
-
There, however, are some instances in which one may
-
-justly accuse Eratosthenes. There is a difference in dissecting
[In the system of Eratosthenes], the habitable earth
-
-has been admirably divided into two parts by the Taurus and
-
-the Mediterranean Sea, which reaches to the Pillars. On the
-
-southern side, the limits of India have been described by a
-
-variety of methods; by its mountains,
The fourth section would consist of Arabia Felix, - -the Arabian Gulf, and the whole of Egypt and Ethiopia. Its - -length bounded by two meridians, one drawn through its most - -western point, the other through its most eastern; and its - -breadth by two parallels through its most northern and southern points. For this is the best way to describe the extent - -of irregular figures, whose length and breadth cannot be determined by their sides. -
In general it is to be observed, that length and breadth are
-
-to be understood in different ways, according as you speak of
-
-the whole or a part. Of a whole, the greater distance is
-
-called its length, and the lesser its breadth; of a part, that
-
-is to be considered the length which is parallel to the length
-
-of the whole, without any regard whether it, or that
-
-which is left for the breadth, be the greater distance. The
-
-length of the whole habitable earth is measured from east to
-
-west by a line drawn parallel to the equator, and its breadth
-
-from north to south in the direction of the meridian; consequently, the length of any of the parts ought to be portions
-
-of a line drawn parallel to the length of the whole, and their
-
-breadth to the breadth of the whole. For, in the first place,
-
-by this means the size of the whole habitable earth will be
-
-best described; and secondly, the disposition and configuration
-
-of its parts, and the manner in which one may be said to be
-
-greater or less than another, will be made manifest by thus
-
-comparing them.
-
-
Eratosthenes, however, measures the length of the
-
-habitable earth by a line which he considers straight, drawn
-
-from the Pillars of Hercules, in the direction of the Caspian
-
-Gates and the Caucasus. The length of the third section,
-
-by a line drawn from the Caspian Gates to Thapsacus,
-
-and of the fourth, by one running from Thapsacus through
-
-Heroopolis to the country surrounded by the Nile: this
-
-must necessarily be deflected to Canopus and Alexandria,
-
-for there is the last mouth of the Nile, which goes by the
-
-name of the Canopic
We will now return at once to Hipparchus, and see
-
-what comes next. Continuing to palm assumptions of his own
-
-[upon Eratosthenes], he goes on to refute, with geometrical
-
-accuracy, statements which that author had made in a mere
-
-general way. Eratosthenes,
he says, estimates that there
-
-are 6700 stadia between Babylon and the Caspian Gates,
-
-and from Babylon to the frontiers of Carmania and Persia
-
-above 9000 stadia; this he supposes to lie in a direct line
-
-towards the equinoctial rising,
The
-
-hypotenuse of the supposed triangle, or the line drawn from Babylon to
-
-the Caspian Gates being only 6700 stadia, would be necessarily shorter
-
-than either of the other sides, since the line from Babylon to the frontiers of Carmania is estimated by Eratosthenes at 9170, and that from
-
-the frontiers of Carmania to the Caspian Gates above 9000 stadia.
-
-The frontiers of Carmania would thus be east of the Caspian Gates,
-
-and Persia would consequently be comprised, not in the third, but in the
-
-second section of Eratosthenes, being east of the meridian of the Caspian
-
-Gates, which was the boundary of the two sections.
Strabo, in the text,
-
-points out the falsity of this argument.
To this we reply, that the line drawn from Babylon to Carmania was never intended as a parallel, nor yet that which
-
-divides the two sections as a meridian, and that therefore nothing has been laid to his charge, at all events with any just
-
-foundation. In fact, Eratosthenes having stated the number
-
-of stadia from the Caspian Gates to Babylon as above
-
-given,according to these premises, the meridian drawn from the Gates of
-
-the Caspian will intersect the parallel of Babylon and Susa
-
-4400 stadia more to the west, than would a straight line
-
-drawn from the Caspian to the confines of Carmania and
-
-Persia; and that this last line, forming with the meridian of
-
-the Caspian Gates half a right angle, would lie exactly
-
-in a direction midway between the south and the equinoctial
-
-rising. Now as the course of the Indus is parallel to this
-
-line, it cannot flow south on its descent from the mountains, as
-
-Eratosthenes asserts, but in a direction lying between the
-
-south and the equinoctial rising, as laid down in the ancient
-
-charts.
But who is there who will admit this to be an obtuse-angled triangle, without also admitting that it contains a
-
-right angle? Who will agree that the line from Babylon to
-
-Susa, which forms one side of this obtuse-angled triangle, lies
-
-parallel, without admitting the same of the whole line as far
-
-as Carmania? or that the line drawn from the Caspian Gates
-
-to the frontiers of Carmania is parallel to the Indus? Nevertheless, without this the reasoning [of Hipparchus] is worth
-
-nothing
-
Eratosthenes himself also states,
[continues Hipparchus,that the form of India is rhomboidal; and since the whole
-
-eastern border of that country has a decided tendency towards the east, but more particularly the extremest cape,
-
-
These arguments may be very geometrical, but they
-
-are not convincing. After having himself invented these
-
-various difficulties, he dismisses them, saying, Had [Eratosthenes] been chargeable for small distances only, he might
-
-have been excused; but since his mistakes involve thousands
-
-of stadia, we cannot pardon him, more especially since he has
-
-laid it down that at a mere distance of 400 stadia,
But these sensible variations
-
-are not all of the same kind, the distance [involved therein]
-
-being in some instances greater, in others less; greater, when
-
-for our estimate of the climata we trust merely to the eye, or
-
-are guided by the vegetable productions and the temperature
-
-of the air; less, when we employ gnomons and dioptric instruments. Nothing is more likely than that if you measure
-
-the parallel of Athens, or that of Rhodes and Caria, by means
-
-of a gnomon, the difference resulting from so many stadia
The fourth section Hipparchus certainly manages
-
-better, though he still maintains the same censorious tone,
-
-and obstinacy in sticking to his first hypotheses, or others
-
-similar. He properly objects to Eratosthenes giving as the
-
-length of this section a line drawn from Thapsacus to Egypt,
-
-as being similar to the case of a man who should tell us that
-
-the diagonal of a parallelogram was its length. For Thapsacus and the coasts of Egypt are by no means under the
-
-same parallel of latitude, but under parallels considerably
-
-distant from each other,
Eratosthenes
In another respect also we have to complain of Hipparchus, because, as he had given a category of the statements of Eratosthenes, he ought to have corrected his mistakes, in the same way that we have done; but whenever he - -has any thing particular to remark, he tells us to follow the - -ancient charts, which, to say the least, need correction infinitely more than the map of Eratosthenes. -
The argument which follows is equally objectionable, being
-
-founded on the consequences of a proposition which, as we
-
-have shown, is inadmissible, namely, that Babylon was not
-
-more than 1000 stadia east of Thapsacus; when it was
-
-quite clear, from Eratosthenes' own words, that Babylon
-
-was above 2400 stadia east of that place; since from Thapsacus to the passage of the Euphrates where it was crossed
-
-by Alexander, the shortest route is 2400 stadia, and the
-
-Tigris and Euphrates, having encompassed Mesopotamia,
-
-flow towards the east, and afterwards take a southerly direction and approach nearer to each other and to Babylon at
-
-the same time: nothing appears absurd in this statement of
-
-Eratosthenes.
-
-
The next objection of Hipparchus is likewise false.
-
-He attempts to prove that Eratosthenes, in his statement
-
-that the route from Thapsacus to the Caspian Gates is
-
-10,000 stadia, gives this as the distance taken in a straight
-
-line; such not being the case, as in that instance the distance
-
-would be much shorter. His mode of reasoning is after this
-
-fashion. He says, According to Eratosthenes, the mouth
-
-of the Nile at Canopus,
-
To this we reply, that Eratosthenes, as is usual in Geography, speaks of right lines, meridians, and parallels to the
-
-equator, with considerable latitude, whereas Hipparchus criticizes him with geometrical nicety, as if every line had been
-
-measured with rule and compass. Hipparchus at the same
-
-time himself frequently deciding as to right lines and parallels, not by actual measurement, but mere conjecture. Such
-
-is the first error of this writer. A second is, that he never
-
-lays down the distances as Eratosthenes has given them, nor
-
-yet reasons on the data furnished by that writer, but from
-
-mere assumptions of his own coinage. Thus, where Eratosthenes states that the distance from the mouth of the
-
-[Thracian Bosphorus] to the Phasis is 8000 stadia, from
-
-thence to Dioscurias
In the second book of his Commentaries, Hipparchus,
-
-having again mooted the question concerning the mountains
-
-of the Taurus, of which we have spoken sufficiently, proceeds
-
-with the northern parts of the habitable earth. He then
-
-notices the statement of Eratosthenes concerning the countries situated west of the Euxine,
It is doubtless permissible in very great distances to consider as under one and the same meridian places which are
-
-not more east and west of each other than Carthage is west
-
-of the Strait;
Since Hipparchus does not furnish a Geography of his
-
-own, but merely reviews what is said in that of Eratosthenes,
-
-he ought to have gone farther, and corrected the whole of
-
-that writer's mistakes. As for ourselves, it is only in those
-
-particulars where Eratosthenes is correct (and we acknowledge that he frequently errs) that we have thought it our
-
-duty to quote his own words, in order to reinstate them in
-
-their position, and to defend him when he could be acquitted
-
-of the charges of Hipparchus; never failing to break a
-
-lance with the latter writer whenever his objections seemed
-
-to be the result of a mere propensity to find fault. But when
-
-Eratosthenes is grossly mistaken, and the animadversions of
-
-Hipparchus are just, we have thought it sufficient in our
-
-Geography to set him (Eratosthenes) right by merely stating
-
-facts as they are. As the mistakes were so continual and
-
-numerous, it was better not to mention them except in a
-
-sparse and general manner. This principle in the details we
-
-shall strive to carry out. In the present instance we shall
-
-only remark, that Timosthenes, Eratosthenes, and those who
-
-preceded them, were but ill acquainted with Iberia and Keltica,
WE will now proceed to examine the statements made
-
-by Posidonius in his Treatise on the Ocean. This Treatise
-
-contains much geographical information, sometimes given in a
-
-manner conformable to the subject, at others too mathematical.
-
-It will not, therefore, be amiss to look into some of his statements, both now and afterwards, as opportunity occurs, taking
-
-care to confine ourselves within bounds. He deals simply
-
-with geography, when he tells us that the earth is spheroidal
-
-and the universe too, and admits the necessary consequences
-
-of this hypothesis, one of which is, that the earth contains
-
-five zones.
-
-
Posidonius informs us that Parmenides was the first to
-
-make this division of the earth into five zones, but that he
-
-almost doubled the size of the torrid zone, which is situated
-
-between the tropics, by bringing it beyond these into the
-
-temperate zones.
If of the more recent measurements we prefer those which
-
-diminish the size of the earth, such as that adopted by Posidonius, which is about 180,000 stadia,Since it is not every latitude which has Arctic Circles,
Nothing however is proved
-
-[against Aristotle] from the fact that there are not Arctic
-
-Circles for every latitude, since they exist for all the inhabitants of the temperate zone, on whose account alone the
-
-zone receives its name of temperate. But the objection that
-
-the Arctic Circles do not remain the same for every latitude,
-
-but shift their places, is excellent.
Posidonius, who himself divides the earth into zones, tells
-
-us that five is the number best suited for the explanation
-
-of the celestial appearances, two of these are periscii,
POLYBIUS supposes six zones: two situated between the
-
-poles and the arctic circles; two between the arctic circles
-
-and the tropics; and two between the tropics which are divided by the equator. However, it appears to me that the
-
-
-
-
The propriety of this division in regard to geography is - -equally apparent; the object of this science being to determine - -the limits of that one of the temperate zones which we in- - -habit. To the east and west, it is true, the boundaries are - -formed by the sea, but to the north and south they are indicated by the atmosphere; which in the middle is of a grate- - -ful temperature both to animals and plants, but on either - -side is rendered intemperate either through excess or defect - -of heat. To manifest this threefold difference, the division - -of tile globe into five zones becomes necessary. In fact, - -the division of the globe, by means of the equator, into two - -hemispheres, the one northern, wherein we dwell, and the - -other southern, points to this threefold division, for the regions next the equator and torrid zone are uninhabitable on - -account of the heat, those next the poles on account of the - -cold, but those in the middle are mild, and fitted for the habitation of man. -
Posidonius, in placing two zones under the tropics, pays no
-
-regard to the reasons which influenced the division into five
-
-zones, nor is his division equally appropriate. It is no more
-
-than if he were to form his division into zones merely according
-
-to the [countries inhabited] by different nations, calling one
-
-
-
-
Polybius, indeed, is wrong in bounding certain of his
-
-zones by the arctic circles,
Posidonius blames Polybius for asserting that the region
-
-of the earth, situated under the equator, is the highest, since
-
-a spherical body being equal all round, no part can be described as high; and as to mountainous districts, there are
-
-none under the equator, it is on the contrary a flat country,
-
-about the same level as the sea; as for the rains which swell
-
-the Nile, they descend from the mountains of Ethiopia. Although advancing this, he afterwards seems to adopt the other
-
-opinion, for he says that he fancies there may be mountains
-
-under the equator, around which the clouds assembling from
-
-both of the temperate zones, produce violent rains. Here is
-
-one manifest contradiction; again, in stating that the land
-
-under the equator is mountainous, another contradiction ap-
-
-pears. For they say that the ocean is confluent, how then
-
-can they place mountains in the midst of it? unless they
-
-mean to say that there are islands. However, whether such
-
-be the fact does not lie within the province of geography to
-
-determine, the inquiry would better be left to him who makes
-
-the ocean in particular his study.
-
-
Posidonius, in speaking of those who have sailed round
-
-Africa, tells us that Herodotus was of opinion that some of those
-
-sent out by Darius actually performed this enterprise;to return to Egypt through the passage of the Pillars of Hercules.
See Humboldt's
-
-Cosmos, ii. 488, note, Bohn's edition.
[He fancied that he had made his fortune], however, he
-
-was greatly deceived, for Euergetes took possession of the
-
-whole treasure. On the death of that prince, his widow,
-
-Cleopatra,
However, he carried the prow into the market-place, and
-
-exhibited it to the pilots, who recognised it as being come
-
-from Gades.
From this Eudoxus drew the conclusion, that it was possible to circumnavigate Libya; he therefore returned home,
-
-and having collected together the whole of his substance, set
-
-out on his travels. First he visited Dicæarchia,
This, however, was prevented on account of the fear of the
-
-[king's] advisers, lest the district should chance to expose then
-
-to treachery, by making known a route by which foreigners
-
-might come to attack them. Eudoxus, however, became aware,
-
-that although it was given out that he was himself to be sent
-
-on this proposed expedition, the real intent was to aban-
-
-don him on some desert island. He therefore fled to the
-
-Roman territory, and passed thence into Iberia. Again, he
-
-equipped two vessels, one round and the other long, furnished
-
-with fifty oars, the latter framed for voyaging in the high seas.
-
-the other for coasting along the shores. He placed on board
-
-agricultural implements, seed, and builders, and hastened on
-
-the same voyage, determined, if it should prove too long, to
-
-winter on the island he had before observed, sow his seed.
-
-
-
-
Thus far,
says Posidonius, I have followed the history
-
-of Eudoxus. What happened afterwards is probably known
-
-to the people of Gades and Iberia;
but,
says he, all these
-
-things only demonstrate more clearly the fact, that the in-
-
-habited earth is entirely surrounded by the ocean.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Posidonius is certainly a most strange writer; he considers
-
-that the voyage of the Magus,
However, he is right in attributing to earthquakes and
-
-other similar causes, which we also have enumerated, the
-
-risings, slips, and changes which at various periods come over
-
-the earth. He did well, too, in citing the opinion of Plato,
-
-that the tradition concerning the Island of Atlantis might
-
-be received as something more than a mere fiction, it having
-
-been related by Solon on the authority of the Egyptian priests,
-
-that this island, almost as large as a continent, was formerly
-
-in existence, although now it had disappeared.
Posidonius
-
-thinks it better to quote this than to say, He who brought it
-
-into existence can also cause it to disappear, as the poet did
-
-the wall of the Achivi.
It is the opinion of Posidonius that the emigration of the
-
-Cimbrians and other kindred races from their native territory was
Next he undertakes to find fault with those who gave
-
-
-
-
In praising the division of the continents as it now stands,
-
-he advances as an argument the difference between the Indians and the Ethiopians of Libya, the former being more
-
-robust, and less dried by the heat of the climate. It is on this
-
-account that Homer, who includes them all under the title of
-
-Ethiopians, describes them as being separated into two divisions,
-
-
-
-towards the descending
-
-sun,
viz. when having passed the meridian, it begins to decline.
-
-
-
-
First, then, the Ethiopians next Egypt are actually separated into two divisions; one part being in Asia, the other
-
-in Libya, otherwise there is no distinction between them. But
-
-it was not on this account that Homer divided the Ethiopians,
-
-nor yet because he was acquainted with the physical superiority of the Indians, (for it is not probable that Homer had
-
-the slightest idea of the Indians, since, according to the assertion of Eudoxus, Euergetes was both ignorant of India, and of
-
-the voyage thither,) but his division rather resulted from the
-
-cause we formerly mentioned. We have shown that as for
-
-the alteration of Crates, it makes no difference whether it be
-
-read so or not. Posidonius, however, says that it does make
-
-a difference, and would be better altered into towards the
-
-descending [sun].
But in what can this be said to differ
-
-from towards the west,
since the whole section of the hemisphere west of the meridian is styled the west,
not only
-
-the mere semicircle of the horizon. This is manifested by the
-
-following expression of Aratus,
-
-
-
-Aratus, who lived about B. C.
POLYBIUS, in his Chorography of Europe, tells us that it is
-
-not his intention to examine the writings of the ancient geographers, but the statements of those who have criticised them,
-
-
-
-
Polybius asks, How is it possible that a private individual, and one too in narrow circumstances, could ever have
-
-performed such vast expeditions by sea and land? And how
-
-could Eratosthenes, who hesitates whether he may rely on his
-
-statements in general, place such entire confidence in what
-
-that writer narrates concerning Britain, Gades, and Iberia?
-
-says he, it would have been better had Eratosthenes trusted
-
-to the Messenian
-Sacred
-
-History,
as we may call it, was taken from the
This argument, although even Dicæarchus would not believe him,
is ridiculous, just as if Eratosthenes ought to take
-
-for his standard a writer whom Polybius is himself for ever
-
-complaining of.
The ignorance of Eratosthenes respecting the western and
-
-northern portions of Europe, we have before remarked. But
-
-both he and Dicæarchus must be pardoned for this, as neither
-
-of them were personally familiar with those localities. But
-
-how can one excuse Polybius and Posidonius? especially Polybius, who treats as mere hearsay what Eratosthenes and
-
-Dicæarchus report concerning the distances of various places;
-
-and many other matters, about which, though he blames them,
-
-he is not himself free from error. Dicæarchus states that
-
-there are 10,000 stadia from the Peloponnesus to the Pillars,
-
-and something above this number from the Peloponnesus to
-
-the recess of the Adriatic.He assigns 3000 to the interval which stretches towards
-
-the Pillars as far as the Strait, and 7000 from the Strait to the Pillars.
-
-The distance from Cape Tenarum to the Strait of Messina is in proportion to the distance from the Strait of Messina to Gibraltar, about
-
-3 to 10, not 3 to 7 as given by Dicæarchus.
I will not inquire,
says Polybius, whether the statement
-
-concerning the 3000 stadia is correct or not, but 7000 stadia
-
-
-
-
-
-
True, dear Polybius, (one might say,) this error [of Dicæarchus] is manifested by the proof which you yourself
-
-have given when you inform us that from the Peloponnesus
-
-to Leucas
In addition to this, the perpendicular
After this Polybius proceeds to set right the mistakes of'
-
-Eratosthenes. In this he is sometimes successful; at others
-
-his corrections are for the worse. For example, Eratosthenes gives 300 stadia from Ithaca to Corcyra; Polybius makes it above 900. From Epidamnus to Thessa-
-
-lonica Eratosthenes allows 900 stadia; Polybius says above
-
-2000. In these instances he is correct. But where Era-
-
-tosthenes states that from Marseilles to the Pillars there
-
-are 7000 stadia, and from the Pyrenees [to the same place]
-
-6000, and Polybius alters this to more than 9000 from Mar-
-
-seilles, and little less than 8000 from the Pyrenees,
Again, however, Polybius makes an incorrect assertion,
-
-in stating that the whole length of Europe is unequal to that
-
-of Africa and Asia taken together. He tells us "that the en-
-
-
-
-
Equally unworthy of credit is the statement of those
-
-who tell us, that the Don rises in the vicinity of the Danube,
-
-and flows from the west; they do not remember that between
-
-these are the Dniester, the Dnieper, and the Bog, all great
-
-rivers, which flow [into the Euxine Sea]; one runs parallel to
-
-the Danube, the other two to the Don. Now if at the present
-
-day we are ignorant of the sources both of the Dniester, and also
-
-of the Dnieper and Bog, the regions farther north must certainly be still less known. It is therefore a fictitious and
-
-idle assertion, that the Don crosses these rivers, and then
-
-turns northward on its way to discharge itself into the
-
-Mæbtis, it being well known that the outlets to this river are
-
-in the most northern and eastern portions of the lake.
No less idle is the statement which has also been advanced.
-
-that the Don, after crossing the Caucasus, flows northward
-
-and then turns towards the Mæotis.
Further, the length of the inhabited earth is measured
-
-on a line parallel with the equator, as it is in this direction
-
-that its greatest length lies: in the same way with respect
-
-to each of the continents, we must take their length as it lies
-
-between two meridians. The measure of these lengths consists of a certain number of stadia, which we obtain either
-
-by going over the places themselves, or roads or ways parallel
-
-thereto. Polybius abandons this method, and adopts the new
-
-way of taking the segment of the northern semicircle comprised between the summer rising and the equinoctial rising.
-
-But no one ought to calculate by variable rules or measures
-
-in determining the length of fixed distances: nor yet should
-
-he make use of the phenomena of the heavens, which appear
-
-different when observed from different points, for distances
-
-which have their length determined by themselves and remain unchanged. The length of a country never varies,
-
-but depends upon itself; whereas, the equinoctial rising and
-
-setting, and the summer and winter rising and setting, depend not on themselves, but on our position [with respect
-
-to them]. As we shift from place to place, the equinoctial
-
-rising and setting, and the winter and summer rising and
-
-setting, shift with us; but the length of a continent always-
-
-remains the same. To make the Don and the Nile the bounds
-
-of -these continents, is nothing out of the way, but it is something strange to employ for this purpose the equinoctial rising
-
-and the summer rising.
-
-
Of the many promontories formed by Europe, a better description is given by Polybius than by Eratosthenes; but even
-
-his is not sufficient. Eratosthenes only names three; one at
-
-the Pillars of Hercules, where Iberia is situated; a second at
-
-the Strait of Sicily, and containing Italy; the third terminated by the Cape of Malea,The two
-
-former of these Polybius describes in the same manner as Eratosthenes,
-
-but he subdivides the third. He comprehends within Cape Malea all
-
-the Peloponnesus; within Cape Sunium the whole of Greece, Illyria,
-
-and a part of Thrace.
However, we will set to rights each of these errors separately, as we meet with them, as well as the other blunders
-
-into which he has fallen in his description of Europe, and the
-
-journey round Africa. For the present we think that we have
-
-sufficiently dwelt on those of our predecessors whom we have
-
-thought proper to introduce as testimonies in our behalf, that
-
-both in the matter of correction and addition we had ample
-
-cause to undertake the present work.
-
-
-
-
AFTER these criticisms on the writers who have preceded us, we must now confine our attention to the ful-
-
-filment of our promise. We start with a maxim we laid
-
-down at the commencement, that whoever undertakes to
-
-write a Chorography, should receive as axioms certain physical and mathematical propositions, and frame the rest of
-
-his work in accordance with, and in full reliance on, these
-
-principles. We have already stated [our opinion], that
-
-neither builder nor architect could build house or city properly and as it ought to be, unless acquainted with the
Represent to the mind on one and the same plane-surface
-
-Iberia and India with the intermediate countries, and define
-
-likewise the west, the east, and the south, which are common
-
-to every country. To a man already acquainted with the arrangement and motions of the heavens, and aware that in
-
-reality the surface of the earth is spherical, although here for
-
-the sake of illustration represented as a plane, this will give a
-
-sufficiently exact idea of the geographical [position of the various countries], but not to one who is unacquainted with those
-
-matters. The tourist travelling over vast plains like those of
-
-Babylon, or journeying by sea, may fancy that the whole
-
-country stretched before, behind, and on either side of him is
-
-a plane-surface; he may be unacquainted with the counter-
-
-indications of the celestial phenomena, and with the motions
-
-and appearance of the sun and stars, in respect to us. But
-
-such facts as these should ever be present to the mind of
-
-those who compose Geographies The traveller, whether
-
-by sea or land, is directed by certain common appearances,
-
-which answer equally for the direction both of the unlearned
-
-and of the man of the world. Ignorant of astronomy, and
-
-unacquainted with the varied aspect of the heavens, he be-
-
-
-
-
Those who write on the science of Geography should
-
-trust entirely for the arrangement of the subject they are
-
-engaged on to the geometers, who have measured the whole
-
-earth; they in their turn to astronomers; and these again to
-
-natural philosophers. Now natural philosophy is one of the
-
-perfect sciences.perfect science,
for
-
-want of a better phrase.
The perfect sciences
they define as those which, depending on no external hypothesis, have their origin, and the
-
-evidence of their propositions, in themselves. Here are a
-
-few of the facts established by natural philosophers.
The earth and heavens are spheroidal.
-
-The tendency of all bodies having weight, is to a centre.
-
-Further, the earth being spheroidal, and having the same
-
-
-
-
The heavens and the earth must be supposed to be - -divided each into five zones, and the celestial zones to possess - -the same names as those below. The motives for such a - -division into zones we have already detailed. These zones - -may be distinguished by circles drawn parallel to the equator, - -on either side of it. Two of these will separate the torrid - -from the temperate zones, and the remaining two, the temperate from the frigid. To each celestial circle there shall - -be one corresponding on earth, and bearing the same name, - -and likewise zone for zone. The [two] zones capable of being inhabited, are styled temperate. The remaining [three] - -are uninhabitable, one on account of the heat, the others because of the extreme cold. The same is the case with regard to the tropical, and also to the arctic circles, in respect - -of those countries for which arctic circles can be said to exist. Circles on the earth are supposed, corresponding to those - -in the heavens, and bearing the same name, one for one. -
As the whole heaven is separated into two parts by its
-
-equator, it follows that the earth must, by its equator, be
-
-similarly divided. The two hemispheres, both celestial and
-
-
-
-
It is clear that we are in one or other of these hemi-
-
-spheres, namely, the north; we cannot be in both:
-
-
-
-
Assuming these data, and availing himself likewise of - -astronomical observations, by which the position of every - -place is properly determined, whether with respect to the - -circles parallel to the equator, or to those which cut these - -latter at right angles, in the direction of the poles, the geometer measures the region in which he dwells, and [judges - -of the extent of] others by comparing the distance [between - -the corresponding celestial signs]. By this means he discovers the distance from the equator to the pole, which is a - -quarter of the largest circle of the earth; having obtained - -this, he has only to multiply by four, the result is the [measure of the] perimeter of the globe. -
In the same manner as he who takes the measures of the
-
-earth, borrows the foundation of his calculations from the
-
-astronomer, who himself is indebted to the natural philosopher,
-
-so in like manner the geographer adopts certain facts laid
-
-down as established by the geometer, before setting forth his
-
-
-
-
Let it be supposed that the earth and sea together form
-
-a spheroidal body, and preserve one and the same level in all
-
-the seas. For though some portions of the earth may be
-
-higher, yet this bears so small a relation to the size of the
-
-whole mass, as need not be noticed. The spheroid in consequence is not so minutely exact as one might be made by the aid
-
-of a turner's instrument, or as would answer the definition of a
-
-geometer, still in general appearance, and looked at roughly, it is a spheroid. Let the earth be supposed to consist of
-
-five zones, with (1.) the equatorial circle described round it,
-
-(2.) another parallel to this,
Each of these [quarters] should be supposed to contain a
-
-four-sided district, its northern side being composed of one
-
-half of the parallel next the pole; its southern, by the half of
-
-the equator; and its remaining sides, by [two] segments of the
-
-circle drawn through the poles, opposite to each other, and
-
-equal in length. In one of these quadrilaterals (which of
-
-them is of no consequence) the earth that we inhabit is situated, surrounded by sea, and similar to an island. This, as we
-
-said before, is evident both to our senses and to our reason.
-
-But should any one doubt thereof, it makes no difference so
-
-far as Geography is concerned, whether you suppose the portion of the earth we inhabit to be an island, or only admit
-
-what we know from experience, viz. that whether you start
-
-
-
-
Let it be supposed that this island is contained in one
-
-of the above quadrilaterals; we must obtain its apparent magnitude by subtracting our hemisphere from the whole extent
-
-of the earth, from this take the half, and from this again the
-
-quadrilateral, in which we state our earth to be situated. We
-
-may judge also by analogy of the figure of the whole earth, by
-
-supposing that it accords with those parts with which we are
-
-acquainted. Now as the portion of the northern hemisphere,
-
-between the equator and the parallel next the [north] pole, resembles a vertebre or joint of the back-bone in shape, and as the
-
-circle which passes through the pole divides at the same time
-
-the hemisphere and the vertebre into two halves, thus forming
-
-the quadrilateral; it is clear that this quadrilateral to which
-
-the Atlantic is adjacent, is but the half of the vertebre; while at
-
-the same time the inhabited earth, which is an island in this,
-
-and shaped like a chlamys or soldier's cloak, occupies less than
-
-the half of the quadrilateral. This is evident from geometry,
-
-also
These calculations are nearly synonymous with those
-
-furnished by Hipparchus, who tells us, that supposing the
-
-size of the globe as stated by Eratosthenes to be correct, we
-
-can then subtract from it the extent of the inhabited earth,
-
-since in noting the celestial appearances [as they are seen] in
-
-different countries, it is not of much importance whether we
-
-make use of this measure, or that furnished by later writers.
-
-Now as the whole circle of the equator according to Eratosthenes contains 252,000 stadia, the quarter of this would be
-
-63,000, that is, the space from the equator to the pole contains
-
-fifteen of the sixty divisions
It is evident that Syene is under the tropic, from the fact
-
-that during the summer solstice the gnomon at mid-day casts
-
-no shadow there. As for the meridian of Syene, it follows
-
-very nearly the course of the Nile from Meroe to Alexandria,
-
-a distance of about 10,000 stadia. Syene itself is situated
-
-about mid-way between these places, consequently from thence
-
-to Meroe is a distance of 5000 stadia. Advancing 3000
-
-stadia southward in a right line, we come to lands unfitted for
-
-habitation on account of the heat. Consequently the parallel
-
-which bounds these places, and which is the same as that of
-
-the Cinnamon Country, is to be regarded as the boundary and
-
-commencement of the habitable earth on the south. If, then,
-
-3000 stadia be added to the 5000 between Syene and Meroe,
-
-there will be altogether 8000 stadia [from Syene] to the
-
-[southern] extremity of the habitable earth. But from Syene
-
-to the equator there are 16,800 stadia, (for such is the amount
-
-of the four-sixtieths, each sixtieth being equivalent to
-
-4200 stadia,) and consequently from the [southern] boundaries of the habitable earth to the equator there are 8800
-
-stadia, and from Alexandria 21,800.
-
Taking therefore these distances, which have been ascertained by voyages, we have only to find out how far beyond - -the Dnieper the land is habitable, (being careful always to - -continue in the same straight line,) and we shall arrive at - -a knowledge of the northern boundaries of our earth. -
Beyond the Dnieper dwell the Roxolani,
It is true that Pytheas of Marseilles affirms that the
-
-farthest country north of the British islands is Thule; for
-
-which place he says the summer tropic and the arctic circle
-
-is all one. But he records no other particulars concerning
-
-it; [he does not say] whether Thule is an island, or whether
-
-it continues habitable up to the point where the summer
-
-tropic becomes one with the arctic circle.
If on the one hand the parallels of Byzantium and Marseilles are the same, as Hipparchus asserts on the faith of
-
-Pytheas, (for he
It is generally admitted that a line drawn from the Pillars
-
-of Hercules, and passing over the Strait [of Messina], Athens,
-
-and Rhodes, would lie under the same parallel of latitude. The Pillars of Hercules, or Strait of Gibraltar, 360.
- The Strait of Messina, 38° 12′.
- Athens, 38° 5′.
- The middle of the Isle of Rhodes, 36° 18′; and the city, 36° 28′ 30″.
-
If, then, to the distance between Rhodes and the Dnieper be added four thousand stadia north of the latter place,
-
-the whole would come to 12,700 stadia; and since from
-
-Rhodes to the southern limit of the habitable earth there are
-
-16,600 stadia, its total breadth from north to south would be
-
-under 30,000 stadia.
-
We have now been tracing upon a spherical surface the
-
-region which we state to be occupied by the habitable earth;
-
-and whoever would represent the real earth as near as possible
-
-by artificial means, should make a globe like that of Crates, and
-
-upon this describe the quadrilateral within which his chart of
-
-geography is to be placed. For this purpose, however, a large
-
-globe is necessary, since the section mentioned, though but a
-
-very small portion of the entire sphere, must be capable of
-
-properly containing all the regions of the habitable earth, and
-
-presenting an accurate view of them to all those who wish to
-
-consult it. Any one who is able will certainly do well to obtain such a globe. But it should have a diameter of not less
-
-than ten feet: those who cannot obtain a globe of this size,
-
-or one nearly as large, had better draw their chart on a plane-
-
-surface, of not less than seven feet. Draw straight lines,
-
-some parallel, for the parallels [of latitude], and others at
-
-right angles to these; we may easily imagine how the eye
-
-can transfer the figure and extent [of these lines] from a
-
-plane-surface to one that is spherical. What we have just
-
-observed of the circles in general, may be said with equal
-
-truth touching the oblique circles. On the globe it is true
-
-that the meridians of each country passing the pole have a
-
-tendency to unite in a single point, nevertheless on the plane-
-
-surface of the map, there would be no advantage if the right
-
-lines alone which should represent the meridians were drawn
-
-slightly to converge. The necessity for such a proceeding
-
-would scarcely ever be really felt. Even on our globe itself
In what follows we shall suppose the chart drawn on
-
-a plane-surface; and our descriptions shall consist of what we
-
-ourselves have observed in our travels by land and sea, and
-
-of what we conceive to be credible in the statements and
-
-writings of others. For ourselves, in a westerly direction we
-
-
-
-
In the same way, the generals perform every thing, nevertheless, they are not present every where, but most of their
-
-success depends on others, since they are obliged to trust to
-
-messengers, and issue their commands in accordance with the
-
-reports of others. To pretend that those only can know who
-
-have themselves seen, is to deprive hearing of all confidence,
-
-which, after all, is a better servant of knowledge than sight
-
-itself.
-
-
Writers of the present day can describe with more certainty [than formerly] the Britons, the Germans, and the dwellers on either side of the Danube, the Getæ,
The entrance of a Roman army into Arabia Felix under
-
-the command of my friend and companion Ælius Gallus,It
-
-would be extremely interesting.
says Professor Schmitz,
to trace this
-
-expedition of Ælius Gallus into Arabia, but our knowledge of that country is as yet too scanty to enable us to identify the route as described
-
-by Strabo, who derived most of his information about Arabia from his
-
-friend Ælius Gallus.Sponge of the Sea.
Our first and most imperative duty
In its figure the habitable earth resembles a chlamys,
-
-or soldier's cloak, the greatest breadth of which would be
-
-indicated by a line drawn in the direction of the Nile, commencing from the parallel of the Cinnamon Country, and the
-
-Island of the Egyptian Exiles, and terminating at the parallel
-
-of Ierna; and its length by a line drawn from the west at
-
-right angles to the former, passing by the Pillars of Hercules
-
-and the Strait of Sicily to Rhodes and the Gulf of Issus,
We must therefore fancy to ourselves a parallelogram, and
-
-within it a chlamys-shaped figure, described in such a manner
-
-that the length of the one figure may correspond to the length
-
-and size of the other, and likewise breadth to breadth. The
-
-habitable earth will therefore be represented by this kind of
-
-chlamys. We have before said that its breadth is marked
-
-out by parallels bounding its sides, and separating on either
-
-side the portions that are habitable from those that are not.
-
-On the north [these parallels] pass over Ierna,the stars nearest to Canopus.
But
-
-this too is not certain, and the passage is otherwise evidently corrupt.
Posidonius relates, that from the top of a high house in
-
-a town about 400 stadia distant from the places mentioned, he perceived a star which he believed to be Canopus,
-
-both in consequence of the testimony of those who having
-
-proceeded a little to the south of Iberia affirmed that they
-
-could perceive it, and also of the tradition preserved at Cnidus; for the observatory of Eudoxus, from whence he is reported to have viewed Canopus, is not much higher than these
-
-houses; and Cnidus is under the same parallel as Rhodes,
-
-which is likewise that of Gades and its sea-coast.
-
-
Sailing thence, Libya lies to the south. Its most
-
-western portions project a little beyond Gades; it afterwards
-
-
-
-
Such being the configuration of the whole earth, it
-
-will be convenient to take two straight lines, cutting each
-
-other at right angles, and running the one through its greatest
-
-length, and the other through its breadth. The former of these
-
-lines will represent one of the parallels, and the latter one of
-
-the meridians.
The ocean it is which principally divides the earth into - -various countries, and moulds its form. It creates bays, seas, - -straits, isthmuses, peninsulas, and capes; while rivers and - -mountains serve to the same purpose. It is by these means - -that continents, nations, and the position of cities are capable - -of being clearly distinguished, together with those various - -other details of which a chorographical chart is full. Amongst - -these latter are the multitude of islands scattered throughout - -the seas, and along every coast; each of them distinguished - -by some good or bad quality, by certain advantages or disadvantages, due either to nature or to art. -
The natural advantages [of a place] should always be mentioned, since they are permanent. Advantages which are adventitious are liable to change, although the majority of those
-
-which have continued for any length of time should not be
-
-passed over, nor even those which, although but recent, have
-
-yet acquired some note and celebrity. For those which continue, come to be regarded by posterity not as works of art,
-
-but as the natural advantages of the place; these therefore it
-
-is evident we must notice. True it is, that to many a city
-
-we may apply the reflection of DemosthenesSo completely have they vanished, that no one who should now visit their sites could say
-
-that they had ever been inhabited!
-
Still we are gratified by visiting these and similar localities,
-
-being desirous of beholding the traces of such celebrated
-
-places, and the tombs of famous men. In like manner we
-
-should record laws and forms of government no longer in existence, since these are serviceable to have in mind, equally
-
-with the remembrance of actions, whether for the sake of imitating or avoiding the like.
-
-
Continuing our former sketch, we now state that the
-
-earth which we inhabit contains numerous gulfs, formed by
-
-the exterior sea or ocean which surrounds it. Of these there
-
-are four principal. The northern, called the Caspian, by
-
-others designated the Hyrcanian Sea, the Persian and Arabian Gulfs, formed by the [Southern] Sea, the one being
-
-nearly opposite to the Caspian, the other to the Euxine; the
-
-fourth, which in size is much more considerable than the
-
-others, is called the Internal and Our Sea.
This gulf,
The portion of the sea which washes Libya is called the
-
-Libyan Sea; that surrounding the land opposite is designated by the respective names of the Iberian, the Ligurian,
After Sicily and the straits on either side of it,
The Lesser Syrtes
The Sea of Sicily washes Italy, from the Strait of Rhegium
The Ionian Gulf forms part of what we now call the Adriatic.
The Adriatic stretches north and west; it is long and narrow, being in length about 6000 stadia, and its greatest breadth
-
-
Next to the Sea of Sicily, are the Cretan, Saronic,
Here too is the strait, seven stadia in length, which is between Sestos
To the north of the eastern Gulf of the Pontus, is the
-
-Lake Mæotis, whose perimeter is 9000 stadia or rather more.
-
-It communicates with the Euxine by means of the Cimmerian
-
-Bosphorus,
Such and so great is the extent of the Ægæan Sea towards the north.
That part of the Mediterranean Sea which washes the coasts
-
-of Cilicia and Pamphylia together with the right side of the
-
-Euxine, the Propontis, and the sea-coast beyond this as far as
-
-Pamphylia, form a kind of extensive Chersonesus, the isthmus
-
-of which is also large, and reaches from the sea near Tarsus
To speak shortly, the southernmost point of Our Sea
-
-is the recess of the Greater Syrtes;
We must now describe the countries which surround - -it; and here we will begin from the same point, whence we - -commenced our description of the sea itself. -
Entering the Strait at the Pillars, Libya, as far as the river - -Nile, is on the right hand, and to the left, on the other side of - -the Strait, is Europe, as far as the Don. Asia bounds both - -these continents. We will commence with Europe, both because its figure is more varied, and also because it is the - -quarter most favourable to the mental and social ennoblement - -of man, and produces a greater portion of comforts than the - -other continents. -
Now the whole of Europe is habitable with the exception
-
-of a small part, which cannot be dwelt in, on account of the
-
-severity of the cold, and which borders on the Hamaxœci,
Europe has thus within itself resources both for war [and
-
-peace]. It is amply supplied with warriors, and also with men
-
-fitted for the labours of agriculture, and the life of the towns.
-
-It is likewise distinguished for producing in perfection those
-
-fruits of the earth necessary to life, and all the useful metals.
-
-Perfumes and precious stones must be imported from abroad,
-
-but as far as the comfort of life is concerned, the want or the
-
-possession of these can make no difference. The country like-
-
-wise abounds in cattle, while of wild beasts the number is but
-
-small. Such is the general nature of this continent.
-
-
We will now describe separately the various countries
-
-into which it is divided. The first of these on the west is Iberia,
-
-which resembles the hide of an ox [spread out]; the eastern
-
-portions, which correspond to the neck, adjoining the neighbouring country of Gaul. The two countries are divided on
-
-this side by the chain of mountains called the Pyrenees; on
-
-all its other sides it is surrounded by sea; on the south, as
-
-far as the Pillars, by Our Sea; and thence to the northern
-
-extremity of the Pyrenees by the Atlantic. The greatest
-
-length of this country is about 6000 stadia, its breadth 5000.
East of this is Keltica, which extends as far as the
-
-Rhine. Its northern side is washed by the entire of the
-
-British Channel, for this island lies opposite and parallel to
-
-it throughout, extending as much as 5000 stadia in length. Its
-
-eastern side is bounded by the river Rhine, whose stream runs
-
-parallel with the Pyrenees; and its southern side commencing
-
-from the Rhine, [is bounded] partly by the Alps, and partly by
-
-Our Sea; where what is called the Galatic Gulf
The Alps are inhabited by numerous nations, but all Keltic
-
-with the exception of the Ligurians, and these, though of a
-
-different race, closely resemble them in their manner of life.
-
-They inhabit that portion of the Alps which is next the Apennines, and also a part of the Apennines themselves. This
-
-latter mountain ridge traverses the whole length of Italy from
-
-north to south, and terminates at the Strait of Sicily.
-
-
The first parts of Italy are the plains situated under
-
-the Alps, as far as the recess of the Adriatic and the neighbouring places.
After Italy and Keltica, the remainder of Europe extends towards the east, and is divided into two by the Danube.
-
-This river flows from west to east, and discharges itself into
-
-the Euxine Sea, leaving on its left the entire of Germany commencing from the Rhine, as well as the whole of the Getæ,
-
-
-
-
Fronting Europe lie the islands which we have mentioned.
-
-Without the Pillars, Gadeira,
From the Don and the Mæotis
Secondly, but still on this side the Taurus, are the countries above the Sea of Hyrcania as far as the Indians and
-
-
-
-
Next these on this side the Taurus are the mountaineers
-
-of Paropamisus, and various tribes of Parthians, Medes, Armenians, Cilicians, with the Lycaonians,
After Asia comes Libya, which adjoins Egypt and
-
-Ethiopia. The coast next us, from Alexandria almost to the
-
-Pillars, is in a straight line, with the exception of the Syrtes,
-
-the sinuosities of some moderately sized bays, and the projection of the promontories by which they are formed. The side
-
-next the ocean from Ethiopia up to a certain point is almost
-
-parallel to the former; but after this the southern portions
-
-become narrowed into a sharp peak, extending a little beyond
-
-the Pillars of Hercules, and giving to the country something
-
-the figure of a trapezium. Its appearance, both by the accounts of other writers, and also the description given to ourselves by Cnæus Piso, who was governor of this province, is
-
-that of a panther's skin, being dotted over with habitations
-
-surrounded by parched and desert land: these habitations
-
-the Egyptians call Auases.
It now remains for us to speak of the climata.
To enter fully into this subject is the duty of astronomers. - -This has been done by Hipparchus, who has noted down (as - -he says) the differences of the heavenly appearances for every - -degree of that quarter of the globe in which our habitable - -earth is situated, namely, from the equator to the north pole. -
What is beyond our habitable earth it is not however the
-
-business of the geographer to consider. Nor yet even in regard to the various parts of the habitable earth must too minute and numerous differences be noticed, since to the man
-
-of the world they are perplexing; it will suffice to give the
-
-most striking and simple of the statements of Hipparchus.
-
-Assuming, as he does himself after the assertion of Eratos-
-
-thenes, that the circumference of the earth is 252,000 stadia,
-
-the differences of the [celestial] phenomena will not be great
-
-for each [degree] within the limits between which the habitable
-
-earth is contained. Supposing we cut the grand circle of the
-
-earth into 360 divisions, each of these divisions will consist
-
-of 700 stadia. This is the calculation adopted by [Hipparchus] to fix the distances, which [as we said] should be taken
-
-under the before-mentioned meridian of Meroe. He commences at the regions situated under the equator, and stopping
-
-from time to time at every 700 stadia along the whole length
-
-of the meridian above mentioned, proceeds to describe the
-
-celestial phenomena as they appear from each. But the
-
-equator is not the place for us to start from. For even if
-
-there be there a habitable region, as some suppose, it forms a
-
-habitable earth to itself, a narrow slip enclosed by the regions
-
-uninhabitable on account of the heat; and can be no part of
-
-our habitable earth. Now the geographer should attend
-
-to none but our own habitable earth, which is confined
-
-by certain boundaries; on the south by the parallel which
-
-passes over the Cinnamon Country;
He tells us that the people who dwell under the parallel
-
-of the Cinnamon Country, which he places at 3000 stadia
-
-south of Meroe,
The Arabian Gulf lies eastward parallel to the said meridian. Its egress
At Meroe and Ptolemais
In all the countries situated between the tropic and
-
-the equatorial circle, the shadows fall [alternately] on either
-
-side, north and south. In those which are north of Syene
-
-and beyond the summer tropic the shadows at mid-day fall to
-
-the north. The former are called amphiscii, the latter heteroscii. There is also another method of determining what
-
-places are under the tropic, which we spoke of in our observations on the zones. The soil is sandy, arid, and produces
-
-nothing but silphium, while more to the south the land is
-
-well irrigated and fertile.
-
-
In the countries situated about 400 stadia south of the
-
-parallel of Alexandria and Cyrene, where the longest day consists of fourteen equinoctial hours, Arcturus passes the zenith,
-
-slightly declining towards the south. At Alexandria at the
-
-time of the equinox the proportion which the gnomon bears
-
-to the shadow is as five to seven.
At Ptolemais in Phœnicia,
In the parts of the Troad next Alexandria
About Byzantium the longest day consists of fifteen
-
-and a quarter equinoctial hours; the proportion borne by the
-
-gnomon to the shadow at the summer solstice, is as 120 to
-
-42, minus one-fifth. These places are distant
In regions 3800 stadia north of Byzantium the longest
-
-day consists of sixteen equinoctial hours; the constellation
-
-Cassiopeia being brought within the arctic circle. These
-
-regions are situated around [the mouth of] the Dnieper and
-
-the southern parts of the Mæotis, at a distance from the equator of 34,100 stadia; and the northern part of the horizon
-
-during almost all the summer nights is illuminated by the
-
-light of the sun; a certain degree of light continuing from
-
-sunset to sunrise. For the summer tropic is distant from the
-
-
-
-
The countries beyond this which border upon the
-
-regions uninhabitable on account of their cold, have no interest to the geographer. He who desires to learn about them,
-
-and the celestial phenomena which Hipparchus has described, but which we pass over as being too much in detail
-
-for our present undertaking, must seek for them in that author.
-
-The statements of Posidonius concerning the periscii, the amphiscii, and the heteroscii are likewise too detailed. Still we
-
-must touch on these points sufficiently to explain his view,
-
-and to point out how far such matters are serviceable in geography, and how far not. The terms made use of refer to
-
-the shadows cast from the sun. The sun appears to the senses
-
-to describe a circle parallel to that of the earth.
HAVING thus given a general view of Geography, it will
-
-now be proper to describe each separate country in detail, as
-
-we engaged to do. We fancy that the method which we have
-
-adopted in the division of our subject, up to this point, has
-
-been correct; and we now re-commence with Europe and the
-
-various countries into which it is divided, on the same principles as formerly, and induced by the same reasons.
-
-
The first division of this continent towards the west is
-
-Iberia, as we before stated. The greater part of this country
-
-is but little fitted for habitation; consisting chiefly of mountains, woods, and plains covered with a light meagre soil, the
-
-irrigation of which is likewise uncertain The part next the
-
-north, which borders on the ocean, is extremely cold, and besides its rugged character, has no communication or intercourse with other [countries], and thus to dwell there is attended with peculiar hardship. Such is the character of this
-
-portion; on the other hand, almost the whole of the south is
-
-fertile, especially what is beyond the Pillars [of Hercules].
-
-This however will be shown more in detail, but we must first
-
-describe the figure and extent [of the country].
-
-
In shape it resembles a hide stretched out in length from
-
-west to east, the forepart
CAS. 137.
We will now commence our detailed account, beginning
-
-from the Sacred Promontory. This is the most western point
-
-not only of Europe, but of the whole habitable earth. For
-
-the habitable earth is bounded to the west by two continents,
-
-namely, the extremities of Europe and Libya,
It is quite possible that these things are so, and we ought
-
-not to disbelieve them. Not so however with regard to the
-
-other common and vulgar reports; for Posidonius tells us the
-
-common people say that in the countries next the ocean the
-
-sun appears larger as he sets, and makes a noise resembling
-
-the sound of hot metal in cold water, as though the sea were
-
-hissing as the sun was submerged in its depths. The statement [of Artemidorus] is also false, that night follows immediately on the setting of the sun: it does not follow immediately, although certainly the interval is short, as in other great
-
-seas. For when he sets behind mountains the agency of the
-
-false light continues the day for a long period; over the sea
-
-the twilight is shorter, still darkness does not immediately
-
-supervene. The same thing may be remarked in large plains.
-
-The image of the sun is enlarged on the seas at its rising as
-
-well as at its setting, because at these times a larger mass of
-
-
-
-This passage has recently been
-
-pronounced corrupt, (Kramer i. 211,) and
The sea-coast next the Sacred Promontory forms on
-
-one side the commencement of the western coast of Spain as
-
-far as the outlet of the river Tagus; and on the other forms
-
-the southern coast as far as the outlet of another river, named
-
-the Guadiana.
From this river
Between this coast, where the Guadalquiver and Guadiana discharge themselves, and the extremities of Maurusia,
-
-the Atlantic Ocean forms the strait at the Pillars [of Hercules]
-
-by which it is connected with the Mediterranean. Here is
-
-situated Calpe,
Next to these is Mellaria,
Next after [Cadiz] is the port of Menestheus, It was no doubt a temple to Diana, who was named
TURDETANIA lies above the coast on this side the Guadiana,
After this city and that of the Gaditanians, Hispalis
After these are Italica,
A vast number of people dwell along the Guadalquiver;
-
-and you may sail up it almost
There is much silver found in the parts about Ilipas and
-
-Sisapo, both in that which is called the old town and the new.
-
-There are copper and gold about the Cotinæ.
Turdetania, on the other hand, is marvellously fertile,
-
-and abounds in every species of produce. The value of its
-
-productions is doubled by means of exportation, the surplus products finding a ready sale amongst the numerous
-
-ship-owners. This results from its rivers and estuaries, which,
-
-as we have said, resemble rivers, and by which you may sail
-
-from the sea to the inland towns, not only in small, but even
-
-in large-sized skiffs. For the whole country above the
-
-coast, and situated between the Sacred Promontory
The men [of the country], being well acquainted with
-
-the nature of these places, and that the estuaries would very
-
-well answer the same purpose as rivers, founded cities and
-
-other settlements along them the same as along rivers. Of
-
-this number are Asta, Nebrissa,
Large quantities of corn and wine are exported from
-
-Turdetania, besides much oil, which is of the first quality;
Such is the wealth of the inland part of Turdetania,
-
-and its maritime portions are found fully to equal it in the
-
-richness of their sea-productions. In fact, oysters and
-
-every variety of shell-fish, remarkable both for their number
-
-and size, are found along the whole of the exterior sea, but
-
-here in particular. It is probable that the flow and ebb tides,
-
-which are particularly strong here, contribute both to their
-
-quantity and size, on count of the great number of pools and
-
-standing waters which they form.
Of the various riches of the aforenamed country,Inveni-
-
-untur ita massæ; necnon in puteis etiam
Posidonius, in praising the amount and excellence of the
-
-metals, cannot refrain from his accustomed rhetoric, and becomes quite enthusiastic in exaggeration. He tells us we
-
-are not to disbelieve the fable, that formerly the forests having been set on fire, the earth, which was loaded with silver
-
-and gold, melted, and threw up these metals to the surface,
-
-forasmuch as every mountain and wooded hill seemed to be
-
-heaped up with money by a lavish fortune. Altogether (he
-
-remarks) any one seeing these places, could only describe them
-
-as the inexhaustible treasuries of nature, or the unfailing ex-
-
-chequer of some potentate; for not only, he tells us, is this land
-
-rich itself, but riches abound beneath it. So that amongst
-
-these people the subterraneous regions should not be regarded
-
-as the realms of Pluto, but of Plutus. Such is the flourished
-
-style in which he speaks on this subject, that you would fancy
-
-
-
-Hear us, strangers, explain our riddle if ye can.
-
-Then some of those who were present ordered them to speak. We
-
-leave,
say they, what we take, and we carry with us that we cannot
-
-take.
No one being able to solve the enigma, they thus expounded it.
-
-Having had an unproductive fishery,
say they in explanation, we sat
-
-down on the sand, and being annoyed by the vermin, left the fish we
-
-had taken on the shore, taking with us the vermin we could not catch,
Polybius, speaking of the silver mines of New Carthage,
Not far from Castlon is the mountain in which they report that the [river] Guadalquiveral-
-
-
-
-
-
-They say that on the piece of land enclosed between the two
-
-outlets of this river there formerly stood a city named, like
-
-the river, Tartessus, and that the district was called Tartessis,
-
-which the Turduli now inhabit. Eratosthenes likewise tells
-
-us that the [country] near to Calpe
Our poet [Homer] being very explicit, and possessing
-
-great experience, gives one cause to believe that he was not
-
-unfamiliar with these localities. Of this any one may be
-
-convinced who will examine carefully what has been written
-
-on these points, both the incorrect [comments], and likewise
-
-those which are better and more truthful. One amongst these
-
-incorrect ideas is, that he considered [Tartessis] to be the
-
-farthest country towards the west, where, as he himself expresses it,
-
-
-
-The bright light of the sun fell into the ocean, drawing dark night
-
-over the fruitful earth.
Of these facts, notwithstanding, there are better proofs.
-
-For instance, the expeditions of Hercules and the Phoenicians
-
-to this country were evidence to him of the wealth and luxury
-
-of the people. They fell so entirely under the dominion of
-
-the Phoenicians, that at the present day almost the whole of
-
-the cities of Turdetania and the neighbouring places are inhabited by them. It also seems to me that the expedition of
-
-Ulysses hither, as it took place and was recorded, was the
-
-foundation both of his Odyssey and Iliad, which he framed
-
-upon facts collected into a poem, and embellished as usual
-
-with poetical mythology. It is not only in Italy, Sicily, and a
-
-few other places that vestiges of these [events] occur; even in
-
-Iberia a city is shown named Ulyssea,But still it would be disgraceful to remain here so long, and to return
-
-home without fitting booty.
But the immortals will send you to the Elysian plain, and the boundaries of the earth, where is auburn-haired Rhadamanthus; there of a truth
-
-is the most easy life for men. There is nor snow nor long winter, nor
-
-ever a shower, but ever does the ocean send forth the gently blowing
-
-breezes of the west wind to refresh men.
There then I beheld Minos, the illustrious son of Jove, having a golden
-
-sceptre, giving laws to the dead.
I repeat that the Phœnicians were the discoverers [of
-
-these countries], for they possessed the better part of Iberia
-
-and Libya before the time of Homer, and continued masters
-
-of those places until their empire was overthrown by the
-
-Romans. This also is an evidence of the wealth of Iberia:
-
-in the expedition of the Carthaginians under Barcas,
-
-
-
-Herodotus too has preserved the name of the king, whom he
-
-calls Arganthonius.Neither would I desire the horn of Amalthea, nor to reign over Tartessus one hundred and fifty years.
nor to reign for a length-
-
-ened period in Tartessus.
Some writers
The Turdetani not only enjoy a salubrious climate, but
-
-their manners are polished and urbane, as also are those
-
-of the people of Keltica, by reason of their vicinity [to the
-
-Turdetani], or, according to Polybius, on account of their
-
-
-
-
STARTING again from the Sacred Promontory,
Of those who dwell above the aforesaid mountains, the
-
-Oretani are the most southern, extending in part as far as the
-
-sea-coast on this side the Pillars. Next these towards the
-
-north are the Carpetani, then the Vettones and Vaccæi, through
-
-whose [country] the Douro
North of the Tagus is Lusitania, the principal of the nations of Iberia, and the one which has most frequently encountered the arms of the Romans. On the southern side
-
-
-
-
To the east the Gallicians border on the nation of the Asturians and Keltiberians, the others [border] on the Keltiberians. In length Lusitania is 3000
The country which we are describing is fertile, and irrigated by rivers both large and small, all of which flow from
-
-the eastern parts parallel with the Tagus: most of them are
-
-navigable and full of gold dust. After the Tagus, the most
-
-noted rivers are the Mondego
The Artabri are the last of the people [on this coast].
-
-They inhabit the promontory called Nerium,
The Lusitanians are reported to be clever in laying ambushes, sharp, swift of foot, light,
All the mountaineers are frugal, their beverage is water,
-
-they sleep on the ground, and wear a profuse quantity of long
-
-hair after the fashion of women, which they bind around the
-
-forehead when they go to battle.
-
-
-
-They practise gymnastic exercises,Last of all he danced the Persian dance, clashing his bucklers,
-
-and in dancing fell on his knees, then sprang up again.
Xen. Anab.
-
-b. vi. c. 1, 10.
In Bastetania the women dance promiscuously with the
-
-men, each holding the other's hand. They all dress in black,
-
-the majority of them in cloaks called saga, in which they
-
-sleep on beds of straw. They make use of wooden vessels
-
-like the Kelts. The women wear dresses and embroidered
-
-garments. Instead of money, those who dwell far in the interior exchange merchandise, or give pieces of silver cut off
-
-
-
-
The rough and savage manners of these people is not
-
-alone owing to their wars, but likewise to their isolated position, it being a long distance to reach them, whether by sea
-
-or land. Thus the difficulty of communication has deprived
-
-
-
-
WHAT remains [to be described] of Iberia, is the seacoast of the Mediterranean from the Pillars to the Pyrenees,
-
-and the whole of the inland country which lies above. The
-
-breadth of this is irregular, its length a little above 4000
-
-stadia. It has been remarked that the sea-coast
Commencing our particular description from Calpe,
-
-there is [first] the mountain-chain of Bastetania and the
-
-Oretani. This is covered with thick woods and gigantic trees,
-
-and separates the sea-coast from the interior. In many places
-
-it also contains gold and other mines. The first city along
-
-the coast is Malaca,
-
After these comes Abdera,
No one should be surprised that the poet, in his fiction
-
-descriptive of the wanderings of Ulysses, should have located
-
-the majority of the scenes which he narrates without the Pillars, in the Atlantic. For historical events of a similar char-
-
-acter did actually occur near to the places, so that the other
-
-circumstances which he feigned did not make his fiction incredible; nor [should any one be surprised] if certain persons,
-
-putting faith in the historical accuracy and extensive knowledge of the poet, should have attempted to explain the poem
-
-of Homer on scientific principles; a proceeding undertaken
-
-by Crates of Mallos,
The settlement of the Grecians amongst these barbarous
-
-nations may be regarded as the result of the division of these
-
-latter into small tribes and sovereignties, having on account
-
-of their moroseness no union amongst themselves, and therefore powerless against attacks from without. This moroseness is remarkably prevalent amongst the Iberians, who are
-
-
-
-
After Abdera
The first city between the windings of the Ebro and
-
-the extremities of the Pyrenees, near to where the Trophies of
-
-Pompey are erected, is Tarraco;
The whole coast from the Pillars up to this place wants
-
-harbours, but all the way from here to Emporium,
A river
Such is the whole sea-coast from the Pillars to the
-
-confines of the Iberians and Kelts. The interior of the
-
-country lying above, and included between the mountains of
-
-the Pyrenees and the northern side [of Iberia], as far as the
-
-Astures, is principally divided by two mountain chains; the
-
-one of these is parallel to the Pyrenees, and takes its commencement from the country of the Cantabri, terminating at
-
-the Mediterranean. This is called the Idubeda.
The side of the Pyrenees next Iberia is covered with
-
-forests containing numerous kinds of trees and evergreens,
-
-whilst the side next Keltica is bare: in the midst [the mountains] enclose valleys admirably fitted for the habitation of
-
-
-
-
Immediately after passing Idubeda, you enter on Keltiberia, a large and irregular country. It is for the most
-
-part rugged, and watered by rivers, being traversed by the
-
-Guadiana,
Of the four divisions into which the Keltiberians are
-
-separated, the most powerful are the Aruaci, situated to the
-
-east and south, near to the Carpetani and the sources of the
-
-Tagus. Their most renowned city is Numantia. They
-
-showed their valour in the war of twenty years, waged by
-
-the Keltiberians against the Romans; for many armies of the
-
-Romans, together with their generals, were destroyed; and in
-
-the end the Numantians, besieged within their city, endured
-
-the famine with constancy, till, reduced to a very small number, they were compelled to surrender the place. The Lusones
-
-are also situated to the east, and likewise border on the sources
-
-of the Tagus. Segeda and Pallantiaportari in triumpho Massiliam vidimus.
Appian, on occasion of the
-
-triumph of Scipio, says,
Beyond the Keltiberians to the south are the inhabit-
-
-
-
-
All the Iberians, so to speak, were peltastæ, furnished
-
-with light arms for the purposes of robbery, and, as we described the Lusitanians, using the javelin, the sling, and the
-
-sword. They have some cavalry interspersed amongst the
-
-foot-soldiers, the horses are trained to traverse the mountains,
-
-and to sink down on their knees at the word of command, in
-
-case of necessity. Iberia produces abundance of antelopes
-
-and wild horses. In many places the lakes are stocked. They
-
-have fowl, swans, and birds of similar kind, and vast numbers of bustards. Beavers are found in the rivers, but the
-
-castor does not possess the same virtue as that from the
-
-Euxine,
Iberia produces a large quantity of roots used in dyeing. In olives, vines, figs, and every kind of similar fruit-
-
-trees, the Iberian coast next the Mediterranean abounds, they
-
-are likewise plentiful beyond. Of the coasts next the ocean,
-
-that towards the north is destitute of them, on account of the
-
-cold, and the remaining portion generally on account of the
-
-apathy of the men, and because they do not lead a civilized
-
-life, but pass their days in poverty, only acting on the animal
-
-
-
-This surprise of the Vettones is
-
-nothing extraordinary. Amongst all barbarous nations, savages especially,
-
-the promenade is an unknown exercise. When roused by necessity or
-
-passion, they will even kill themselves with fatigue; at other times they
-
-remain in the most perfect inaction. The first thing which strikes a Turk
-
-on coming to any of the polished nations of Europe, is to see men pro-
-
-menading without any other aim but that of pleasure or health.
What Artemidorus relates concerning the adornment
-
-of certain of their women, must likewise be attributed to their
-
-barbarous customs. He says that they wear iron collars
-
-having crows fixed to them which bend over the head, and fall
-
-forward considerably over the forehead. When they wish they
-
-draw their veil over these crows, so as to shade the whole
-
-face: this they consider an ornament. Others wear a tympanium
Another practice, not restricted to the Iberians alone,
-
-is for two to mount on one horse, so that in the event of a
-
-conflict, one may be there to fight on foot. Neither are they
-
-the only sufferers in being tormented with vast swarms of
-
-mice, from which pestilential diseases have frequently ensued.
-
-This occurred to the Romans in Cantabria, so that they caused
-
-it to be proclaimed, that whoever would catch the mice should
-
-receive rewards according to the number taken, and [even with
-
-this] they were scarcely preserved, as they were suffering
-
-besides from want of corn and other necessaries, it being
-
-difficult to get supplies of corn from Aquitaine on account of
-
-
-
-Sibi mortem consciscant; neque adhuc hominum
-
-memoriâ repertus est quisquam, qui, eo interfecto cujus se amicitiæ
-
-devovisset, mori recusaret.
Plutarch tells us that Sertorius had in his
-
-suite many thousand Iberians devoted to him. The following epitaph of
-
-these men, who, after the death of Sertorius, sacrificed themselves, being
-
-unwilling to survive him, was extracted by Swinburne from the Annals of
-
-Catalonia.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-For the appalling means they adopted to hold out the city of Calaguris to
-
-the last, see
Some, as I have said, state that this country is separated
-
-into four divisions; others, into five. It is not easy to state
-
-any thing precisely on these points, both on account of the
-
-changes which the places have undergone, and by reason of their
-
-obscurity. In well-known and notable countries both the
-
-migrations are known, and the divisions of the land, and the
-
-changes of their names, and every thing else of the same
-
-kind. Such matters being the common topics with everybody, and especially with the Greeks, who are more talkative
-
-than any other people. But in barbarous and out-of-the-way
-
-countries, and such as are cut up into small divisions, and
-
-lie scattered, the remembrance of such occurrences is not
-
-nearly so certain, nor yet so full. If these countries are far
-
-removed from the Greeks [our] ignorance is increased. For
-
-although the Roman historians imitate the Greeks, they fall
-
-far short of them. What they relate is taken from the Greeks,
-
-very little being the result of their own ardour in acquiring
-
-information. So that whenever any thing has been omitted
-
-by the former there is not much supplied by the latter. Add
-
-to this, that the names most celebrated are generally Grecian.
-
-Formerly the name of Iberia was given to the whole country
-
-between the Rhone and the isthmus formed by the two
-
-Galatic gulfs; whereas now they make the Pyrenees its boundary, and call it indifferently Iberia or Hispania; others
-
-have restricted Iberia to the country on this side the Ebro.
At the present time some of the provinces having been
-
-assigned to the people and senate of the Romans, and the
-
-others to the emperor, Bætica appertains to the people, and a
-
-prætor has been sent into the country, having under him a
-
-quæstor and a lieutenant. Its eastern boundary has been
-
-fixed near to Castlon.
OF the islands which are situated in front of Iberia, two
-
-named the Pityussæ, and two the Gymnasiæ, (also called the
-
-Baleares,) are situated on the sea-coast between Tarraco and
-
-[the river] Xucar, on which Saguntumresembling
-
-the schenus, a species of rush from which cords are made. Philetas in
-
-his Mercury [says] 'he was covered with a vile and filthy tunic, and about
-
-his wretched loins was bound a strip of black rush, as if he had been girt
-
-with a mere schœnus.
It is evident that this passage is the scholium of
-
-some ancient grammarian, and we have followed the example of the
-
-French editors in inserting it in a note, as it is a great impediment in the
-
-middle of Strabo's description of the equipment of the island warriors.Cibum puer a matre non accipit, nisi quem, ipsa monstrante, percussit.
Florus, lib. iii. c. 8. The same thing is stated by Lycophron,
-
-v. 637, and Diodorus Siculus, 1. v. c. 18.
In addition to the fruitfulness of the land, noxious
-
-animals are rarely to be met with. Even the rabbits, they
-
-say, were not indigenous, but that a male and female having
-
-been introduced by some one from the opposite continent,
-
-from thence the whole stock sprung, which formerly was so
-
-great a nuisance that even houses and trees were overturned,
-
-[being undermined] by their warrens, and the inhabitants
-
-
-
-
Near to them are two small islands, one of which is
-
-called the Island of Juno: some call these the Pillars. Beyond the Pillars is Gades,The length of the island of Leon, at the extremity of which the city
-
-of Cadiz is situated, is about 9500 toises, which are equivalent to 100
-
-Olympic stadia.
Omnia armis Romanis superata et a Cornelio Balbo
-
-triumphata, uni huic omnium externo curru et Quiritium jure donato.
-
-Plin. ib. v. c. 5. Solinus likewise says of him, (cap. xxix. p. 54,)
-
-Primus sane de externis, utpote Gadibus genitus accessit ad gloriana
-
-nominis triumphalis.
The Twins.
Pherecydes appears to have given to Gades the name of
-
-Erythia, the locality of the myths concerning Geryon: others
-
-suppose it to have been the island situated near to this city,
-
-and separated from it by a strait of merely one stadium.
-
-This they do on account of the excellence of its pasturage.
-
-
-
-[certain citizens of
-
-Cadiz have appropriated to themselves possessions in the interior of the
-
-island,] but the whole sea-shore is inhabited in common,
that is, by shepherds who pastured the grounds in common.
Concerning the foundation of Gades, the Gaditanians
-
-report that a certain oracle commanded the Tyrians to found
-
-a colony by the Pillars of Hercules. Those who were sent
-
-out for the purpose of exploring, when they had arrived at
-
-the strait by Calpe, imagined that the capes which form the
-
-strait were the boundaries of the habitable earth, as well as of
-
-the expedition of Hercules, and consequently they were what
-
-the oracle termed the Pillars. They landed on the inside of
-
-the straits, at a place where the city of the Exitani now stands.
-
-Here they offered sacrifices, which however not being favourable, they returned. After a time others were sent, who advanced about
-
-
-
-and on the opposite,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Alexander too erected altars as boundaries of his Indian campaign in those parts of the Indies he arrived at, which were
-
-situated farthest towards the east, in imitation of Hercules and
-
-Bacchus.
It is probable that the places themselves took the same
-
-name [as the monuments], especially after time had destroyed
-
-the boundary marks which had been placed there. For instance, at the present day the altars of the Philæni no longer
-
-exist, but the place itself bears that designation. Similarly
-
-they say that in India neither the pillars of Hercules or Bacchus are to be seen, nevertheless certain localities being described and pointed out to the Macedonians, they believed that
-
-those places were the pillars in which they discovered any
-
-trace either of the adventures of Bacchus or Hercules. In
-
-the instance before us, it is not improbable that they who first
-
-[visited these regions], set up boundary marks fashioned by
-
-the hand of man, such as altars, towers, and pillars, in the most
-
-remarkable situations, to indicate the farthest distance they had
-
-reached, (and straits, the surrounding mountains, and little
-
-islands, are indubitably the most remarkable situations for
-
-pointing out the termination or commencement of places,) and
-
-that after these human monuments had decayed, their names
-
-descended to the places [where they had stood]; whether that
-
-were the little islands or the capes forming the strait. This
-
-latter point it would not be easy now to determine; the name
-
-would suit either place, as they both bear some resemblance
-
-to pillars; I say bear some resemblance, because they are placed
-
-in such situations as might well indicate boundaries. Now
-
-this strait is styled a mouth, as well as many others, but the
-
-mouth is at the beginning to those sailing into the strait, and
-
-to those who are quitting it at the end. The little islands at
-
-the mouth having a contour easy to describe, and being remarkable, one might not improperly compare to pillars. In
-
-like manner the mountains overlooking the strait are promi-
-
-
-
-The Gaditanian Gates,
if he had in mind
-
-the pillars at the mouth; for these mouths are very similar to
-
-gates. On the other hand, Gades is not in a position to indicate an extremity, but is situated about the middle of a long
-
-coast forming a kind of gulf. The supposition that the pillars of the temple of Hercules in Gades are intended, appears
-
-to me still less probable. It seems most likely that the name
-
-was originally conferred not by merchants, but generals, its
-
-celebrity afterwards became universal, as was the case with
-
-the Indian pillars. Besides, the inscription recorded refutes
-
-this idea, since it contains no religious dedication, but a mere
-
-list of expenses; whereas the pillars of Hercules should have
-
-been a record of the hero's wonderful deeds, not of Phoenician
-
-expenditure.
-
-
Polybius relates that there is a spring within the temple
-
-of Hercules at Gades, having a descent of a few steps to fresh
-
-water, which is affected in a manner the reverse of the sea-
-
-tides, subsiding at the flow of the tide, and springing at the
-
-ebb. He assigns as the cause of this phenomenon, that air
-
-rises from the interior to the surface of the earth; when this
-
-surface is covered by the waves, at the rising of the sea, the
-
-air is deprived of its ordinary vents, and returns to the interior, stopping up the passages of the spring, and causing a
-
-want of water, but when the surface is again laid bare, the
-
-air having a direct exit liberates the channels which feed
-
-the spring, so that it gushes freely. Artemidorus rejects
-
-this explanation, and substitutes one of his own, recording at
-
-the same time the opinion of the historian Silanus; but neither one or other of their views seems to me worth relating,
-
-since both he and Silanus were ignorant in regard to these
-
-matters. Posidonius asserts that the entire account is false,
-
-and adds that there are two wells in the temple of Hercules,
-
-and a third in the city. That the smaller of the two in the
-
-temple of Hercules, if drawn from frequently, will become for
-
-a time exhausted, but that on ceasing to draw from it, it fills
-
-again: while in regard to the larger, it may be drawn from
-
-during the whole day; that it is true it becomes lower, like
-
-all other wells, but that it fills again during the night when
-
-drawing ceases. [He adds] that the ebb tide frequently happening to occur during the period of its re-filling, gave rise
-
-
-
-Les ouvrages qui traitent des choses merveilleuses.
Neque adhuc satis cognitum est, anhelitune suo id
-
-mundus efficiat, retractamque cum spiritu regerat undam undique, si, ut
-
-doctioribus placet, unum (
I cannot tell how it is that Posidonius, who describes the
-
-Phœnicians as sagacious in other things, should here attribute
-
-
-
-
Posidonius tells us that Seleucus, a native of the country
-
-next the Erythræan Sea,
The same writer mentions a tree at Gades, which had
-
-boughs reaching to the ground; its sword-shaped leaves often
-
-measuring a cubit long, and four fingers broad. Also that
-
-about Carthagena there was a tree whose thorns produced a
-
-bark from which most beautiful stuffs were woven. As for the
-
-tree [he saw] at Gades, we ourselves have observed a similar in
-
-Egypt, so far as the inclination of the boughs is concerned, but
-
-with a differently shaped leaf, and producing no fruit, which
-
-according to him the other did. In Cappadocia there are stuffs
-
-made from thorns, but it is not a tree which produces the
-
-thorn from which the bark is taken, but a low plant; he also
-
-tells us of a tree at Gades, from which if a branch be broken
-
-off a milk will flow, and if the root be cut a red fluid runs.
-
-Thus much for Gades.
-
-
The Cassiterides are ten in number, and lie near each
-
-other in the ocean towards the north from the haven of
-
-the Artabri. One of them is desert, but the others are
-
-inhabited by men in black cloaks, clad in tunics reaching
-
-to the feet, girt about the breast, and walking with staves,
-
-thus resembling the Furies we see in tragic representations.Druidæque circum, preces diras, sublatis ad cœlum manibus, fundentes,
-
-novitate adspectus perculere milites, ut, quasi hærentibus membris, immobile corpus vulneribus præberent.
Immediately before these words he
-
-thus describes the women, "Stabat pro litore diversa acies, densa armis
-
-virisque, intercursantibus feminis in
SUMMARY.
- -The Fourth Book contains a description of the regions about Gaul, Spain, - -and the Alps on this side, towards Italy. Likewise of Britain, and of - -certain islands in the ocean which are habitable, together with the country - -of the barbarians, and the nations dwelling beyond the Danube.
NEXT in order [after Iberia] comes Keltica beyond the
-
-Alps,
The whole of this country is irrigated by rivers descending from the Alps, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees, some of
-
-which discharge themselves into the ocean, others into the
-
-Mediterranean. The districts through which they flow are
-
-mostly plains interspersed with hills, and having navigable
-
-streams. The course of these rivers is so happily disposed in relation to each other, that you may traffic from
-
-one sea to the other,
The configuration of this country resembles a parallelogram, the western side of which is traced by the Pyrenees,
-
-the north by the Cevennes; as for the other two sides, the
-
-south is bounded by the sea between the Pyrenees and Marseilles, and the east partly by the Alps,as
-
-we have said before
are evidently interpolated.
Marseilles, founded by the Phocæans,one of the statues consecrated in her temple.
The Massilians live under a well-regulated aristocracy.
-
-They have a council composed of 600 persons called timuchi,whose ancestors have not been
-
-citizens,
&c., being self-evident.Quarum calor, olim acrior, exhalatus
-
-per tempora evaporavit; nec jam par est fame priori.
The mountains of the Salyes incline gently from west
-
-to north in proportion as they retire from the sea. The coast
-
-runs west, and extending a short distance, about 100 stadia,
-
-from Marseilles, it begins to assume the character of a gulf at
-
-a considerable promontory near to certain stone quarries, and
-
-extending to the Aphrodisium, the headland which terminates
-
-the Pyrenees,The Island of Blascon is a rock opposite Agde, on
-
-which remains a fortified castle, which preserves the name of Brescon.
-
-This rock has been connected with the mainland, to form the port of
-
-Agde.
This ancient city,
says Gosselin, "no longer exists, with the exception of an old tower, scarcely a league from Perpignan, which still
-
-bears the name of the Tower of Roussillon.dug mullets,
for whoever digs two
-
-or three feet and plunges a trident into the muddy water,
-
-will be sure to take the fish, which are worthy of consideration on account of their size; they are nourished in the mud
-
-like eels. Such are the rivers which flow from the Pyrenees
-
-between Narbonne and the promontory on which is built the
-
-temple of Venus. On the other side of Narbonne the following rivers descend from the Cevennes into the sea. The
-
-Aude,
Of one marvel of this sea-coast, namely the dug mullets,
we have already spoken; we will now mention another,
-
-even more surprising. Between Marseilles and the outlets of
-
-the Rhone there is a circular plain, about 100 stadia distant
-
-
-
-
-
-
-There you will come to the undaunted army of the Ligurians, where,
-
-resistless though you be, sure am I you will not worst them in battle; for
-
-it is fated that there your darts shall fail you; nor will you be able to
-
-take up a stone from the ground, since the country consists of soft mould;
-
-but Jupiter, beholding your distress, will compassionate you, and overshadowing the earth with a cloud, he will cause it to hail round stones,
-
-which you hurling against the Ligurian army, will soon put them to
-
-flight!
Prometheus Loosed,
which is now lost.
Posidonius asks, would it not have been better to have
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Father Jupiter, willing evil to the Trojans and suffering to the
-
-Greeks, decreed such things.
As to the mouths of the Rhone, Polybius asserts that
-
-there are but two, and blames Timæus
The [coast] which extends from this [last city] to the
-
-river Var, and the Ligurians who dwell near it, contains the
-
-Massilian cities of Tauroentium,
Lying off this narrow pass along the coast, as you commence your journey from Marseilles, are the Stœchades islands.
The country above this is bounded principally by the
-
-surrounding mountains and rivers. Of these the Rhone is
-
-the most remarkable, being both the largest, and capable of
-
-being navigated farther than any of the others, and also receiving into it a greater number of tributaries; of these we
-
-must speak in order. Commencing at Marseilles, and proceeding to the country between the Alps and the Rhone, to
-
-the river Durance, dwell the Salyes for a space of 500 stadia.
-
-From thence you proceed in a ferry-boat to the city of Caballio;
The main part of the country on the other side of the
-
-Rhone is inhabited by the Volcæ, surnamed Arecomisci. Their
-
-naval station is Narbonne, which may justly be called the
-
-emporium of all Gaul, as it far surpasses every other in the
-
-multitude of those who resorttectus,
covered, and
-
-sagum,
a species of cassock.
But the Tectosages dwell near to the Pyrenees, bordering for a small space the northern side of the Cevennes;
Toulouse is situated upon the narrowest part of the
-
-isthmus which separates the ocean from the sea of Narbonne;
-
-the breadth of the [isthmus], according to Posidonius, being
-
-less than 3000 stadia. The perfect similarity maintained
-
-throughout this country both in respect to its rivers, and to
-
-the exterior and interior sea,
WE must now speak of the Aquitani and the fourteen
-
-Galatic nations pertaining to them, situated between the Garonne and the Loire, some of which extend to the river Rhone
-
-and the plains of the Narbonnaise. Generally speaking, the
-
-Aquitani may be said to differ from the Galatic race, both as
-
-to form of body and language, resembling more nearly the
-
-Iberians. They are bounded by the Garonne, and dwell between this river and the Pyrenees. There are above twenty
-
-nations which bear the name of Aquitani, small and obscure,
-
-the major part of them dwelling by the ocean, and the remainder in the interior and by the extremities of the Cevennes,
-
-as far as the Tectosages. This district, however, being too
-
-small, they added to it the territory between the Garonne
-
-and the Loire. These rivers are nearly parallel with the
-
-Pyrenees, and form with them two parallelograms, bounded on
-
-the remaining sides by the ocean and the mountains of the
-
-Cevennes.Strabo,
says Gosselin, always argues on the hypothesis that the
-
-Pyrenees run from south to north; that the Garonne and the Loire
-
-flowed in the same direction; that the Cevennes stretched from west to
-
-east; and that the coasts of Gaul, from the Pyrenees, rose gently towards
-
-the north, bending considerably east.
The Bituriges are the only foreign people who dwell among
-
-the Aquitani without forming a part of them. Their emporium is Burdegala,The Marseillese,
-
-[says he,] when interrogated by Scipio
Mediolanium
The nations between the Garonne and the Loire annexed to the Aquitani, are the Elui,
The Arverni are situated along the Loire. Nemossus,
-
-their metropolis, is built on the same river.
NEXT in order after Aquitaine and the Narbonnaise,
-
-is that portion [of Gaul] extending as far as the Rhine from
-
-
-
-
Lugdunum itself, situated onunder,
we have not hesitated to translate it paulo audacius,
of Coray's reading
This is the principal city of the nation of the Segusiani who
-
-lie between the Rhone and the Doubs.As for the Ædui on these accounts indeed.
The first of all the nations dwelling on the Rhine are
-
-the Helvetii, amongst whom are the sources of that river in
-
-Mount Adula,
After the Helvetii, the SequaniAd solis occasum naves solvit . . . . accessum est ad Britanniam omnibus navibus meridiano fere tempore.
The Senones, the Remi, the Atrebates, and the Eburones dwell west of the Treviri and Nervii.
AFTER the nations mentioned come those of the Belgæ,
-
-who dwell next the ocean. Of their number are the Veneti,
The entire race which now goes by the name of Gallic,
-
-or Galatic,These people called themselves by the name of
-
-Kelts; the Greeks styled them Galatæ, and the Latins Galli or Gaus.
Of these they say that the Belgæ are the bravest. They
-
-are divided into fifteen nations, and dwell near the ocean between the Rhine and the Loire, and have therefore sustained
-
-themselves single-handed against the incursions of the Germans, the Cimbri,
Amongst [the Gauls] there are generally three divisions
-
-of' men especially reverenced, the Bards, the Vates, and the
-
-Druids. The Bards composed and chanted hymns; the
-
-Vates occupied themselves with the sacrifices and the study
-
-of nature; while the Druids joined to the study of nature
-
-that of moral philosophy. The belief in the justice [of the
-
-Druids] is so great that the decision both of public and private
-
-disputes is referred to them; and they have before now, by
-
-their decision, prevented armies from engaging when drawn
-
-up in battle-array against each other. All cases of murder
-
-are particularly referred to them. When there is plenty of
-
-these they imagine there will likewise be a plentiful harvest.
-
-Both these and the others
To their simplicity and vehemence, the Gauls join much
-
-folly, arrogance, and love of ornament. They wear golden
-
-collars round their necks, and bracelets on their arms and
-
-wrists, and those who are of any dignity have garments
-
-dyed and worked with gold. This lightness of character
-
-makes them intolerable when they conquer, and throws them
-
-into consternation when worsted. In addition to their folly,
-
-they have a barbarous and absurd custom, common however
-
-with many nations of the north, of suspending the heads of
-
-their enemies from their horses' necks on their return from
-
-tattle, and when they have arrived nailing them as a spectacle to their gates. Posidonius says he witnessed this in
-
-many different places, and was at first shocked, but became
-
-familiar with it in time on account of its frequency. The
-
-
-
-
They say that in the ocean, not far from the coast, there - -is a small island lying opposite to the outlet of the river - -Loire, inhabited by Samnite women who are Bacchantes, and - -conciliate and appease that god by mysteries and sacrifices. - -No man is permitted to land on the island; and when the - -women desire to have intercourse with the other sex, they - -cross the sea, and afterwards return again. They have a - -custom of once a year unroofing the whole of the temple, and - -roofing it again the same day before sun-set, each one - -bringing some of the materials. If any one lets her burden - -fall, she is torn in pieces by the others, and her limbs carried - -round the temple with wild shouts, which they never cease - -until their rage is exhausted. [They say] it always happens - -that some one drops her burden, and is thus sacrificed. -
But what Artenmidorus tells us concerning the crows, partakes still more of fiction. He narrates that on the coast,
-
-washed by the ocean, there is a harbour named the Port of
-
-Two Crows, and that here two crows may be seen with their
-
-right wings white. Those who have any dispute come here,
-
-and each one having placed a plank for himself on a lofty
-
-eminence, sprinkles crumbs thereupon; the birds fly to these,
-
-eat up the one and scatter the other, and he whose crumbs
-
-are scattered gains the cause. This narration has decidedly
-
-too much the air of fiction. What he narrates concerning
-
-Ceres and Proserpine is more credible. He says that there
-
-is an island near Britain in which they perform sacrifices to
-
-
-
-
Such is our account of Keltica beyond the Alps.
BRITAIN is triangular in form; its longest side lies
-
-parallel to Keltica, in length neither exceeding nor falling
-
-short of it; for each of then extends as much as 4300 or
-
-4400 stadia: the side of Keltica extending from the mouths of
-
-the Rhine to the northern extremities of the Pyrenees towards Aquitaine; and that of Britain, which commences at
-
-Kent, its most eastern point, opposite the mouths of the
-
-Rhine, extending to the western extremity of the island,
-
-which lies over against Aquitaine and the Pyrenees. This is
-
-the shortest line from the Pyrenees to the Rhine; the longest
-
-is said to be 5000 stadia; but it is likely that there is some
-
-
-
-
There are four passages commonly used from the continent to the island, namely, from the mouths of the rivers
-
-Rhine, Seine, Loire, and Garonne; but to such as set sail
-
-from the parts about the Rhine, the passage is not exactly
-
-from its mouths, but from the Morini,
Divus Cæsar twice passed over to the island, but quickly
-
-returned, having effected nothing of consequence, nor proceeded far into the country, as well on account of some commotions in Keltica, both among his own soldiers and among
-
-the barbarians, as because of the loss of many of his ships at
-
-the time of the full moon, when both the ebb and flow of
-
-the tides were greatly increased.propter repentinos Galliæ
-
-motus.
L. v. c. 22.
There are also other small islands around Britain; but
-
-one, of great extent, Ierna,Et sorer
-
-et conjux.
Compare also Cæsar, lib. v.
The account of Thulè is still more uncertain, on account
-
-of its secluded situation; for they consider it to be the
-
-northernmost of all lands of which the names are known.
-
-The falsity of what Pytheas has related concerning this and
-
-neighbouring places, is proved by what he has asserted of well-
-
-known countries. For if, as we have shown, his description
-
-of these is in the main incorrect, what he says of far distant
-
-countries is still more likely to be false.
HAVING described Keltica beyond the Alps,
The Alps do not commence at Monœci Portus,
Now since the Ligurians were divided into Ingauri
-
-and Intemelii, it was natural that their maritime colonies
-
-should be distinguished, one by the name of Albium Intemelium, Alpine as it were, and the other by the more concise
-
-form Albingaunum.
The Monœci Portus is merely a roadstead, not capable
-
-of containing either many or large vessels. Here is a temple
-
-dedicated to Hercules Monœcus.sole inhabitant.
According to Servius, either because after he had driven out the Ligurians
-
-he remained the sole inhabitant of the country; or because it was not
-
-usual to associate any other divinities in the temples consecrated to him.
After the Salyes, the Albienses, the Albiœci,
After the Vocontii, are the Iconii, the Tricorii, and the
-
-Medulli; who inhabit the loftiest ridges of the mountains,
-
-for they say that some of them have an almost perpendicular
-
-ascent of 100 stadia, and a similar descent to the frontiers
-
-of Italy. In these high-lands there is a great lake; there
-
-are also two springs not far distant from each other; one
-
-of these gives rise to the Durance, which flows like a
-
-torrent into the Rhone, and to the Durias,
On the opposite side of the mountains, sloping towards
-
-Italy, dwell the Taurini,
A great part of the country of the Salassi lies in a deep
-
-valley, formed by a chain of mountains which encloses the
-
-district on either side; a part of them however inhabit the
-
-
-
-
Beyond, both the eastern parts of the mountains, and
-
-those likewise inclining to the south, are possessed by the
-
-Rhæti and Vindelici, who adjoin the Helvetii and Boii, and
-
-press upon their plains. The Rhæti extend as far as Italy
-
-above Verona and Como. The Rhætian wine, which is
-
-esteemed not inferior to the finest wines of Italy, is produced
-
-[from vines which grow] at the foot of the mountains. These
-
-people extend also as far as the districts through which the
-
-Rhine flows. The Lepontii and Camuni are of their nation.
-
-The Vindelici and Norici possess, for the most part, the
-
-opposite side of the mountains together with the Breuni and
-
-Genauni, who form part of the Illyrians.the king of men,
-
-which Scholiasts have in vain endeavoured to soften or excuse—
-
-
-
-
-
-
After these come certain of the Norici, and the Carni,
-
-who inhabit the country about the Adriatic Gulf and Aquileia. The Taurisci belong to the Norici. Tiberius and his
-
-brother Drusus in one summer put a stop to their lawless incursions, so that now for three and thirty yearsThere is a lake from which proceeds the Atesinus, (or the Adige,) and which, after having received the
-
-Atax, (perhaps the Eisach, or Aicha, which flows by Bolzano,) discharges
-
-itself into the Adriatic. The Isar proceeds from the same lake, and
-
-[passing by Munich] discharges itself into the Danube.
Near to these regions dwell the Iapodes, (a nation now
-
-mixed with the Illyrians, and Kelts,) close to them is [the
-
-Mount] Ocra.
One of the passages over the mountains from Italy into
-
-Transalpine and northern Keltica is that which passes through
-
-the country of the Salassi, and leads to Lugdunum.
Polybius tells us that in his time the gold mines were
-
-so rich about Aquileia, but particularly in the countries of
-
-the Taurisci Norici, that if you dug but two feet below the
-
-surface you found gold, and that the diggings [generally] were
-
-not deeper than fifteen feet. In some instances the gold was
-
-found pure in lumps about the size of a bean or lupin, and
-
-which diminished in the fire only about one eighth; and in
-
-others, though requiring more fusion, was still very profitable.
-
-Certain Italians
SUMMARY.
- -The Fifth Book contains a description of Italy from the roots of the Alps to the Strait of Sicily, the Gulf of Taranto, and the region about Posidonium; - -likewise of Venetia, Liguria, Agro Piceno, Tuscany, Rome, Campania, - -Lucania, Apulia, and the islands lying in the sea between Genoa and - -Sicily.
AT the foot of the Alps commences the region now known
-
-as Italy. The ancients by Italy merely understood Œnotria,
-
-which reached from the Strait of Sicily to the Gulf of Taranto,
-
-and the region about Posidonium,
It is not easy to describe the whole of Italy under any
-
-one geometrical figure; although some say that it is a promontory of triangular form, extending towards the south and
-
-winter rising, with its apex towards the Strait of Sicily, and
-
-
-
-
[Italy], however, may be described in the following manner. The roots of the Alps are curved, and in the form of a
-
-gulf, the head turned towards Italy; the middle of the gulf
-
-in the country of the Salassi, and its extremities turned, the
-
-one towards Ocra and the head of the Adriatic, the other
-
-towards the coast of Liguria as far as Genoa, a mercantile
-
-city of the Ligurians, where the Apennines fall in with the
-
-Alps. Immediately under [the Alps] there is a considerable
-
-plain, of about an equal extent of 2100 stadia both in breadth
-
-and length; its southern side is closed by the coast of the
-
-Heneti
This is a superb plain variegated with fruitful hills.
-
-The Po divides it almost through its midst, one side being
-
-denominated Cispadana, and the other Transpadana. Cispadana comprehends that part next the Apennines and Liguria,
-
-and Transpadana the remainder. The former [division] is
-
-inhabited by Ligurian and Keltic nations, the former inhabiting the mountains and the latter the plains; and the latter
-
-[division] by Kelts and Heneti. These Kelts are of the
-
-same race as the Transalpine Kelts. Concerning the Heneti
-
-there are two traditions, some saying that they are a colony
-
-of those Kelts of the same name who dwell by the ocean.From the Heneti, whence is the race of wild mules.
The whole of this country
Formerly, as we have said, the district next this river
-
-was chiefly inhabited by Kelts. The principal nations of
-
-these Kelts were the Boii, the Insubri, and the Senones and
-
-Gæsatæ, who in one of their incursions took possession of
-
-Rome. The Romans afterwards entirely extirpated these
-
-latter, and expelled the Boii from their country, who then
-
-migrated to the land about the Danube, where they dwelt
-
-with the Taurisci, and warred against the Dacians until the
-
-whole nation was destroyed; and they left to the surrounding tribes this sheep-pasturing district of Illyria. The Insubri
-
-still exist; their metropolis is Mediolanum,
These cities are situated high above the marshes;
-
-near to them is Patavium,
Opitergium,
That Diomedes did hold sovereignty over the country
-
-around this sea,
After the Timavum
-
-
-
-The different parts of Transpadana are inhabited by the
-
-Heneti and the Istrii as far as Pola; above the Heneti, by
-
-the Carni, the Cenomani, the Medoaci, and the Symbri.
Cispadana comprehends all that country enclosed be-
-
-
-
-
Both in Cispadana and around the Po there are some
-
-fine cities. Placentiafrom Placentia to Parma;
he has been
-
-followed throughout the passage by the French translators.
The fertility of this country is proved by its population,
-
-the size of its cities, and its wealth, in all of which the
-
-Romans of this country surpass the rest of Italy. The cultivated land produces fruits in abundance and of every kind,
-
-and the woods contain such abundance of mast, that Rome is
-
-principally supplied from the swine fed there. Being well
-
-supplied with water, millet grows there in perfection. This
-
-affords the greatest security against famine, inasmuch as millet resists any inclemency of the atmosphere, and never fails,
-
-even when there is scarcity of other kinds of grain. Their
-
-pitch-works are amazing, and their casks give evidence of the
-
-abundance of wine: these are made of wood, and are larger
-
-than houses, and the great supply of pitch allows them to be
-
-sold cheap. The soft wool and by far the best is produced
-
-in the country round Mutina
IN the second place, we shall treat of that portion of Liguria situated in the Apennines, between the Keltica
The third division contains the Tyrrhenians, who dwell
-
-next the former, and inhabit the plains extending to the
-
-Tiber, which river, as far as its outlet, washes the side towards
-
-the east, the opposite side being washed by the Tyrrhenian
-
-and Sardinian sea. The Tiber flows from the Apennines, and
-
-is swelled by many rivers; it flows partly through Tyrrhenia,
-
-dividing it in the first instance from Ombrica,
The Tyrrheni have now received from the Romans the
-
-surname of Etrusci and Tusci. The Greeks thus named them
-
-from Tyrrhenus the son of Atys, as they say, who sent hither
-
-a colony from Lydia. Atys, who was one of the descendants
-
-of Hercules and Omphale, and had two sons, in a time of
-
-famine and scarcity determined by lot that Lydus should remain in the country, but that Tyrrhenus, with the greater
-
-part of the people, should depart. Arriving here, he named
-
-the country after himself, Tyrrhenia, and founded twelve
-
-cities, having appointed as their governor Tarcon, from
-
-whom the city of Tarquinia [received its name], and who, on
-
-account of the sagacity which he had displayed from childhood, was feigned to have been born with hoary hair. Placed
-
-originally under one authority, they became flourishing; but
-
-it seems that in after-times, their confederation being broken
-
-up and each city separated, they yielded to the violence of
-
-the neighbouring tribes. Otherwise they would never have
-
-abandoned a fertile country for a life of piracy on the sea.
-
-roving from one ocean to another; since, when united they
-
-were able not only to repel those who assailed them, but to
-
-act on the offensive, and undertake long campaigns. After
-
-the foundation of Rome, Demaratus arrived here, bringing
-
-with him people from Corinth.
Such are the facts concerning the celebrity of the Tyrrheni, to which may be added the exploits of the Cæretani,good-morning.
Almost every one is agreed that the Pelasgi were an ancient
-
-race spread throughout the whole of Greece, but especially in
-
-the country of the Æolians near to Thessaly. Ephorus,
-
-however, says that he considers they were originally Arcadians, who had taken up a warlike mode of life; and having
-
-persuaded many others to the same course, imparted their own
-
-name to the whole, and became famous both among the Greeks,
-
-and in every other country where they chanced to come.
-
-Homer informs us that there were colonies of them in Crete,
-
-for he makes Ulysses say to Penelope—
-
-
-
-And there is a different language <*>
-
-mixed together; there are in it Achaians, and <*>
-
-and Cydonians, and crest-shaking Dorians,<*>.
Hippothous led the tribes of the spear-skilled Pelasgians,
-
-of those who inhabited fertile Larissa.
-
-
-
-Likewise Æschylus in his Suppliants, or Danaids, makes their
-
-race to be of Argos near Mycenæ. Ephorus likewise says that
-
-Peloponnesus was named Pelasgia; and Euripides, in the
-
-Archelaus, says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Anticlides says, that they first colonized about Lemnos and
-
-Imbros, and that some of their number passed into Italy with
-
-Tyrrhenus, the son of Atys. And the writers on the Athenian
-
-Antiquities,Danaus, who was the father of fifty daughters, having arrived in Argos
-
-inhabited
They say that the greatest length of Tyrrhenia, which is
-
-along the coast from Luna to Ostia, is about 2500 stadia; and
-
-that its breadth in the direction of the mountains is less than
-
-half that number. Then from Luna to Pisa there are more than
-
-400 stadia; from thence to Volaterræ
The country of the Volaterrani
Cyrnus is called by the Romans Corsica; it is poorly inhabited, being both rugged and in many parts entirely inaccessible, so that the mountaineers, who live by plunder, are
-
-more savage than wild beasts. Whenever any Roman general
-
-invades the country, and, penetrating into the wilds, seizes a
-
-vast number of slaves, it is a marvel to behold in Rome how
-
-savage and bestial they appear. For they either scorn to live,
-
-or if they do live, aggravate their purchasers by their apathy and
-
-insensibility, causing them to regret the purchase-money, however small.
Along the whole coast between Poplonium and Pisa these
-
-islands are clearly visible; they are oblong, and all three
-
-nearly parallel,
In the interior of the country, besides the cities already
-
-mentioned, there are Arretium,
Ombrica lies along the eastern boundary of Tyrrhenia,
-
-and commencing from the Apennines, or rather beyond those
-
-mountains, [extends] as far as the Adriatic. For com-
-
-
-
-
THE Sabini occupy a narrow country, its length from the
-
-Tiber and the small city of Nomentum
Beyond Sabina is Latium, wherein the city of Rome is
-
-situated. It comprises many places which formed no part of
-
-ancient Latium. For the Æqui, the Volsci, the Hernici, the
-
-aborigines around Rome, the Rutuli who possessed ancient
-
-Ardea, and many other nations, some larger, some smaller,
-
-formed so many separate states around Rome, when that city
-
-was first built. Some of these nations, who dwelt in villages,
-
-were governed by their own laws, and subjected to no common tribe. They say The office of the Fratres Arvales was for life, and was not taken away
-
-even from an exile or captive. They wore, as a badge of office, a chaplet
-
-of ears of corn fastened on their heads with a white band. The number
-
-given on inscriptions varies, but it is never more than nine; though, according to the legend and general belief, it amounted to twelve. One of
-
-their annual duties was to celebrate a three days' festival in honour of
-
-Dea Dia, supposed to be Ceres . . . . Of this the master of the college,
-
-appointed annually, gave public notice from the temple of Concord on the
-
-Capitol. On the first and last of these days, the college met at the house
-
-of their president, to make offerings to the Dea Dia; on the second day
-
-they assembled in the grove of the same goddess, about five miles south
-
-of Rome, and there offered sacrifices for the fertility of the earth. An
-
-account of the different ceremonies of this festival is preserved in an
-
-inscription, which was written in the first year of the emperor Heliogabalus, (A. D. Besides this festival of the Dea Dia, the Fratres Arvales were required
-
-on various occasions under the emperors to make vows and offer up
-
-thanksgivings, an enumeration of which is given in Forcellini. Strabo
-
-indeed informs us that, in the reign of Tiberius, these priests performed
-
-sacrifices called the The private Ambarvalia were certainly of a different nature to those
-
-mentioned by Strabo, and were so called from the victim There is, however, a still greater resemblance to the rites we have been
-
-describing, in the ceremonies of the Rogation or gang-week of the Latin
-
-church. These consisted of processions through the fields, accompained
-
-with prayers (
However, there also exists another more ancient and
-
-mythical account, to the effect that Rome was an Arcadian
-
-colony planted by Evander. He entertained Hercules when
-
-driving the oxen of Geryon, and being informed by his
-
-mother Nicostrata, (who was skilled in the art of prophecy,)
-
-that when Hercules should have completed his labours it was
-
-fore-ordained that he should be enrolled amongst the gods;
-
-he informed him of the matter, consecrated to him a grove,
-
-and offered sacrifice to him after the Grecian mode; a sacrifice which is continued in honour of Hercules to this day.
-
-The Roman historian Cœlius is of opinion that this is a proof
-
-that Rome is a Grecian colony, the sacrifice to Hercules after
-
-the Grecian mode having been brought over from their fatherland. The Romans also worship the mother of Evander
-
-under the name of Carmentis,
Thus then the Latini originally were few in number,
-
-and for the most part under no subjection to the Romans;
-
-but afterwards, being struck by the valour of Romulus and
-
-the kings who succeeded him, they all submitted. But the
-
-Æqui,
The whole [of Latium] is fertile, and abounding in
-
-every production, with the exception of a few districts along
-
-the coast, which are marshy and unhealthy; such as the
-
-country of Ardea, the lands between Antium and Lanuvium
-
-as far as Pometia, and certain of the districts of Setia,
At 290 stadia from Antium is Mount Circæum, insulated by the sea and marshes. They say that it contains
-
-numerous roots, but this perhaps is only to harmonize with
-
-the myth relating to Circe. It has a small city, together with
-
-a temple to Circe and an altar to Minerva; they likewise say
-
-that a cup is shown which belonged to Ulysses. Between
-
-[Antium and Circæum] is the river Stura,
In the interior, the first city above Ostia is Rome; it is
-
-the only city built on the Tiber. It has been remarked above,
-
-that its position was fixed, not by choice, but necessity; to
-
-this must be added, that those who afterwards enlarged it,
-
-were not at liberty to select a better site, being prevented by
-
-what was already built. The first [kings] fortified the
-
-Capitol, the Palatium, and the Collis Quirinalis, which was so
-
-easy of access, that when Titus Tatius came to avenge the
-
-rape of the [Sabine] virgins, he took it on the first assault.
-
-Ancus Marcius, who added Mount Cælius and the Aventine
-
-Mount with the intermediate plain, separated as these places
-
-were both from each other and from what had been formerly
-
-fortified, was compelled to do this of necessity; since he did
-
-not consider it proper to leave outside his walls, heights so
-
-well protected by nature, to whomsoever might have a mind
-
-to fortify themselves upon them, while at the same time he
-
-was not capable of enclosing the whole as far as Mount Quirinus. Servius perceived this defect, and added the Esquiline
-
-and Viminal hills. As these were both of easy access from
-
-without, a deep trench was dug outside them and the earth
-
-thrown up on the inside, thus forming a terrace of 6 stadia
-
-in length along the inner side of the trench. This terrace he
-
-surmounted with a wall flanked with towers, and extending
-
-from the Colline
These advantages accrued to the city from the nature of
-
-the country; but the foresight of the Romans added others
-
-
-
-
Of the other cities of Latium, some are distinguished by
-
-a variety of remarkable objects, others by the celebrated roads
-
-which intersect Latium, being situated either upon, or near
-
-to, or between these roads, the most celebrated of which are
-
-the Via Appia, the Via Latina, and the Via Valeria. The
-
-former of these bounds the maritime portion of Latium, as
-
-far as Sinuessa, the latter extends along Sabina as far as the
-
-Marsi, whilst between these is the Via Latina, which falls in
-
-with the Via Appia near to Casilinum,
As to the places situated on either side of the Via
-
-Latina, those on the right are between it and the Via Appia;
-
-of their number are Setia
The Via Valeria, commencing from Tibura,
But within-side the chain of mountains, [where these
-
-cities are situated,] there is another ridge, leaving a valley between it and Mount Algidus; it is lofty, and extends as far as
-
-Mount Albanus.
Near to these localities is Mount Albanus,
AFTER having commenced with the nations about the
-
-Alps, and the Apennine mountains which are near to these,
-
-we proceeded from thence and passed through that portion of
-
-the hither country lying between the Tyrrhenian Sea and the
-
-Apennine mountains, which incline towards the Adriatic, as
-
-far as the Samnites and the Campani. We will now return
-
-again, and describe the mountaineers, and those who dwell at
-
-the foot of the mountains; whether on the coast of the Adriatic,
-
-or in the interior. Thus, we must recommence from the
-
-boundaries of Keltica.
After the cities of the Ombrici, which are comprised between Ariminum Sulmo mihi patria est gelidis uberrimus undis. We must place this city, with Holstenius, at San Benedetto, on the eastern shore of the lake, where inscriptions have been found which leave no
-
-doubt on the subject. The coins of Marruvium have MARUB on the
-
-reverse and a head of Pluto.
-
-
-
-Ortonium
to life,
-
-is an interpolation posterior to the age of Strabo.
Next in order after Latium is Campania, which extends
-
-along the [Tyrrhenian] Sea; above it is Samnium, in the
-
-interior, extending as far as the Frentani and Daunii; and
-
-beyond are the Daunii, and the other nations as far as the
-
-Strait of Sicily. We shall in the first place speak of Campania. From Sinuessa
The maritime cities [of Campania], after Sinuessa, are
-
-Liternum,
Near to Cumæ is the promontory of Misenum,
-
-Nor ever does the light-giving Sun shine upon them.
-
The Lucrine gulf extends in breadth as far as Baïæ; it
-
-is separated from the sea by a bank eight stadia in length,
-
-and the breadth of a carriage-way; this they say was constructed by Hercules when he drove away the oxen of Geryon.
-
-But as the wave covered its surface in stormy weather, rendering it difficult to pass on foot, Agrippa has repaired it.
-
-Small vessels can put into it, but it is useless as a harbour.
After Dicæarchia is Neapolis,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Following this is the fortress of Heraclæum,
-
-
-
-It had been decreed that the Sirens should live only till some one hearing
-
-their song should pass on unmoved, and Orpheus, who accompanied the
-
-Argonauts, having surpassed the Sirens, and led on the ship, they cast
-
-themselves into the sea, and were metamorphosed into these rocks.
In front of Misenum lies the island of Prochyta,
-
-
-
-Timæus,Now indeed the sea-girt shores beyond Cumæ, and Sicily, press on his
-
-shaggy breast.
In the interior is the metropolis, Capua, being, as the
-
-etymon of the name signifies, the head; for in regard to it all
-
-the other cities appear small, excepting Teanum-Sidicinum,
In addition to those just spoken of, there are these
-
-Campanian cities which we have already mentioned, viz.
-
-Cales,
The following is the tradition concerning the [origin
-
-of the] Samnites. The Sabines having been engaged for
-
-
-
-Quondam Sabini fernntur vovisse, si res communis melioribus locis constitisset, se
Sisenn. Hist. lib. iv. ap. Non. Marcell. De doctor. indag. ed.
The fertility of their country has been productive to
-
-the Campanians of as much evil as good. Their luxury ran
-
-to such a height, that they would invite to supper, in order to
-
-exhibit pairs of fighting gladiators, the exact number of pairs
-
-being regulated according to the distinction of the guests.
-
-When, on their voluntary submission to Hannibal, they received his soldiers into winter quarters,
SUMMARY.
- -The Sixth Book contains the remainder of Italy, and the regions within the - -Adriatic, as far as Macedonia; likewise a description of Apulia, Calabria, - -the country by the Ionian Gulf, together with the adjacent islands, from - -Sicily to the Ceraunian mountains, and on the other side as far as Carthage, - -and the small islands lying near to it.
AFTER the mouth of the Silaro,Quæ sit hyems Veliæ, quod cœlum, Vala, Salerni.
Contra Veliam Pontia et Ischia. Utræquc uno nomine
-
-Œnotrides, argumentum possesses ab Œnotriis Italiæ.
Hist. Nat. lib.
-
-iii. § 13. If this reading be not faulty, Pliny will have placed in the
-
-latitude, of which our author is now giving a description, a small island
-
-bearing the same name,
-
-
-
-For the Greeks of Italy, enticed by this prophecy, marched
-
-against Laiis, and were defeated by the Leucani.
Such, along the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea, are
-
-the possessions of the Leucani, which at first did not reach
-
-to the other sea;not only (says he) Aristotle, but Antiochus, according to Strabo's own testimony, positively affirmed that the
-
-Chones and Œnotri were one and the same nation, and Dionysius of
-
-Halicarnassus (Antiq. Roman. lib. i. § 11) makes no doubt that the
-
-Œnotri were of Greek origin.
But Mazochi justifies the distinction
-
-between the Chones and the Œnotri, and shows cause to doubt that the
-
-Œnotri were of Greek origin.
We will narrate in a general manner what we have
-
-gathered concerning the Leucani, who dwell in the interior,
-
-without too much care in distinguishing them from their
-
-neighbours, the Samnites. Petilia
The Bruttii occupy the remainder of the coast as far as
-
-the Strait of Sicily, extending about
-
-
-
-At its mouth was a haven named Portus Albernus.He stirred up every body
-
-against every body.
It is conceived that the hostilities of the Bruttii
-
-were fomented by Dion in order to prevent the tyrant Dionysius from
-
-deriving any aid from his Leucanian allies. The advancement of the
-
-Bruttii to independence is computed by Diodorus Siculus to have taken
-
-place about 397 years after the foundation of Rome, that is, 356 before
-
-the Christian era.
From the Lao the first city is the TemesaLet no one offend the
-
-hero of Temesa,
for they said that [for a long time he
-
-
-
-
-Son of Æacus, beware of approaching the Acherusian water and Pandosia, where death is destined for thee.
-
-
-
-for he thought that it foreshowed the destruction of his enemies, and not of his own people. They say that Pandosia
-
-
-
-together with a rivulet, Maresanto or Arconti; which last name recalls
-
-the Acheron denounced by another prediction, as so inauspicious to
-
-the Molossian king. Scylax, in his Periplus, seems to place Pandosia,
-
-together with Clampetia and Terina, near the western coast.Amalthea's horn,
raised by Gelon of Syracuse.
Rhegium
Antiochus asserts that anciently the whole of this district was inhabited by Sicilians and Morgetes; and that they
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Others,
Sailing 50 stadia from Rhegium towards the east, we
-
-meet the cape called Leucopetra, from the colour of the rock,
-
-where they say the range of the Apennines terminates.
The Locri are believed to have been the first who committed their laws to writing, but after they had enjoyed the
-
-advantage of these good laws for a very considerable time,
-
-Dionysius [the younger], having been expelledrendered them more
-
-plausible, but impaired their utility.
There is a certain singular circumstance, respecting
-
-grasshoppers, worthy of note. The river Alece
After the Locri is the [river] Sagras,It is
-
-more true than the victory of the Sagras.
Some people add
-
-to the mysterious account, that it was announced the same
-
-day at the Olympic games to the people there assembled, and
-
-this speedy news was found perfectly correct. They say that
-
-this mischance was so unfortunate an event to the Crotoniatæ,
-
-that after it they did not long remain as a nation, on account
-
-
-
-
-Itaque Dionysius major intercisam eo loco
-
-adjicere Siciliæ voluit.
Hist. Nat. lib. iii. § 15. Grimaldi also is of
-
-opinion that the circumstance mentioned by Strabo should be referred
-
-to the first years of Dionysius the younger, about B. C.
After Scylletium is the region of Crotona, and the
-
-
-
-As the chorographer says, Artemidorus reckons that [the journey would take 12 days for one travelling on foot], with
-
-his girdle on; [but, to one sailing, the distance is 2000 stadia:] leaving
-
-at the same time as many [for the mouth, as Polybius has given] for the
-
-breadth of the mouth of the gulf.
The French translators, however,
-
-have attempted to read the text as follows, The chorographer makes
-
-it 240 miles, and Artemidorus says that it is 380 for a light traveller;
-
-a computation in which the breadth of the mouth is not included;
but
-
-comment on it in several extensive notes.
The first is Crotona, 150 stadia from Lacinium and the
-
-river Esaro; Thou pursuest only misfortune: it is right to accept that which is proffered to thee:a salt-marsh;
but Cramer, in his
-
-description of ancient Italy, observes that the mouth of the river Esaro
-
-formed a haven, which, however incommodious compared with those of
-
-Tarentum and Brundusium, was long a source of great wealth to Crotona, as we are assured by Polybius, Frag. x. 1.to burn the ships.
-
-
-
-and that he returned and built Crotena, wherein he was assisted by Archias,O short-backed Myscellus, whilst seeking somewhat else of thyself,
-
-
-
-more salubrious than Crotona,
as instancing
-
-a place which had something to show, in the number of wrestlers which it produced, as a proof of its salubrity and the robust frame of body which it was capable of rearing. Thus it
-
-had many victors in the Olympic games, although it cannot
-
-be reckoned to have been long inhabited on account of the
-
-vast destruction of its citizens, who fell at the battle of the
-
-Sagras. Its celebrity too was not a little spread by the number of Pythagoreans who resided there, and Milo,
Beyond this, at the distance of 200 stadia, is situated
-
-Sybaris,A democratical party, at the head of which was Telys, having
-
-gained the ascendency, expelled 500 of the principal citizens, who sought
-
-refuge at Crotona. This city, upon receiving a summons to give up the
-
-fugitives, or prepare for war, by the advice of Pythagoras chose the latter.
-
-The armies met near the river Triunti, in the territory of Crotona, where
-
-the brave citizens gained a complete victory.
After Thurii is Lagaria,possédée par des Troyens.
-
-MSS. give various readings.
Next in order is Metapontium,
-
-
-
-afford sufficient proof that Melanippe was led to Dius and not
-
-to Metabum. Ephorus says that Daulius, the tyrant of Crissa
Next adjoining is Tarentum and lapygia, which we will - -describe when we shall have first gone through the islands - -which lie off Italy, according to our original purpose; for we - -have always given the adjacent islands with every nation we - -have hitherto described, and since we have gone through - -Œnotria, which only, the people of ancient times named Italy - -we feel justified in keeping to the same arrangement, and shall - -pass on to Sicily and the surrounding islands. - - -
SICILY is triangular in form, and on this account was at
-
-first called Trinacria, but afterwards the name was softened
-
-and it was changed into Thrinacia.statim Messana litteras Halesam mittit.
Cic. in Verr. ii.
-
-c. 7. Diodorus spells it and to Gela, 20,
-have been omitted by the copyist.
The cities situated on the side which forms the Strait
-
-are, first Messana, then Tauromenium,
The first of the cities which at present remain on the
-
-aforesaid side is Messana, built at the head of the gulf of
-
-Pelorias, which is curved very considerably towards the east,
-
-and forms a bay. The passage across to Rhegium
-
-
-
-But on the death of Hiero,Thou understandest what I say, O father, that bearest the same name
-
-with the splendid holy sacrifices, thou founder of Ætna.
-
-
-
-The words played on are
Ætna lies the highest of any part of Catana, and participates the most in the inconveniences occasioned by the mouths
-
-of the volcano, for the streams of lava flowing down in Catanæa
Archaism, sailing from Corinth, founded Syracuse about
-
-the same period
-
-
-
-
-Dionysius however fortified Epipolæ with a wall, and joined it to the
-
-city.
-
-
-
-
-
-Timæus
-
-
-
-The French translators have rendered them,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-And Groskurd,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Liddell and Scott call to breathe again,
and, according
-
-to the supposition of the ancients, the Alpheus might justly be said to
-
-breathe again on appearing at Arethusa, after its passage beneath the bed
-
-of the sea from Greece. a recovering of breath.
-
-and further on [he says],
-
-
-
-Flowing from the heights of Pindus and Lacmus, passes from the
-
-country of the Perrhœbi
-
-
-
-Those who would have the river Inopus to be a branch of
-
-the Nile flowing to Delos, exaggerate this kind of marvel to
-
-the utmost. Zoïlus the rhetorician, in his Eulogium of the
-
-people of Tenedos, says that the river Alpheus flows from
-
-Tenedos: yet this is the man who blames Homer for fabulous
-
-writing. Ibycus also says that the Asopus, a river of Sicyon,Thence to Argos, cutting through the waves, it comes to the territory
-
-of Lyrceius.
Centuripe, largoque virens Entella Lyæo.
One of the remaining sides, that stretching from Pachynus to Lilybæum, is entirely deserted; still it preserves
-
-a few traces of the ancient inhabitants, one of whose cities was
-
-Camarina.Apparet Camarina procul, campique Geloi.
Virg. Æn. iii. 701.
In the interior of the island a few inhabitants possess
-
-Enna,
-
-
-
-From this place we have the adjective Enneus, and the Ennea virgo of
-
-Sil. lib. xiv., for Proserpine,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Diodorus Siculus, lib. v. cap. 3, says that there was a fable about the
-
-seizure of the virgin [Proserpine] in the meadows near Enna. The
-
-locality is very near the town, embellished with violets and all kinds of
-
-beautiful flowers. An ancient coin of the place described by Ezech.
-
-Spanheim, page 906, is inscribed with the letters M U N. H E N N A E.
-
-Pliny, lib. iii. cap. 8, writes, Municipes Hennenses.
Eryx
to notice,
placed between daggers,
-
-seems to have been transposed from the end of § 5; it should immediately
-
-succeed the words Ægestus the Trojan.Eubœa.
The fertility of the country is so generally extolled by
-
-every one, as nothing inferior to Italy, that there is a question as to what we should say of it. Indeed, for wheat,
-
-honey, saffron, and some other commodities, it even surpasses
-
-that country. In addition to this, its proximity renders the
-
-island like a part of Italy itself, so that it supplies the Roman
-
-market with produce both commodiously and without trouble.
-
-Indeed they call it the granary of Rome, for all the produce
-
-of the island is carried thither, except a few things required
-
-for home consumption. It consists not only of the fruits of
-
-the earth, but of cattle, skins, wool, and the like. Posidonius
-
-says that Syracuse and Eryx are situated on the sea like two
-
-citadels, and that Enna in the midst, between Syracuse and
-
-Eryx, commands the surrounding plains. † TheThe
to prosperity,
has been transferred from its proper
-
-place. See note 12, page 412.
Near to Centoripa is the town we have a little before
-
-mentioned, Ætna, which serves as a place for travellers about
-
-to ascend Mount Ætna, to halt and refresh themselves for the
-
-expedition. For here commences the region in which is situated the summit of the mountain. The districts above are barren
-
-and covered with ashes, which are surmounted by the snows in
-
-winter: all below it however is filled with woods and plantations of all kinds. It seems that the summits of the mountain
-
-take many changes by the ravages of the fire, which sometimes
-
-is brought together into one crater, and at another is divided;
-
-at one time again it heaves forth streams of lava, and at another flames and thick smoke: at other times again ejecting
-
-red-hot masses of fire-stone. In such violent commotions as
-
-these the subterraneous passages must necessarily undergo a
-
-corresponding change, and at times the orifices on the surface
-
-around be considerably increased. Some who have very recently ascended the mountain, reported
The Nebrodes mountains
The Palicithat at less than 20 stadia distant
-
-from the Athenæum are found the ruins of Asea, as well as the hill on
-
-which the citadel of the town was built, which was surrounded by walls,
-
-the vestiges of which still remain. About 5 stadia from Asea, and not
-
-far from the main road, is the source of the Alpheus, and, quite close,
-
-even at the edge of the road, that of the Eurotas.... [At a short distance]
-
-the two rivers unite and run as one for about 20 stadia; they then both
-
-cast themselves into a chasm, and, continuing their under-ground course,
-
-they afterwards reappear; one (the Eurotas) in Laconia, the other in
-
-the territory of Megalopolis.
Such is what Pausanias relates in one
-
-place. But when, in this account, he fixes the source of the Alpheus at
-
-about 5 stadia from Asea, we must understand him to allude to a second
-
-source of the river; for further on (book viii. cap. 54, p. 709) he says
-
-distinctly that the main source of the Alpheus is seen near Phylace in
-
-Arcadia; then adds that that river, on coming to the district of Tegea,
-
-is absorbed under the ground, to re-issue near Asea.
Phenomena, similar to these, and such as take place
-
-throughout Sicily,en divers endroits de I' Italic.
Some
-
-manuscripts read when
-
-the south wind is to blow, a thick cloud lies stretched round
-
-the island, so that one cannot see even as far as Sicily in the
-
-distance; but when there is to be a north wind, the clear
-
-flames ascend to a great height above the said crater, and great
-
-rumblings are heard; while for the west wind effects are produced about half way between these two. The other craters
-
-are similarly affected, but their exhalations are not so violent.
-
-Indeed, it is possible to foretell what wind will blow three
-
-days beforehand, from the degree of intensity of the rumbling,
-
-and also from the part whence the exhalations, flames, and
-
-smoky blazes issue. It is said indeed that some of the inhabitants of the Lipari Islands, at times when there has been
-
-so great a calm that no ship could sail out of port, have pre-
-
-
-
-
-
-From hence indeed that which seems to be the most fabulous
-
-invention of the poet, appears not to have been written without some foundation, and he appears to have merely used an
-
-allegorical style, while guided by the truth, when he says that
-
-Æolus is the steward of the winds;[Great, undoubtedly,] is the impression
-
-produced by animated energy, [of which] it may be asserted [that it
-
-excites in a marked degree both admiration and pleasure]. For both
-
-arise equally from graphic representation and animated description.
-
-Pleasure at least is common to both.
The following are Groskurd's
-
-own words: Gross allerdings ist der Eindruck kräftiger Lebendigkeit,
-
-[von welcher] man behaupten darf, [dass sie vorzüglich sowohl Bewunderung als Vergniigen gewahre]. Denn Beide erfolgen gleichermassen,
-
-sowohl durch Darstellung als durch Lebendigkeit; das Vergniigen wenigstens ist Beiden gemein.
We have noticed the islands of Lipari and Thermessa.
-
-As for Strongyle,round.
M. Dolomieu, p. 113, says that the
-
-island of Stromboli, seen from a distance, appears like a cone; when,
-
-however, it is more particularly examined, it looks like a mountain
-
-terminated by two peaks of different heights, and the sides appear disturbed and torn by craters opened in various parts, and streams of lava
-
-which have flowed down. It might be about 12 miles in circumference.double.
Cluverius identifies this with the island now
-
-called Salini. M. Dolomieu says that Didyma is situated to the west of
-
-Lipari; it is nearly circular, and contains three mountains placed so as
-
-to form a triangle. Two of the mountains are connected at their bases,
-
-the third is separated from them by a valley which runs right across the
-
-island, so that while sailing at some distance in the sea on the south side
-
-it has the appearance of two islands, from which circumstance it took its
-
-ancient name of Didyma: its present name, Salini, is derived from salt
-
-works there.
HAVING previously passed over the regions of ancient
-
-Italy as far as Metapontium, we must now proceed to describe
-
-the rest. After it Iapygia
If we follow
-
-Strabo's testimony solely, we may almost describe the bounds of the
-
-Peucetii by four lines, viz. 1. From Tarentum to Brindisi. 2. Along the
-
-sea-shore from Brindisi to Bari. 3. From Bari to Garagnone or Gorgoglione, the ancient Sylvium, if not even still nearer to Venosa. 4. From
-
-Garagnone to Tarentum, constituting what is called in modern geography
-
-Terra di Bari.–The following are the limits of the Dannii. 1. From Garagnone to Bari. 2. From Bari to Peschici or to Rodi. 3. Thence to
-
-Lucera; and, 4 from Lucera to Garagnone. Thus they occupied a
-
-great part of La Puglia, with a portion of the Terra di Bari. With regard to those who, according to Strabo, were properly Apuli, they extended from the neighbourhood of Lucera to Rodi or Peschici, thence to
-
-the mouth of the river Fortore, thence to Civitate, (the ancient Teanum
-
-Apulum,) which was included, and from Civitate to Lucera; this district
-
-would answer to the northern portion of La Puglia, which the Fortore
-
-separates from La Capitanata.
Antiochus, speaking of the foundation of this city, says
-
-that after the Messenian warfree
-
-citizens.
Several notes have been written on the exact meaning of the
-
-words, but I am not satisfied that we understand it properly. It might
-
-perhaps mean those appointed to the chief rule of the state by the constitution.free
-
-citizens.
Several notes have been written on the exact meaning of the
-
-words, but I am not satisfied that we understand it properly. It might
-
-perhaps mean those appointed to the chief rule of the state by the constitution.Let not Phalanthus
-
-put on his helmet.
The conspirators perceiving that the
-
-plot was disclosed, some fled, and others supplicated mercy.
-
-When the chief magistrates had bid them not to fear, they
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-The Partheniæ accordingly accompanied Phalanthus to their
-
-destination, and the barbarians and Cretans,To thee Satyrium
Ephorus gives the following account of the foundation.
-
-The Lacedæmonians waged war against the Messenians, who
-
-had murdered their king, Teleclus,
-
-
Thus then did they destroy Messenia, but returning home,
-
-they neglected to honour the Partheniæ like other youths, and
-
-treated them as though they had been born out of wedlock.
-
-The Partheniæ, leaguing with the Helots, conspired against
-
-the Lacedæmonians, and agreed to raise a Laconic felt hat
At one time, when the government of the Tarentines
-
-had assumed a democratic form, they rose to great importance;
-
-for they possessed the greatest fleet of any state in those parts,
-
-and could bring into the field an army of 30,000 foot and
-
-3000 horse, exclusive of a select body of 1000 cavalry called
-
-Hipparchi.
The remainder of the country of the Iapygii is very fair,
-
-notwithstanding unfavourable appearances; for although, for
-
-the most part, it appears rugged, yet when it is broken up
-
-the soil is found to be deep; and although it lacks water, yet
-
-it appears well-suited for pasture, and is furnished with trees.
-
-At one time it was thickly inhabited throughout its whole
-
-extent, and possessed thirteen cities, but now it is so depopulated that, with the exception of Tarentum and Brentesium,
-
In the inland are Rudiæ and Lupiæ, and at a short distance from the sea Aletia;
Further, the course for passengers from Greece and
-
-Asia is most direct to Brentesium, and in fact all who are
-
-journeying to Rome disembark here. Hence there are two
-
-ways to Rome; one, which is only walked by mules, through
-
-the Peucetii, who are called Pœdicli, the Daunii, and the
-
-Samnites, as far as Beneventum, on which road is the city
-
-Egnatia,
-That through Tarentum is a little to the left, it runs about a
-
-day's journey round for one traversing the whole distance; it
-
-is called the Appian Way, and is more of a carriage road than
-
-the other. On it stands the city Uria,
There is a third way from Rhegium, through the Bruttii,
-
-Lucani, and Samnites, along the chain of the Apennines, into
-
-
-
-
From Brentesium the sea is traversed by two passages
-
-to the opposite coast, one crossing to the Ceraunianfor it is 1000, while the former is 800 stadia across.
From Barium to the river Ofanto,
-
The coast of Daunia forms
-
-an extensive bay about these parts.
The chorographer indeed gives only 165 miles from
-
-Brentesium
Immediately beyond the Garganum comes a deep bay.
So great indeed is Italy, and much as we have described
-
-it; we will now advert to the chief of the many things that
-
-have been described, which have conduced to raise the Romans
-
-to so great a height of prosperity. One point is its insular
-
-position, by which it is securely guarded, the seas forming a
-
-natural protection around it with the exception of a very inconsiderable frontier, which too is fortified by almost impassable mountains. A second is, that there are but few
-
-harbours, and those few capacious and admirably situated.
-
-These are of great service both for enterprises against foreign
-
-places, and also in case of invasions undertaken against the
-
-country, and the reception of abundant merchandise. And a
-
-third, that it is situated so as to possess many advantages of
-
-atmosphere and temperature of climate, in which both animals
-
-and plants, and in fact all things available for sustaining life,
-
-may be accommodated with every variety both of mild and
-
-severe temperature; its length stretches in a direction north
-
-and south. Sicily, which is extensive, may be looked upon as
-
-an addition to its length, for we cannot consider it in any other
-
-light than as a part of it. The salubrity or severity of the
-
-atmosphere of different countries, is estimated by the amount
-
-of cold or heat, or the degrees of temperature between those
-
-extremes; in this way we shall find that Italy, which is situated in the medium of both the extremes, and having so great
-
-a length, largely participates in a salubrious atmosphere, and
-
-that in many respects. This advantage is still secured to it
-
-in another way, for the chain of the Apennines extending
-
-through its whole length, and leaving on each side plains and
-
-fruitful hills, there is no district which does not participate in
-
-the advantages of the best productions both of hill and plain.
-
-We must also enumerate the magnitude and number of its
-
-rivers and lakes, and the springs of hot and cold waters supplied by nature in various localities for the restoration of
-
-health; and in addition to these, its great wealth in mines of
-
-all the metals, abundance of timber, and excellent food both
-
-for man and for beasts of all kinds. Italy, likewise, being
-
-situated in the very midst of the greatest nations, I allude to
-
-Greece and the best provinces of Asia, is naturally in a posi-
-
-
-
-
If, in addition to our description of Italy, a few words
-
-should be summarily added about the Romans who have possessed themselves of it, and prepared it as a centre from
-
-whence to enforce their universal dominion, we would offer
-
-the following.—The Romans, after the foundation of their
-
-state, discreetly existed as a kingdom for many years, till
-
-Tarquin, the last [Roman king], abused his power, when they
-
-expelled him, and established a mixed form of government,
-
-being a modification both of the monarchical and aristocratical systems; they admitted both the Sabines
SUMMARY.
- -In the Seventh Book Strabo describes the remaining portions of Europe.
-
-That on the east is the country beyond the Rhine, as far as the Don
WE have described Spain and the Keltic nations, together with Italy and the islands adjacent, and must now
-
-speak of the remaining portions of Europe, dividing it in the
-
-best way we can. That which remains is, on the east, all
-
-the country beyond the Rhine, as far as the Don and the
-
-mouth of the Sea of Azof; and, on the south, that which
-
-the Danube bounds, lying between the Adriatic and the left
-
-shores of the Euxine, as far as Greece and the Sea of Marmora, for the Danube, which is the largest of the rivers of
-
-Europe, divides the whole territory of which we have spoken,
-
-into two portions. This river from its commencement flows
-
-southwards, then, making a sudden turn, continues its course
-
-from west to east, which [terminates] in the Euxine Sea.
-
-It takes its rise in the western confines of Germany, not far
-
-from the head of the Adriatic, being distant from it about
-
-1000 stadia,
We will first speak of those nations to the north of the
-
-Danube, for their history is less involved than that of the
-
-tribes situated on the other side of the river.
-
-
Next after the Keltic nations come the Germans who
-
-inhabit the country to the east beyond the Rhine; and these
-
-differ but little from the Keltic race, except in their being
-
-more fierce, of a larger stature, and more ruddy in countenance; but in every other respect, their figure, their customs
-
-and manners of life, are such as we have related of the
-
-Kelts.Germani,
as signifying genuine;
-
-for in the Latin language Germani signifies genuine.true,
the wahr of modern
-
-German, and that Germani signifies the true men of the country, the undoubted autochthones of Galatia or Gaul.
The first division of this country is the land extending
-
-along the Rhine from its source to its embouchure. Indeed,
-
-the valley of that river extends nearly as far as the whole
-
-breadth of Germany on the west. Of the people who occupied this country, some have been transplanted by the Romans
-
-into Keltica, the others have retired to the interior, as the
-
-Marsi;
In the same direction with the Ems,
All these nations became known through their wars with
-
-
-
-
The Sicambri inhabiting the country next the Rhine were
-
-the first to commence the war, under the conduct of their
-
-leader, Melon; other nations afterwards followed their example, at one time being victorious, at another defeated, and
-
-again recommencing hostilities, without regard to hostages or
-
-the faith of treaties. Against these people mistrust was the
-
-surest defence; for those who were trusted effected the most
-
-mischief. For example, the Cherusci, and those who were
-
-subject to them, amongst whom three Roman legions with
-
-their general, Quintilius Varus, perished by ambush, in violation of the truce; nevertheless all have received punishment
-
-for this perfidy, which furnished to Germanicus the Younger
-
-the opportunity of a most brilliant triumph, he leading publicly as his captives the most illustrious persons, both men
-
-and women, amongst whom were Segimuntus,
The Rhine is distant from the Elbe about 3000 stadia, if
-
-one could travel in a direct line; but we are compelled to go
-
-a circuitous route, on account of the windings of the marshes
-
-and the woods.
-
-
The Hercynian Forest
The territory of the Rhæti
SOME of the accounts which we receive respecting the
-
-Cimbri are not worthy of credit, while others seem likely
-
-enough: for instance, no one could accept the reason given
-
-for their wandering life and piracy, that, dwelling on a peninsula, they were driven out of their settlements by a very high
-
-tide;For although it is true that the ocean has tides of
-
-more or less height, still they occur periodically, and in an order constantly the same.
For such fables as these, Posidonius justly blames these - -writers, and not inaptly conjectures that the Cimbri, on account of their wandering life and habits of piracy, might - -have made an expedition as far as the countries around the - -Palus Mæotis, and that from them has been derived the name - -of the Cimmerian Bosphorus, or what we should more correctly denominate the Cimbrian Bosphorus, for the Greeks - -call the Cimbri Cimmerii. -
He likewise tells us that the Boii formerly inhabited the
-
-Hercynian Forest, and that the Cimbri, having made an incursion into those parts, were repulsed by them, and driven
-
-towards the Danube, and the country occupied by the Scordisci, a Galatic tribe, and from thence to the Tauristæ, or
-
-Taurisci, a people likewise of Galatic origin, and farther to the
-
-Helvetii, who were at that time a rich and peaceful people;
-
-but, perceiving that the wealth of these freebooters far exceeded their own, the Helvetii, and more especially the Tigureni and the Toygeni, associated themselves with their expeditions. But both the Cimbri and their auxiliaries were
-
-vanquished by the Romans, the one part when they crossed
-
-the Alps and came down upon Italy, the others on the other
-
-side of the Alps.
-
-
It is reported that the Cimbri had a peculiar custom.
-
-They were accompanied in their expeditions by their wives;
-
-these were followed by hoary-headed priestesses,diu apud
-
-plerosque numinis loco habitam.
As we have before stated, the northernmost of the Germans inhabit a country bordering on the ocean; but we are
-
-only acquainted with those situated between the mouths of
-
-the Rhine and the Elbe, of which the Sicambri
The same uncertainty prevails with regard to the other
-
-
-
-
As to the southern part of Germany beyond the Elbe,
-
-the country which adjoins the bank of that river is now occupied by the Suevi. Next lies the country of the Getæ, at first
-
-narrow, its southern side extends along the Danube, and the
-
-opposite side along the mountains of the Hercynian Forest,
-
-even including part of those mountains, it then becomes broader
-
-towards the north, and extends as far as the Tyregetæ; however, we are unable to declare its boundaries with accuracy;
-
-and it is on account of our ignorance of these places that
-
-those who relate fables of the Riphæan mountains and the
-
-Hyperboreans have received credit; as also that which Pytheas of Marseilles has forged concerning the countries bordering on the Northern Ocean, making use of his acquaintance with astronomy and mathematics to fabricate his false
-
-narration: let us therefore pass over them; as also what Sophocles, speaking of Orithya in one of his tragedies, says,
-
-that she, being snatched by the north wind, was carried
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-This is of no value to our present inquiry, but must be omitted, as Socrates has done in the Phædrus of Plato. We
-
-will relate only what we have learnt from ancient accounts,
-
-and the reports made in our times.
-
-
-
-
The Greeks indeed considered the Getæ to be Thracians. They occupied either bank of the Danube, as also did
-
-the Mysians, likewise a Thracian people, now called the Moesi,
-
-from whom are descended the Mysians, settled between the
-
-Lydians, the Phrygians, and the inhabitants of the Troad.
-
-Even the Phrygians themselves are the same as the Briges, a
-
-people of Thrace, as also are the Mygdones, the Bebryces,
-
-the Mædobithyni, the Bithyni, the Thyni, and, as I consider,
-
-also are the Mariandyni. All these people quitted Europe
-
-entirely, the Mysians alone remaining. Posidonius appears
-
-to me to have rightly conjectured that it is the Mysians of
-
-Europe (or as I should say of Thrace) that Homer designates
-
-when he says,
-
-
-
-But he himself turned back his shining eyes apart, looking towards
-
-the land of the equestrian Thracians and the close-fighting Mysians.
-
to turn his eyes again,
is more especially to
-
-turn them behind him; but he who extends his vision from
-
-the Trojans to the people either behind them, or on either side
-
-of them, stretches his sight to a greater distance, but not in
-
-the least behind him. And this also is introduced as a proof
-
-of this very thing, that Homer classes with these the Hippemolgi,
Posidonius relates that the Mysians religiously abstain
-
-from eating any thing that had life, and consequently, from
-
-cattle; but that they lived in a quiet way on honey, milk, and
-
-cheese; wherefore they are considered a religious people, and
-
-called Capnobatæ.And the illustrious Hippemolgi, milk-nourished, simple in living and
-
-most just men.
without life,
more particularly on
-
-account of their living without wives, considering their solitary state as but a half life; in the same way as he likewise
-
-designates the house of Protesilaus imperfect,
on account
-
-of the bereavement of his widow; in the same manner he applies to the Mysians the epithet of close-fighting,
on account
-
-of their being invincible, like good warriors. [Finally, Posidonius pretends] that in the thirteenththe close-fighting Mysians,
[the
-
-close-fighting Mœsi.
]
-
-
Nevertheless it would perhaps be superfluous to change
-
-the text [of Homer], which has stood the test of so many
-
-years. For it appears more probable to suppose that the
-
-people were anciently called Mysians, but that their name
-
-is now altered. Further, any one would suppose that the
-
-Abiiwithout hearths.
-
-
-
-And a little after he gives examples of their rage for women.
-
-
-
-All the Thracians truly, and especially above all others we Getæ, (for
-
-I myself glory in being descended from this race,) are not very chaste.
-
-
-
-Such a one would be accounted as unmarried amongst them.
-
-These things are likewise confirmed by the evidence of other
-
-historians. And it is not likely that the same people should
-
-regard as an unhappy life that which is passed without the
-
-enjoyment of many women, and at the same time regard as a
-
-dignified and holy life that which is passed in celibacy without any women. But that those living without wives should
-
-be considered holy, and termed Capnobatæ, is entirely opposed to our received opinions; for all agree in regarding
-
-women as the authors of devotion to the gods, and it is they
-
-
-
-For there is no one among us who marries fewer than ten or eleven
-
-wives, and some have twelve, or even more.
expenses,
-
-but all manuscripts have He was so lavish in the sacrifices and other expenses for
-
-the feast.
Both the French and German translations adopt the emendation.
-
-
-
-And his Misogynes, complaining of the same things, exclaims,
-
-
-
-The gods weary us indeed, but especially our married men, who are
-
-always obliged to celebrate some feast.
-
-
-
-It would therefore seem absurd to suppose that only those
-
-among the Getæ who remained without wives were considered
-
-pious, but that the care of worshipping the Supreme Being
-
-is great among this nation is not to be doubted, after what
-
-Posidonius has related, We sacrificed five times a day, while seven female slaves ranged in a
-
-circle played on the cymbals, and others raised their suppliant cries.
and they even abstain from animal
-
-food from religious motives,
as likewise on account of the
-
-testimony of other historians.
-
-
For it is said that one of the nation of the Getæ, named
-
-Zamolxis,
Any one may well entertain such questions as these
-
-touching the localities mentioned by the poet [Homer], and
-
-with regard to the Mysians and the illustrious Hippemolgi:
-
-but what Apollodorus has advanced in his preface to the Catalogue of Ships in the Second Book [of the Iliad] is by no
-
-means to be adopted. For he praises the opinions of Eratosthenes, who says that Homer and the rest of the ancients
-
-were well versed in every thing that related to Greece, but
-
-were in a state of considerable ignorance as to places at a
-
-distance, in consequence of the impossibility of' their making
-
-long journeys by land or voyages by sea. In support of this
-
-he asserts,
-
-
-
-Indeed we ought not to be surprised at meeting with this in
-
-Homer, for those who have lived at a more recent period than
-
-he did, have been ignorant of many things, and have told
-
-strange tales. Hesiod has talked of I came to the Ethiopians, the Sidonians, and the Arabians.
free from evil,
or who neither does nor suffers wrong.
However.
-
-there were some who interpreted it differently. They maintain that
-
-Mercury was so called from a cavern in Arcadia, called Acacesium, (see
-
-Schol. in Homer, edit. Villois. pag. 382,) which was situated near Cyllene, a mountain of Arcadia, where he was born. See Apollodor. Biblioth. lib. iii. cap. x. § 2. Hesiod, however, applies the same epithet to
-
-Prometheus, (Theogon. verse 613,) who, according to the scholiast, was
-
-thus designated from Acacesium, a mountain, not a cavern, of Arcadia,
-
-where he was greatly revered.who was bred in the country of Ithaca.
On comparing this passage with
-
-others, Iliad xvi. vss. 47, 514, and with a parallel expression of Hesiod,
-
-Theogon. verse 971, one is greatly astonished at the ignorance and eccentricity of those who sought to make a place Demus out of this passage
-
-of Homer.
It has been our wish, while discoursing of the Thracians,
-
-and
-
-
-
-And the close-fighting Mysians, and the illustrious Hippemolgi milk-
-
-nourished,
blest with length of days,
and Buckley
-
-simple in living,
is
-
-
-
-And when we consider the amount of fraud connected with
-
-trading speculations even amongst ourselves, what ground
-
-have we to wonder that Homer should have designated as the
-
-justest and most noble those who had but few commercial and
-
-monetary transactions, and with the exception of their swords
-
-and drinking-cups, possessed all things in common, and especially their wives and children, who were cared for by the
-
-whole community according to the system of Plato. Æschylus
-
-too seems to plead the poet's cause, when he says,
-
-
-
-He went and saw the Ethiopians, the Ligurians,
-
-
-
-And this is still the opinion entertained of them by the
-
-Greeks; for we esteem them the most sincere, the least deceitful of any people, and much more frugal and self-relying
-
-than ourselves. And yet the manner of life customary among
-
-us has spread almost every where, and brought about a change
-
-for the worse, effeminacy, luxury, and over-great refinement,
-
-inducing extortion in ten thousand different ways; and doubtless much of this corruption has penetrated even into the
-
-countries of the nomades, as well as those of the other barbarians; for having once learnt how to navigate the sea, they
-
-have become depraved, committing piracy and murdering
-
-strangers; and holding intercourse with many different nations, they have imitated both their extravagance and their
-
-dishonest traffic, which may indeed appear to promote civility
-
-of manners, but do doubtless corrupt the morals and lead to
-
-dissimulation, in place of the genuine sincerity we have before noticed.
-
-But the Scythians, governed by good laws, and feeding on cheese of
-
-mares' milk.
Those however who lived before our time, and more
-
-especially those who lived near to the times of Homer, were
-
-such as he describes them, and so they were esteemed to be
-
-by the Greeks. Take for instance what Herodotus relates
-
-concerning the king
In like manner Dromichætes, who was king of the Getæ in
-
-the times of the successors of Alexander, having taken captive Lysimachus, who had come to wage war against him,
-
-showed him his poverty and that of his people, and likewise
-
-their great frugality, bade him not to make war on such, but
-
-rather seek them as friends; after which he received him as a
-
-guest, made a treaty of friendship, and suffered him to depart.
Ephorus, in the fourth book of his History, which is
-
-entitled Of Europe,
having gone over Europe as far as
-
-the Scythians, concludes by saying that there is great difference in the manner of life both of the Sauromatæ and the
-
-other Scythians, for while some of them are exceedingly morose, and are indeed cannibals, others abstain even from the
-
-flesh of animals. Other historians, he observes, descant upon
-
-their ferocity, knowing that the terrible and the wonderful
-
-always excite attention; but they ought also to relate the
-
-better features of these people, and point to them as a pattern; for his part, he declares he will speak of those who excel in the justness of their actions, as there are some of the
-
-nomade Scythians who subsist on mares' milk, and excel all
-
-
-
-Travels round the World,
-
-who says that Phineus was taken by the Harpies
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Ephorus then proceeds to state the causes of their justice,
-
-because they are frugal in their mode of life, not hoarders of
-
-wealth, and just towards each other; they possess everything
-
-in common, both their women, their children, and the whole
-
-of their kin; thus when they come into collision with other
-
-nations, they are irresistible and unconquered, having no cause
-
-for which they need endure slavery. He then cites Chœrilus,
-
-who in his Passage of the Bridge of Boats,
which Darius
-
-
-
-And again Ephorus declares of Anacharsis, whom he designates as And the sheep-feeding Sacæ, a people of Scythian race, but they inhabited
-
-Wheat-producing Asia: truly they were a colony of the nomades,
-
-A righteous race.
The Wise,
that he was sprung from that race;
-
-and that he was reckoned as one of the Seven Sages, on account of his pre-eminent moderation and knowledge. He
-
-asserts too that he was the inventor of the bellows, the double-
-
-fluked anchor, and the potter's wheel.
It is but just too that Apollodorus should give some
-
-explanation respecting the Mysians mentioned in the Epic
-
-poems of Homer, whether he takes them to be but people of
-
-his feigning, when the poet says,
-
-
-
-
Let us pass over the early history of the Getæ, and
-
-occupy ourselves with their actual condition. Bœrebistas,
-
-one of the Getæ, having taken the command of his tribe, reanimated the men who were disheartened by frequent wars,
-
-and raised them to such a degree of training, sobriety, and a
-
-habit of obedience to orders, that he established a powerful
-
-dominion within a few years, and brought most of the neighbouring states into subjection to the Getæ. He at length became formidable even to the Romans, fearlessly crossing the
-
-Danube, and laying waste Thrace as far as Macedonia and
-
-Illyria; he also subdued the Kelts who live among the Thracians and Illyrians, and thoroughly annihilated the Boii who
-
-were subject to Critasirus and the Taurisci. In order to
-
-
-
-
There was, from ancient times, another division of
-
-these people which still exists; thus, some they call Dacians
-
-and others Getæ: the Getæ extend towards the Euxine and
-
-the east, but the Dacians are situated on the opposite side
-
-towards Germany and the sources of the Danube,
The river Maros
Between [the Getæ and] the Black Sea, from the
-
-Danube to the Dniester,
Near the mouths of the Danube is the large island
-
-called Peuce.
At the mouth of the Dniester there is a tower called
-
-the Tower of Neoptolemus, and a village called Hermōnax.Isle of Serpents.
Next is the Dnieper,
The whole of this country, which reaches to the seacoast extending from the Dnieper
It appears that Ateas,
After the island
AT the bottom of the bay (Carcinites) commences the
-
-isthmussewn
On the left in sailing out of the bay [Carcinites] there
-
-is a small town and another harboursome goddess,
it may be doubted
-
-whether Diana is here meant, or some Scythian or Eastern divinity.
-
-Parthenium, a village, is mentioned, c. 4, 5. The scene of the Iphigenia
-
-in Tauris of Euripides is laid some where on these shores.like a comb,
descriptive of the indented nature of the gulf. Both Gossellin and D'Anville have mistaken
-
-the true position of the Heracleotic Chersonese.
It was formerly governed by its own laws, but after it - -was ravaged by barbarous nations, the inhabitants were - -obliged to elect as their protector, Mithridates Eupator, who - -was anxious to direct his forces against the barbarians who - -lived above the isthmus, and occupied the country as far as - -the Dnieper and the Adriatic, and thus to prepare himself - -against war with the Romans. Mithridates, with these views, - -readily despatched an expedition into the Chersonesus, and - -carried on war at the same time against the Scythians, Scilurus, and the sons of Scilurus, namely, Palacus and his brothers, - -whom Posidonius reckons to have been fifty, and Apollonides - -eighty, in number. By the subjugation of these enemies he - -became at once master of the Bosporus, which Pairisades, who - -held the command of it, voluntarily surrendered. From that - -time to the present the city of the Chersonitæ has been subject to the princes of the Bosporus. -
Ctenus is equally distant from the city of the Chersonitæ,
-
-and from Symbolon Limen. From Symbolon Limen the
-
-Tauric coast extends 1000 stadia to the city Theodosia.
In the mountainous district of the Tauri there is a hill
-
-called Trapezus,
After leaving the above-mentioned mountainous district,
-
-is the city Theodosia, situated on a plain; the soil is fertile,
-
-and there is a harbour capable of containing a hundred vessels. This formerly was the boundary of the territory of the
-
-Bosporians and of the Tauri. Then follows a fertile country
-
-extending to Panticapæum,
Panticæpsum is a hill inhabited all round for a circuit of
-
-20 stadia. To the east it has a harbour, and docks capable
-
-of containing about thirty vessels; there is also an acropolis.
-
-It was founded by the Milesians. Both this place and the
-
-neighbouring settlements on each side of the mouth of the
-
-Palus Mæotis were for a long period under the monarchical
-
-dynasty of Leucon, and Satyrus, and Pairisades, till the latter
-
-surrendered the sovereignty to Mithridates. They had the
-
-
-
-
The mouth of the [Palus] Mæotis is called the Kimmerian Bosporus. The entrance, which at the broadest part
-
-is about 70 stadia across, where there is a passage from the
-
-neighbourhood
On sailing into the Kimmerian Bosporus,
The Great Chersonesus resembles Peloponnesus both in
-
-figure and size. The kings of the Bosporus possess it, but
-
-the whole country has been devastated by continual wars.
-
-They formerly possessed a small tract only at the mouth of
-
-the [Palus] Mæotis near Panticapæum, extending as far as
-
-Theodosia. The largest part of the territory, as far as the
-
-isthmus and the Gulf Carcinites, was in possession of the
-
-Tauri, a Scythian nation. The whole of this country, comprehending also a portion on the other side of the isthmus as
-
-far as the Dnieper, was called Little Scythia. In consequence of the number of people who passed from thence
-
-across the Dniester and the Danube, and settled there, no
-
-small part of that country also bore the name of Little
-
-Scythia. The Thracians surrendered a part of it to superior
-
-force, and a part was abandoned on account of the bad quality
-
-of the ground, a large portion of which is marshy.
-
-
Except the mountainous tract of the Chersonesus on the
-
-sea-coast, extending as far as Theodosia, all the rest consist of
-
-plains, the soil of which is rich, and remarkably fertile in corn.
-
-It yields thirty-fold, when turned up by the most ordinary
-
-implements of husbandry. The tribute paid to Mithridates
-
-by the inhabitants, including that from the neighbourhood of
-
-Sindace in Asia, amounted to 180,000 medimni of corn, and
-
-200 talents of silver. The Greeks in former times imported
-
-from this country corn, and the cured fish of Palus Mæotis.
-
-Leucon is said to have sent to the Athenians 2,100,000 medimni of corn from Theodosia.
The nomades are more disposed to war than to robbery.
-
-The occasion of their contests was to enforce the payment of
-
-tribute. They permit those to have land who are willing to
-
-cultivate it. In return for the use of the land, they are satisfied with receiving a settled and moderate tribute, not such
-
-as will furnish superfluities, but the daily necessaries of life.
-
-If this tribute is not paid, the nomades declare war. Hence
-
-the poet calls these people both just, and miserable, (Abii,)
The Georgi (husbandmen) are considered to be more civilized and mild in their manners than the other tribes in this
-
-quarter, but they are addicted to gain. They navigate the
-
-sea, and do not abstain from piracy, nor from similar acts of
-
-injustice and rapacity.
-
-
Besides the places in the Chersonesus already enumerated, there are the fortresses Palacium, and Chabum, and
-
-Neapolis,
There was also a fortress called Eupatorium, built by
-
-Diophantus, one of the generals of Mithridates.
It is a custom peculiar to all the Scythian and Sarmatian
-
-tribes, to castrate their horses, in order to make them more
-
-tractable, for although they are small, yet they are spirited,
-
-and difficult to manage. Stags and wild boars are hunted in
-
-the marshes, and wild asses and roes
Such is the nature of the whole of the country beyond the - -Danube, lying between the Rhine and the Don, and extending as far as the Pontic Sea and the Palus Mæotis. - - -
THERE remains to be described that part of Europe
-
-included between the Danube and the sea which surrounds it,
-
-
-
-
This part contains Greece, Macedonia, Epirus, and the
-
-people who live above them, extending to the Danube and to
-
-the two seas (the Adriatic and the Euxine Sea) on each
-
-side. On the Adriatic are the Illyrians; on the Euxine
-
-Sea, as far as the Propontis
These may be divided into two parts. For the mountains - -of Illyria, Pæonia, and Thrace, may be considered as forming, as it were, a single line, parallel to the Danube, and - -extending from the Adriatic to the Euxine. To the north of - -this line is the country included between the Danube and the - -mountains. To the south is Greece and the barbarous tract - -contiguous to these mountains. -
Near the Euxine Sea is Mount Hæmus,
Almost the whole of Ardia
I shall first describe Illyria, which approaches close to the
-
-Danube, and to the Alps which lie between Italy and Germany,
-
-
-
-
The Daci depopulated a part of this country in their
-
-wars with the Boii and Taurisci, Keltic tribes whose chief
-
-was Critasirus. The Daci claimed the country, although it
-
-was separated from them by the river Parisus,
The rest of the country as far as Segestica,
The Breuci, Andizetii, Ditiones, Peirustæ, Mazæi, Daisitiatæ, whose chief was Baton, and other small obscure communities, which extend to Dalmatia, and almost to the Ardiæi
-
-to the south, are Pannonians. The whole mountainous tract
-
-from the recess of the Adriatic bay to the Rhizonic gulf,
Here perhaps we ought to begin an uninterrupted account - -of these places, after a short repetition. -
In describing Italy we said, that the Istri were the first
-
-nation on the Illyrian coast, contiguous to Italy and to the
-
-Carni, and that the present government had advanced the
-
-limits of Italy to Pola,
Next is the voyage along the coast of the Iapodes, 1000
-
-stadia in extent. The Iapodes are situated on Mount Albius,
-
-which is the termination of the Alps, and is of very great
-
-height. They reach in one direction to the Pannonii and the
-
-Danube, and in another to the Adriatic. They are a warlike
-
-people, but were completely subdued by Augustus. Their
-
-cities are Metulum, Arupinum, Monetium, Vendum.
Islands are scattered along the whole of the above-mentioned coast; among them are the Apsyrtides, where Medea - -is said to have killed her brother Apsyrtus, who was pursuing her. -
Near the Iapodes is Cyrictica,
It is a custom peculiar to the Dalmatæ to make a partition - -of their lands every eighth year. They do not use money, - -which is a peculiarity also when compared with the habits of - -the other inhabitants of this coast; but this is common among - -many other tribes of barbarians. -
The mountain Adrion divides Dalmatia into two parts, one
-
-of which is on the sea, the other forms the opposite side of
-
-the mountain. Then follow the river Naron, and the people
-
-in the neighbourhood, the Daorizi, Ardiæi, and Pleræi.
Later writers call the Ardiæi, Vard$sei.
After the termination of the coast of the Ardiæi and
-
-Pleræi is the bay of the Rhizæi, a city Rhizon,
The Dardanii are entirely a savage people, so much so that
-
-they dig caves beneath dungheaps, in which they dwell; yet
-
-they are fond of music, and are much occupied in playing
-
-upon pipes and on stringed instruments. They inhabit the
-
-inland parts of the country, and we shall mention them again
-
-in another place.
-
-
After the bay of Rhizon
In the territory of the Apolloniatæ there is what is called a
-
-Nymphæum. It is a rock which emits fire. Below it are
-
-springs flowing with hot water and asphaltus. The earth
-
-containing the asphaltus is probably in a state of combustion.
-
-The asphaltus is dug out of a neighbouring hill; the parts
-
-excavated are replaced by fresh earth, which after a time are
-
-converted into asphaltus. This account is given by Posidonius, who says also, that the ampelitis, an asphaltic earth found
-
-in the Pierian Seleucia,
Next to Apollonia is Bylliace (Bullis) and Oricum,
The mouth is common to both; but this difference is to
-
-be observed, that the name Ionian
From the Liburni to the Ceraunian mountains is a distance
-
-of a little more than 2000 stadia. But Theopompus says,
-
-that it is six days' sail from the farthest recess of the bay,
-
-but a journey of thirty days by land along the length of Ilyria. This appears to me an exaggeration, but he makes many
-
-incredible statements. Among other instances, he pretends
-
-that there is a subterraneous passage between the Adriatic
-
-and the Ægæan Seas, grounding his opinion on the discovery
-
-of Chian and Thasian pottery in the river Naron.
On the coast of Illyria, along its whole extent, and in - -the neighbouring islands, there are numerous excellent harbours, contrary to what occurs on the opposite Italian coast, - -where there are none. As in Italy, however, the climate is - -warm, and the soil productive of fruits; olives also and vines - -grow readily, except in some few excessively rugged places. - -Although Illyria possesses these advantages, it was formerly - -neglected, through ignorance, perhaps, of its fertility; but it - -was principally avoided on account of the savage manners of - -the inhabitants, and their piratical habits. -
The region situated above the sea-coast is mountainous,
-
-cold, and at times covered with snow. The northern part is
-
-still colder, so that vines are rarely to be met with either in
-
-the hills or in the plains lower down. These mountain-plains
-
-are in the possession of the Pannonians, and extend towards
-
-the south as far as the Dalmatians and Ardiæi. They terminate towards the north at the Ister, and approach towards
-
-
-
-
The Autariatæ were the most populous and the bravest
-
-tribe of the Illyrians. Formerly, there were continual disputes between them and the Ardiæi respecting the salt which
-
-was spontaneously formed on the confines of their respective
-
-territories, in the spring season, from water which flows
-
-through a valley. The salt concreted five days after the
-
-water was drawn and deposited in reservoirs. The right of
-
-collecting salt was, by agreement, to be exercised alternately
-
-by each party, but the compact was broken and war was the
-
-consequence. After the Autariatæ had subdued the Triballi,
-
-a people whose territory extended a journey of fifteen days,
-
-from the Agrianæ to the Danube, they became masters of the
-
-Thracians and Illyrians. The Autariatæ were first conquered
-
-by the Scordisci, and afterwards by the Romans, who overpowered the Scordisci, for a long time a powerful nation.
-
-
This people inhabited the country on the banks of the
-
-Danube, and were divided into two tribes, the Great and the
-
-Little Scordisci.
Next to the territory of the Scordisci, lying along the banks
-
-of the Danube, is the country of the Triballi and Mysi, whom
-
-we have before mentioned; we have also spoken of the
-
-
-
-
OF the country situated between the Danube and the - -mountains on each side of Pæonia, there remains to be described the Pontic coast, which reaches from the Sacred - -mouth of the Danube to the mountainous district about Hæ- - -mus, and to the mouth of the Pontus at Byzantium. As in - -describing the Illyrian coast we had proceeded as far as the - -Ceraunian mountains, which, although they stretch beyond - -the mountainous district of Illyria, yet constitute a sort of - -proper boundary, we determined by means of these mountains - -the limits of the nations in the inland parts, considering, that - -such separating lines would be better marks both for our present and future use; so here also the coast, although it may - -fall beyond the mountainous line, will still end at a proper - -kind of limit, the mouth of the Pontus, which will be useful - -both for our present and our future descriptions. -
If we set out from the Sacred mouth of the Danube, having
-
-on the right hand the continuous line of coast, we find at the
-
-
-
-
On this coast is the promontory Tirizis, a place naturally
-
-strong, which Lysimachus formerly used as a treasury. Again,
-
-from Apollonia to the Cyanetæ are about
The Cyaneæ
From the promontory, then, that reduces the strait to
-
-5 stadia, to the Port under the Fig-tree, as it is called, are 35
-
-stadia; thence to the Horn of the Byzantines, 5 stadia. This
-
-Horn, close to the walls of Byzantium, is a bay, extending
-
-westwards 60 stadia, and resembling a stag's horn, for it is
-
-divided into a great many bays, like so many branches. The
-
-Pelamides
After the foundation of Chalcedon, Apollo is said to have
-
-
-
-
We have continued our description to Byzantium, because
-
-this celebrated city,
Above Byzantium is the nation of the Asti, in whose territory is the city Calybe, which Philip the son of Amyntas - -made a settlement for criminals. - - -
THESE are the nations, bounded by the Danube and by the - -Illyrian and Thracian mountains, which are worthy of record. - -They occupy the whole coast of the Adriatic Sea, beginning - -from the recess of the gulf, and the left side, as it is called, - -of the Euxine Sea, from the river Danube to Byzantium. -
The southern parts of the above-mentioned mountainous - -tract, and the countries which follow, lying below it, remain - -to be described. Among these are Greece, and the contiguous - -barbarous country extending to the mountains. -
Hecatæus of Miletus says of the Peloponnesus, that, before
-
-the time of the Greeks, it was inhabited by barbarians. Perhaps even the whole of Greece was, anciently, a settlement of
-
-barbarians, if we judge from former accounts. For Pelops
-
-brought colonists from Phrygia into the Peloponnesus, which
-
-
-
-there was a time when the Bœotian people were
-
-called Syes.
We have already spoken of the Pelasgi.
The whole country called Ionia was formerly inhabited by
-
-Carians and Leleges; these were expelled by the Ionians,
-
-who themselves took possession of the country. In still ear-
-
-
-
-
The fact of the association of these people with the Carians
-
-may be regarded as a proof of their being barbarians, and
-
-Aristotle, in his Politics, shows that they were a wandering
-
-nation, sometimes in company with the Carians, sometimes
-
-alone, and that from ancient times; for, in speaking of the
-
-polity of the Acarnanians, he says that the Curetes occupied
-
-a part of the country, and the Leleges (and after them the
-
-Teleboæ) the western side. On the subject of the Ætolian
-
-polity, he calls the present Locri, Leleges, and observes that
-
-they occupy Bœotia. He repeats the same remark on the
-
-subject of the polity of the Opuntians and Megareans. In
-
-speaking of the polity of the Leucadians, he mentions an aboriginal by name, Leleges, and a grandson by his daughter
-
-of the name of Teleboas, and besides two and twenty of his
-
-sons of the name of Teleboas, some of whom inhabited Lucas.
-
-But we should chiefly rely upon Hesiod, who thus speaks
-
-of them:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-For it seems to me to be obscurely intimated by the etymology
-
-of the name, Leleges, that they were a mixed people anciently
-
-collected together, which had become extinct. And this
-
-may be said of the Caucones, who exist no where at present,
-
-yet were formerly settled in several places.
-
-For Locrus was the leader of the nation of the Leleges, whom Jupiter,
-
-the son of Saturn, in his infinite wisdom, once gave as subjects to Deucalion, a people gathered from among the nations of the earth.
Although Greece was formerly composed of small nations, many in number, and obscure; nevertheless their valour, and their separate government by kings, prevented any
-
-difficulty in defining their boundaries. As the greatest part
-
-of the country, however, is at present uninhabited, and the
-
-settlements, especially the cities, have been destroyed, it would
-
-be of no service, even if it were possible, to ascertain the
-
-names of cities and regions occupied by obscure and extinct
-
-people. This destruction, which began a long time since, still
-
-continues in many parts in consequence of rebellion. It has
-
-been checked by the Romans, who accepted the supreme authority from the inhabitants and lodged soldiers in their houses.
-
-
-
-
The first parts of this coast are those about Epidamnus
-
-and Apollonia. From Apollonia to Macedonia is the Egnatian Way; its direction is towards the east, and the distance
-
-is measured by pillars at every mile, as far as Cypselus
The country, from the commencement of the Macedonian
-
-and Pæonian mountains, as far as the river Strymon,
The Ægean Sea waters two sides of Greece; first, the
-
-eastern side, extending from the promontory Sunium
From Sunium to the Peloponnesus are the Myrtoan, the
-
-Cretan, and the Libyan Seas, together with the Gulfs, as far
-
-as the Sicilian Sea, which consist of the Gulfs of Ambracia,
-
-of Corinth, and of Crissa.
-
-
Theopompus says, that there are fourteen Epirotic nations. Of these, the most celebrated are the Chaones and
-
-Molotti, because the whole of Epirus was at one time subject, first to Chaones, afterwards to Molotti. Their power
-
-was greatly strengthened by the family of their kings being
-
-descended from the Æacidæ, and because the ancient and
-
-famous oracle of Dodona
The voyage commencing from the Chaones eastward towards
-
-the Gulfs of Ambracia and Corinth, and having the Ausonian
-
-Sea on the right, and Epirus on the left, comprises
Next is the promontory Chimerium, and a harbour called
-
-Glycys-Limen, [or Sweet Harbour,] where the river Acheron,
-
-which receives several other rivers, empties itself and renders
-
-fresh the water of the gulf. The Thyamus
Then follows the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf,
-
-
-
-
On the left hand are Nicopolis,
Nicopolis is well peopled, and is improving every day. It
-
-has a large territory, and is adorned with the spoils of war.
-
-In the suburbs is a sacred enclosure; part of it is a grove,
-
-containing a gymnasium and a stadium, intended for the celebration of quinquennial games; the other part, on a rising
-
-ground overhanging the grove, is sacred to Apollo. The
-
-Olympian game, called the Actia,
After Ambracia follows the Amphilochian Argos, founded
-
-by Alcmæon and his sons. According to Ephorus, Alcmæon,
-
-after the expedition of the Epigoni
The Amphilochians are Epirotæ, as also are those nations
-
-who inhabit a rugged country situated above and close to the
-
-Illyrian mountains, the Molotti, Athamanes, Æthices, Tymphæi, Orestæ Paroræi, and Atintanes, some of whom approach
-
-nearer to Macedonia, others to the Ionian Gulf. It is said
-
-that Orestes possessed the territory Orestias at the time of
-
-his flight, after the murder of his mother, and left the country
-
-
-
-
Somewhere near are the silver mines of Damastium. Here - -the Perisadyes had established their sway, and Enchelii, who - -are also called Sesarethii. Then come the Lyncestæ, the territory Deuriopus, Pelagonia-Tripolitis, the Eordi, Elimia, - -and Eratyra. Formerly each of these nations was under its - -own prince. The chiefs of the Enchelii were descendants of - -Cadmus and Harmonia, and scenes of the fables respecting - -these persons are shown in the territory. This nation, therefore, was not governed by native princes. The Lyncestæ - -were under Arrhabæus, who was of the race of the Bacchiadæ. Irra was his daughter, and his grand-daughter was - -Eurydice, the mother of Philip Amyntas. -
The Molotti also were Epirotæ, and were subjects of Pyrrhus Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, and of his descendants, - -who were Thessalians. The rest were governed by native - -princes. Some tribes were continually endeavouring to obtain the mastery over the others, but all were finally subdued - -by the Macedonians, except a few situated above the Ionian - -Gulf. They gave the name of Upper Macedonia to the - -country about Lyncestis, Pelagonia, Orestias, and Elimia. - -Later writers called it Macedonia the Free, and some extend - -the name of Macedonia to all the country as far as Corcyra, - -at the same time assigning as their reasons, the mode of cutting their hair, their language, the use of the chlamys, and - -similar things in which they resemble the Macedonians; some - -of them, however, speak two languages. On the dissolution - -of the Macedonian empire, they fell under the power of the - -Romans. -
The Egnatian Way, from Epidamnus and Apollonia, passes
-
-through the territory of these people. Near the road to Candavia are the lakes about Lychnidus, which furnish large
-
-supplies of fish for salting, and rivers, some of which empty
-
-
-
-
There were formerly cities among these nations. The
-
-district Pelagonia-Tripolitis contained (as the name signifies)
-
-three cities, of which Azorus was one. All the cities of the
-
-Deuriopes were situated on the banks of the Erigon; among
-
-which were Bryanium, Alalcomenæ,
On the banks of the river Ion is Oxynia, a city distant from - -Azorus in the Tripolitis 120 stadia. Near Oxynia are Alalcomenæ, Æginium, Europus, and the confluence of the Ion - -with the Peneus. -
At that time then, as I said before, the whole of Epirus
-
-and Illyria were well peopled, although the country is rugged
-
-and full of mountains, such as Tomarus, and Polyanus, and
-
-many others. At present the greater part is uninhabited, and
-
-the inhabited parts are left in the state of villages, or in ruins.
-
-Even the oracle at Dodona has almost been deserted, like the
-
-rest.
-
-
This oracle, according to Ephorus, was established by
-
-Pelasgi, who are said to be the most ancient people that were
-
-sovereigns in Greece. Thus the poet speaks,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
With respect to Dodona, Homer clearly intimates that the
-
-people who lived about the temple were barbarians, from their
-
-mode of life, describing them as persons who do not wash
-
-their feet, and who sleep on the ground. Whether we should
-
-read Helli, with Pindar, or Selli, as it is conjectured the word
-
-existed in Homer, the ambiguity of the writing does not
-
-permit us to affirm confidently. Philochorus says, that the
-
-country about Dodona was called, like Eubœa, Hellopia; for
-
-these are the words of Hesiod,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-It is supposed, says Apollodorus, that it had this name from
-
-the There is a country Hellopia, rich in corn-fields and pastures; at its
-
-extremity is built Dodona.
hele,
or marshes about the temple. He is of opinion
-
-that the poet did not call the people about the temple Helli,
-
-but Selli, adding, that Homer mentions a certain river (near)
-
-of the name of Selleis. He specifies the name in this line,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-[Demetrius of Skepsis contends that] Ephyra of Thesprotia
-
-is not here meant, but Ephyra of Elis. For the river Selleis
-
-is in Elis, and there is no river of this name either in Thesprotia or among the Molotti. The fable of the oak and the
-
-doves, and other similar things, like the stories connected with
-
-Delphi, although they are subjects more adapted to engage
-
-the attention of a poet, yet are appropriate to the description
-
-of the country with which we are now occupied.
-At a distance far from Ephyra, from the river Selleis.
Dodona was formerly subject to the Thesproti, as was the
-
-mountain Tomarus, or Tmarus, (both names are in use,) be
-
-low which the temple is situated. The tragic writers and
-
-Pindar give the epithet of Thesprotis to Dodona. It was said
-
-to be subject, in later times, to the Molotti. Those called by
-
-the poet Jove's interpreters,
Odyssey containing the advice of Amphinomus to the suitors
-
-
-
-If the Tomuri of great Jove approve, I myself will kill him, and I
-
-will order all to join in the deed; but if the god forbid it, I command to
-
-withhold.
In Homer, however, we must understand
-
-
-
-To listen to
The first prophets were men, and this the poet perhaps
-
-indicates, for he calls the persons interpreters,
Suidas, in order to court the favour of the Thessalians by
-
-fabulous stories, says, that the temple was transported from
-
-Scotussa of the Thessalian Pelasgiotis, accompanied by a great
-
-multitude, chiefly of women, whose descendants are the present
-
-prophetesses, and that hence Jupiter had the epithet Pelasgic.
-
-Cineas relates what is still more fabulous * * * * *
-
-* * * * *
-
-
-
-[With the exception of the following Fragments, the rest of this book
-
-is lost.]
-
-
-
-
THE oracle was formerly at Scotussa, a city of Pelasgiotis,
-
-but was transferred to Dodona by the command of Apollo,
-
-after some persons had burnt down the tree. The oracular
-
-answers were not conveyed by words, but by certain signs, as
-
-at the oracle of Ammon in Libya. Probably the three doves
-
-made some peculiar flight, which, observed by the priestesses,
-
-suggested the oracular answer. Some say that, in the language of the Molotti and Thesprote, old women are called
-
-peliæ,
and old men pelii,
so that the celebrated doves
-
-were probably not birds, but three old women who passed an
-
-idle time about the temple. EPIT.
-
-
Among the Thesprotæ and Molotti old women are called
-
-peliæ,
and old men pelii,
as among the Macedonians.
-
-Persons at least who hold office are called peligones,
as
-
-among the Laconians and Massilienses they are called ge-
-
-rontes.
Hence it is asserted that the story of the doves in
-
-the oak at Dodona is a fable. E.
-
-
The proverb, The brazen vessel of Dodona,
thus arose.
-
-In the temple was a brazen vessel, having over it a statue of
-
-a man (an offering of the Corcyræans) grasping in the hand
-
-a brazen scourge of three thongs, woven in chains, from which
-
-were suspended small bones. The bones striking continually
-
-upon the brazen vessel, whenever they were agitated by the
-
-wind, produced a long protracted sound, so that a person from
-
-the beginning to the end of the vibrations might proceed to
-
-count as far as four hundred. Whence also came the proverb,
-
-The Corcyræan scourge.
Pæonia is to the east of these nations, and to the west
-
-of the Thracian mountains; on the north it lies above Macedonia. Through the city Gortynium and Stobi it admits of
-
-a passage to * * * (through which the Axius flows, and
-
-renders the access difficult from Pæonia into Macedonia, as
-
-
-
-
The Haliacmon
Orestis is of considerable extent; there is in it a large
-
-mountain which reaches to Corax
Corcyra, humbled by many wars, became a subject of
-
-ridicule, and passed into a proverb. E.
-
-
Corcyra was formerly a flourishing place, and possessed
-
-a considerable naval force, but went into decay through war
-
-and the oppression of its rulers. In later times, although restored to liberty by the Romans, it acquired no renown, but
-
-the taunting proverb was applied to it, Corcyra the Free,
-
-ease yourself where you please.
EPIT.
-
-
Of Europe, there remains Macedonia, and the parts of
-
-Thrace contiguous to it, extending to Byzantium, Greece
-
-also, and the adjacent islands: indeed, Macedonia is a part of
-
-Greece. Following, however, the natural character of the
-
-country and its form, we have determined to separate it
-
-from Greece, and to unite it with Thrace, which borders upon
-
-it.——Strabo, after a few remarks, mentions Cypsela
Macedonia is bounded on the west by the sea-coast of
-
-the Adriatic; on the east by a meridian line parallel to this
-
-coast, passing through the mouth of the river Hebrus, and the
-
-city Cypsela; on the north by an imaginary straight line passing through the mountains Bertiscus, Scardus,
The country now called Macedonia was formerly called
-
-Emathia. It acquired this name from Macedon, one of its
-
-ancient princes. There was also a city Emathia near the sea.
-
-The country was occupied by some of the Epirotæ and Illyrians, but the greatest part by Bottiæi and Thracians. The
-
-Bottiæi were of Cretan origin, and came under the command
-
-of Botton; the Pieres, who were Thracians, inhabited Pieria
-
-and the parts about Olympus; the Pæonians, the borders of
-
-the river Axius, from whence the region was called Amphaxitis; the Edoni and Bisalti, the rest of the country as far as
-
-the Strymon. The Bisalti retained their name, but the Edoni
-
-went under the various names of Mygdones, Edoni, (Odones?)
-
-and Sithones. Of all these people, the Argeadæ and the
-
-Chalcidenses of Eubœa became the chief. The Chalcidenses
-
-came from Eubœa into the territory of the Sithones, and there
-
-founded about thirty cities. They were subsequently driven
-
-out by the Sithones, but the greater part of them collected
-
-together into a single city, namely, Olynthus.
The Peneus separates Lower Macedonia and the seaboard from Thessaly and Magnesia. The Haliacmon is the
-
-boundary of Upper Macedonia; and the Haliacmon, the Erigon, the Axius, and other rivers, form the boundary between
-
-Macedonia and the Epirotæ and the Pæonians. E.
-
-
If a line is drawn from the recess of the Thermaic
-
-Gulf, on the sea-coast of Macedonia, and from Thessalonica,
-
-southwards, to Sunium, and another eastwards, towards the
-
-Thracian Chersonese, an angle will be made in the recess.
-
-Macedonia extends in both directions, and we must begin with
-
-the line first mentioned. The first part of it has beyond it
-
-Attica with Megaris to the Crissæan Bay. Next succeeds
-
-the sea-coast of Bœotia near Eubea. Above Eubœa an the
-
-
-
-
From these reefs, says Strabo, we shall first mark the
-
-boundaries of those who live about the river Peneus and
-
-Haliacmon near the sea. The Peneus flows from Mount
-
-Pindus through the middle of Thrace eastwards; passing
-
-through the cities of the Lapithæ and some of the cities of the
-
-Perrhæbi, it arrives at the vale of Tempe, having in its course
-
-received the waters of several rivers: of these, the Europus
-
-(Eurotas) is one, called by the poet Titaresius. It rises from
-
-Titarius, (Titarus,) a mountain continuous with Olympus,
-
-which at this point first begins to mark the boundary between
-
-Macedonia and Thessaly. Tempe is a narrow valley between
-
-Olympus and Ossa. The Peneus continues its course from
-
-this narrow pass 40 stadia, having Olympus, the highest of
-
-the Macedonian mountains, on the left, [and Ossa on the right,
-
-near] the mouth of the river. At the mouth of the Peneus
-
-on the right is situated Gyrton, a city of the Perrhæbi, and
-
-Magnetis, where Pirithous and Ixion were kings. The city
-
-Crannon is 100 stadia distant from Gyrton. Some assert,
-
-that in the lines of Homer, These two from Thrace,
and
-
-what follows, for Ephyri we are to understand Crannonii, and
-
-for Phlegyes, the people of Gyrton. Pieria is on the other
-
-side. E.
-
-
The Peneus, rising in Mount Pindus, flows through
-
-Tempe, the middle of Thessaly, the Lapithæ, and the Perrhæbi. It receives the Europus, (Eurotas,) which Homer
-
-calls Titaresius, in its course, and forms on the north the
-
-boundary of Macedonia, and on the south that of Thessaly.
-
-The sources of the river Europus are in Mount Titarius,
-
-which is contiguous to Olympus. Olympus itself is in Macedonia; Ossa and Pelion in Thessaly. EPIT.
-
-
At the roots of Olympus, and on the banks of the Peneus, is Gyrton, a Perrhæbic city, and Magnetis, where Pirithous and Ixion ruled. [The city] Crannon is [100 stadia]
-
-distant [from Gyrton]; and it is said that when the poet writes
-
-Both from Thrace,
we are to understand by Ephyri, the
-
-Crannonians, and by Phlegyes, the Gyrtonii. EPIT.
-
-
The city Dium is not on the sea-shore of the Ther-
-
-mæan Gulf, at the roots of Olympus, but is about 7 stadia
-
-
-
-
Beneath Olympus is Dium; near it is a village, Pimplea, where it is said Orpheus lived. He was a Cicon (of the
-
-tribe of the Cicones) and was a diviner. At first he drew
-
-people about him by the practice of music and witchcraft, and
-
-by the introduction of mysterious ceremonies in religious
-
-worship. After a time, obtaining a greater degree of self-
-
-importance, he collected a multitude of followers, and acquired
-
-influence. He had many willing followers, but becoming
-
-suspected by a few of entertaining secret designs, and of an
-
-intention of taking forcible possession of power, he was attacked by them and put to death. Near this place is Libethra. E.
-
-
Anciently diviners practised the art of music. EPIT.
-
-
After Dium follow the mouths of the Haliacmon;
-
-then Pydna, Methone, Alorus, and the rivers Erigon and Ludias. The Ludias flows from Triclari, through the Oresti and
-
-the Pellæan country (Pelagonia): leaving the city on the left
-
-it falls into the Axius. The Ludias is navigable up the stream
-
-to Pella 120 stadia. Methone is situated in the middle, about
-
-40 stadia distant from Pydna, and 70 stadia from Alorus.
-
-Alorus is situated in the farthest recess of the Thermæan
-
-Gulf. It was called Thessalonica on account of the splendid
-
-[victory obtained over the Thessalians]. Alorus is considered
-
-as belonging to Bottiæa and Pydna to Pieria. Pella is in
-
-Lower Macedonia, which was in possession of the Bottiæi.
-
-Here was formerly the Macedonian Treasury. Philip, who
-
-was brought up in this place, raised it from an inconsiderable
-
-city to some importance. It has a citadel situated on a lake
-
-called Ludias. From this lake issues the river Ludias, which
-
-is filled by a branch of the Axius. The Axius discharges
-
-itself between Chalastra and Therma. Near this river is a
-
-fortified place, now called Abydos; Homer calls it Amydon,
-
-and says that the Pæonians came from hence to assist the
-
-Trojans during the siege of Troy.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-It was razed by the Argeadæ. E.
-
-
The water of the Axius is turbid. Homer, however,
-
-says that the water is month beautiful,
probably on account
-
-
-
-Cisseus educated
-
-him,
meaning Iphidamas. E.
-
-
After the city Drium is the river Haliacmon, which
-
-discharges itself into the Thermæan Gulf. From hence to
-
-the river Axius the sea-coast on the north of the gulf bears
-
-the name of Pieria, on which is situated the city Pydna, now
-
-called Citrum. Then follow Methone and the river Alorus;
-
-then the rivers Erigon and Ludias. From Ludias to the city
-
-Pella the river is navigated upwards to the distance of 20
-
-stadia. Methone is distant from Pydna 40 stadia, and 70
-
-stadia from Alorus. Pydna is a Pierian, Alorus a Bottiæan
-
-city. In the plain of Pydna the Romans defeated Perseus,
-
-and put an end to the Macedonian empire. In the plain of
-
-Methone, during the siege of the city, Philip Amyntas accidentally lost his right eye by an arrow discharged from a
-
-catapult. EPIT.
-
-
Philip, who was brought up at Pella, formerly a small
-
-city, much improved it. In front of the city is a lake, out of
-
-which flows the river Ludias. The lake is supplied by a
-
-branch of the river Axius. Next follows the Axius, which
-
-separates the territory of Bottiæa and Amphaxitis, and after
-
-receiving the river Erigon, issues out between Chalestra and
-
-Therme. On the river Axius is a place which Homer calls
-
-Amydon, and says that the Pæones set out thence as auxiliaries to Troy:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-to
-
-
-
-
-
-For it is not the fairest water
which is diffused over the
-
-spring, but the fairest water
of the spring which is diffused over the Axius.In the passage
After the river Axius is the city Thessalonica, formerly
-
-called Therma. It was founded by Cassander, who called it
-
-after the name of his wife, a daughter of Philip Amyntas.
-
-He transferred to it the small surrounding cities, Chalastra,
-
-Ænea, Cissus, and some others. Probably from this Cissus
-
-came Iphidamas, mentioned in Homer, whose grandfather
-
-Cisseus educated him,
he says, in Thrace,
which is now
-
-called Macedonia. EPIT.
-
-
Somewhere in this neighbourhood is the mountain Bermius,
The city Berœa
Pallene is a peninsula. On the isthmus of Pallene
-
-lies what was once Potidæa, but now Cassandra. It was
-
-formerly called Phlegra, and was inhabited by the fabulous
-
-giants, an impious and lawless race, who were destroyed by
-
-Hercules. It has upon it four cities, Aphytis, Mende, Scione,
-
-and Sana. EPIT.
-
-
Olynthus is distant from Potidæa 70 stadia. E.
-
-
The arsenal of Olynthus is Mecyberna, on the Toronæan Gulf. EPIT.
-
-
Near Olynthus is a hollow tract called Cantharolethron, from an accidental circumstance. The Cantharus, (the
-
-beetle,) which is bred in the surrounding country, dies as
-
-soon as it touches this tract. EPIT.
-
-
Next after Cassandria is the remaining part of the seacoast of the Toronæan Gulf, as far as Derris. It is a promontory opposite the district of Canastrum, and forms a gulf.
-
-Opposite to Derris, to the east, are the promontories of Athos;
-
-between them is the Singitic Gulf, which receives its name
-
-from an ancient city in it, Singus, now destroyed. Next is
-
-the city Acanthus, situated on the isthmus of Athos,
Opposite to Canastrum, a promontory of Pallene, is the
-
-promontory Derris, near Cophus-Limen [or Deaf Harbour]:
-
-
-
-
The city Acanthus, on the Singitic Gulf, is a maritime
-
-city near the Canal of Xerxes. There are five cities in Athos;
-
-Dium, Cleonæ, Thyssos, Olophyxis, Acrothoi, which is situated near the summit of Athos. Mount Athos is pap-shaped,
-
-very pointed, and of very great height. Those who live upon
-
-the summit see the sun rise three hours before it is visible on
-
-the sea-shore. The voyage round the peninsula, from the
-
-city Acanthus to the city Stagirus, the birth-place of Aristotle, is 400 stadia. It has a harbour called Caprus, and a
-
-small island of the same name. Then follow the mouths of
-
-the Strymon; then Phagres, Galepsus, and Apollonia, all of
-
-them cities; then the mouth of the Nestus, which is the
-
-boundary of Macedonia and Thrace, as settled, in their own
-
-times, by Philip and Alexander his son. There are about the
-
-Strymonic Gulf other cities also, as Myrcinus, Argilus, Drabescus, and Datum, which has an excellent and most productive soil, dock-yards for ship-building, and gold mines;
-
-whence the proverb, A Datum of good things,
like to the
-
-proverb, Piles of plenty.
There are numerous gold mines among the Crenides,
-
-where the city of Philip now stands, near Mount Pangæus.
-
-Pangæus itself, and the country on the east of the Strymon,
-
-and on the west as far as Pæonia, contains gold and silver
-
-
-
-
Mount Athos is pap-shaped, and so lofty that the husbandmen on the summit are already weary of their labour, - -the sun having long since risen to them, when to the inhabitants of the shore it is the beginning of cockcrowing. Thamyris, the Thracian, was king of this coast, and followed the - -same practices as Orpheus. Here also, at Acanthus, is seen - -the canal, which Xerxes is said to have made, and through - -which he is said to have brought the sea from the Strymonic - -Gulf, across the isthmus. Demetrius of Skepsis is of opinion - -that this canal was not navigable; for, says he, the ground is - -composed of deep earth, and admits of being dug for a distance - -of 10 stadia only: the canal is a plethrum in width; then follows a high, broad, and flat rock, nearly a stadium in length, - -which prevents excavation throughout the whole distance to - -the sea. And even if the work could be carried on so far - -across, yet it could not be continued to a sufficient depth, so - -as to present a navigable passage. Here Alexarchus, the son - -of Antipater, built the city Uranopolis, 30 stadia in circumference. -
This peninsula was inhabited by Pelasgi from Lemnos; they
-
-were distributed into five small cities, Cleonæ, Olophyxis,
-
-Acrothoi, Dium, Thyssos. After Athos comes the Strymonic
-
-Gulf, extending to the river Nestus, which forms the boundary of Macedonia, as settled by Philip and Alexander. Accurately speaking, there is a promontory forming a gulf with
-
-Athos, on which is the city Apollonia. First in the gulf, after the harbour of Acanthus, is Stagira, now deserted: it was
-
-one of the Chalcidic cities, and the birth-place of Aristotle.
-
-Caprus was the harbour, and there is a small island of the
-
-same name. Then comes the Strymon, and Amphipolis, at
-
-the distance of 20 stadia up the river. In this part is situated
-
-an Athenian colony, called Ennea-Odoi (the Nine-Ways).
-
-Then Galepsus and Apollonia, which were destroyed by
-
-Philip. E.
-
-
He says, it is 120 stadia (300?) from the Peneus to
-
-Pydna. On the sea-coast of the Strymon and of the Dateni
-
-is Neapolis, and Datum also, which has fruitful plains, a lake,
-
-rivers, dockyards, and valuable gold mines. Hence the proverb, A Datum of good things,
like "Piles of plenty.
-
-
-
-
The source of the river Strymon is among the Agrianes
-
-near Rhodope. EPIT.
-
-
The Pæonians, according to some, were a dependent
-
-colony of the Phrygians; according to others, they were an
-
-independent settlement. Pænonia, it is said, extended to Pelagonia and Pieria; Pelagonia is said to have been formerly
-
-called Orestia; and Asteropæus, one of the chiefs from Pæonia who went to Troy, to have been called, with great probability, the son of Pelagon, and the Pæonians themselves to
-
-have been called Pelagones. E.
-
-
The Asteropæus in Homer, son of Pelegon, we are told,
-
-was of Pæonia in Macedonia: whence Son of Pelegon;
-
-for the Pæonians were called Pelagones. EPIT.
-
-
As the
Anciently, as at present, the Pæonians appear to have
-
-been masters of so much of what is now called Macedonia as
-
-to be able to besiege Perinthus, and subject to their power
-
-Crestonia, the whole of Mygdonia, and the territory of the
-
-Agrianes as far as Mount Pangæus. Above the sea-coast of
-
-the Strymonic Gulf, extending from Galepsus to Nestus, are
-
-situated Philippi and the surrounding country. Philippi was
-
-formerly called Crenides; it was a small settlement, but increased after the defeat of Brutus and Cassius. E.
-
-
In front of this coast lie two islands, Lemnos and Thasos. Beyond the strait at Thasos is Abdera, with its fables.
-
-It was inhabited by Bistones, over whom ruled Diomed. The
-
-Nestus does not always keep within its banks, but frequently
-
-inundates the country. Then Dicæa, a city on the gulf, with
-
-a harbour. Above it is the lake Bistonis, 200 stadia in circumference. They say that Hercules, when he came to seize
-
-upon the horses of Diomed, cut a canal through the sea-shore
-
-and turned the water of the sea upon the plain, which is situated in a hollow, and is lower than the level of the sea, and
-
-thus vanquished his opponents. The royal residence of Diomed is shown, called, from a local peculiarity, its natural
-
-strength, Cartera-Come [Strong-Village]. Beyond the inland lake are Xanthia, Maronia, and Ismarus, cities of the
-
-Cicones. Ismarus is now called Ismara-near-Maronia. Near
-
-it is the outlet of the lake Ismaris. The stream is called
-
-sweet * * * * * * At this place are what are called the
-
-heads of the Thasii. The Sapæi are situated above. E.
-
-
Topeira is situated near Abdera and Maronia. E.
-
-
The Sinti, a Thracian tribe, inhabit the island of Lemnos; whence Homer calls them Sinties, thus, There are the
-
-Sinties.
EPIT.
-
-
After the river Nestus to the west is the city Abdera,
-
-named after Abderus, who was eaten by the horses of Diomed; then, near, Dicæa, a city, above which is situated a large
-
-lake, the Bistonis; then the city Maronia. EPIT.
-
-
The whole of Thrace is composed of twenty-two nations. Although greatly exhausted, it is capable of equipping
-
-
-
-
The river in Thrace now called Rhiginia (Rhegina?)
-
-was formerly called Erigon (Erginus?). EPIT.
-
-
Samothrace was inhabited by the brothers Jasion and
-
-Dardanus. Jasion was killed by lightning, for his crime against
-
-Ceres; Dardanus moved away from Samothrace, and built a
-
-city, to which he gave the name of Dardania, at the foot of
-
-Mount Ida. He taught the Trojans the Samothracian mysteries. Samothrace was formerly called Samos. EPIT.
-
-
The gods worshipped in Samothrace, the Curbantes
-
-and Corybantes, the Curetes and the Idæan Dactyli, are said
-
-by many persons to be the same as the Cabiri, although they
-
-are unable to explain who the Cabiri were. E.
-
-
At the mouth of the Hebrus, which discharges itself
-
-by two channels, in the Gulf of Melas, is a city Ænos, founded
-
-by the Mitylenæans and Cumæans; its first founders, however, were Alopeconnesi; then the promontory Sarpedon;
-
-
-
-
The Thracian Chersonesus forms three seas, the Propontis to the north, the Hellespont to the east, and the Gulf
-
-Melas to the south, where the river Melas, of the same name
-
-as the gulf, discharges itself. EPIT.
-
-
In the isthmus of the Chersonesus are three cities,
-
-Cardia on the Gulf of Melas, Pactya on the Propontis, Lysimachia in the interior; the breadth of the isthmus is 40
-
-stadia. EPIT.
-
-
The name of the city Eleus is of the masculine gender, perhaps that of Trapezus is also masculine. EPIT.
-
-
In the voyage round of which we have been speaking;
-
-beyond Eleus, first, is the entrance into the Propontis through
-
-the straits, where they say the Hellespont begins. There
-
-is a promontory here by some called Dog's Monument, by
-
-others the Monument of Hecuba, for on doubling the pro-
-
-
-
-
From Perinthus to Byzantium it is 630 stadia; from
-
-the Hebrus and Cypseli to Byzantium and the Cyanean rocks
-
-it is, according to Artemidorus, 3100 stadia. The whole distance from Apollonia on the Ionian Gulf to Byzantium is
-
-7320 stadia; Polybius makes this distance 180 stadia more,
-
-by the addition of a third of a stadium to the sum of 8 stadia,
-
-which compose a mile. Demetrius of Skepsis, in his account
-
-of the disposition of the Trojan forces, says that it is 700
-
-stadia from Perinthus to Byzantium, and the same distance
-
-to Parium. He makes the length of the Propontis to be
All writers do not agree in their description of the
-
-Hellespont, and many opinions are advanced on the subject.
-
-Some describe the Propontis to be the Hellespont; others, that
-
-part of the Propontis which is to the south of Perinthus; others
-
-include a part of the exterior sea which opens to the Ægæan
-
-and the Gulf Melas, each assigning different limits. Some
-
-make their measurement from Sigeum to Lampsacus, and
-
-Cyzicus, and Parium, and Priapus; and one is to be found
-
-who measures from Singrium, a promontory of Lesbos. Some
-
-do not hesitate to give the name of Hellespont to the whole
-
-distance as far as the Myrtoan Sea, because (as in the Odes
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-But the argument is contradicted in the following lines,
-
-
-
-
-
-Piros commanded the Thracians,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-So that he would consider all people settled next to the
-
-Thracians as excluded from the Hellespont. For Ænos is
-
-situated in the district formerly called Apsynthis, but now
-
-Corpilice. The territory of the Cicones is next towards the
-
-west. E.
-
-
-
-
SUMMARY.
- -The remaining parts of Macedonia are considered, and the whole of Greece; - -on this the author dwells some time on account of the great reputation - -of the country. He corrects minutely, and clears up, the confused and - -vague accounts respecting the cities contained therein, given by poets and - -historians, and especially in the Catalogue and in many other parts of the - -Poem.
AFTER having described as much of the western parts
-
-of Europe as is comprised within the interior and exterior
-
-seas, and surveyed all the barbarous nations which it contains,
-
-as far as the DonHarbours,
Voyages,
Circuits of the Earth,
It is easy to form an opinion of the other writers, but the
-
-poems of Homer require critical consideration, both because
-
-he speaks as a poet, and because he describes things not as
-
-
-
-
We must however undertake this inquiry as far as we are - -able, beginning from the point where our description ended. -
It ended with an account of the Epirotic and Illyrian nations - -on the west and north, and of Macedonia as far as Byzantium - -on the east. -
After the Epirotæ and Illyrii follow the Acarnanes,
There are many Greek tribes, but the chief people are
-
-equal in number to the Greek dialects with which we are
-
-acquainted, namely, four. Of these, the Ionic is the same as
-
-the ancient Attic; (for Iones was the former name of the inhabitants of Attica; from thence came the Iones who settled
-
-in Asia,
It was not in the parts only on the other side of the isthmus,
-
-that the Æolian nation was powerful, but those on this side
-
-also were formerly Æolians. They were afterwards intermixed first with Ionians who came from Attica, and got possession of Ægialus,
Such then is the number of the Grecian nations, and thus - -in general are they distinguished from each other. -
I shall resume my account of them, and describe each
-
-nation in their proper order.
-
-
According to Ephorus, Acarnania is the commencement
-
-of Greece on the west, for it is the first country which lies
-
-contiguous to the Epirotic nations. As this author follows
-
-the coast in his measurements, and begins from thence, considering the sea the most important guide of topographical
-
-description, (for otherwise he might have placed the beginning
-
-of Greece in Macedonia and Thessaly,) so ought I, observing
-
-
-
-
The sea coming from Sicily spreads itself on one side - -towards the Corinthian Gulf, and on the other forms a large - -peninsula, the Peloponnesus, united to the main-land by a - -narrow isthmus. -
The two largest bodies of country in Greece are that within - -the isthmus, and that without the isthmus, [extending to the - -mouths of the river Peneius]. That within the isthmas is however larger, and more celebrated. The Peloponnesus is, as it - -were, the acropolis or citadel of all Greece; and all Greece in - -a manner holds the chief or leading position in Europe. For - -independently of the fame and power of the nations which - -inhabited it, the position itself of the places in it suggests - -this superiority. One site succeeds another diversified with - -numerous most remarkable bays, and large peninsulas. The - -first of these peninsulas is the Peloponnesus, closed in by - -an isthmus of forty stadia in extent. The second comprehends the first, and has an isthmus reaching from Pagæ in - -Megaris to Nisæa, which is the naval arsenal of the Megareans; the passage across the isthmus from sea to sea is 120 - -stadia. -
The third peninsula also comprises the latter. Its isthmus - -extends from the farthest recess of the Crissæan Gulf to - -Thermopylæ. The line supposed to be drawn between these - -is about 508 stadia in length, including within it the whole - -of Bœotia, and cutting Phocis and the country of the - -Epicnemidii obliquely. The fourth peninsula has the isthmus - -extending from the Ambracian Gulf through Mount Œta - -and Traclinia to the Maliac Gulf and Thermopylæ, about - -800 stadia. -
There is another isthmus of more than 1000 stadia reaching from the same Gulf of Ambracia, and passing through - -the country of the Thessalians and Macedonians to the recess - -of the Thermæan Gulf. -
The succession of peninsulas furnishes a convenient order - -to be followed in describing the country. -
We must begin from the smallest, as being also the most
-
-famous of these peninsulas.
THE Peloponnesus resembles in figure the leaf of a plane
-
-tree.
The circumference, according to Polybius, exclusive of the
-
-circuit of the bays, is 4000 stadia. Artemidorus however
-
-adds to this 400 stadia, and if we include the measure of the
-
-bays, it exceeds 5600 stadia. We have already said that the
-
-isthmus at the road where they draw vessels over-land from
-
-one sea to the other is 40 stadia across.
-
-
Eleians and Messenians occupy the western side of this
-
-peninsula. Their territory is washed by the Sicilian Sea.
-
-They possess the coast also on each side. Elis bends towards
-
-the north and the commencement of the Corinthian Gulf as
-
-far as the promontory Araxus,
Next to Elis, is the nation of the Achæi looking towards
-
-the north, and stretching along the Corinthian Gulf they
-
-terminate at Sicyonia. Then follow Sicyon
The bays of the Peloponnesus are the Messeniac,
The Corinthian Gulf begins from the mouths of the
-
-Evenus,
Rhium is a promontory of Achaia, it is low, and bends inwards like a sickle, (indeed it has the name of Drepanum, or
-
-the Sickle,) and lies between Patræ
The Corinthian Gulf is 2230 stadia in circuit from the - -river Evenus to the promontory Araxus; and if we reckon - -from the Achelous, it would be increased by about 100 stadia. -
The tract from the Achelous to the Evenus is occupied by
-
-Acarnanians; next are the Ætoli, reaching to the Cape Antirrhium. The remainder of the country, as far as the isthmus,
-
-is occupied by Phocis, Bœotia, and by Megaris, it extends
-
-
The sea from Cape Antirrhium as far as the isthmus is
-
-[the Crissæan Gulf, but from the city Creusa it is called the
-
-Sea of] Alcyonis, and is a portion of the Crissæan Gulf.
Such in general then is the nature and extent of the Peloponnesus, and of the country on the other side of the strait up - -to the farther recess of the gulf. Such also is the nature of - -the gulf between both. -
We shall next describe each country in particular, beginning with Elis. - - -
AT present the whole sea-coast lying between the Achæi
-
-and Messenii is called Eleia, it stretches into the inland parts
-
-towards Arcadia at Pholoe, and the Azanes, and Parrhasii.
-
-Anciently it was divided into several states; afterwards
-
-into two, Elis of the Epeii, and Elis under Nestor, the son of
-
-Neleus. As Homer says, who mentions Elis of the Epeii by
-
-name,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-The other he calls Pylus subject to Nestor, through which, he
-
-says, the Alpheius flows:
-
-
-
-
Elis, the present city, was not yet founded in the time
-
-of Homer, but the inhabitants of the country lived in villages.
-
-It was called Cœle [or Hollow] Elis, from the accident of its
-
-locality, for the largest and best part of it is situated in a
-
-hollow. It was at a late period, and after the Persian war,
-
-that the people collected together out of many demi, or
-
-
-
-
These were the Pisatis, of which Olympia is a part, and - -Triphylia, and the territory of the Caucones. The Triphylii - -had their name from the accident of the union of three tribes; - -of the Epeii, the original inhabitants; of the Minyæ, who - -afterwards settled there; and last of all of the Eleii, who - -made themselves masters of the country. Instead of the Minyæ - -some writers substitute Arcadians, who had frequently disputed the possession of the territory, whence Pylus had the - -epithet Arcadian as well as Triphylian. Homer calls all this - -tract as far as Messene by the name of Pylus, the name of the - -city. The names of the chiefs, and of their abodes in the - -Catalogue of the Ships, show that Cœle Elis, or the Hollow - -Elis, was distinct from the country subject to Nestor. -
I say this on comparing the present places with Homer's - -description of them, for we must compare one with the other - -in consideration of the fame of the poet, and our being bred - -up in an acquaintance with his writings; and every one will - -conclude that our present inquiry is rightly conducted, if - -nothing is found repugnant to his accounts of places, which - -have been received with the fullest reliance on their credibility and his veracity. -
We must describe these places as they exist at present, and
-
-as they are represented by the poet, comparing them together
-
-as far as is required by the design of this work.
-
-
The Araxus is a promontory of Eleia situated on the
-
-north, 60 stadia from Dyme, an Achæan city. This promontory
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-for he would not have given the title of chief of Epeii to one
-
-who came from the Arcadian mountain of this name. It is a
-
-village of moderate size, in which is preserved the Æsculapius
-
-of Colotes, a statue of ivory, of admirable workmanship.
-
-Next to Cyllene is the promontory Chelonatas,
Between the Chelonatas and Cyllene the river Peneius
-
-empties itself, and that also called by the poet Selleis, which
-
-flows from the mountain Pholoe. On this river is situated
-
-Ephyra, a city to be distinguished from the Thesprotian,
-
-Thessalian, and Corinthian Ephyras; being a fourth city of
-
-this name, situated on the road leading to the Lasion seacoast, and which may be either the same place as Bœonoa,
-
-(for it is the custom to call Œnoe by this name,) or a city
-
-near this, distant from Elis 120 stadia. This Ephyra seems
-
-to be the reputed birth-place of Astyochea, the mother of Tlepolemus, the son of Hercules,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Or he will go to the rich country of Ephyra to bring back poison de-
-
-structive of our lives.
-
-
-I first slew a man,
There is also near Sicyon a river, Selleis, and a village of
-
-the name of Ephyra near it; and a village Ephyra in the
-
-territory of Agræa in Ætolia, the people of which are called
-
-Ephyri. There are also other Ephyri among the Perrhæbi
-
-near Macedonia, who are Crannonians,there
-
-ii
to Ephyra,
is, as he also remarks, probably an interpolation. Strabo
-
-has already enumerated four cities of the name of Ephyra, viz. the Eliac,
-
-the Thesprotic, the Corinthian, and the Thessalian; yet here two others
-
-are presented to our notice, the Sicyonian and the Ætolian, of which
-
-Strabo makes no mention in his account of Ætolia and Sicyonia.
Apollodorus, when he informs us in what manner the
-
-poet usually distinguishes places with the same names, as
-
-Orchomenus for instance, designating that in Arcadia by the
-
-epithet, abounding with sheep;
the Bœotian Orchomenus,
-
-as Minyeius;
by applying to Samos the term Thracian,
-
-and adds,
-
-
-
-at
-
-a distance,
and from the river Selleis.
This does not
-
-agree with what Demetrius of Scepsis says, from whom he
-
-borrows most of his information. For Demetrius does not
-
-say that there is a river Selleis in Thesprotia, but in Elis,
-
-near the Thesprotic Ephyra, as I have said before.
-
What he says also about Œchalia requires examination,
-
-where he asserts that the city of Eurytus of Œchalia is the
-
-only city, when there is more than one city of that name. It
-
-is therefore evident that he means the Thessalian city mentioned by Homer:
-
-
-
-Thamyris
-
-
-
-
for he says,
-
-
-
-
There existed between the mouths of the Peneius and
-
-the Selleis near Scollis, a Pylus, not the city of Nestor, but
-
-another of that name, having nothing in common with that
-
-on the Alpheius, nor even with that on the Pamisus, or, if
-
-we must so call it, the Amathus. Some writers, through their
-
-solicitude for the fame and noble descent of Nestor, give a
-
-forced meaning to these words. Since there are three places
-
-in Peloponnesus of the name of Pylus, (whence the saying
-
-originated,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-namely, this and the Lepreatic Pylus in Triphylia, and a
-
-third, the Messeniac near Coryphasium,
The greater number of other writers, both historians and - -poets, say, that Nestor was a Messenian, assigning as his birthplace the Pylus, which continued to exist to their times. - -Those, however, who adhere to Homer and follow his poem as - -their guide, say, that the Pylus of Nestor is where the territory is traversed by the Alpheius. Now this river passes - -through the Pisatis and Triphylia. The inhabitants of the - -Hollow Elis were emulous of the same honour respecting the - -Pylus in their own country, and point out distinctive marks, - -as a place called Gerenus, and a river Geron, and another - -river Geranius, and endeavour to confirm this opinion by - -pretending that Nestor had the epithet Gerenius from these - -places. -
The Messenians argue in the very same manner, but ap-
-
-
-
-
Such then is the present state of the Hollow Elis.
The poet however, after having divided the country into
-
-four parts, and mentioned the four chiefs, does not clearly
-
-express himself, when he says:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-For, by applying the name Epeii to both people, the Buprasians and the Eleii, and by never applying the name Eleii to
-
-the Buprasians, he may seem to divide, not Eleia, but the
-
-country of the Epeii, into four parts, which he had before
-
-divided into two; nor would Buprasium then be a part of Elis,
-
-but rather of the country of the Epeii. For that he terms
-
-the Buprasians Epeii, is evident from these words:
-
-
-
-those who inhabit Buprasium and the sacred Elis, all whom Hyrminë
-
-and Myrsinus, situated at the extremity of the territory and the Olenian
-
-rock, and Aleisium contain, these were led by four chiefs; ten swift vessels
-
-accompanied each, and multitudes of Epeii were embarked in them.
-
-
-
-Again, by enumerating together As when the Epeii were burying King Amarynces at Buprasium.
Buprasium and sacred
-
-Elis,
and then by making a fourfold division, he seems to
-
-arrange these very four divisions in common under both Buprasium and Elis.
-
Buprasium, it is probable, was a considerable settlement in - -Eleia, which does not exist at present. But the territory only - -has this name, which lies on the road to Dyme from Elis the - -present city. It might be supposed that Buprasium had at - -that time some superiority over Elis, as the Epeii had over - -the Eleii, but afterwards they had the name of Eleii instead - -of Epeii. -
Buprasium then was a part of Elis, and they say, that
-
-Homer, by a poetical figure, speaks of the whole and of the
-
-part together, as in these lines:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-for Dulichium is one of the Echinades. Modern writers also
-
-use this figure, as Hipponax,
-
-
-
-through Greece and the middle of Argos;
through Greece and
-
-Pthia;
the Curetes and the Ætoli were fighting
those from
-
-Dulichium and the sacred Echinades;
-
-
-
-for the Amathusii are Cyprians: and Alcman;
-
-
-
-they eat the bread of the Cyprians and the wheat of the Amathusii;
-
-
-
-and Æschylus;
-
-
-
-leaving the beloved Cyprus, and Paphos, washed on all sides by the sea:
-
-
-
If Homer has not called the Buprasii by the name of Eleii,
-
-we shall reply, nor has he mentioned many other places and
-
-things which exist. For this is not a proof that they did not
-
-exist, but only that he has not mentioned them.
-
-
But Hecatæus of Miletus says, that the Epeii are a - -different people from the Eleii; that the Epeii accompanied - -Hercules in his expedition against Augeas, and joined him in - -destroying Elis, and defeating Augeas. He also says, that - -Dyme was both an Epeian and an Achæan city. -
The ancient historians, accustomed from childhood to - -falsehood through the tales of mythologists, speak of many - -things that never existed. Hence they do not even agree - -with one another, in their accounts of the same things. - -Not that it is improbable that the Epeii, although a different people and at variance with the Eleii, when they - -had gained the ascendency, united together, forming a com- - -mon state, and their power extended even as far as Dyme. - -The poet does not mention Dyme, but it is not improbable - -that at that time it was subject to the Epeii, and afterwards - -to the ones, or perhaps not even to this people, but to the - -Achsæi, who were in possession of the country of the Iones. -
Of the four portions, which include Buprasium, Hyrminē
-
-and Myrsinus belong to the territory of Eleia. The rest,
-
-according to the opinion of some writers, are situated close
-
-on the borders of the Pisatis.
-
-
Hyrminë was a small town, which exists no longer, - -but there is a mountainous promontory near Cyllene, called - -Hormina or Hyrmina. -
Myrsinus is the present Myrtuntium, a settlement extending to the sea, and situated on the road from Dyme to Elis, at - -the distance of 70 stadia from the city of the Eleii. -
It is conjectured that the Olenian rock is the present Scollis.
-
-For we might mention probable conjectures, since both places
-
-and names have undergone changes, and the poet himself
-
-does not explain his meaning clearly in many passages.
-
-
-
-
Aleisium is the present Alesiæum, a place near Amphidolis,
-
-where the neighbouring people hold a market every month.
-
-It is situated upon the mountain road leading from Elis to
-
-Olympia. Formerly, it was a city of the Pisatis, the boundaries of the country being different at different times on account of the change of masters. The poet also calls Aleisium,
-
-the hill of Aleisius, when he says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-for we must understand the words by the figure hyperbaton.
-
-Some also point out a river Aleisius.
-
-Till we brought our horses to Buprasium rich in grain, and to the
-
-Olenian rock, and to the place which is called the hill of Aleisium,
Since a tribe of Caucones is mentioned in Triphylia - -near Messenia, and as Dyme is called by some writers - -Cauconis, and since between Dyme and Tritæa in the Dymæan - -district there is also a river called Caucon, a question arises - -respecting the Caucones, whether there are two nations of this - -name, one situate about Triphylia, and another about Dyme, - -Elis, and Caucon. This river empties itself into another - -which is called Teutheas, in the masculine gender, and is the - -name of a small town that was one of those that composed - -Dyme; except that the town is of the feminine gender, and is - -pronounced Teuthea, without the s, and the last syllable is long. -
There is a temple of Diana Nemydia (Nemeæma?). The
-
-Teutheas discharges itself into the Achelous, which runs by
-
-Dyme, and has the same name as that in Acarnania, and the
-
-name also of Peirus. In the lines of Hesiod,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-some change the last word
-
-
-
-At sun-rise I go to the magnanimous Caucones, where a debt neither of
-
-a late date nor of small amount is owing to me.
-
-
-
-This will appear more clearly, when we describe the Pisatis,
-
-and after it Triphylia as far as the confines of Messenia.
-
-
Next to the Chelonatas is the long tract of coast of the
-
-Pisatæ; then follows a promontory, Pheia; there was also a
-
-small town of this name;
-
-
-
-
Some writers say, that Pheia is the commencement of the
-
-Pisatis. In front of Pheia is a small island and a harbour;
-
-thence to Olympia by sea, which is the shortest way, is
-
-120 stadia. Then immediately follows another promontory,
-
-[Icthys,] projecting very far towards the west, like the
-
-Chelonatas; from this promontory to Cephallenia are 120
-
-stadia. Next the Alpheius discharges itself, at the distance
-
-from the Chelonatas of 280, and from the Araxus of 545,
-
-stadia. It flows from the same places as the Eurotas. There
-
-is a village of the name of Asea in the Megalopolitis, where
-
-the two sources, whence the above-mentioned rivers issue, are
-
-near to one another. After running under the earth the distance of many stadia, they then rise to the surface, when one
-
-takes its course to Laconia, the other to the Pisatis. The
-
-Eurotas reappears at the commencement of the district Bleminates, flowing close beside Sparta, and passing through a
-
-long valley near Helos, which the poet mentions, empties itself
-
-between Gythium, the naval arsenal of Sparta, and Acræa.
-
-But the Alpheius, after receiving the Celadon, (Ladon?) and
-
-Erymanthus, and other obscure streams, pursues its course
-
-through Phrixa, and the Pisatis, and Triphylia, close to Olympia,
-
-
-
-
Next is the mountain, which separates Macistia in - -Triphylia from the Pisatis; then follows another river Chalcis, - -and a spring called Cruni, and Chalcis a village, and next to - -these the Samicum, where is the temple of the Samian Neptune, which is held in the highest honour. There is also a - -grove full of wild olive trees. It was intrusted to the care - -of the Macistii, whose business it was to announce the Samian - -truce as it is called. All the Triphylii contribute to the temple. -
[The temple of the Scilluntian Minerva at Scillus in the
-
-neighbourhood of Olympia, opposite the Phellon, is among
-
-the celebrated temples.]
Near these temples, at the distance of 30 stadia, or a
-
-little more, above the sea-coast, is situated the Triphyliac, or
-
-Lepreatic, Pylus, which the poet calls Emathoeis, or Sandy,
-
-and transmits to us as the native country of Nestor, as may
-
-be collected from his poetry. It had the epithet Emathoeis
-
-either from the river, which flows by the city towards the
-
-north, and was formerly called Amathus, but now Mamaus,
-
-or Arcadicus; or because this river was called Pamisus, the
-
-same name as that of two rivers in Messenia, while with
-
-respect to the city, the epithet Emathoeis, or sandy, is of uncertain origin, since it is not the fact, it is said, that either
-
-the river or the country abounds with sand.
-
-
-
-sandy
from this tract.
-
-
Towards the north there were two small Triphyliac
-
-towns, Hypana and Typaneæ, bordering upon Pylus; the
-
-former of which was incorporated with Elis, the other remained separate. Two rivers flow near, the Dalion and the
-
-Acheron, and empty themselves into the Alpheius. The
-
-Acheron has its name from its relation to Hades. For at that
-
-place were held in extraordinary reverence the temples of
-
-Ceres, Proserpine, and Hades, perhaps on account of the contrariety of the properties of the country, which Demetrius
-
-of Scepsis mentions. For Triphylia is fertile, but the soil is
-
-subject to mildew, and produces rushes,Botanische erklarung
of Strabo does not attempt to explain it.
Towards the south of Pylus is Lepreum. This also
-
-was a city, situated 40 stadia above the sea-coast. Between
-
-the Lepreum and the Annius (Anigrus? Alphæus?) is the
-
-temple of the Samian Neptune. These places are distant 100
-
-stadia from each other. This is the temple in which the poet
-
-says that the Pylii were found by Telemachus engaged in
-
-offering sacrifice:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-For the poet was at liberty to feign things which did not
-
-exist, but when it is possible to adapt poetry to reality, and
-
-
-
-They came to Pylus, the well-built city of Neleus; the people were
-
-sacrificing on the sea-shore bulls, entirely black, to Neptune, the god of
-
-the dark locks, who shakes the earth.
The Lepreatæ possessed a fertile country, on the confines of
-
-which were situated the Cyparissenses. But Caucones were
-
-masters of both these tracts, and even of the Macistus, which
-
-some call Platanistus. The town has the same name as the
-
-territory. It is said, that in the Lepreatis there is even a
-
-monument of a Caucon, who had the name of the nation,
-
-either because he was a chief, or for some other reason.
-
-
There are many accounts respecting the Caucones.
-
-They are said to be an Arcadian tribe, like the Pelasgi, and
-
-also, like them, a wandering people. Thus the poet relates,
-
-that they came as auxiliaries to the Trojans, but from what
-
-country he does not mention, but it is supposed from Paphlagonia. For in that country there is a tribe of the name of
-
-Cauconiatæ, that border upon the Mariandyni, who are themselves Paphlagonians. We shall say more of them when we
-
-describe that country.
At present I must add some remarks concerning the
-
-Caucones in Triphylia. For some writers say, that the
-
-whole of the present Elis, from Messenia to Dyme, was called
-
-Cauconia. Antimachus calls them all Epeii and Caucones.
-
-But some writers say that they did not possess the whole
-
-country, but inhabited it when they were divided into two
-
-bodies, one of which settled in Triphylia towards Messenia,
-
-the other in the Buprasian district towards Dyme, and in
-
-the Hollow Elis. And there, and not in any other place,
-
-Aristotle considered them to be situated. The last opinion
-
-agrees better with the language of Homer, and the preceding
-
-question is resolved. For Nestor is supposed to have lived at
-
-the Triphyliac Pylus, the parts of which towards the south
-
-and the east (and these coincide towards Messenia and Laconia) was the country subject to Nestor, but the Caucones
-
-now occupy it, so that those who are going from Pylus to
-
-Lacedæmon must necessarily take the road through the
-
-Caucones. The temple of the Samian Neptune, and the
-
-naval station near it, where Telemachus landed, incline to the
-
-west and to the north. If then the Caucones lived there only,
-
-the account of the poet must be erroneous.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-to obtain payment of the debt, in a forward direction. How
-
-then are we to reconcile these opinions? for Nestor might
-
-say, The Caucones are my subjects, and lie directly in the
-
-road of persons who are going to Lacedæmon; why then
-
-do you not accompany Telemachus and his friends on his
-
-journey, but take a road in an opposite direction?
Besides,
-
-it was natural for one, who was going to recover payment of
-
-a debt, and that a considerable sum, as she says, from a people
-
-under the command of Nestor, to request some assistance from
-
-him in case they should be so unjust, as usually happens, as to
-
-refuse to discharge it. But she did not do this.
-
If therefore the Caucones are to be found in one situation - -only, these absurdities would follow. But if one division of - -this tribe occupied the places in Elis near Dymë, Minerva - -might be said to direct her journey thither, and even the - -return to the ship would not be absurd, nor the separation - -from the company of Telemachus, when her road was in an - -opposite direction. -
The question respecting Pylus may perhaps be resolved in
-
-a similar manner, when we come, as we proceed, to the description of the Messenian Pylus.
There is also, it is said, a nation, the Paroreatæ, who
-
-occupy, in the hilly district of Triphylia, the mountains,
-
-which extend from about Lepreum and Macistum to the sea
-
-near the Samian grove sacred to Neptune.
-
-
Below these people on the coast are two caves; one, of
-
-the nymphs Anigriades; the other, the scene of the adventures
-
-of the Atlantides,
Samicum is a fortress. Formerly there was a city of the
-
-name of Samos, which perhaps had its designation from its
-
-
-
-
Since then the sluggishness of the Anigrus, and the recoil
-
-of the waters of the sea, produce a state of rest rather than a
-
-current, they say, that its former name was Minyeïus, but
-
-that some persons perverted the name and altered it to
-
-Minteïus. The etymology of the name may be derived from
-
-other sources; either from those who accompanied Chloris,
-
-the mother of Nestor, from the Minyeian Orchomenus; or,
-
-
-
-
Some of these people, with Theras the son of Autesion,
-
-who was a descendant of Polynices, having set sail to the
-
-country between Cyrenæa and the island of Crete, formerly
-
-Calliste, but afterwards called Thera,
according to Callimachus, founded Thera, the capital of Cyrene, and gave the
-
-same name to the city, and to the island.
-
-
Between the Anigrus and the mountain from which - -the Jardanes rises, a meadow and a sepulchre are shown, - -and the Achææ, which are rocks broken off from the same - -mountain, above which was situated, as I have said, the - -city Samos. Samos is not mentioned by any of the authors - -of Peripli, or Circumnavigations; because perhaps it had - -been long since destroyed, and perhaps also on account of its - -position. For the Poseidium is a grove, as I have said, near - -the sea, a lofty eminence rises above it, situated in front of the - -present Samicum, where Samos once stood, so that it cannot - -be seen from the sea. -
Here also is the plain called Samicus, from which we may - -further conjecture that there was once a city Samos. -
According to the poem Rhadinē, of which Stesichorus
-
-seems to have been the author, and which begins in this
-
-manner,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-these youths were natives of this Samos. For he says that
-
-Rhadinē being given in marriage to the tyrant, set sail from
-
-Samos to Corinth with a westerly wind, and therefore certainly not from the Ionian Samos. By the same wind her
-
-brother, who was archi-theorus, arrived at Delphi. Her
-
-cousin, who was in love with her, set out after her in a
-
-chariot to Corinth. The tyrant put both of them to death,
-
-and sent away the bodies in a chariot, but changing his mind,
-
-he recalled the chariot, and buried them.
-
-Come, tuneful Muse, Erato, begin the melodious song, in praise of the
-
-lovely Samian youths, sounding the strings of the delightful lyre:
From this Pylus and the Lepreum to the Messenian
-
-Pylus
-
-
-
-not Celadon, nor Pheia, for this place is nearer the tomb of
-
-Jardanus and the Arcades than the other.
-
-Oh that I were young as when multitudes of Pylii, and of Arcades,
-
-handling the spear, fought together at the swift-flowing Acidon near the
-
-walls of Chaa,
On the Triphylian Sea are situated Cyparissia, and
-
-Pyrgi, and the rivers Acidon and Neda. At present the
-
-boundary of Triphylia towards Messenia is the impetuous
-
-stream of the Neda descending from the Lycæus, a mountain
-
-of Arcadia, and rising from a source which, according to the
-
-fable, burst forth to furnish water in which Rhea was to wash
-
-herself after the birth of Jupiter. It flows near Phigalia, and
-
-empties itself into the sea where the Pyrgitæ, the extreme
-
-tribe of the Triphylii, approach the Cyparissenses, the first of
-
-tile Messenian nation. But, anciently, the country had other
-
-boundaries, so that the dominions of Nestor included some
-
-places on the other side of the Neda, as the Cyparisseïs, and
-
-some others beyond that tract, in the same manner as the poet
-
-extends the Pylian sea as far as the seven cities, which Agamemnon promised to Achilles,
-
-
-
-
Next in order to the Cyparisseis in traversing the
-
-coast towards the Messenian Pylus and the Coryphasium, we
-
-meet with Erana, (Eranna,) which some writers incorrectly
-
-suppose was formerly called Arene, by the same name as the
-
-Pylian city, and the promontory Platamodes, from which to
-
-the Coryphasium, and to the place at present called Pylus, are
-
-
-
-
We ought not perhaps to carry our inquiries so far into antiquity, and it might be sufficient to describe the present state
-
-of each place, if certain reports about them had not been delivered down to us in childhood; but as different writers give
-
-different accounts, it is necessary to examine them. The most
-
-famous and the most ancient writers being the first in point
-
-of personal knowledge of the places, are, in general, persons of
-
-the most credit. Now as Homer surpasses all others in these
-
-respects, we must examine what he says, and compare his
-
-descriptions with the present state of places, as we have just
-
-said. We have already considered his description of the
-
-Hollow Elis and of Buprasium.
-
-
He describes the dominions of Nestor in these words:
-
-
-
-"And they who inhabited Pylus, and the beautiful Arene, and Thryum,
-
-a passage across the Alpheius, and the well-built Æpy, and Cyparisseis,
-
-and Amphigeneia, and Pteleum, and Helos, and Dorium, where the
-
-Muses having met with Thamyris the Thracian, deprived him of the
-
-power of song, as he was coming from Œchalia, from the house of Eurytus
-
-the Œchalian.
-
-
-
-It is Pylus, therefore, to which the question relates, and we
-
-shall soon treat of it. We have already spoken of Arene.
-
-The places, which he here calls Thryum, in another passage
-
-he calls Thryoessa,
-
-
-
-
With respect to
Thryum, or Thryoessa, they say, is Epitalium, because all the
-
-country is the well-built Æpy,
Epitalium, which is naturally strong,
-
-and in the other part of the passage he mentions a lofty hill;
-
-
-
-
Cyparisseïs is near the old Macistia, which then extended even to the other side of the Neda, but it is not inhabited, as neither is Macistum. There is also another, the - -Messenian Cyparissia, not having quite the same name, but - -one like it. The city of Macistia is at present called Cyparissia, in the singular number, and feminine gender, but the - -name of the river is Cyparisseis. -
Amphigeneia, also belonging to Macistia, is near Hypsoeis, - -where is the temple of Latona. -
Pteleum was founded by the colony that came from Pteleum
-
-in Thessaly, for it is mentioned in this line,
-
-
-
-
Some writers say, that Helos was some spot near the
-
-Alpheius; others, that it was a city like that in Laconia,
-
-
-
-
Dorium is said by some authors to be a mountain, by others
-
-a plain, but nothing is now to be seen; yet it is alleged, that
-
-tile present Oluris, or Olura, situated in the Aulon, as it is
-
-called, of Messenia, is Dorium. Somewhere there also is
-
-Œchalia of Eurytus, the present Andania, a small Arcadian
-
-town of the same name as those in Thessaly and Eubœa,
-
-whence the poet says, Thamyris, the Thracian, came to Dorium, and was deprived by the Muses of the power of song.
-
-
Hence it is evident that the country under the command
-
-of Nestor is on each side of the Alpheius, all of which tract
-
-
-
-
It is in this district that we have the native country of
-
-Nestor, which we call the Triphylian, the Arcadian, and the
-
-Lepreatic Pylus. For we know that other places of the name
-
-of Pylus are pointed out, situated upon the sea, but this is
-
-distant more than 30 stadia from it, as appears from the
-
-poem. A messenger is sent to the vessel, to the companions
-
-of Telemachus,—to invite them to a hospitable entertainment.
-
-Telemachus, upon his return from Sparta, does not permit
-
-Peisistratus to go to the city, but diverts him from it, and
-
-prevails upon him to hasten to the ship, whence it appears
-
-that the same road did not lead both to the city and to the
-
-haven. The departure of Telemachus may in this manner
-
-be aptly understood:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-for to this place the direction of the vessel was towards the
-
-north, and thence it turns to the east. The vessel leaves its
-
-first and straight course in the direction of Ithaca, because the
-
-suitors had placed an ambush there,
-
-
-they went past Cruni, and the beautiful streams of Chalcis; the sun
-
-set, and all the villages were in shade and darkness; but the ship, exulting in the gales of Jove, arrived at Pheæ. She passed also the divine
-
-Elis, where the Epeii rule;
"In the strait between Ithaca and Samos, -
And from thence he directed the vessel to the sharp-pointed islands,
If any one therefore should suppose that the Eleian
-
-Pylus is the Pylus of Nestor, the ship would not properly be
-
-said, after setting off thence, to take its course along Cruni
-
-and Chalcis, as far as the west, then to arrive by night at
-
-Pheæ, and afterwards to sail along the territory of Eleia, for
-
-
-
-
Besides, Nestor's account of the war between the
-
-Pylians and Eleians, which he relates to Patroclus, agrees
-
-with our arguments, if any one examines the lines. For he
-
-says there, that Hercules laid waste Pylus, and that all the
-
-youth were exterminated; that out of twelve sons of Neleus,
-
-lie himself alone survived, and was a very young man, and
-
-that the Epeii, despising Neleus on account of his old age
-
-and destitute state, treated the Pylians with haughtiness and
-
-insult. Nestor therefore, in order to avenge this wrong, collected
-
-as large a body of his people as he was able, made an inroad
-
-into Eleia, and carried away a large quantity of booty;
-
-
-
-these,
-
-he says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and adds below,
-
-
-
-and the Olenian rock, where is a tumulus of Alesius, whence again
-
-Minerva repulsed the multitudes;
-
-
-
-
From these verses how can it be supposed that Eleian
-
-or Messenian Pylus is meant. I say the Eleian, because when
-
-this was destroyed by Hercules, the country of the Epeii also
-
-was ravaged at the same time, that is, Eleia. How then could
-
-those, who were of the same tribe, and who had been plundered at that time, show such pride and insult to persons, who
-
-were suffering under the same injuries? How could they
-
-overrun and ravage their own country? How could Augeas
-
-and Neleus be kings of the same people, and yet be mutual
-
-enemies; for to Neleus
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-If Neleus lived there, there Nestor also lived. How then
-
-were there
-
-
-
-a great debt was owing at the divine Elis; four horses, which had won
-
-the prize; they came with their chariots to contend for prizes; they were
-
-about to run in the race for a tripod; and Augeas, king of men, detained
-
-them there, but dismissed the charioteer.
-
-
-
-The country also was divided into four parts, none of which
-
-was subject to Nestor, but those tribes were under his com-
-
-mand,
-
-
-
-four chiefs of Eleians and Buprasians, with ten swift ships accompanying each, and with many Epeii embarked in them?
-
-
-
-and at the places that follow next as far as Messene
-
-
-
-
Since, however, Messenia was entirely under the dominion
-
-of Menelaus, to whom Laconia also was subject, as will be
-
-evident from what will be said hereafter, and since the rivers,
-
-the Pamisus and the Nedon, flow through this country, and
-
-not the Alpheius at all, which runs in a straight line through
-
-the country of the Pylians, of which Nestor was ruler, can
-
-that account be credible, by which it appears that one man
-
-takes possession by force of the dominion of another, and
-
-deprives him of the cities, which are said to be his property
-
-in the Catalogue of the Ships, and makes others subject to
-
-the usurper.
-
-
It remains that we speak of Olympia, and of the - -manner in which everything fell into the power of the Eleii. -
The temple is in the district Pisatis, at the distance of less
-
-than 300 stadia from Elis. In front of it is a grove of wild
-
-olive trees, where is the stadium. The Alpheius flows beside
-
-it, taking its course out of Arcadia to the Triphylian Sea
-
-between the west and the south. The fame of the temple
-
-was originally owing to the oracle of the Olympian Jove;
-
-yet after that had ceased, the renown of the temple continued, and increased, as we know, to a high degree of celebrity, both on account of the assembly of the people of Greece,
-
-
-
-
There are exhibited also many and admirable pictures
-
-around the temple, the work of this painter. It is recorded
-
-of Phidias, that to Panænus, who was inquiring after what
-
-model he intended to form the figure of Jupiter, he replied,
-
-that it would be from that of Homer delineated in these words;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-[This is well expressed, and the poet, as from other circumstances, so particularly from the brows, suggests the thought
-
-that he is depicting some grand conception, and great power
-
-worthy of Jupiter. So also in his description of Juno, in
-
-both he preserves the peculiar decorum of each character, for
-
-he says,
-
-
-
-He spoke, and gave the nod with his sable brows, the ambrosial hair
-
-shook on the immortal head of the king of gods, and vast Olympus
-
-trembled.
After the twenty-sixth Olympiad, the Pisatæ, having recovered their territory, instituted games themselves, when
-
-they perceived that these games were obtaining celebrity. But
-
-in after-times, when the territory of the Pisatis reverted to the
-
-Eleii, the presidency and celebration of the games reverted
-
-to them also. The Lacedæmonians too, after the last defeat of
-
-the Messenians, co-operated with the Eleii as allies, contrary
-
-to the conduct of the descendants of Nestor and of the Arcadians, who were allies of the Messenians. And they assisted
-
-them so effectually that all the country as far as Messene was
-
-called Eleia, and the name continues even to the present time.
-
-But of the Pisatæ, and Triphylii, and Caucones, not even the
-
-names remain. They united also Pylus Emathoeis itself with
-
-Lepreum in order to gratify the Lepreatæ, who had taken no
-
-part in the war. They razed many other towns, and imposed
-
-a tribute upon as many as were inclined to maintain their independence.
-
-
The Pisatis obtained the highest celebrity from the - -great power of its sovereigns, Œnomaus and his successor - -Pelops, and the number of their children. Salmoneus is said - -to have reigned there, and one of the eight cities, into which - -the Pisatis is divided, has the name of Salmone. For these - -reasons, and on account of the temple at Olympia, the fame - -of the country spread everywhere. -
We must however receive ancient histories, as not entirely
-
-agreeing with one another, for modern writers, entertaining
-
-different opinions, are accustomed to contradict them frequently; as for example, according to some writers, Augeas
-
-was king of the Pisatis, and Œnomaus and Salmoneus kings
-
-of Eleia, while others consider the two nations as one. Still
-
-we ought to follow in general what is received as true, since
-
-writers are not agreed even upon the derivation of the word
-
-Pisatis. Some derive it from Pisa, (potable.
The city of Pisa is shown, situated
-
-on an eminence between two mountains, which have the same
-
-names as those in Thessaly, Ossa and Olympus. Some say,
-
-that there was no such city as Pisa, for it would have been
-
-one of the eight, but a fountain only, which is now called
-
-Bisa, near Cicysium, the largest of the eight cities. But
-
-Stesichorus calls the tract of country named Pisa, a city, as
-
-the poet calls Lesbos, a city of Macar; and Euripides in the
-
-play of Ion says
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and so in the play of Rhadamanthus,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-thus Sophocles also in the play of the Mysi,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Salmonē is near the fountain of the same name, the
-
-source of the Enipeus. It discharges itself into the Alpheius,
-
-[and at present it is called Barnichius.
Near Olympia is Arpina, which also is one of the eight
-
-cities. The river Parthenius runs through it in the direction
-
-of the road to Pheræa. Pheræa belongs to Arcadia. [It is
-
-situated above Dymæa, Buprasium, and Elis, which lie to the
-
-north of the Pisatis.
Above and so very near Olympia, is Pholoe, an Arcadian
-
-mountain, that the country at its foot belongs to the Pisatis.
-
-Indeed the whole of the Pisatis and a great part of Triphylia
-
-border upon Arcadia. For this reason, most of the places, which
-
-have the name of Pylian in the Catalogue of the Ships, seem to
-
-be Arcadian. Persons, however, who are well informed, say,
-
-that the river Erymanthus, one of those that empty themselves into the Alpheius, is the boundary of Arcadia, and that
-
-the places called Pylian are beyond the Erymanthus.
-
-
According to Ephorus, "Ætolus, being banished by
-
-Salmoneus, king of the Epeii, and the Pisatæ, from Eleia to
-
-Ætolia, called the country after his own name, and settled
-
-the cities there. His descendant Oxylus was the friend of
-
-Temenus, and the Heracleidæ his companions, and was their
-
-guide on their journey to Peloponnesus; he divided among
-
-them the hostile territory, and suggested instructions relative
-
-to the acquisition of the country. In return for these services
-
-he was to be requited by the restoration of Elis, which had belonged to his ancestors. He returned with an army collected
-
-out of Ætolia, for the purpose of attacking the Epeii, who
-
-occupied Elis. On the approach of the Epeii in arms, when the
-
-forces were drawn up in array against each other, there advanced in front, and engaged in single combat according to an
-
-ancient custom of the Greeks, Pyrechmes, an Ætolian, and
-
-Degmenus, an Epeian: the latter was lightly armed with a
-
-bow, and thought to vanquish easily from a distance a heavy-
-
-armed soldier; the former, when he perceived the stratagem
-
-of his adversary, provided himself with a sling, and a scrip
-
-filled with stones. The kind of sling also happened to have
-
-been lately invented by the Ætolians. As a sling reaches its
-
-object at a greater distance than a bow, Degmenus fell; the
-
-Ætolians took possession of the country, and ejected the Epeii.
-
-They assumed also the superintendence of the temple at
-
-Olympia, which the Epeii exercised; and on account of the
-
-friendship which subsisted between Oxylus and the Heracleidæ,
-
-it was generally agreed upon, and confirmed by an oath, that
-
-the Eleian territory was sacred to Jupiter, and that any one
-
-who invaded that country with an army, was a sacrilegious
-
-person: he also was to be accounted sacrilegious, who did not
-
-
-
-
Pheidon the Argive was the tenth in descent from Temenus,
-
-and the most powerful prince of his age; he was the inventor of
-
-the weights and measures called Pheidonian, and stamped
-
-money, silver in particular. He recovered the whole inheritance of Temenus, which had been severed into many portions.
-
-He attacked also the cities which Hercules had formerly taken,
-
-and claimed the privilege of celebrating the games which
-
-Hercules had established, and among these the Olympian
-
-games. He entered their country by force and celebrated the
-
-games, for the Eleians had no army to prevent it, as they were
-
-in a state of peace, and the rest were oppressed by his power.
-
-The Eleians however did not solemnly inscribe in their records
-
-this celebration of the games, but on this occasion procured
-
-arms, and began to defend themselves. The Lacedæmonians
-
-also afforded assistance, either because they were jealous of the
-
-prosperity, which was the effect of the peaceful state of the
-
-Eleians, or because they supposed that they should have the
-
-aid of the Eleians in destroying the power of Pheidon, who
-
-had deprived them of the sovereignty (
The whole of the coasting voyage along the present Eleian
-
-territory comprises, with the exception of the bays,
So much then respecting the Eleian territory.
-
-
-
-
MESSENIA is continuous with the Eleian territory, incline.
-
-ing for the most part towards the south, and the Libyan Sea.
-
-Being part of Laconia, it was subject in the Trojan times to
-
-Menelaus. The name of the country was Messene. But the
-
-present city called Messene, the acropolis of which was Ithome,
-
-was not then founded. After the death of Menelaus, when
-
-the power of those who succeeded to the possession of Laconia was altogether weakened, the Neleidæ governed Messenia.
-
-At the time of the return of the Heracleidæ, and according
-
-to the partition of the country at that time, Melanthus was
-
-king of the Messenians, who were a separate community, but
-
-formerly subject to Menelaus. As a proof of this, in the
-
-space from the Messenian Gulf and the continuous gulf, (called
-
-the Asinæan from the Messenian Asine,) were situated the
-
-seven cities which Agamemnon promised to Achilles;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-He certainly would not have promised what did not belong
-
-either to himself or to his brother. The poet mentions those,
-
-who accompanied Menelaus from Pheræ to the war,Cardamyle, Enope, the grassy Hira, the divine Pheræ,
Messene follows next to Triphylia. The promontory, after
-
-which are the Coryphasium and Cyparissia, is common to
-
-both. At the distance of 7 stadia is a mountain, the Ægaleum, situated above Coryphasium and the sea.
-
-
The ancient Messenian Pylus was a city lying below
-
-the Ægaleum, and after it was razed, some of the inhabitants settled under the Coryphasium. But the Athenians
-
-in their second expedition against Sicily, under the command
-
-of Eurymedon and Stratocles, got possession of it, and used
-
-it as a stronghold against the Lacedæmonians.
Two islands, called Strophades,
Next is Methone.
Continuous with Methone is Acritas,
This is the commencement of the gulf towards the west.
-
-Towards the east are the Thyrides,
In the intervening distance, if we begin from the Thyrides,
-
-we meet with Œtylus,
With respect to the seven cities promised to Achilles, we
-
-have already spoken of Cardamyle, and Pheræ, and Pedasus.
-
-Enope, some say is Pellana; others, some place near Cardamyle; others, Gerenia.with its rich pastures,
is most appropriate. Near it on the sea
-
-is Corone. There are some writers who say that this town is
-
-called Pedasus by the poet. These cities are all near the
-
-sea;
Cardamyle close to it; Pheræ at the distance of 5
-
-stadia, having an anchorage, which is used in the summer.
-
-The rest are situated at unequal distances from the sea.
-
-
Near Corone, about the middle of the gulf, the river
-
-Pamisus
I have before said that some persons called the Pamisus,
-
-Amathus.
Ephorus relates that Cresphontes, after he had taken Messene, divided it into five cities, and chose Stenyclarus, situated
-
-in the middle of this district, to be the royal seat of his kingdom. To the other cities, Pylus, Rhium, (Mesola,) and
-
-Hyameitis, he appointed kings, and put all the Messenians on
-
-an equal footing with the Dorians as to rights and privileges.
-
-The Dorians, however, taking offence, he changed his intention, and determined that Stenyclarus alone should have the
-
-rank of a city, and here he assembled all the Dorians.
-
-
The city of the Messeniansfor,
said he, when you have
-
-seized both horns, the cow will be your own;
meaning, by
-
-the horns, Ithome and Acrocorinthus, and, by the cow, Peloponnesus. It was no doubt their convenient situation which
-
-made these cities subjects of contention. The Romans therefore razed Corinth, and again rebuilt it. The Lacedæmonians
-
-
-
-
The temple of Diana in Limnæ (in the Marshes), where
-
-the Messenians are supposed to have violated the virgins who
-
-came there to offer sacrifice, is on the confines of Laconia and
-
-Messenia, where the inhabitants of both countries usually celebrated a common festival, and performed sacrifices; but after
-
-the violation of the virgins, the Messenians did not make any
-
-reparation, and war, it is said, ensued. The Limnæan temple of
-
-Diana at Sparta is said to have its name from the Limnæ here.
-
-
There were frequent wars (between the Lacedæmonians
-
-and Messenians) on account of the revolts of the Messenians.
-
-Tyrtæus mentions, in his poems, that their first subjugation
-
-was in the time of their grandfathers;
-
-
-
-Wherefore we must either invalidate the authority of the
-
-elegiac verses, or we must disbelieve Philochorus, and Callisthenes, and many other writers, who say that he came from
-
-Athens, or Aphidnæ, at the request of the Lacedæmonians,
-
-whom an oracle had enjoined to receive a commander from
-
-the Athenians.
-for Jupiter himself, the son of Saturn, and husband of Juno with the
-
-beautiful crown, gave this city to the Heracleidæ, with whom we left the
-
-windy Erineum, and arrived at the spacious island of Pelops.
The second war then occurred in the time of Tyrtæus.
-
-But they mention a third, and even a fourth war, in which the
-
-Messenians were destroyed.
I have exceeded the limits of moderation in this description, by attending to the multitude of facts which are related of a country, the greatest part of which is deserted. - -Even Laconia itself is deficient in population, if we compare - -its present state with its ancient populousness. For, with the - -exception of Sparta, the remaining small cities are about - -thirty; but, anciently, Laconia had the name of Hecatompolis, - -and that for this reason hecatombs were annually sacrificed. - - -
NEXT after the Messenian is the Laconian Gulf, situated - -between Tænarum and Maleæ, declining a little from the - -south to the east. Thyrides, a precipitous rock, beaten by - -the waves, is in the Messenian Gulf, and distant from Tænarum 100 stadia. Above is Taÿgetum, a lofty and perpendicular mountain, at a short distance from the sea, approaching - -on the northern side close to the Arcadian mountains, so as to - -leave between them a valley, where Messenia is continuous - -with Laconia. -
At the foot of Taÿgetum, in the inland parts, lie Sparta
-
-and Amyclæ,
In the bay on the coast is Tænarum, a promontory projecting into the sea.
Next to Tænarum on the voyage to Onugnathus and to
-
-Maleæ
Among the places enumerated by Homer in the Catalogue of the Ships, Messa, they say, is no longer to be found;
-
-and that Messoa is not a part of Laconia, but a part of Sparta
-
-itself, as was the Limnæum near Thornax. Some understand
-
-
-
-cri,
and do,
and maps,
Of the rest of the places mentioned by the poet, some are
-
-extinct; of others traces remain, and of others the names are
-
-changed, as Augeiæ into Ægææ: [the city] of that name in
-
-Locris exists no longer. With respect to Las, the Dioscuri
-
-are said to have taken it by siege formerly, whence they had
-
-the name of Lapersæ, (Destroyers of Las,) and Sophocles says
-
-somewhere, by the two Lapersæ, by Eurotas, by the gods
-
-in Argos and Sparta.
-
-
Ephorus says that the Heracleidæ, Eurysthenes and
-
-Procles, having obtained possession of Laconia, divided it into
-
-six parts, and founded cities throughout the country, and assigned Amyclæ to him who betrayed to them Laconia, and
-
-who prevailed upon the person that occupied it to retire, on
-
-certain conditions, with the Achæi, into Ionia. Sparta they retained themselves as the royal seat of the kingdom. To the
-
-other cities they sent kings, permitting them to receive whatever strangers might be disposed to settle there, on account of
-
-the scarcity of inhabitants. Las was used as a naval station,
-
-because it had a convenient harbour; Ægys, as a stronghold,
-
-from whence to attack surrounding enemies; Pheræa, as a
-
-place to deposit treasure, because it afforded security from
With respect to the government of the Lacones, and the
-
-changes which have taken place among them, many things,
-
-as being well known, may be passed over, but some it may be
-
-worth while to relate. It is said that the Achæan Phthiotæ,
-
-who, with Pelops, made an irruption into Peloponnesus, settled
-
-in Laconia, and were so much distinguished for their valour,
-
-that Peloponnesus, which for a long period up to this time
-
-had the name of Argos, was then called Achæan Argos; and
-
-not Peloponnesus alone had this name, but Laconia also was
-
-thus peculiarly designated. Some even understand the words
-
-of the poet,
-
-
-
-
Those who were in possession of Laconia, at first conducted
-
-themselves with moderation, but after they had intrusted to
-
-Lycurgus the formation of a political constitution, they acquired such a superiority over the other Greeks, that they
-
-alone obtained the sovereignty both by sea and land, and continued to be the chiefs of the Greeks, till the Thebans, and
-
-soon afterwards the Macedonians, deprived them of this ascendency.
-
-
-
-
They did not however entirely submit even to these, but,
-
-preserving their independence, were continually disputing the
-
-sovereignty both with the other Greeks and with the Macedonian kings. After the overthrow of the latter by the
-
-Romans, the Lacones living under a bad government at that
-
-time, and under the power of tyrants, had given some slight
-
-offence to the generals whom the Romans sent into the province. They however recovered themselves, and were held
-
-in very great honour. They remained free, and performed no
-
-other services but those expected from allies. Lately however Eurycles
Hellanicus says that Eurysthenes and Procles regulated the
-
-form of government, but Ephorus reproaches him with not
-
-mentioning Lycurgus at all, and with ascribing the acts of the
-
-latter to persons who had no concern in them; to Lycurgus
-
-only is a temple erected, and sacrifices are annually performed
-
-in his honour, but to Eurysthenes and Procles, although they
-
-were the founders of Sparta, yet not even these honours were
-
-paid to them, that their descendants should bear the respective
-
-appellations of Eurysthenidæ and Procleidæ.
-
-
-
-Messenia he describes in this manner:
-
-
-
-Laconia has much land capable of tillage, but difficult to be worked,
-
-for it is hollow, surrounded by mountains, rugged, and difficult of access
-
-to an enemy.
-
-
-
-and a little farther on, speaking of the division of the country
-
-by the Heracleidæ according to lot, the first was
-
-
-
-It bears excellent fruit; is watered by innumerable streams; it affords
-
-the finest pasture to herds and flocks; it is not subject to the blasts of
-
-winter, nor too much heated by the coursers of the sun;
-
-
-
-the second was Messene,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and Tyrtæus speaks of it in the same manner.
-
But we cannot admit that Laconia and Messenia are
-
-bounded, as Euripides says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-this river flows through the middle of Messenia, and does not
-
-touch any part of the present Laconia. Nor is he right, when
-
-he says that Mess nia is inaccessible to sailors, whereas it
-
-borders upon the sea, in the same manner as Laconia.
-
Nor does he give the right boundaries of Elis;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and he adduces a proof unnecessarily. For if he means the
-
-present Eleian territory, which is on the confines of Messenia,
-
-this the Pamisus does not touch, any more than it touches Laconia, for, as has been said before, it flows through the middle
-
-of Messenia: or, if he meant the ancient Eleia, called the Hollow, this is a still greater deviation from the truth. For after
-
-crossing the Pamisus, there is a large tract of the Messenian
-
-country, then the whole district of [the Lepreatæ], and of the
-
-[Macistii], which is called Triphylia; then the Pisatis, and
-
-Olympia; then at the distance of 300 stadia is Elis.
-
-
As some persons write the epithet applied by Homer to
-
-Lacedæmon, large,
which is most probable. Some
-
-understand abounding with calaminthus;
others suppose, as the fissures occasioned by earthquakes are called Cæeti, that this is the origin of the epithet.
-
-Hence Cæietas also, the name of the prison among the Lacedæmonians, which is a sort of cave. Some however say, that
-
-such kind of hollows are rather called Coi, whence the expression of Homer,
Laconia contains also quarries of valuable marble. Those
-
-of the Tænarian marble in Tænarum
It appears from Homer, that both the country and the
-
-city had the name of Lacedæmon; I mean the country together with Messenia. When he speaks of the bow and
-
-quiver of Ulysses, he says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-He means the country which was a part of Messenia.A stranger, whom he
-
-met at Lacedæmon, gave him,
or, they met at Messene;
-
-for it is evident that Pheræ was the home of Ortilochus:
-
-
-
-The sun was setting; they came to the hollow Lacedæmon (
AFTER Malæ follow the Argolic and Hermionic Gulfs;
-
-the former extends as far as Scyllæum,
To the Argives belong Prasiæ,
Next to Temenium is Nauplia, the naval station of the
-
-Argives. Its name is derived from its being accessible to
-
-ships. Here they say the fiction of the moderns originated
-
-respecting Nauplius and his sons, for Homer would not have
-
-omitted to mention them, if Palamedes displayed so much
-
-wisdom and intelligence, and was unjustly put to death; and
-
-if Nauplius had destroyed so many people at Caphareus.
Next to Nauplia are caves, and labyrinths constructed in
-
-them, which caves they call Cyclopeia.
-
-
-
-
Then follows the Saronic Gulf; some call it a Pontus or - -sea, others a Porus or passage, whence it is also termed the - -Saronic pelagos or deep. The whole of the passage, or Porus, - -extending from the Hermionic Sea, and the sea about the - -Isthmus (of Corinth) to the Myrtoan and Cretan Seas, has this - -name. -
To the Saronic Gulf belong Epidaurus,
At Schœnus is the Diolcus, or place where they draw the
-
-vessels across the Isthmus: it is the narrowest part of it.
-
-Near Schœnus is the temple of the Isthmian Neptune. At
-
-present, however, I shall not proceed with the description of
-
-these places, for they are not situated within the Argive territory, but resume the account of those which it contains.
-
-
And first, we may observe how frequently Argos is
-
-mentioned by the poet, both by itself and with the epithet designating it as Achæan Argos, Argos Jasum, Argos Hippium,
-
-or Hippoboton, or Pelasgicum. The city, too, is called Argos,
-
-
-
-
He calls also the Peloponnesus, Argos Jasum;
-
-
-
-pasturing horses,
and abounding with horses.
-
-
There is a controversy about the names Hellas and Hellenes. Thucydides
-
-
-
But others oppose to this, that Homer does mention Barbarians, when he says of the Carians, that they spoke a barbarous language, and that all the Hellenes were comprised in
-
-the term Hellas;
-
-
-
-
The greater part of the city of the Argives is situated in
-
-a plain. It has a citadel called Larisa, a hill moderately fortified, and upon it a temple of Jupiter. Near it flows the Inachus, a torrent river; its source is in Lyrceium [the Arcadian
-
-mountain near Cynuria]. We have said before that the
-
-fabulous stories about its sources are the inventions of poets;
-
-it is a fiction also that Argos is without water—
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Now the ground consists of hollows, it is intersected by rivers,
-
-and is full of marshes and lakes; the city also has a copious
-
-supply of water from many wells, which rises near the surface.
-
They attribute the mistake to this verse,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-or without the at present he is making the attempt, and he will soon-destroy (
Besides, he does not mean the city Argos, for it was not - -thither that he was about to return, but he meant Peloponnesus, which, certainly, is not a thirsty land. -
With respect to the letter
-
-
-
-that is,
The Inachus
Another river of the same name flows out of Arcadia to - -the coast near Buras. There is another Erasinus also in - -Eretria, and one in Attica near Brauron. -
Near Lerna a fountain is shown, called Amymone. The
-
-lake Lerna, the haunt of the Hydra, according to the fable,
-
-belongs to the Argive and Messenian districts. The expiatory purifications performed at this place by persons guilty
-
-of crimes gave rise to the proverb, A Lerna of evils.
-
It is allowed that, although the city itself lies in a spot where
-
-there are no running streams of water, there is an abundance
-
-of wells, which are attributed to the Danaides as their inven-
-
-tion; hence the line,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Four of the wells are esteemed sacred, and held in peculiar
-
-veneration. Hence they occasioned a want of water, while
-
-they supplied it abundantly.
-
-
Danaus is said to have built the citadel of the Argives.
-
-He seems to have possessed so much more power than the
-
-former rulers of the country, that, according to Euripides,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-His tomb, called Palinthus, is in the middle of the marketplace of the Argives. I suppose that the celebrity of this city
-
-was the reason of all the Greeks having the name of Pelasgiotæ, and Danai, as well as Argives.
-he made a law that those who were formerly called Pelasgiotæ, should
-
-be called Danai throughout Greece.
Modern writers speak of Iasidæ, and Argos Iasum, and
-
-Apia, and Apidones. Homer does not mention Apidones, and
-
-uses the word apia only to express distance. That he means
-
-Peloponnesus by Argos we may conclude from these lines,
-
-
-
-
After the descendants of Danaus had succeeded to the - -sovereignty at Argos, and the Amythaonidæ, who came from - -Pisatis and Triphylia, were intermixed with them by marriages, it is not surprising that, being allied to one another, - -they at first divided the country into two kingdoms, in such a - -manner that the two cities, the intended capitals, Argos and - -Mycenæ, were not distant from each other more than 50 stadia, - -and that the Heræum at Mycenæ should be a temple common - -to both. In this temple were the statues the workmanship of - -Polycletus. In display of art they surpassed all others, but - -in magnitude and cost they were inferior to those of Pheidias. -
At first Argos was the most powerful of the two cities. Afterwards Mycenæ received a great increase of inhabitants in
-
-consequence of the migration thither of the Pelopidæ. For when
-
-everything had fallen under the power of the sons of Atreus,
-
-Agamemnon, the elder, assumed the sovereign authority, and
-
-by good fortune and valour annexed to his possessions a large
-
-tract of country. He also added the Laconian to the Mycenæan
-
-district.
After the Trojan war, when the dominion of Agamemnon was
-
-at an end, the declension of Mycenæ ensued, and particularly
-
-after the return of the Heracleidæ.
-
-
-
-Among these we have already spoken of Argos; we must now
-
-speak of the rest.
-
-They who occupied Argos, and Tiryns, with strong walls, and Hermione,
-
-and Asine situated on a deep bay, and Eïones, and Epidaurus with its
-
-vines, and the valiant Achæan youths who occupied Ægina, and Mases.
Prœtus seems to have used Tiryns as a stronghold,
-
-and to have fortified it by means of the Cyclopes. There
-
-were seven of them, and were called Gasterocheires,
Prosylmna borders upon Midéa; it has also a temple of
-
-Juno. The Argives have depopulated most of these for their
-
-refusal to submit to their authority. Of the inhabitants some
-
-went from Tiryns to Epidaurus; others from Hermione to the
-
-Ialieis (the Fishermen), as they are called; others were transferred by the Lacedæmonians to Messenia from Asine, (which
-
-is itself a village in the Argive territory near Nauplia,) and
-
-they built a small city of the same name as the Argolic Asine.
-
-For the Lacedæmonians, according to Theopompus, got possession of a large tract of country belonging to other nations,
-
-and settled there whatever fugitives they had received, who
-
-had taken refuge among them; and it was to this country the
-
-Nauplians had retreated.
-
-
Hermione is one of the cities, not undistinguished.
-
-The coast is occupied by Halieis, as they are called, a tribe
-
-who subsist by being employed on the sea in fishing. There
-
-is a general opinion among the Hermionenses that there is a
-
-short descent from their country to Hades, and hence they do
-
-not place in the mouths of the dead the fare for crossing the
-
-Styx.
-
-
-
-
It is said that Asine as well as Hermione was inhabited - -by Dryopes; either Dryops the Arcadian having transferred - -them thither from the places near the Spercheius, according - -to Aristotle; or, Hercules expelled them from Doris near - -Parnassus. -
Scyllæum near Hermione has its name, it is said, from - -Scylla, daughter of Nisus. According to report, she was - -enamoured of Minos, and betrayed to him Nisæa. She was - -drowned by order of' her father, and her body was thrown - -upon the shore, and buried here. -
Eïones was a kind of village which the Mycenæi depopulated, and converted into a station for vessels. It was afterwards destroyed, and is no longer a naval station.
-
-
Trœzen is sacred to Neptune,Go to Trœzen,
-
-
-
There was a sort of Amphictyonic body to whom the concerns of this temple belonged, consisting of seven cities, which
-
-performed sacrifices in common. These were Hermon, Epidaurus, Ægina, Athenæ, Prasiæ, Nauplia, and Orchomenus
-
-Minyeius. The Argives contributed in behalf of Nauplia, and
-
-the Lacedæmonians in behalf of Prasiæ. The veneration
-
-for this god prevailed so strongly among the Greeks, that
-
-the Macedonians, even when masters of the country, nevertheless preserved even to the present time the privilege of
-
-the asylum, and were restrained by shame from dragging
-
-away the suppliants who took refuge at Calauria. Archias
-
-even, with a body of soldiers, did not dare to use force to De-
-
-
-
-
Troezen and Pittheus, the sons of Pelops, having set out
-
-from Pisatis to Argos, the former left behind him a city of his
-
-own name; Pittheus succeeded him, and became king. Anthes, who occupied the territory before, set sail, and founded
-
-Halicarnassus. We shall speak of him in our account of
-
-Caria and the Troad.
-
-
Epidaurus was called Epitaurus [Epicarus?]. Aristotle says, that Carians occupied both this place and Hermione, - -but upon the return of the Heracleidæ those Ionians, who had - -accompanied them from the Athenian Tetrapolis to Argos, - -settled there together with the Carians. -
Epidaurus
Between Trœzen and Epidaurus, there was a fortress Methana,they might never cease to build walls,
-
-
-
-
Ægina is a place in the territory of Epidaurus. There
-
-is in front of this continent, an island, of which the poet means
-
-to speak in the lines before cited. Wherefore some write,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-instead of
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-making a distinction between the places of the same name.
-
It is unnecessary to remark, that this island is among the
-
-most celebrated. It was the country of Æacus and his descendants. It was this island which once possessed so much
-
-power at sea, and formerly disputed the superiority with the
-
-Athenians in the sea-fight at Salamis during the Persian war.
Its ancient name was Œnone, which is the name of two of
-
-the demi in Attica, one near Eleuthera;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and another, one of the cities of the Tetrapolis near Marathon,
-
-to which the proverb is applied,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
The Æginetæ sent out colonists to CydoniaÆgina wares.
-
-
The poet frequently speaks of places in succession as
-
-they are situated;
-
-
-
-
Homer does not mention Thyreæ, but other writers speak
-
-of it as well known. It was the occasion of a contest between
-
-the three hundred Argives against the same number of Lacedæmonians; the latter were conquerors by means of a stratagem of Othryadas. Thucydides places Thyreæ in Cynuria,
-
-on the confines of Argia and Laconia.
Hysiæ also is a celebrated place in Argolica; and Cenchreæ,
-
-which lies on the road from Tegea to Argos, over the mountain Parthenius, and the Creopolus.
Anciently, Argos was the most celebrated, but afterwards - -the Lacedæmonians obtained the superiority, and continued to - -maintain their independence, except during some short interval, - -when they experienced a reverse of fortune. -
The Argives did not admit Pyrrhus within the city. He - -fell before the walls, an old woman having let a tile drop from - -a house upon his head. -
They were, however, under the sway of other kings. When
-
-they belonged to the Achæan league they were subjected, together with the other members of that confederacy, to the
-
-power of the Romans. The city subsists at present, and is
-
-second in rank to Sparta.
-
-
We shall next speak of those places which are said, in
-
-the Catalogue of the Ships, to be under the government of
-
-Mycenæ and Agamemnon: the lines are these:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Mycenæ exists no longer. It was founded by Perseus.
-
-Sthenelus succeeded Perseus; and Eurystheus, Sthenelus.
-
-These same persons were kings of Argos also. It is said that
-
-Eurystheus, having engaged, with the assistance of the Athenians, in an expedition to Marathon against the descendants
-
-of Hercules and Iolaus, fell in battle, and that the remainder
-
-of his body was buried at Gargettus, but his head apart from
-
-it at TricorythusEurystheus'-head.
-
Mycenæ then passed into the possession of the Pelopidæ
-
-who had left the Pisatis, then into that of the Heracleidaæ,
-
-
-
-
Cleonæ is a town situated upon the road leading from Argos to Corinth, on an eminence, which is surrounded on all
-
-sides by dwellings, and well fortified, whence, in my opinion,
-
-Cleonæ was properly described as well built.
There also,
-
-between Cleonæ and Phlius, is Nemea, and the grove where
-
-it was the custom of the Argives to celebrate the Nemean
-
-games: here is the scene of the fable of the Nemean Lion,
-
-and here also the village Bembina. Cleonæ is distant from
-
-Argos 120 stadia, and 80 from Corinth. And we have ourselves beheld the city from the Acrocorinthus.
-
-
Corinth is said to be opulent from its mart. It is - -situated upon the isthmus. It commands two harbours, one - -near Asia, the other near Italy, and facilitates, by reason of so - -short a distance between them, an exchange of commodities - -on each side. -
As the Sicilian strait, so formerly these seas were of difficult navigation, and particularly the sea above Maleæ, on account of the prevalence of contrary winds; whence the common proverb,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-It was a desirable thing for the merchants coming from Asia,
-
-and from Italy, to discharge their lading at Corinth without
-
-being obliged to double Cape Maleæ. For goods exported
-
-from Peloponnesus, or imported by land, a toll was paid to
-
-those who had the keys of the country. This continued after-
-
-terwards for ever. In after-times they enjoyed even additional
-
-advantages, for the Isthmian games, which were celebrated
-
-there, brought thither great multitudes of people. The Bacchiadæ, a rich and numerous family, and of illustrious descent,
-
-were their rulers, governed the state for nearly two hundred
-
-years, and peaceably enjoyed the profits of the mart. Their
-
-power was destroyed by Cypselus, who became king himself,
-
-
-
-
Demaratus, one of those who had been tyrant at Corinth, - -flying from the seditions which prevailed there, carried with - -him from his home to Tyrrhenia so much wealth, that he became sovereign of the city which had received him, and his - -son became even king of the Romans. -
The temple of Venus at Corinth was so rich, that it had
-
-more than a thousand women consecrated to the service of the
-
-goddess, courtesans, whom both men and women had dedi-
-
-cated as offerings to the goddess. The city was frequented
-
-and enriched by the multitudes who resorted thither on ac-
-
-count of these women. Masters of ships freely squandered
-
-all their money, and hence the proverb,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-The answer is related of a courtesan to a woman who was
-
-reproaching her with disliking work, and not employing herself in spinning;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Although I am what you see, yet, in this short time, I have already
-
-finished three distaffs.
The position of the city as it is described by Hieronymus, and Eudoxus, and others, and from our own observation, - -since its restoration by the Romans, is as follows. -
That which is called the Acrocorinthus is a lofty mountain,
-
-perpendicular, and about three stadia and a half in height.
-
-There is an ascent of 30 stadia, and it terminates in a sharp
-
-point. The steepest part is towards the north. Below it lies
-
-the city in a plain of the form of a trapezium, at the very foot
-
-of the Acrocorinthus. The compass of the city itself was 40
-
-stadia, and all that part which was not protected by the
-
-mountain was fortified by a wall. Even the mountain itself, the Acrocorinthus, was comprehended within this wall,
-
-wherever it would admit of fortification. As I ascended it,
-
-the ruins of the circuit of the foundation were apparent, which
-
-gave a circumference of about 85 stadia. The other sides of
-
-the mountain are less steep; hence, however, it stretches on-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-the epithet I come from the Acrocorinthus, well-watered on all sides, the sacred
-
-hill and habitation of Venus,
well-watered on all sides,
must be understood to
-
-refer to depth; pure springs and under-ground rills are dispersed through the mountain; or we must suppose, that, anciently, the Peirene overflowed, and irrigated the mountain.
-
-There, it is said, Pegasus was taken by Bellerophon, while
-
-drinking; this was a winged horse, which sprung from the
-
-neck of Medusa when the head of the Gorgon was severed
-
-from the body. This was the horse, it is said, which caused
-
-the Hippocrene, or Horse's Fountain, to spring up in Helicon
-
-by striking the rock with its hoof.
-
Below Peirene is the Sisypheium, which preserves a large
-
-portion of the ruins of a temple, or palace, built of white marble. From the summit towards the north are seen Parnassus
-
-and Helicon, lofty mountains covered with snow; then the
-
-Crissæan Gulf,
Above all these are situated the Oneia
Lechæum is the commencement of the coast on one - -side; and on the other, Cenchreæ, a village with a harbour, - -distant from the city about 70 stadia. The latter serves for - -the trade with Asia, and Lechæum for that with Italy. -
Lechæum is situated below the city, and is not well in-
-
-
-
-
Between Lechæum and Pagæ, anciently, there was the - -oracle of the Acræan Juno, and Olmiæ, the promontory that - -forms the gulf, on which are situated Œnoe, and Page; the - -former is a fortress of the Megarians; and Œnoe is a fortress - -of the Corinthians. -
Next to Cenchreæ
Crommyon
Tenea is a village of the Corinthian territory, where there - -was a temple of Apollo Teneates. It is said that Archias, - -who equipped a colony for Syracuse, was accompanied by a - -great number of settlers from this place; and that this settlement afterwards flourished more than any others, and at length - -had an independent form of government of its own. When - -they revolted from the Corinthians, they attached themselves - -to the Romans, and continued to subsist when Corinth was - -destroyed. -
An answer of an oracle is circulated, which was returned
-
-to an Asiatic, who inquired whether it was better to migrate
-
-to Corinth;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
There seems to be some affinity between the Tenedii and
-
-these people, through Tennus, the son of Cycnus, according
-
-to Aristotle; the similarity, too, of the divine honours paid
-
-by both to Apollo affords no slight proof of this relationship.
The Corinthians, when subject to Philip, espoused his
-
-party very zealously, and individually conducted themselves
-
-so contemptuously towards the Romans, that persons ventured
-
-to throw down filth upon their ambassadors, when passing by
-
-their houses. They were immediately punished for these and
-
-other offences and insults. A large army was sent out under
-
-the commaud of Lucius Mummius, who razed the city.
Polybius relates with regret what occurred at the capture
-
-of the city, and speaks of the indifference the soldiers showed
-
-for works of art, and the sacred offerings of the temples. He
-
-says, that he was present, and saw pictures thrown upon the
-
-ground, and soldiers playing at dice upon them. Among
-
-others, he specifies by name the picture of BacchusNothing
-
-to the Bacchus,
) and Hercules tortured in the robe, the gift
-
-of Deïaneira.
Corinth remained a long time deserted, till at length it was - -restored on account of its natural advantages by divus Cæsar, - -who sent colonists thither, who consisted, for the most part, of - -the descendants of free-men. -
On moving the ruins, and digging open the sepulchres,
-
-an abundance of works in pottery with figures on them, and
-
-many in brass, were found. The workmanship was admired,
-
-and all the sepulchres were examined with the greatest care.
-
-Thus was obtained a large quantity of things, which were
-
-disposed of at a great price, and Rome filled with Necro-
-
-Corinthia, by which name were distinguished the articles taken
-
-out of the sepulchres, and particularly the pottery. At first
-
-these latter were held in as much esteem as the works of the
-
-Corinthian artists in brass, but this desire to have them did
-
-not continue, not only because the supply failed, but because
-
-the greatest part of them were not well executed.
The city of Corinth was large and opulent at all periods, - -and produced a great number of statesmen and artists. For - -here in particular, and at Sicyon, flourished painting, and - -modelling, and every art of this kind. -
The soil was not very fertile; its surface was uneven and
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Orneæ has the same name as the river which flows beside it. At present it is deserted; formerly, it was well inhabited, and contained a temple of Priapus, held in veneration. - -It is from this place that Euphronius, (Euphorius?) the author - -of a poem, the Priapeia, applies the epithet Orneates to the - -god. -
It was situated above the plain of the Sicyonians, but the - -Argives were masters of the country. -
Aræthyrea
Phlius is situated in the middle of a circle formed by Sicyonia, Argeia, Cleonæ, and Stymphalus. At Phlius and at
-
-Sicyon the temple of Dia, a name given to Hebe, is held in
-
-veneration.
-
-
Sicyon was formerly called Mecone, and at a still earlier - -period, Ægiali. It was rebuilt high up in the country about - -20, others say, about 12, stadia from the sea, upon an eminences - -naturally strong, which is sacred to Ceres. The buildings - -anciently consisted of a naval arsenal and a harbour. -
Sicyonia is separated by the river Nemea from the Corinthian territory. It was formerly governed for a very long pe-
-
-riod by tyrants, but they were always persons of mild and
-
-moderate disposition. Of these, the most illustrious was
-
-Aratus, who made the city free, and was the chief of the
-
-Achæans, who voluntarily conferred upon him that power;
-
-
-
-
Hyperesia, and the cities next in order in the Catalogue of
-
-the poet, and Ægialus,
THE Ionians, who were descendants of the Athenians, - -were, anciently, masters of this country. It was formerly - -called Ægialeia, and the inhabitants Ægialeans, but in later - -times, Ionia, from the former people, as Attica had the name - -of Ionia, from Ion the son of Xuthus. -
It is said, that Hellen was the son of Deucalion, and that - -he governed the country about Phthia between the Peneins - -and Asopus, and transmitted to his eldest son these dominions, - -sending the others out of their native country to seek a settlement each of them for himself. Dorus, one of them, settled - -the Dorians about Parnassus, and when he left them, they bore - -his name. Xuthus, another, married the daughter of Erechtheus, and was the founder of the Tetrapolis of Attica, which - -consisted of Œnoe, Marathon, Probalinthus, and Tricorythus. -
Achæus, one of the sons of Xuthus, having committed an
-
-accidental murder, fled to Lacedæmon, and occasioned the inhabitants to take the name of Achæans.
Ion, the other son, having vanquished the Thracian army
-
-with their leader Eumolpus, obtained so much renown, that
-
-the Athenians intrusted him with the government of their
-
-state. It was he who first distributed the mass of the people
-
-into four tribes, and these again into four classes according to
-
-their occupations, husbandmen, artificers, priests, and the
-
-fourth, military guards; after having made many more regulations of this kind, he left to the country his own name.
-
-
-
-
After the return of the Heracleidæ, these Ionians, being
-
-expelled by the Achæans, returned to Athens, whence, in con-
-
-junction with the Codridæ, (descendants of Codrus,) they sent
-
-cut the Ionian colonists to Asia.
The Achæans were Phthiotæ by descent, and were settled at - -Lacedæmon, but when the Heracleidæ became masters of the - -country, having recovered their power under Tisamenus, the - -son of Orestes, they attacked the Ionians, as I said before, - -and defeated them. They drove the Ionians out of the country, and took possession of the territory, but retained the - -same partition of it which they found existing there. They - -became so powerful, that, although the Heracleidæ, from whom - -they had revolted, occupied the rest of Peloponnesus, yet they - -defended themselves against them all, and called their own - -country Achæa. -
From Tisamenus to Ogyges they continued to be governed
-
-by kings. Afterwards they established a democracy, and acquired so great renown for their political wisdom, that the
-
-Italian Greeks, after their dissensions with the Pythagoreans,
-
-adopted most of the laws and institutions of the Achæans. After
-
-the battle of Leuctra the Thebans
For the sea was raised to a great height by an earthquake, and overwhelmed both Helice and the temple of the
-
-Heliconian Neptune, whom the Ionians still hold in great
-
-veneration, and offer sacrifices to his honour. They celebrate
-
-at that spot the Panionian festival.
Others deny this, and transfer to Helice the proofs alleged
-
-of the bull and the sacrifice, asserting that these things were
-
-done there by established custom, and that the poet drew his
-
-comparison from the festival celebrated there. Helice
According to Heracleides, the inundation took place in his - -time, and during the night. The city was at the distance - -of 12 stadia from the sea, which overwhelmed the whole intermediate country as well as the city. Two thousand men were - -sent by the Achæans to collect the dead bodies, but in vain. - -The territory was divided among the bordering people. This - -calamity happened in consequence of the anger of Neptune, - -for the Ionians, who were driven from Helice, sent particularly - -to request the people of Helice to give them the image of - -Neptune, or if they were unwilling to give that, to furnish - -them with the model of the temple. On their refusal, the - -Ionians sent to the Achæan body, who decreed, that they should - -comply with the request, but they would not obey even this - -injunction. The disaster occurred in the following winter, - -and after this the Achæans gave the Ionians the model of the - -temple. -
Hesiod mentions another Helice in Thessaly.
-
-
The Achæans, during a period of five and twenty years,
-
-elected, annually, a common secretary, and two military chiefs.
-
-Their common assembly of the council met at one place, called
-
-Arnarium, (Homarium, or Amarium,) where these persons,
-
-and, before their time, the Ionians, consulted on public affairs.
-
-They afterwards resolved to elect one military chief. When
-
-Aratus held this post, he took the Acrocorinthus from Antigonus, and annexed the city as well as his own country to
-
-the Achæan league.
The order of the places which the Achæans inhabited, according to the distribution into twelve parts, is as follows. - -Next to Sicyon is Pellene; Ægeira, the second; the third, - -Ægæ, with a temple of Neptune; Bura, the fourth; then - -Helice, where the Ionians took refuge after their defeat by the - -Achæans, and from which place they were at last banished; - -after Helice are Ægium, Rhypes, Patræ, and Phara; then Olenus, beside which runs the large river [Peirus?]; then Dyme, - -and Tritsæis. The Ionians dwelt in villages, but the Achæans - -founded cities, to some of which they afterwards united others - -transferred from other quarters, as Ægæ to Ægeira, (the inhabitants, however, were called Ægæi,) and Olenus to Dyme. -
Traces of the ancient settlement of the Olenii are to be - -seen between Patræ and Dyme: there also is the famous temple of Æsculapius, distant from Dyme 40, and from Patræ 80 - -stadia. -
In Eubœa there is a place of the same name with the
-
-
-
-
The poet does not mention the Olenus in Achaia, nor many
-
-other people living near Ægialus, but speaks in general terms;
-
-
-
-
Close to the Achæn Ægæ flows the river Crathis,
Each of these twelve portions contained seven or eight - -demi, so great was the population of the country. -
Pellene,
Ægeira
Æga (for this is the name by which Ægæ is called) is not
-
-now inhabited, but the Ægienses occupy the territory. Ægium,
-
-however, is well inhabited. It was here, it is said, that Jupiter was suckled by a goat, as Aratus also says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and indicates the place because it was near Olenus. There
-
-also is Ceryneia, situated upon a lofty rock. This place, and
-
-Helice, belong to the Ægienses,
The river Selinus flows through the city of the Ægienses.
-
-It has the same name as that which was beside Artemisium
-
-at Ephesus, and that in Elis, which has its course along the
-
-spot, that Xenophon
Of the remaining Achæan cities, or portions, Rhypes is not
-
-inhabited, but the territory called Rhypis was occupied by
-
-Ægienses and Pharians. Æschylus also says somewhere,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Myscellus, the founder of Croton, was a native of Rhypes.
-
-Leuctrum, belonging to the district Rhypis, was a demus
-
-of Rhypes. Between these was Patræ, a considerable city,
-
-and in the intervening country, at the distance of 40 stadia from Patræ, are Rhium,
Antimachus having called Dyme Cauconis, some writers
-
-suppose that the latter word is used as an epithet derived
-
-from the Caucones, who extended as far as this quarter, as I
-
-have said before. Others think that it is derived from a river
-
-Caucon, in the same way as Thebes has the appellation of
-
-Dircæan, and Asopian; and as Argos is called Inachian, and
-
-Troy, Simuntis.
A little before our time, Dyme had received a colony consisting of a mixed body of people, a remnant of the piratical - -bands, whose haunts Pompey had destroyed. Some he settled - -at Soli in Cilicia, and others in other places, and some in this - -spot. -
Phara borders upon the Dymæan territory. The inhabitants of this Phara are called Pharenses; those of the Messenian Phara, Pharatæ. In the territory of Phara there is a - -fountain Dirce, of the same name as that at Thebes. -
Olenus is deserted. It lies between Patræ and Dyme.
-
-The territory is occupied by the Dymæi. Next is Araxus,
ARCADIA is situated in the middle of Peloponnesus, and
-
-contains the greatest portion of the mountainous tract in that
-
-
-
-
The Arcadian nations, as the Azanes, and Parrhasii, and
-
-other similar tribes, seem to be the most ancient people of
-
-Greece.Lunâ gens prior illa fuit.
In consequence of the complete devastation of this country,
-
-it is unnecessary to give a long description of it. The cities,
-
-although formerly celebrated, have been destroyed by continual wars; and the husbandmen abandoned the country at
-
-the time that most of the cities were united in that called
-
-Megalopolis (the Great City). At present Megalopolis itself
-
-has undergone the fate expressed by the comic poet;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-There are rich pastures for cattle, and particularly for horses
-
-and asses, which are used as stallions. The race of Arcadian
-
-horses, as well as the Argolic and Epidaurian, is preferred
-
-before all others. The uninhabited tracts of country in Ætolia
-
-and Acarnania are not less adapted to the breeding of horses
-
-than Thessaly.
-
-
Mantinea owes its fame to Epaminondas, who conquered
-
-the Lacedæmonians there in a second battle, in which he lost
-
-his life.
This city, together with Orchomenus, Heræa, Cleitor, Pheneus, Stymphalus, Mænalus, Methydrium, Caphyeis, and Cynætha, either exist no longer, or traces and signs only of their
-
-existence are visible. There are still some remains of Tegea,
-
-and the temple of the Alæan Minerva remains. The latter
-
-is yet held in some little veneration, as well as the temple of
-
-the Lycæan Jupiter on the Lycæan mountain. But the places
-
-mentioned by the poet, as
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-are difficult to discover, and if discovered, would be of no use
-
-from the deserted condition of the country.
-
-
-
-
The mountains of note, besides Cyllene, are Pholoë,
We have spoken of the extraordinary circumstances relative to the Alpheius, Eurotas, and the Erasinus, which - -issues out of the lake Stymphalis, and now flows into the - -Argive country. -
Formerly, the Erasinus had no efflux, for the Berethra,
-
-which the Arcadians call Zerethra,
The contrary was the case with the Ladon, which was at - -one time prevented running in a continuous stream by the - -obstruction of its sources. For the Berethra near Pheneum, - -through which it now passes, fell in in consequence of an - -earthquake, which stopped the waters of the river, and affected far down the veins which supplied its source. This - -is the account of some writers. -
Eratosthenes says, that about the Pheneus, the river called
-
-Anias forms a lake, and then sinks under-ground into certain
-
-openings, which they call Zerethra. When these are obstructed, the water sometimes overflows into the plains, and
-
-when they are again open the water escapes in a body
-
-from the plains, and is discharged into the Ladon
Near the Pheneus there is also the water of the Styx, as it - -is called, a dripping spring of poisonous water, which was - -esteemed to be sacred. -
So much then respecting Arcadia.
-
-
-
-
It is not, perhaps, out of place to add the founders mentioned by Ephorus, who settled colonies in Peloponnesus after
-
-the return of the Heracleidæ; as Aletes, the founder of Corinth; Phalces, of Sicyon; Tisamenus, of cities in Achæa; Oxylus, of Elis, Cresphontes, of Messene; Eurysthenes and Procles, of Lacedæmon; Temenus and Cissus, of Argos; and
-
-Agræus and Deiphontes, of the towns about Acte.
-
-
-
-
SUMMARY.
- -Continuation of the geography of Greece. A panegyrical account of Athens. - -A description of Bœotia and Thessaly, with the sea-coast.
HAVING completed the description of Peloponnesus,
-
-which we said was the first and least of the peninsulas of
-
-which Greece consists, we must next proceed to those which
-
-are continuous with it. 1. The Peloponnesus, properly so called, bounded by the Isthmus of
-
-Corinth. 2. The peninsula bounded by a line drawn from Pagæ to Nisæa, and
-
-including the above. 3. The peninsula bounded by a line drawn from the recess of the
-
-Crissæan Gulf, properly so called, (the Bay of Salona,) to Thermopylæ,
-
-and includes the two first. 4. The peninsula bounded by a line drawn from the Ambracic Gulf
-
-to Thermopylæ and the Maliac Gulf, and includes the three former. 5. The peninsula bounded by a line drawn from the Ambracic Gulf
-
-to the recess of the Thermaic Gulf, and contains the former four peninsulas.
We described the second to be that which joins Megaris
-
-to the Peloponnesus [so that Crommyon belongs to Megaris,
-
-and not to the Corinthians];
Eudoxus says, that if we imagine a straight line to be
-
-drawn towards the east from the Ceraunian Mountains to
-
-Sunium, the promontory of Attica, it would leave, on the
-
-right hand, to the south, the whole of Peloponnesus, and on
-
-the left, to the north, the continuous coast from the Ceraunian
-
-
-
-
As this is the description given by Eudoxus, a mathematician, skilled in the delineations of figures and the inclinations of places, acquainted also with the places themselves, we must consider the sides of Attica and Megaris,
-
-extending from Sunium as far as the Isthmus, to be curved,
-
-although slightly so. About the middle of the above-men-
-
-tioned line
Acte (Attica) is washed by two seas; it is at first - -narrow, then it widens towards the middle, yet it, nevertheless, takes a lunated bend towards Oropus in Bœotia, having - -the convex side towards the sea. This is the second, the - -eastern side of Attica. -
The remaining side is that to the north, extending from
-
-the territory of Oropus towards the west, as far as Megaris,
-
-and consists of the mountainous tract of Attica, having a
-
-variety of names, and dividing Bœotia from Attica; so that,
-
-as I have before remarked, Bœotia, by being connected with
-
-
-
-
After Crommyon, rising above Attica, are the rocks - -called Scironides, which afford no passage along the sea-side. - -Over them, however, is a road which leads to Megara and - -Attica from the Isthmus. The road approaches so near the - -rocks that in many places it runs along the edge of precipices, - -for the overhanging mountain is of great height, and impassable. -
Here is laid the scene of the fable of Sciron, and the - -Pityocamptes, or the pine-breaker, one of those who infested - -with their robberies the above-mentioned mountainous tract. - -They were slain by Theseus. -
The wind Argestes,
After the rocks Scironides there projects the promontory
-
-Minoa, forming the harbour of Nisæa. Nisæa is the arsenal
-
-of Megara, and distant 18 stadia from the city; it is joined to it by walls on each side.by legs on each side.
Nisæa was united to Megara, as
-
-the Piræus to Athens, by two lone walls.
In former times the Ionians occupied this country, and
-
-were also in possession of Attica, before the time of the
-
-building of Megara, wherefore the poet does not mention
-
-these places by any appropriate name, but when he calls all
-
-those dwelling in Attica, Athenians, he comprehends these
-
-also in the common appellation, regarding them as Athenians;
-
-so when, in the Catalogue of the Ships, he says,
-
-
-
-
Besides, the Peloponnesians and Ionians having had frequent disputes respecting their boundaries, on which Crommyonia also was situated, assembled and agreed upon a spot
-
-of the Isthmus itself, on which they erected a pillar having
-
-an inscription on the part towards Peloponnesus,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and on the side towards Megara,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Although those, who wrote on the history of Attica
Since, then, different writers give different accounts of the
-
-division of the country into four parts, it is enough to adduce
-
-these lines from Sophocles where Ægeus says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Such are the proofs which are adduced to show that Megaris was a part of Attica.
-
-My father determined that I should go away to Acte, having assigned
-
-to me, as the elder, the best part of the land; to Lycus, the opposite garden of Eubœa; for Nisus he selects the irregular tract of the shore of
-
-Sciron; and the rugged Pallas, breeder of giants, obtained by lot the part
-
-to the south.
After the return of the Heraclidæ, and the partition of
-
-the country, many of the former possessors were banished from
-
-their own land by the Heraclidæ, and by the Dorians, who
-
-came with them, and migrated to Attica. Among these was
-
-Melanthus, the king of Messene. He was voluntarily ap-
-
-
-
-
The city of the Megarenses, after having experienced - -many changes, still subsists. It once had schools of philosophers, who had the name of the Megaric sect. They succeeded Euclides, the Socratic philosopher, who was by birth a - -Megarensian, in the same manner as the Eleiaci, among whom - -was Pyrrhon, who succeeded Phædon, the Eleian, who was also - -a Socratic philosopher, and as the Eretriaci succeeded Menedemus the Eretrean. -
Megaris, like Attica, is very sterile, and the greater part of
-
-it is occupied by what are called the Oneii mountains, a kind
-
-of ridge, which, extending from the Scironides rocks to Bœotia
-
-and to Cithæron, separates the sea at Nisæa from that near
-
-Page, called the Alcyonian Sea.
-
-
In sailing from Nisæa to Attica there lie, in the course
-
-of the voyage, five small islands. Then succeeds Salamis,
-
-which is about 70, and according to others, 80, stadia in
-
-length. It has two cities of the same name. The ancient
-
-city, which looked towards Ægina, and to the south, as
-
-Æschylus has described it;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-it is uninhabited. The other is situated in a bay on a spot of a
-
-peninsular form contiguous to Attica. In former times it
-
-had other names, for it was called Sciras, and Cychreia, from
-
-certain heroes; from the former Minerva is called Sciras;
-
-hence also Scira, a place in Attica; Episcirosis, a religions
-
-rite; and Scirophorion, one of the months. From Cychreia
-
-
-
-pitys,
the pine tree. The island obtained its renown from
-
-the Æacidæ, who were masters of it, particularly from Ajax,
-
-the son of Telamon, and from the defeat of Xerxes by the
-
-Greeks in a battle on the coast, and by his flight to his own
-
-country. The Æginetæ participated in the glory of that engagement, both as neighbours, and as having furnished a considerable naval force. [In Salamis is the river Bocarus, now
-
-called Bocalia.]
At present the Athenians possess the island Salamis.
-
-In former times they disputed the possession of it with the
-
-Megarians. Some allege, that Pisistratus, others that
-
-Solon, inserted in the Catalogue of Ships immediately after
-
-this verse,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and appealed to the poet as a witness, that the island originally belonged to the Athenians. But this is not admitted by
-
-the critics, because many other lines testify the contrary.
-
-For why does Ajax appear at the extremity of the line not
-
-with the Athenians, but with the Thessalians under the command of Protesilaus;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and again, respecting Ajax and the Salaminii;
-
-
-
-found the son of Peteus, Menestheus, the tamer of horses, standing,
-
-and around were the Athenians skilful in war: near stood the wily
-
-Ulysses, and around him and at his side, the ranks of the Cephalleni
-
-
-
-and near them,
-
-
-
-he came to the Ajaces,
-
-
-
-which are places in Megaris, of which Tripodes has the name
-
-of Tripodiscium, situated near the present forum of Megara.
-
-Ajax conducted ships from Salamis, from Polichna, from Ægirussa,
-
-from Nisæa, and from Tripodes,
Some say, that Salamis is unconnected with Attica, because the priestess of Minerva Polias, who may not eat the - -new cheese of Attica, but the produce only of a foreign - -land, yet uses the Salaminian cheese. But this is a mistake, for she uses that which is brought from other islands, - -that are confessedly near Attica, for the authors of this - -custom considered all produce as foreign which was brought - -over sea. -
It seems as if anciently the present Salamis was a separate - -state, and that Megara was a part of Attica. -
On the sea-coast, opposite to Salamis, the boundaries of
-
-Megara and Attica are two mountains called Cerata, or
-
-Horns.
Next is the city Eleusis,
Then follows the Thriasian plain, and the coast, a
-
-demus of the same name,
There also are the Pharmacussæ,
Above this coast is a mountain called Corydallus, and - -the demus Corydalleis: then the harbour of Phoron, (Robbers,) - -and Psyttalia, a small rocky desert island, which, according to - -some writers, is the eye-sore of the Piræus. -
Near it is Atalanta, of the same name as that between
-
-Eubœa and the Locri; and another small island similar to
-
-Psyttalia; then the Piræus, which is also reckoned among the
-
-demi, and the Munychia.
-
-
The Munychia is a hill in the shape of a peninsula,
-
-hollow, and a great part of it excavated both by nature and
-
-art, so as to serve for dwellings, with an entrance by a nar-
-
-row opening. Beneath it are three harbours. Formerly the
-
-Munychia was surrounded by a wall, and occupied by dwellings, nearly in the same manner as the city of the Rhodians,
-
-comprehending within the circuit of the walls the Piræus and
-
-the harbours full of materials for ship-building; here also
-
-was the armoury, the work of Philon. The naval station
-
-was capable of receiving the four hundred vessels; which
-
-was the smallest number the Athenians were in the habit of
-
-keeping in readiness for sea. With this wall were connected
-
-the legs, that stretched out from the Asty. These were the
-
-long walls, 40 stadia in length, joining the Asty
What is properly the Asty is a rock, situated in a
-
-plain, with dwellings around it. Upon the rock is the temple
-
-
-
-
When, however, I consider the multitude of objects, so
-
-celebrated and far-famed, belonging to this city, I am reluctant to enlarge upon them, lest what I write should depart
-
-too far from the proposed design of this work.
-
-
-
-Yet this very writer mentions only one of the remarkable
-
-things to be seen in the Acropolis. Polemo PeriegetesI behold the acropolis, there is the symbol of the great trident;
Many, if not all the demi, have various fabulous tales
-
-and histories connected with them: with Aphidna is connected the rape of Helen by Theseus, the sack of the place by
-
-the Dioscuri, and the recovery of their sister; with Mara-
-
-
-
-
The account would be much longer if we were to in-
-
-quire who were the founders of the city from the time of
-
-Cecrops, for writers do not agree, as is evident from the names
-
-of persons and of places. For example, Attica,
In proportion as an earnest desire is excited to ascertain the truth about remarkable places and events, and in
-
-proportion as writers, on these subjects, are more numerous,
-
-so much the more is an author exposed to censure, who does
-
-not make himself master of what has been written. For example, in the Collection of the Rivers,
Callimachus says,
-
-that he should laugh at the person, who would venture to
-
-describe the Athenian virgins as
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-from which even the herds would turn away. There are
-
-indeed fountains of water, pure and fit for drinking, it is said,
-
-without the gate called Diochares, near the Lyceium; formerly
-
-also a fountain was erected near it, which afforded a large supply of excellent water; but if it is not so at present, is it at
-
-all strange, that a fountain supplying abundance of pure and
-
-potable water at one period of time, should afterwards have
-
-the property of its waters altered?
-
In subjects, however, which are so numerous, we cannot
-
-enter into detail; yet they are not so entirely to be passed
-
-over in silence as to abstain from giving a condensed account
-
-of some of them.
-
-
It will suffice then to add, that, according to Philochorus, when the country was devastated on the side of the - -sea by the Carians, and by land by the Bœotians, whom they - -called Aones, Cecrops first settled a large body of people in - -twelve cities, the names of which were Cecropia, Tetrapolis, - -Epacria, Deceleia, Eleusis, Aplhidnæ, (although some persons - -write it in the plural number, Aphidnæ,) Thoricus, Brauron, - -Cytherus, Sphettus, Cephisia [Phalerus]. Again, at a subsequent period, Theseus is said to have collected the inhabitants of the twelve cities into one, the present city. -
Formerly, the Athenians were governed by kings; they
-
-afterwards changed the government to a democracy; then
-
-tyrants were their masters, as Pisistratus and his sons; afterwards there was an oligarchy both of the four hundred and
-
-of the thirty tyrants, whom the Lacedæmonii set over them;
-
-these were expelled by the Athenians, who retained the form
-
-of a democracy, till the Romans established their empire.
-
-For, although they were somewhat oppressed by the Macedonian kings, so as to be compelled to obey them, yet they preserved entire the same form of government. Some say, that
-
-the government was very well administered during a period
-
-of ten years, at the time that Casander was king of the
-
-Macedonians. For this person, although in other respects
-
-he was disposed to be tyrannical, yet, when lie was master of
-
-the city, treated the Athenians with kindness and generosity.
-
-He placed at the head of the citizens Demetrius the Phalerean,
-
-a disciple of Theophrastus the philosopher, who, far from
-
-dissolving, restored the democracy. This appears from his
-
-
-
-
Next to the Piræus is the demus Phalereis, on the succeeding line of coast, then Halimusii, Æxoneis, Alæeis, the
-
-Æxonici, Anagyrasii; then Theoris, Lampesis; Ægilieis,
-
-Anaphlystii, Azenieis; these extend as far as the promontory
-
-Sunium. Between the above-mentioned demi is a long
-
-promontory, Zoster,
-
-
-
-In front of these places lies off, at no great distance, the island
-
-Belbina; and the rampart of Patroclus; but most of these
-
-islands are uninhabited.
-
-
On doubling the promontory at Sunium, we meet with
-
-Sunium, a considerable demus; then Thoricus, next a demus
-
-called Potamus, from which the inhabitants are called Potamii; next Prasia,
Next to Marathon is Tricorynthus, then Rhamnus, where is
-
-the temple of Nemesis; then Psaphis, a city of the Oropii.
-
-Somewhere about this spot is the Amphiaræum, an oracle
-
-once in repute, to which Amphiareus fled, as Sophocles says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-The dusty Theban soil opened and received him with his armour, and
-
-the four-horse chariot.
Oropus has frequently been a subject of contention, for it is - -situated on the confines of Attica and Bœotia. -
In front of this coast, before Thoricum and Sunium, is
-
-the island Helena; it is rocky and uninhabited, extending in
-
-length about 60 stadia, which, they say, the poet mentions in
-
-the words, in which Alexander addresses Helen,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-For Cranaë, from the kind of intercourse which took place
-
-there, is now called Helena. Next to Helena,Not when first I carried thee away from the pleasant Lacedæmon,
-
-across the deep, and in the island Cranaë embraced thee.
It would be tedious to recite the names of the Demi of
-
-Attica in the inland parts, on account of their number.
Among the mountains which are most celebrated, are
-
-the Hymettus, Brilessus, Ly$cabettus, Parnes, and Corydallus.
Although the Attic is the best of all the kinds of honey,
-
-yet by far the best of the Attic honey is that found in the
-
-country of the silver mines,Ours is the best honey.
Among the rivers is the Cephissus, having its source - -from the Trinemeis, it flows through the plain (where are the - -Gephyra, and the Gephyrismi) between the legs or walls extending from the Asty to the Piræus, and empties itself into - -the Plalericum. Its character is chiefly that of a winter - -torrent, for in the summer time it fails altogether. Such - -also, for the most part, is the Ilissus, which flows from the - -other side of the Asty to the same coast, from the parts above - -Agra, and the Lyceium, and the fountain celebrated by Plato - -in the Phædrus. So much then respecting Attica. - - -
NEXT in order is Bœotia. When I speak of this country, - -and of the contiguous nations, I must, for the sake of perspicuity, repeat what I have said before. -
We have said, that the sea-coast stretches from Sunium to
-
-the north as far as Thessalonica, inclining a little toward the
-
-west, and having the sea on the east, that parts situated above
-
-this shore towards the west extend like belts
The second belt is Bœotia, stretching from east to west
-
-from the Eubœan sea to the Crisæan Gulf, nearly of equal
-
-length with Attica, or perhaps somewhat less; in quality of
-
-soil however it greatly surpasses Attica.
-
-
Ephorus declares the superiority of Bœotia over the
-
-bordering nations not only in this respect, but also because it
-
-alone has three seas adjoining it, and a great number of
-
-harbours. At the Criss$ean and Corinthian Gulfs it received
-
-the commodities of Italy, Sicily, and Africa. Towards Eubœa the sea-coast branches off on each side of the Euripus;
-
-in one direction towards Aulis and Tanagrica, in the other,
-
-to Salganeus and Anthedon; on one side there is an open
-
-sea to Egypt, and Cyprus, and the islands; on the other to
-
-Macedonia, the Propontis, and the Hellespont. He adds also
-
-that Eubœa is almost a part of Bœotia, because the Euripus is
-
-very narrow, and the opposite shores are brought into communication by a bridge of two plethra in length.
For these reasons he praises the country, and says, that it
-
-has natural advantages for obtaining supreme command, but
-
-that from want of careful education and learning, even those
-
-who were from time to time at the head of affairs did not long
-
-maintain the ascendency they had acquired, as appears from
-
-the example of Epaminondas; at his death the Thebans immediately lost the supremacy they had just acquired. This is
-
-to be attributed, says Ephorus, to their neglect of learning, and
-
-of intercourse with mankind, and to their exclusive cultivation of military virtues. It must be added also, that learning
-
-and knowledge are peculiarly useful in dealing with Greeks,
-
-but in the case of Barbarians, force is preferable to reason. In
-
-fact the Romans in early times, when carrying on war with
-
-savage nations, did not require such accomplishments, but
-
-from the time that they began to be concerned in transactions with more civilized people, they applied themselves to
-
-learning, and so established universal dominion.
-
-
-
-
Ephorus relates that the Thracians, after making treaty
-
-with the Bœotians, attacked them by night, when encamped
-
-in a careless manner during a time of peace. The Thracians
-
-when reproached, and accused of breaking the treaty, replied,
-
-that they had not broken it, for the conditions were by
-
-day,
whereas they had made the attack by night, whence
-
-the common proverb, a Thracian shuffle.
-
The Pelasgi and the Bœotians also went during the war to
-
-consult the oracle. He cannot tell, he says, what answer was
-
-given to the Pelasgi, but the prophetess replied to the Bœotians that they would prosper by committing some act of
-
-impiety. The messengers sent to consult the oracle suspecting
-
-the prophetess of favouring the Pelasgi on account of their
-
-relationship, (for the temple had originally belonged to the
-
-Pelasgi,) seized the woman, and threw her upon a burning
-
-pile, considering, that whether her conduct bad been right or
-
-
-
-
After this they assisted Penthilus in sending out the - -Æolian colony, and despatched a large body of their own people with him, so that it was called the Bœotian colony. -
A long time afterwards the country was devastated during
-
-the war with the Persians at Platææ. They afterwards so
-
-far recovered their power, that the Thebans, having vanquished the Lacedæmonians in two battles,
We are next to make a circuit of the country, beginning - -at the sea-coast, opposite Eubœa, which is continuous with - -that of Attica. -
We begin this circuit from Oropus, and the Sacred Harbour,
Next is Delium,
To this place the Athenians, after their defeat in battle,
-
-fled in disorder.
Then follows a great harbour, which is called Bathys
-
-(or deep harbour): then Aulis,
Salganeus is a place situated near the Euripus, upon a
-
-height. It has its name from Salganeus, a Bœotian, who was
-
-buried there. He was guide to the Persians, when they
-
-sailed into this passage from the Maliac Gulf. It is said,
-
-that he was put to death before they reached the Euripus, by
-
-the commander of the fleet, Megabates, as a traitor, for conducting the fleet deceitfully into a narrow opening of the sea,
-
-having no outlet. The Barbarian, however, perceived his
-
-mistake, and regretting what he had done, thought him worthy of burial, because he had been unjustly put to death.
-
-
Near Oropus
Mycalessus is a village in the Tanagrian district. It
-
-lies upon the road from Thebes to Chalcis. It is called in
-
-the Bœotian dialect Mycalettus. Harma, also, an uninhabited
-
-village in the Tanagrian territory, derives its name from the
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-The Pythaïstæ, as they are called, signify, by the order of an
-
-oracle, the occurrence of any lightning when they are looking in the direction of Harma, and despatch the sacrifice to
-
-Delphi whenever it is observed. They were to keep watch
-
-for three months, and for three days and nights in each month,
-
-at the altar of Jupiter Astrapius, or Dispenser of lightning.
-
-This altar is in the wall, between the Pythium and the Olympium. Respecting the Bœotian Harma, some say, that Amphiaraus fell in battle out of his chariot, [harma,] near the
-
-spot where his temple now stands, and that the chariot was
-
-drawn empty to the place, which bears the same name
-
-[Harma].
On going from Thebes to Argos,
After Salganeus is Anthedon, a city with a harbour,
-
-the last on the Bœotian coast towards Eubœa, as the poet
-
-says,
-
-
-
-
Near Anthedon is a place called Isus, and esteemed
-
-sacred, belonging to Bœotia; it contains remains of a city, and
-
-the first syllable of Isus is short. Some persons are of opinion,
-
-that the verse ought to be written,
-
-
-
-lengthening the first syllable by poetical licence for the sake
-
-of the metre, instead of
-
-
-
-for Nisa is not to be found anywhere in Bœotia, as Apollodorus says in his observations on the Catalogue of the Ships;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-meaning the present Creusa, the arsenal of the Thespieans,
-
-situated on the Crisæan Gulf. Others write the passage
-
-
-
-
-
-Pharæ is one of the four villages, (or Tetracomiæ,) near Tanagra, namely, Heleon, Harma, Mycalessus, Pharæ. Others
-
-again write the passage thus,
-
-
-
-Nysa is a village of Helicon.
-
Such then is the description of the sea-coast opposite
-
-Eubœa.
-
-
The places next in order, in the inland parts, are
-
-hollow plains, surrounded everywhere on the east and west by
-
-mountains; on the south by the mountains of Attica, on the
-
-north by those of Phocis: on the west, Cithæron inclines, obliquely, a little above the Crisæan Sea; it begins contiguous
-
-to the mountains of Megaris and Attica, and then makes a
-
-bend towards the plains, and terminates near the Theban
-
-territory.
-
-
Some of these plains become lakes, by rivers spreading
-
-over or falling into them and then flowing off. Some are
-
-dried up, and being very fertile, are cultivated in every possible way. But as the ground underneath is full of caverns
-
-and fissures, it has frequently happened, that violent earthquakes have obstructed some passages, and formed others under-ground, or on the surface, the water being carried off,
-
-either by subterranean channels, or by the formation of lakes
-
-and rivers on the surface. If the deep subterranean passages
-
-are stopped up, the waters of the lakes increase, so as to inundate and cover cities and whole districts, which become uncovered, if the same or other passages are again opened. The
-
-same regions are thus traversed in boats or on foot, according
-
-
-
-
One of two things took place. The cities either retained their sites, when the rise of the water was insufficient
-
-to overflow the houses, or they were deserted and rebuilt in
-
-some other place, when the inhabitants, being frequently exposed to danger from their vicinity to the lake, released themselves from further apprehension, by changing to a more
-
-distant or higher situation. It followed that the cities thus
-
-rebuilt retained the same name. Formerly, they might have
-
-had a name derived from some accidental local circumstance,
-
-but now the site does not correspond with the derivation of
-
-the name. For example, it is probable that Platææ was so
-
-called, from
This is exemplified particularly in the Cephissus,
These rivers descend from the Phocian mountains, and
-
-among them the Cephissus,
Among the neighbouring lakes are Trephea
-
-
-
-for there is a place of this name in Lydia,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-these words,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-For the Copais is of great extent, and not situated in the
-
-Theban district, but the other is small, and filled from the
-
-former by subterraneous channels; it is situated between
-
-Thebes
-
-
-
-for Ajax was not to send for his shield from Lydia.
-
-
Schœnusis
Scolus
-
-
-
-It is said that Pentheus was brought from thence, and torn in
-
-pieces. There was among the cities near Olynthus another of
-
-the name of Scolus. We have said that in the Heracleian
-
-Trachinia there was a village of the name of Parasopii, beside
-
-which runs a river Asopus, and that there is another river
-
-Asopus in Sicyonia, and that the country through which it
-
-flows is called Asopia. There are however other rivers of
-
-the same name.
-
-
The name of Eteonus was changed to that of Scarphe, which belongs to Parasopia. [Parasopia belongs to the
-
-Thebais,] for the Asopus and the Ismenus flow through the
-
-plain in front of Thebes. There is the fountain Dirce, and
-
-also Potniæ, where is laid the fable of Glaucus of Potniæ,
-
-who was torn in pieces near the city by Potnian mares. The
-
-Cithæron
-
-
-
-but the lines are well known.
-
-
He calls the present place Thespiæ
-
-
-
-Helicon is contiguous to Phocis on its northern, and partly
-
-on its western side, as far as the last harbour of Phocis, which
-
-is called from its characteristic situation, Mychus, or the
-
-Recess.
-
-
-
-He dwelt near Helicon in a wretched village, Ascra; bad in winter, in
-
-summer intolerable, and worthless at any season.
Helicon, not far distant from Parnassus, rivals it in height
It has been remarked, that the Thracians, (having expelled - -the Bœotians by force,) and the Pelasgi, and other barbarous - -people, settled in this part of Bœotia. -
Thespiæ was formerly celebrated for a statue of Cupid by - -Praxiteles. Glycera the courtesan, a native of Thespiæ, received it as a present from the artist, and dedicated it as a - -public offering to her fellow-citizens. -
Persons formerly used to repair thither to see the Cupid,
-
-where there was nothing else worth seeing. This city, and
-
-Tanagra, alone of the Bœotian cities exist at present, while of
-
-others there remain nothing but ruins and names.
-
-
-
-
After Thespiæ the poet enumerates Graia and Mycalessus, of which we have before spoken. -
He proceeds as before,
-
-
-
-
Homer afterwards names,
-
-
-
-
After Copæ, the poet mentions Eutresis, a small village
-
-of the Thespians.
Thisbē is now called Thisbē. The place is situated a little
-
-above the sea-coast on the confines of the Thespienses, and
-
-the territory of Coroneia; on the south it lies at the foot of
-
-Cithæron. It has an arsenal in a rocky situation abounding
-
-with doves, whence the poet terms it
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Thence to Sicyon is a voyage of 160 stadia.
-
-
He next recites the names of Coroneia, Haliartus, Pla- - -tææ, and Glissas. -
Coroneia
-
-
-
-The festival Pambœotia was here celebrated. Hades is associated with Minerva, in the dedication of the temple, for some
-
-mystical reason. The inhabitants of the Bœotian Coroneia
-
-are called Coronii, those of the Messenian Coroneia, Coronenses.
-
-Minerva, warrior queen, who o'er Coroneia keepest watch before thy
-
-temple, on the banks of Coralius.
Haliartus
Platææ, which the poet uses in the singular number,
-
-lies at the foot of Cithæron, between this mountain and Thebes,
-
-on the road to Athens and Megara; it is on the borders of
-
-Attica and Bœotia, for Eleutheræ is near, which some say belongs to Attica, others to Bœotia. We have said that the
-
-Asopus flows beside Plateæ. There the army of the Greeks
-
-entirely destroyed Mardonius and three hundred thousand
-
-Persians. They dedicated there a temple to Jupiter Eleutherius, and instituted gymnastic games, called Eleutheria, in
-
-which the victor was crowned. The tombs erected at the
-
-public expense, in honour of those who died in the battle, are
-
-to be seen there. In the Sicyonian district is a demus called
-
-Platææ, where the poet Mnasalces was born:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Glissas,
-
-
-
-Pausanias, b. ix. ch. 19, makes mention of a tumulus covered with
-
-trees, near the ruins of Glisas or Glissas, which was the burial-place of
-
-Ægialus and his companions, and also of other tumuli. These were probably the under Thebes
instead of under Cadmeia.
-
-
The Amphictyonic council usually assembled at Onchestus, in the territory of Haliartus, near the lake Copais,
-
-and the Teneric plain. It is situated on a height, devoid of
-
-trees, where is a temple of Neptune also without trees. For
-
-the poets, for the sake of ornament, called all sacred places
-
-groves, although they were without trees. Such is the language of Pindar, when speaking of Apollo:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-As Alcæus is mistaken in the altering the name of the river
-
-Cuarius, so he makes a great error in placing Onchestus at
-
-the extremities of Helicon, whereas it is situated very far from
-
-this mountain.
-
-He traversed in his onward way the earth and sea; he stood upon the
-
-heights of the lofty mountains; he shook the caves in their deep recesses,
-
-and overthrew the foundations of the sacred groves
or temples.
The Teneric plain has its name from Tenerus. According to mythology, he was the son of Apollo and Melia,
-
-and declared the answers of the oracle at the mountain Ptoum,
-
-
-
-and he calls Tenerus
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-"The Ptoum is situated above the Teneric plain, and the lake
-
-Copaïs, near Acræphium.
-
-
-
-the prophet, dwelling in the temple, and having the same name as the
-
-soil on which it stands.
Both the oracle and the mountain belonged to the Thebans. -
Acrsephium
Some say that Arnē and Mideia were swallowed up by
-
-the lake. Zenodotus, however, when he writes the verse thus,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Neither are those persons in the right, who substitute in this
-
-passage Tarnē for Arnē, for there is not a place of the name
-
-of Tarne to be found in Bœotia, although there is in Lydia.
-
-Homer mentions it,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Besides Alalcomenæ and Tilphossium, which are near the
-
-lake, Chæroneia, Lebadia, and Leuctra, are worthy of notice.
-
-Idomeneus then slew Phæstus, the son of Borus, the artificer, who came
-
-from the fruitful soil of Tarn.
The poet mentions Alalcomenæ,
Chæroneia
At Lebadeia
Leuctra
The poet next mentions the Orchomenians in the Catalogue, and distinguishes them from the Bœotian nation. He
-
-gives to Orchomenus the epithet Minyeian from the nation of
-
-the Minyæ. They say that a colony of the Minyeians went
-
-hence to Iolcus,Not all that is brought to Orchomenus, or to Ægyptian Thebes.
[For one who was inclined thus to honour these goddesses, must have been naturally disposed to be a benefactor,
-
-and he must have possessed the power. But for this purpose
-
-wealth is required. For he who has not much cannot give
-
-much, nor can he who does not receive much possess much;
-
-but when giving and receiving unite, then there is a just exchange. For a vessel which is simultaneously emptied and
-
-filled is always full; but he who gives and does not receive
-
-cannot succeed in either giving or receiving, for the giver
-
-must desist from giving from failure of means. Givers also
-
-will desist from giving to him who receives only, and confers
-
-no benefits, so that he must fail in receiving. The same may
-
-be said of power. For independently of the common saying,
-
-
-
-
Some persons use the word Aspledon
It is distant from Orchomenus
Panopeus, a Phocian city, and Hyampolis
The writers on the Catalogue of Ships [in Homer], have - -furnished us with these materials, and they have been followed, wherever they introduced anything adapted to the - -design of this work. - - -
NEXT to Bœotia and Orchomenus is Phocis, lying along
-
-the side of Bœotia to the north, and, anciently, nearly from sea
-
-
-
-
In the same manner as Phocis lies along the side of Bœotia,
-
-so are both the divisions of Locris situated with respect to
-
-Phocis, for Locris is composed of two parts, being divided by
-
-Parnassus. The western part lies along the side of Parnassus,
-
-occupies a portion of it, and extends to the Crisæan Gulf; the
-
-eastern part terminates at the sea near Eubœa. The inhabitants of the former are called Locri Hesperii, or Locri Ozolæs, and
-
-have engraven on their public seal the star Hesperus. The rest
-
-are again divided into two bodies: one, the Opuntii, who have
-
-their name from the chief city, and border upon the Phocæans and Bœotians; the other, the Epicnemidii, who have their
-
-name from the mountain Cnemis;
The whole of Parnassus is esteemed sacred, it contains
-
-caves, and other places, which are regarded with honour and
-
-
-
-
The two most celebrated cities of this country are Delphi and Elateia. Delphi is renowned for the temple of the
-
-Pythian Apollo, and the antiquity of its oracle; since Agamemnon is said by the poet to have consulted it; for the minstrel is introduced singing of the
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Delphi then was celebrated on this account. Elateia was
-
-famous as being the largest of the cities in that quarter, and
-
-for its very convenient position upon the straits; for he, who
-
-is the master of this city, commands the entrances into Phocis
-
-and Bœotia. First, there are the Œtæan mountains, next the
-
-mountains of the Locri, and the Phocians; they are not every
-
-where passable for invading armies, coming from Thessaly,
-
-but having narrow passes distinct from each other, which the
-
-adjacent cities guard. Those, who take the cities, are masters
-
-
-
-fierce contest of Ulysses, and Achilles, the son of Peleus, how once they
-
-contended together, and Agamemnon king of men was pleased, for so
-
-Phœbus Apollo had foretold by the oracle in the illustrious Pytho.
We have remarked, that Parnassus itself is situated on
-
-the western boundaries of Phocis. The western side of this
-
-mountain is occupied by the Locri Ozolæ; on the southern is
-
-Delphi, a rocky spot, resembling in shape a theatre; on its
-
-summit is the oracle, and also the city, which comprehends a
-
-circle of 16 stadia. Above it lies Lycoreia; here the Delphians were formerly settled above the temple. At present
-
-they live close to it around the Castalian fountain. In front
-
-of the city, on the southern part, is Cirphis, a precipitous hill,
-
-leaving in the intermediate space a wooded ravine, through
-
-which the river Pleistus flows. Below Cirphis near the sea
-
-is Cirrha, an ancient city, from which there is an ascent to
-
-Delphi of about 80 stadia. It is situated opposite to Sicyon.
-
-Adjoining to Cirrha is the fertile Crisæan plain. Again,
-
-next in order follows another city Crisa, from which the
-
-Crissæan Gulf has its name; then Anticyra,
Anticyra still remains, but Cirrha and Crisa
The place where the oracle is delivered, is said to be a
-
-deep hollow cavern, the entrance to which is not very wide.
-
-From it rises up an exhalation which inspires a divine frenzy:
-
-over the mouth is placed a lofty tripod on which the Pythian
-
-priestess ascends to receive the exhalation, after which she
-
-gives the prophetic response in verse or prose. The prose is
-
-adapted to measure by poets who are in the service of the
-
-temple. Phemonoë is said to have been the first Pythian prophetess, and both the prophetess and the city obtained their
-
-appellation from the word Pythesthai, to inquire, (
Although the highest honour was paid to this temple on
-
-account of the oracle, (for it was the most exempt of any from
-
-deception,) yet its reputation was owing in part to its situation
-
-in the centre of all Greece, both within and without the isthmus. It was also supposed to be the centre of the habitable
-
-
-
-
As the situation of Delphi is convenient, persons easily - -assembled there, particularly those from the neighbourhood, of - -whom the Amphictyonic body is composed. It is the business - -of this body to deliberate on public affairs, and to it is more - -particularly intrusted the guardianship of the temple for the - -common good; for large sums of money were deposited there, - -and votive offerings, which required great vigilance and - -religious care. The early history of this body is unknown, - -but among the names which are recorded, Acrisius appears to - -have been the first who regulated its constitution, to have - -determined what cities were to have votes in the council, and - -to have assigned the number of votes and mode of voting. To - -some cities he gave a single vote each, or a vote to two cities, - -or to several cities conjointly. He also defined the class of - -questions which might arise between the different cities, - -which were to be submitted to the decision of the Amphictyonic tribunal; and subsequently many other regulations were - -made, but this body, like that of the Achæans, was finally - -dissolved. -
At first twelve cities are said to have assembled, each of - -which sent a Pylagoras. The convention was held twice a - -year, in spring and autumn. But latterly a greater number - -of cities assembled. They called both the vernal and the - -autumnal convention Pylæan, because it was held at Pyle, - -which has the name also of Thermopylæ. The Pylagoræ - -sacrificed to Ceres. -
In the beginning, the persons in the neighbourhood only assembled, or consulted the oracle, but afterwards people repaired thither from a distance for this purpose, sent gifts, and
-
-constructed treasuries, as Crœsus, and his father Alyattes,
-
-some of the Italians also, and the Siceli (Sicilians).
-
-
But the wealth, being an object of cupidity, was guarded
-
-with difficulty, although dedicated to sacred uses. At present, however, whatever it might have been, the temple at
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-The treasuries indicate its riches, and the plunder committed
-
-by the Phocians, which gave rise to the Phocic or Sacred
-
-war, as it was called. It is however supposed that a spoliation of the temple must have taken place at some more remote period, when the wealth mentioned by Homer disappeared; for no vestige of it whatever was preserved to later
-
-times, when Onomarchus and Phayllus pillaged the temple, as
-
-the property [then] removed was of a more recent date than
-
-that referred to by the poet. For there were once deposited
-
-in the treasuries, offerings from spoils, bearing inscriptions
-
-with the names of the donors, as of Gyges, of Crœsus, of the
-
-Sybaritæ, of the Spinetæ on the Adriatic, and of others also.
-
-It would be unbecoming to supposeNor all the wealth, which the marble threshold of Phœbus Apollo, the
-
-Archer, (Aphetor,)
Some persons, however, understanding the word Aphetor
-
-to signify treasure, and the threshold of the aphetor the repository of the treasure under-ground, say, that this wealth was
-
-buried beneath the temple, and that Onomarchus and his
-
-companions attempted to dig it up by night; violent shocks
-
-of an earthquake caused them to fly out of the temple, and
-
-desist from their excavation; thus others were impressed
-
-with a dread of making similar attempts.
-
-
Of the shrines, the winged shrine
There was anciently a contest held at Delphi, of players
-
-on the cithara, who executed a pæan in honour of the god. It
-
-was instituted by Delphians. But after the Crisæan war the
-
-Amphictyons, in the time of Eurylochus, established contests
-
-for horses, and gymnastic sports, in which the victor was
-
-crowned. These were called Pythian games. The players
Ephorus, whom we generally follow, on account of his
-
-exactness in these matters, (as Polybius, a writer of repute,
-
-testifies,) seems to proceed contrary to his proposed plan, and
-
-to the promise which he made at the beginning of his work.
-
-For after having censured those writers who are fond of intermixing fable with history, and after having spoken in
-
-praise of truth, he introduces, with reference to this oracle, a
-
-grave declaration, that he considers truth preferable at all
-
-
-
-
And lower down, when speaking of the Delphians and
-
-their origin, he says, that certain persons, called Parnassii,
-
-an indigenous tribe, anciently inhabited Parnassus, about
-
-which time Apollo, traversing the country, reclaimed men
-
-from their savage state, by inducing them to adopt a more
-
-civilized mode of life and subsistence; that, setting out from
-
-Athens on his way to Delphi, he took the same road along
-
-which the Athenians at present conduct the procession of the
-
-Pythias; that when he arrived at the Panopeis, he put to
-
-death Tityus, who was master of the district, a violent and
-
-lawless man; that the Parnassii having joined him informed
-
-him of Python, another desperate man, surnamed the Dragon.
-
-Whilst he was despatching this man with his arrows, they
-
-shouted, Hie Paian;
I now return to the Phocians.
-
-
Immediately on the sea-coast, next after Anticyra,behind it,
but Marathus is on the opposite side of the
-
-bay. The ruins are indicated in modem maps.
Nor is Abæ,not far from
the Crisæan Gulf, Abæ,
-
-which was certainly near Hyampolis, on the borders of the Locri Epicne-
-
-midii? It is on the authority of this passage only that geographers have
-
-placed a second Abæ behind Ambrysus, at the foot of Parnassus.
In the inland parts, next after Delphi, towards the east is
-
-Daulis,
-
-
-
-are understood in a double sense; some persons supposing it
-
-to have its name from the tree of the country, but others from
-
-a village situated below the Lycoreian territory.
-
-
Panopeus, the present Phanoteus, the country of Epeius,
-
-is on the confines of the district of Lebadeia. Here the fable
-
-places the abode of Tityus. But Homer says, that the Phæacians conducted Rhadamanthus to Eubœa,
-
-
-
-
Near Lebadeia is Trachin, having the same name as that
-
-in Œtæ; it is a small Phocian town. The inhabitants are
-
-called Trachinii.
-
-
Anemoreia
Some call the place Anemoleia; it was afterwards called by
-
-others Hyampolis,
Elateia
Parapotamii is a settlement on the Cephissus, in the
-
-neighbourhood of Phanoteus, Chæroneia, and Elateia. This
-
-place, according to Theopompus, is distant from Chæroneia
-
-about 40 stadia, and is the boundary between the Ambryseis,
-
-Panopeis, and Daulieis. It is situated at the entrance from
-
-Bœotia to the Phocians, upon an eminence of moderate
-
-height, between Parnassus and the mountain [Hadylium,
-
-where there is an open space] of 5 stadia in extent, through
-
-which runs the Cephissus, affording on each side a narrow
-
-pass. This river has its source at Lila, a Phocian city, as
-
-Homer testifies;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-which, like a serpent, winds along Panopeus and the strong Glechon, and
-
-through Orchomenus.
The narrow pass near Parapotamii, or Parapotamia, (for
-
-the name is written both ways,) was disputed in [the Phocian
-
-war,] for this is the only entrance [into Phocis].
There is a Cephissus in Phocis, another at Athens, and
-
-another at Salamis. There is a fourth and a fifth at Sicyon
-
-and at Scyrus; [a sixth at Argos, having its source in the
-
-Lyrceium].
Daphnus
On the subject of Phocis, this may suffice.
-
-
-
-
LOCRIS, which we are now to describe, follows next in - -order. -
It is divided into two parts, one of which is occupied by the
-
-Locri opposite Eubœa, and, as we have already said, formerly consisted of two bodies, situated one on each side of
-
-Daphnus. The Locri Opuntii had their surname from Opus,
Immediately after Halæ, where the Bœotian coast opposite Eubœa terminates, is the Opuntian bay. Opus is the
-
-capital, as the inscription intimates, which is engraved on the
-
-first of the five pillars at Thermopylæ, near the Polyandrium:Opoeis, the capital of the Locri, hides in its bosom those who died in
-
-defence of Greece against the Medes.
-
-It is distant from the sea about 15 stadia, and 60 from the
-
-naval arsenal. The arsenal is Cynus,
Next after Cynus is Alopē
Next to Daphnus, at the distance of about 20 stadia by - -sea, is Cnemides, a strong place, opposite to which in Eubœa - -is Cenæum, a promontory, looking towards the west and the - -Maliac Gulf, and separated by a strait of nearly 20 stadia. -
At Cnemides we are in the territory of the Locri Epicnemidii. Here are the Lichades, as they are called, three islands, - -having their name from Lichas; they lie in front of Cnemides. - -Other islands also are met with in sailing along this coast, - -which we purposely pass over. -
At the distance of 20 stadia from Cnemides is a harbour,
-
-above which at the same distance, in the interior, is situated
-
-Thronium.
Then after these is Scarpheia, at a distance of 10 stadia
-
-
-
-
It is not worth while to speak of any of the other cities.
-
-Of those mentioned by Homer, Calliarus is no longer inhabited, it is now a well-cultivated plain. Bessa, a sort of plain,
-
-does not now exist. It has its name from an accidental
-
-quality, for it abounds with woods.
Tarphe is situated upon a height, at the distance of 20
-
-stadia from [Thronium]. It has a territory, productive and
-
-well wooded; for this place also has its name from its being
-
-thickly wooded. It is now called Pharygæ. A temple of Juno
-
-Pharygæa is there, called so from the Argive Juno at Pharygæ;
-
-and the inhabitants assert that they are of Argive origin.
-
-
Homer does not mention, at least not in express words
-
-the Locri Hesperii, but only seems to distinguish them from
-
-the people of whom we have spoken;
-
-
-
-
There also is Chalcis, mentioned by the poet
Amphissa is situated at the extremity of the Crissæan plain.
-
-It was razed, as we have said before, by the Amphictyons.
-
-Œanthia and Eupalium belong to the Locri. The whole voyage along the coast of the Locri is a little more than 200 stadia.
-
-
There is an Alopē
Ætolians are continuous with the Locri Hesperii, and - -the Ænianes, who occupy Œta with the Epicnemidii, and between them Dorians. These last are the people who inhabited the Tetrapolis, which is called the capital of all the - -Dorians. They possessed the cities Erineus, Bœum, Pindus, - -Cytinium. Pindus is situated above Erineus. A river of the - -same name flows beside it, and empties itself into the Cephissus, not far from Lilæa. Some writers call Pindus, Acyphas. -
Ægimius, king of these Dorians, when an exile from his
-
-kingdom, was restored, as they relate, by Hercules. He requited this favour after the death of Hercules at Œta by
-
-adopting Hyllus, the eldest of the sons of Hercules, and both he
-
-and his descendants succeeded him in the kingdom. It was
-
-from this place that the Heracleidæ set out on their return to
-
-Peloponnesus.
-
-
These cities were for some time of importance, although - -they were small, and their territory not fruitful. They were - -afterwards neglected. After what they suffered in the Phocian war and under the dominion of the Macedonians, Ætolians, and Athamanes, it is surprising that even a vestige of - -them should have remained to the time of the Romans. -
It was the same with the Ænianes, who were exterminated
-
-by Ætolians and Athamanes. The Ætolians were a very
-
-powerful people, and carried on war together with the Acarnanians. The Athamanes were the last of the Epeirotæ, who
-
-attained distinction when the rest were declining, and acquired
-
-power by the assistance of their king Amynander. The
-
-Ænianes, however, kept possession of Œta.
-
-
-
-
This passage is called Pylæ, or gates, straits, and Thermopylæ, because near the straits are hot springs, which are - -held in honour as sacred to Hercules. The mountain above - -is called Callidromus; but some writers call by the name of - -Callidromus the remaining part of the range extending - -through Ætolia and Acarnania to the Ambracian Gulf. -
At Thermopylæ within the straits are strongholds, as
-
-Nicæa, on the sea of the Locri, Teichius and Heracleia above
-
-it, formerly called Trachin, founded by the Lacedæmonians.
-
-Heracleia is distant from the ancient Trachin about 6 stadia.
-
-Next follows Rhoduntia, strong by its position.
-
-
These places are rendered difficult of access by a rocky
-
-country, and by bodies of water, forming ravines through
-
-which they pass. For besides the Spercheius,
These places were of the greatest celebrity when they
-
-formed the keys of the straits. There were frequent contests
-
-for the ascendency between the inhabitants without and those
-
-within the straits. Philip used to call Chalcis and Corinth
-
-the fetters of Greece with reference to the opportunity which
-
-they afforded for invasions from Macedonia; and persons in
-
-
-
-the
-
-fetters,
for Demetrias commanding Pelion and Ossa, commanded also the passes at Tempe. Afterwards, however,
-
-when the whole country was subject to one power, the passes
-
-were freely open to all.Keys of Greece.
Livy, b. xxxii. c. 37.
It was at these straits that Leonidas and his companions, together with a small body of persons from the
-
-neighbourhood, resisted the numerous forces of the Persians,
-
-until the Barbarians, making a circuit of the mountains along
-
-narrow paths, surrounded and cut them to pieces. Their place
-
-of burial, the Polyandrium, is still to be seen there, and the
-
-celebrated inscription sculptured on the Lacedæmonian pillar;
-
-Stranger, go tell Lacedæmon that we lie here in obedience
-
-to her laws.
-
-
There is also a large harbour here and a temple of
-
-Ceres, in which the Amphictyons at the time of every Pylæan
-
-assembly offered sacrifice. From the harbour to the Heracleian Trachin are 40 stadia by land, but by sea to Cenæum
The Thessalians form the largest and most ancient - -community. One part of them has been mentioned by Homer, - -and the rest by many other writers. Homer constantly mentions the Ætolians under one name; he places cities, and not - -nations dependent upon them, if we except the Curetes, whom - -we must place in the division of Ætolians. -
We must begin our account with the Thessalians, omitting
-
-very ancient and fabulous stories, and what is not generally
-
-admitted, (as we have done in other instances,) but propose
-
-to mention what appears suited to our purpose.
-
-
-
-
THE sea-coast, extending from Thermopylæ to the
-
-mouths of the Peneius,
These are the middle parts of Thessaly, a district of very
-
-fertile country, except that part of it which is overflowed by
-
-rivers. The Peneius flows through the middle of the country,
-
-and receiving many rivers, frequently overflows. Formerly,
-
-according to report, the plain was a lake; it is enclosed on all
-
-sides inland by mountains, and the sea-coast is more elevated
-
-than the plains. When a chasm was formed, at the place now
-
-called Tempe, by shocks of an earthquake, and Ossa was riven
-
-from Olympus, the Peneius flowed out through it to the sea,
-
-and drained this tract of country. Still there remained the
-
-large lake Nessonis, and the lake Bœbeis; which is of less
-
-extent than the Nessonis, and nearer to the sea-coast.
-
-
-
-
Phthiotis comprises the southern parts, extending along
-
-Œta from the Maliac and (or) Pylaïc Gulf
Hestiæotis comprises the western parts and those between - -Pindus and Upper Macedonia; the rest is occupied by the - -inhabitants of the plains below Hestiæotis, who are called - -Pelasgiotæ, and approach close to the Lower Macedonians; by - -the [Thessalians] also, who possess the country next in - -order, as far as the coast of Magnesia. -
The names of many cities might here be enumerated,
-
-which are celebrated on other accounts, but particularly as
-
-being mentioned by Homer; few of them, however, but most
-
-of all Larisa, preserve their ancient importance.
-
-
The poet having divided the whole of the country, which
-
-we call Thessaly, into ten
The poet first enumerates the Thessalians subject to
-
-Achilles, who occupied the southern side, and adjoined Œta,
-
-and the Locri Epicnemidii;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-He joins together with these the people under the command of
-
-Phoenix, and makes them compose one common expedition.
-
-The poet nowhere mentions the Dolopian forces in the battles
-
-near Ilium, neither does he introduce their leader Phoenix, as
-
-undertaking, like Nestor, dangerous enterprises. But Phoenix
-
-is mentioned by others, as by Pindar,
-
-
-
-All who dwelt in Pelasgic Argos; they who occupied Alus, Alope, and
-
-Trachin; they who possessed Phthia, and Hellas, abounding with beautiful women, were called Myrmidones, Hellenes, and Achæi.
-
-
-
-The words of the poet are to be understood according to the
-
-figure of the grammarians, by which something is suppressed,
-
-for it would be ridiculous for the king to engage in the expe-
-
-dition,
-
-
-
-
-To be an eloquent speaker, and to achieve great deeds.
From this it appears that Homer considered the forces - -under Achilles and Phœnix as constituting one body; but the - -places mentioned as being under the authority of Achilles, are - -subjects of controversy. -
Some have understood Pelasgic Argos to be a Thessalian
-
-city, formerly situated near Larisa, but now no longer in existence. Others do not understand a city to be meant by this
-
-name, but the Thessalian plain, and to have been so called by
-
-Abas, who established a colony there from Argos.
-
-
With respect to Phthia, some suppose it to be the same
-
-as Hellas and Achaia, and that these countries form the southern portion in the division of Thessaly into two parts. But
-
-others distinguish Phthia and Hellas. The poet seems to distinguish them in these verses;
-
-
-
-
Thus much, then, respecting the Hellenes.
-
-
The people under the command of Achilles, Protesilaus,
-
-and Philoctetes, are called Phthii. The poet furnishes evidence of this. Having recited in the Catalogue of those
-
-under the command of Achilles,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-But here he particularizes them;
-
-
-
-there were Bœoti and Iaones wearing long robes, Locri, Phthii, and
-
-illustrious Epeii.
-
-
-at the head of the Phthii fought Medon and Podarces, firm in battle.
-
-These armed with breastplates fought together with Bœoti, at the head of
-
-the magnanimous Phthii, keeping away the enemy from the ships.
Perhaps the people with Eurypylus were called Phthii, as
-
-they bordered upon the country of the latter. At present,
-
-however, historians assign to Magnesia the country about
-
-Ormenium, which was subject to Eurypylus, and the whole of
-
-that subject to Philoctetes; but they regard the country un-
-
-
-
-
They entertain doubts respecting Halus and Alope,
-
-whether Homer means the places which are now comprised
-
-in the Phthiotic government, or those among the Locri, since
-
-the dominion of Achilles extended hither as well as to Trachin and the Œtæan territory. For Halus and Halius, as
-
-well as Alope, are on the coast of the Locri. But some substitute Halius for Alope, and write the verse in this manner;
-
-
-
-
As Homer frequently mentions the Spercheius as a river
-
-of the country, having its source in the Typhrestus, a Dryopian mountain, formerly called [Tymphrestus], and emptying itself near Thermopylæ, between Trachin and Lamia,
The Spercheius is distant about 30 stadia from Lamia, - -which lies above a plain, extending to the Maliac Gulf. That - -the Spercheius is a river of the country [subject to Achilles], appears from the words of Achilles, who says, that he - -had devoted his hair to the Spercheius; and from the circumstance, that Menesthius, one of his commanders, was said - -to be the son of Spercheius and the sister of Achilles. -
It is probable that all the people under the command of
-
-Achilles and Patroclus, and who had accompanied Peleus in
-
-his banishment from Ægina, had the name of Myrmidons,
-
-but all the Phthiotæ were called Achæcans.
-
-
They reckon in the Phthiotic district, which was subject to Achilles, beginning from the Malienses, a considerable - -number of towns, and among them Thebæ Phthiotides, Echinus, Lamia, near which the war was carried on between the - -Macedonians and Antipater, against the Athenians. In this - -war Leosthenes, the Athenian general, was killed, [and Leonnatus,] one of the companions of Alexander the king. Besides the above-mentioned towns, we must add [Narthac]ium, - -Erineus, Coroneia, of the same name as the town in Bœotia, - -Melitæa, Thaumaci, Proerna, Pharsalus, Eretria, of the same - -name as the Euboic town, Paracheloïtæ, of the same name - -as those in Ætolia; for here also, near Lamia, is a river Achelous, on the banks of which live the Paracheloïtæ. -
This district, lying to the north, extended to the northwestern territory of the Asclepiadæ, and to the territory of
-
-Eurypylus and Protesilaus, inclining to the east; on the south
-
-it adjoined the Œtæan territory, which was divided into fourteen demi, and contained Heracleia and Dryopis, which was
-
-once a community of four cities, (a Tetrapolis,) like Doris,
-
-and accounted the capital of the Dryopes in Peloponnesus.
-
-To the Œtæan district belong also the Acyphas, Parasopias,
-
-
-
-
The poet with sufficient clearness describes the situation
-
-of the Dolopes, as at the extremity of Phthia, and says that
-
-both they and the Phthiotæ were under the command of the
-
-same chief, Peleus;
-
-
-
-I lived,
he says, at the farthest part of Phthia, king of the Dolopes.
This region is close to Pindus, and the places about it, most
-
-of which belong to the Thessalians. For in consequence of
-
-the renown and ascendency of the Thessalians and Macedonians, those Epeirotæ, who bordered nearest upon them, became, some voluntarily, others by force, incorporated among
-
-the Macedonians and Thessalians. In this manner the Athamanes, Æthices, and Talares were joined to the Thessalians,
-
-and the Orestæ, Pelagones, and Elimiotæ to the Macedonians.
-
-
Pindus is a large mountain, having on the north Macedonia, on the west Perrhæbi, settlers from another country,
-
-on the south Dolopes, [and on the east Hestiæotis] which
-
-belongs to Thessaly. Close upon Pindus dwelt Talares,
-
-a tribe of Molotti, detached from the Molotti about Mount
-
-Tomarus, and Æthices, among whom the poet says the Centaurs took refuge when expelled by Peirithous.
It remains for us to describe the tract of sea-coast subject to Achilles: we begin from Thermopylæ, for we have - -spoken of the coast of Locris, and of the interior. -
Thermopylæ is separated from the Cenæum by a strait 70
-
-stadia across. Coasting beyond the Pylæ, it is at a distance
-
-from the Spercheius of about 10, (60?) and thence to Phalara
-
-
-
-
Then follows a small island, Myonnesus; next Antron; which was subject to Protesilaus. Thus much concerning the territory subject to Achilles. -
As the poet, in naming the chiefs, and cities under their - -rule, has divided the country into numerous well-known parts, - -and has given an accurate account of the whole circuit of - -Thessaly, we shall follow him, as before, in completing the - -description of this region. -
Next to the people under the command of Achilles, he - -enumerates those under the command of Protesilaus. They - -were situated, next, along the sea-coast which was subject to - -Achilles, as far as Antron. The boundary of the country - -under the command of Protesilaus, is determined by its being - -situated without the Maliac Gulf, yet still in Phthiotis, though - -not within Phthiotis subject to Achilles. -
Phylacē
The Demetrium he speaks of
These places are in Thessaliotis, one of the four divisions of - -all Thessaly, in which were the possessions of Eurypylus. - -Phyllus, where is a temple of the Phyllæan Apollo, Ichnæ, - -where the Ichnæan Themis is worshipped, Cierus, and [all - -the places as far as] Athamania, are included in Thessaliotis. -
At Antron, in the strait near Eubœa, is a sunk rock, called
-
-
-
-the Ass of Antron.
Next are Pteleum and Halus; next
-
-the temple of Ceres, and Pyrasus in ruins; above these, Thebæ;
-
-then Pyrrha, a promontory, and two small islands near, one of
-
-which is called Pyrrha, the other Deucalion. Somewhere
-
-here ends the territory of Phthiotis.
-
-
The poet next mentions the people under Eumelus, and - -the continuous tract of coast which now belongs to Magnesia, - -and the Pelasgiotis. -
Pheræ is the termination of the Pelasgic plains towards
-
-Magnesia, which plains extend as far as Pelion, a distance of
-
-160 stadia. Pagasæ is the naval arsenal of Pheræ, from which
-
-it is distant 90 stadia, and 20 from Iolcus. Iolcus has been
-
-razed from ancient times. It was from this place that Pelias
-
-despatched Jason and the ship Argo. Pagasæ had its name,
The lake Bœbeis
As civil dissensions and usurpations reduced the flourishing condition of Iolcus, formerly so powerful, so they affected - -Pheræ in the same manner, which was raised to prosperity, - -and was destroyed by tyrants. -
Near Demetrias flows the Anaurus. The continuous line
-
-
-
-
Artemidorus places the Gulf of Pagasæ farther from Demetrias, near the places subject to Philoctetes. In the gulf he says
-
-is the island Cicynethus,
The poet next enumerates the cities subject to Philoctetes. -
Methone is not the Thracian Methone razed by Philip. - -We have already noticed the change of name these places and - -others in the Peloponnesus have undergone. Other places - -enumerated as subject to Philoctetes, are Thaumacia, Olizon, - -and Melibœa, all along the shore next adjacent. -
In front of the Magnetes lie clusters of islands; the most
-
-celebrated are Sciathus,
Scyrus however is particularly celebrated in ancient histories. It is also highly reputed for the excellence of its
-
-goats, and the quarries of variegated marble, such as the
-
-Carystian, the Deucallian, (Docimæan?) the Synnadic, and
-
-the Hierapolitic kinds. For there may be seen at Rome
-
-columns, consisting of a single stone, and large slabs of
-
-variegated marble, (from Scyrus,) with which the city is embellished both at the public charge and at the expense of individuals, which has caused works of white marble to be little
-
-esteemed.
-
-
-
-
Tricca,
Ithome, which has the same name as the Messenian Ithome,
-
-ought not, they say, to be pronounced in this manner, but
-
-should be pronounced without the first syllable, Thome, for
-
-this was its former name. At present, it is changed to
-
-[Thumæum]. It is a spot strong by nature, and in reality
-
-rocky. It lies between four strong-holds, which form a square,
-
-Tricca, Metropolis, Pelinnæum, and Gomphi.
-
-
-
-for she alone accepts the sacrifice of swine. Certainly Callimachus, if any person could be said to possess information,
-
-was well informed, and it was his object, as he himself says,
-
-all his life to relate these fables. Later writers, however,
-
-have proved that there was not one Venus only, but several,
-
-who accepted that sacrifice, from among whom the goddess
-
-worshipped at Metropolis came, and that this [foreign] rite
-
-was delivered down by one of the cities which contributed to
-
-form that settlement.
-
-
-
-among the Venuses, (for the goddess bears several titles,) Venus Castnietis surpasses all others in wisdom,
The Peneius itself rises in Mount Pindus, as I have before - -said. It leaves Tricca, Pelinnæum, and Pharcadon on the - -left hand, and takes its course beside Atrax and Larisa. - -After having received the rivers of the Thessaliotis it flows - -onwards through Tempe, and it empties itself into the sea. -
Historians speak of Œchalia, the city of Eurytus, as existing in these parts, in Eubœa also, and in Arcadia; but some - -give it one name, others another, as I have said in the description of Peloponnesus. -
They inquire particularly, which of these was the city
-
-taken by Hercules, and which was the city intended by the
-
-author of the poem, The Capture of Œchalia?
-
The places, however, were subject to the Asclepiadæ.
-
-
The poet next mentions the country which was under
-
-the dominion of Eurypylus;
-
-
-
-
Ormenium is now called Orminium. It is a village situated below Pelion, near the Pagasitic Gulf, but was one of - -the cities which contributed to form the settlement of Demetrias, as I have before said. -
The lake Bœbeis must be near, because both Bœbe and - -Ormenium belonged to the cities lying around Demetrias. -
Ormenium is distant by land 27 stadia from Demetrias. - -The site of Iolcus, which is on the road, is distant 7 stadia - -from Demetrias, and the remaining 20 from Ormenium. -
Demetrius of Scepsis says, that Phoenix came from Ormenium, and that he fled thence from his father Amyntor,
-
-the son of Ormenus, to Phthia, to king Peleus. For this place
-
-was founded by Ormenus, the son of Cercaphus, the son of
-
-Æolus. The sons of Ormenus were Amyntor and Eumæmon;
-
-the son of the former was Phœnix, and of the latter, Eurypylus. The succession to his possessions was preserved secure
-
-for Eurypylus, after the departure of Phœnix from his home,
-
-and we ought to write the verse of the poet in this manner:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
But Crates makes Phœnix a Phocæan, conjecturing this
-
-from the helmet of Meges, which Ulysses wore on the night
-
-expedition; of which helmet the poet says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Autolycus brought it away from Eleon, out of the house of Amyntor,
-
-the son of Ormenus, having broken through the thick walls.
Now Eleon was a small city on Parnassus, and by Amyntor, the son of Ormenus, he could not mean any other person
-
-than the father of Phœnix, and that Autolycus, who lived on
-
-Parnassus, was in the habit of digging through the houses of
-
-his neighbours, which is the common practice of every housebreaker, and not of persons living at a distance. But Demetrius the Scepsian says, that there is no such place on Parnassus as Eleon, but Neon, which was built after the Trojan
-
-war, and that digging through houses was not confined to
-
-robbers of the neighbourhood. Other things might be advanced, but I am unwilling to insist long on this subject.
-
-Others write the words
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-but this is a Tanagrian town; and the words
-
-
-
-
Hypereia is a spring in the middle of the city of the Pheræi [subject to Eumelus]. It would therefore be absurd [to - -assign it to Eurypylus]. -
Titanus
Continuous with this portion of Thessaly are the people subject to Polypœtes.
-
-
-
-
-
Argissa, the present Argura, is situated upon the banks of - -the Peneius. Atrax lies above it at the distance of 40 stadia, - -close to the river. The intermediate country along the side - -of the river was occupied by Perrhæbi. -
Some call Orthe the citadel of the Phalannæi. Phalanna - -is a Perrhæbic city on the Peneius, near Tempe. -
The Perrhæbi, oppressed by the Lapithæ, retreated in great - -numbers to the mountainous country about Pindus, and to the - -Athamanes and Dolopes; but the Larisæi became masters of - -the country and of the Perrhæbi who remained there. The - -Larisæi lived near the Peneius, but in the neighbourhood of - -the Perrhæbi. They occupied the most fertile portion of the - -plains, except some of the very deep valleys near the lake - -Nessonis, into which the river, when it overflowed, usually - -carried away a portion of the arable ground belonging to the - -Larisæ, who afterwards remedied this by making embankments. -
These people were in possession of Perrhæbia, and levied - -imposts until Philip became master of the country. -
Larisa is a place situated on Ossa, and there is Larisa
-
-Cremaste, by some called Pelasgia. In Crete also is a city
-
-Larisa, the inhabitants of which were embodied with those of
-
-Hierapytna; and from this place the plain below is called the
-
-Larisian plain. In Peloponnesus the citadel of the Argives is
-
-
-
-
Oloosson, called the White, from its chalky soil, Elone, and
-
-Gonnus are Perrhæbic cities. The name of Elone was changed
-
-to that of Leimone. It is now in ruins. Both lie at the foot
-
-of Olympus, not very far from the river Eurotas, which the
-
-poet calls Titaresius.
-
-
The poet speaks both of this river and of the Perrhæbi in the subsequent verses, when he says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Guneus brought from Cyphus two and twenty vessels. His followers
-
-were Enienes and Peræbi, firm in battle. They dwelt near the wintry
-
-Dodona, and tilled the fields about the lovely Titaresius.
He mentions therefore these places as belonging to the Perrhæbi, which comprised a part of the Hestiæotis.
The water of the Peneius is clear, that of the Titaresius
-
-is unctuous; a property arising from some matter, which
-
-prevents the streams mingling with each other,
-
-
-
-
Because the Perrhæbi and Lapithæ lived intermingled together, Simonides calls all those people Pelasgiotæ, who occupy the eastern parts about Gyrton and the mouths of the - -Peneius, Ossa, Pelion, and the country about Demetrias, and - -the places in the plain, Larisa, Crannon, Scotussa, Mopsium, - -Atrax, and the parts near the lakes Nessonis and Bœbeis. - -The poet mentions a few only of these places, either because - -they were not inhabited at all, or badly inhabited on account - -of the inundations which had happened at various times. - -For the poet does not mention even the lake Nessonis, but the - -Bœbeis only, which is much smaller, for its water remained - -constant, and this alone remains, while the former probably - -was at one time filled irregularly to excess, and at another - -contained no water. -
We have mentioned Scotussa in our accounts of Dodona,
-
-and of the oracle, in Thessaly, when we observed that it was
-
-near Scotussa. Near Scotussa is a tract called Cynoscephalæ.
-
-It was here that the Romans with their allies the Ætolians, and
-
-their general Titus Quintius, defeated in a great battle Philip,
-
-son of Demetrius, king of Macedon.
-
-
Something of the same kind has happened in the territory of Magnetis. For Homer having enumerated many
-
-places of this country, calls none of them Magnetes, but those
-
-only whom he indicates in terms obscure, and not easily understood;
-
-
-
-
Formerly they called the Gyrtonians Phlegyæ, from
-
-Phlegyas, the brother of Ixion; and the Crannonii, Ephyri, so
-
-that there is a doubt, when the poet says,
-
-
-
-These two from Thrace appeared with breastplates armed against
-
-Ephyri, or haughty Phlegyæ,
The same is the case with the Perrhæbi and Ænianes,
-
-for Homer joins them together, as if they dwelt near each
-
-other; and it is said by later writers, that, for a long period,
-
-the settlement of the Ænianes was in the Dotian plain. Now
-
-this plain is near Perrhæbia, which we have just mentioned,
-
-Ossa, and the lake Bœbeis: it is situated about the middle of
-
-Thessaly, but enclosed by itself within hills. Hesiod speaks of
-
-it in this manner;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-The greater part of the Ænianes were expelled by the Lapithæ,
-
-and took refuge in Œta, where they established their power,
-
-having deprived the Dorians and the Malienses of some portions of country, extending as far as Heracleia and Echinus.
-
-Some of them however remained about Cyphus, a Perrhæbic
-
-mountain, where is a settlement of the same name. As to the
-
-Perrhæbi, some of them collected about the western parts of
-
-Olympus and settled there, on the borders of the Macedonians.
-
-But a large body took shelter among the mountains near
-
-Athamania, and Pindus. But at present few, if any, traces
-
-of them are to be found.
-Or, as a pure virgin, who dwells on the sacred heights of the Twin hills,
-
-comes to the Dotian plain, in front of Amyrus, abounding with vines, to
-
-bathe her feet in the lake Bœbias.
The Magnetes, who are mentioned last in the Thessalian - -catalogue of the poet, must be understood to be those situated - -within Tempe, extending from the Peneius and Ossa to Pelion, and bordering upon the Pieriotæ in Macedonia, who occupy the country on the other side the Peneius as far as - -the sea. -
Homolium, or Homolē, (for both words are in use,) must
-
-
-
-
If we are to extend their possessions as far as the sea-coast, - -which is very near Homolium, there is reason for assigning to - -them Rhizus, and Erymnæ, which lies on the sea-coast in the - -tract subject to Philoctetes and Eumelus. Let this however - -remain unsettled. For the order in which the places as far as - -the Peneius follow one another, is not clearly expressed, and - -as the places are not of any note, we need not consider that - -uncertainty as very important. The coast of Sepias, however, - -is mentioned by tragic writers, and was chaunted in songs on - -account of the destruction of the Persian fleet. It consists of - -a chain of rocks. -
Between Sepias and Casthanæa, a village situated below - -Pelion, is the sea-shore, where the fleet of Xerxes was lying, - -when an east wind began to blow violently; some of the vessels were forced on shore, and immediately went to pieces; - -others were driven on Hipnus, a rocky spot near Pelion, - -others were lost at Melibœa, others at Casthanæa. -
The whole of the coasting voyage along Pelion, to the extent of about 80 stadia, is among rocks. That along Ossa is - -of the same kind and to the same extent. -
Between them is a bay of more than 200 stadia in extent, - -upon which is situated Melibœa. -
The whole voyage from Demetrias, including the winding - -of the bays, to the Peneius is more than 1000 stadia, from the - -Spercheius 800 stadia more, and from the Euripus 2350 - -stadia. -
Hieronymus assigns a circuit of 3000 stadia to the plain
-
-country in Thessaly and Magnesia, and says, that it was inhabited by Pelasgi, but that these people were driven into
-
-Italy by Lapithæ, and that the present Pelasgic plain is that
-
-in which are situated Larisa, Gyrton, Pheræ, Mopsium, Bœbeis, Ossa, Homole, Pelion, and Magnetis. Mopsium has not
-
-its name from Mopsus, the son of Manto the daughter of
-
-Teiresias, but from Mopsus, one of the Lapithæ, who sailed
-
-with the Argonauts. Mopsopus, from whom Attica is called
-
-Mopsopia, is a different person.
-
-
This then is the account of the several parts of Thes-
-
-saly.
-
-
-
-
In general we say, that it was formerly called Pyrrhæa,
-
-from Pyrrha, the wife of Deucalion; Hæmonia, from Hæmon;
-
-and Thettalia, from Thettalus, the son of Hæmon. But some
-
-writers, after dividing it into two portions, say, that Deucalion
-
-obtained by lot the southern part, and called it Pandora, from
-
-his mother; that the other fell to the share of Hæmon, from
-
-whom it was called Hæmonia; that the name of one part was
-
-changed to Hellas, from Hellen, the son of Deucalion, and of
-
-the other to Thettalia, from Thettalus, the son of Hæmon.
-
-But, according to some writers, it was the descendants of Antiphus and Pheidippus, sons of Thettalus, descended from
-
-Hercules, who invaded the country from Ephyra in Thesprotia, and called it after the name of Thettalus their progenitor. It has been already said that once it had the name
-
-of Nessonis, as well as the lake, from Nesson, the son of
-
-Thettalus.
-
-
-
-
SUMMARY.
- -The Tenth Book contains Ætolia and the neighbouring islands; also the - -whole of Crete, on which the author dwells some time in narrating the - -institutions of the islanders and of the Curetes. He describes at length - -the origin of the Idæan Dactyli in Crete, their customs and religious - -rites. Strabo mentions the connexion of his own family with Crete. The - -Book contains an account of the numerous islands about Crete, including - -the Sporades and some of the Cyclades.
SINCE Eubœa
The island is oblong, and extends nearly
Eubœa then fronts
It approaches nearest to the continent at Chalcis. It projects with a convex bend towards the places in Bœotia near
-
-Aulis, and forms the Euripus,
And first, the parts lying between Aulis (Chalcis?) and
-
-the places about Geræstus are called the Hollows of Eubœa,
-
-for the sea-coast swells into bays, and, as it approaches Chalcis, juts out again towards the continent.
-
-
The island had the name not of Macris only, but of
-
-Abantis also. The poet in speaking of Eubœa never calls the
-
-inhabitants from the name of the island, Eubœans, but always
-
-Abantes;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Aristotle says that Thracians, taking their departure from
-
-Aba, the Phocian city, settled with the other inhabitants in
-
-the island, and gave the name of Abantes to those who already occupied it; other writers say that they had their name
-
-from a hero,
It was also called Oché, which is the name of one of the
-
-largest mountainsnarrow.
It had the name of Ellopia, from Ellops, the son of Ion;
-
-according to others, he was the brother of Æclus, and Cothus, who is said to have founded Ellopia,
The Ellopians, after the battle of Leuctra, were compelled
-
-by the tyrant Philistides to remove to the city Histiea, and
-
-augmented the number of its inhabitants. Demosthenes
It is situated below Mount Telethrius, at a place called
-
-Drymus, near the river Callas, on a lofty rock;
As Ellopia induced us to commence our description - -with Histiæa and Oreus, we shall proceed with the places continuous with these. -
The promontory Cenæum is near Oreus, and on the promontory is situated Dium,
Carystus
Geræstus
Next to Geræstus is Eretria, which, after Chalcis, is the
-
-largest city in Eubœa. Next follows Chalcis, the capital as
-
-it were of the island, situated immediately on the Euripus.
-
-Both these cities are said to have been founded by Athenians
-
-before the Trojan war; [but it is also said that] after the
-
-Trojan war, Æclus and Cothus took their departure from
-
-Athens; the former to found Eretria, and Cothus, Chalcis.
-
-A body of Æolians who belonged to the expedition of Penthilus remained in the island. Anciently, even Arabians
These cities, Eretria and Chalcis, when their population
-
-was greatly augmented, sent out considerable colonies to Macedonia, for Eretria founded cities about Pallene and Mount
-
-Athos; Chalcis founded some near Olynthus, which Philip
-
-destroyed. There are also many settlements in Italy and
-
-Sicily, founded by Chalcidians. These colonies were sent
-
-out, according to Aristotle,
Above the city of the Chalcidians is the plain called
-
-Lelantum, in which are hot springs, adapted to the cure of
-
-diseases, and which were used by Cornelius Sylla, the Roman
-
-general. There was also an extraordinary mine which produced both copper and iron; such, writers say, is not to be
-
-found elsewhere. At present, however, both are exhausted.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Euboïs near the bending shore of Jupiter Cenæus, close to the tomb of
-
-the wretched Lichas.
There is also in Ætolia a town of the name of Chalcis,
-
-
-
-
Some say, that the Eretrians were a colony from Macistus in Triphylia, under the conduct of Eretrieus; others,
-
-that they came from Eretria, in Attica, where now a market
-
-is held. There is an Eretria also near Pharsalus. In
-
-the Eretrian district there was a city, Tamynæ, sacred to
-
-Apollo. The temple (which was near the strait) is said to
-
-have been built by Admetus, whom the god, according to
-
-report, served a year
Eretria,
The Persians razed the ancient city, having enclosed with
-
-multitudes the inhabitants, according to the expression of
-
-Herodotus,
The power which the Eretrians once possessed, is evinced
-
-by a pillar which was placed in the temple of Diana Amarynthia. There is an inscription on it to this effect, that their
-
-processions upon their public festivals consisted of three
-
-thousand heavy-armed soldiers, six hundred horsemen, and
-
-
-
-
-
-
-warriors eager to break through breastplates with extended ashen
-
-spears.
-
-
-
-He represents the Eubœans as fighting in this manner; but
-
-he describes the Locrian mode as contrary to this;
-
-
-
-he wounded him with a polished spear, pointed with brass, and unbraced his limbs.
-
-
-
-An answer of an oracle is commonly repeated, which was returned to the Ægienses;
-
-
-
-It was not their practice to engage in close fight, but they followed him
-
-to Ilium with their bows, clothed in the pliant fleece of the sheep.
-
-
-
-meaning the Chalcideans as superior to all other people, for
-
-Arethusa belongs to them.
-
-a Thessalian horse, a Lacedæmonian woman, and the men who drink
-
-the water of the sacred Arethusa,
At present the rivers of Eubœa are the Cereus and
-
-Neleus. The cattle which drink of the water of the former
-
-become white, and those that drink of the water of the latter
-
-become black. We have said that a similar effect is produced
-
-by the water of the Crathis.
As some of the Eubœans, on their return from Troy,
-
-were driven out of their course among the Illyrians; pursued
-
-their journey homewards through Macedonia, and stopped in
-
-the neighbourhood of Edessa; having assisted the people in a
-
-war, who had received them hospitably; they founded a city,
-
-
-
-
We have said, that Ætolians, Acarnanians, and Athamanes are situated to the west of the Thessalians and Œtæans, if indeed we must call the Athamanes,
ÆTOLIANS and Acarnanians border on one another,
-
-having between them the river Achelous,
Acarnanians occupy the western side of the river as far as
-
-the Ambracian Gulf,
Amphilochians are situated above the Acarnanians in the - -interior towards the north; above the Amphilochians are - -situated Dolopes, and Mount Pindus; above the Ætolians - -are Perrhæbi, Athamanes, and a body of the Ænianes who - -occupy Œta. -
The southern side, as well the Acarnanian as the Ætolian,
-
-is washed by the sea, forming the Corinthian Gulf, into which
-
-the Achelous empties itself. This river (at its mouth) is the
-
-boundary of the Ætolian and the Acarnanian coast. The
-
-Achelous was formerly called Thoas. There is a river of
-
-this name near Dyme,
The cities of the Acarnanians are, Anactorium, situated
-
-upon a peninsula
There are also other cities, Palærus,
Stratus lies half-way between Alyzia and Anactorium.
To the Ætolians belong both Calydon
Ætolia was divided into two portions, one called the
-
-Old, the other the Epictetus (the Acquired). The Old comprised the sea-coast from the Achelous as far as Calydon, extending far into the inland parts, which are fertile, and consist
-
-of plains. Here are situated Stratus and Trichonium, which
-
-has an excellent soil. The Epictetus, that reaches close to
-
-the Locri in the direction of Naupactus
There is in Ætolia a very large mountain, the Corax,
Above Molycreia
The river Evenus rises in the country of the Bomianses,
-
-a nation situated among the Ophienses, and an Ætolian tribe
-
-like the Eurytanes, Agræi, Curetes, and others. It does not
-
-flow, at its commencement, through the territory of the Curetes, which is the same as Pleuronia, but through the country more towards the east along Chalcis and Calydon; it then
-
-makes a bend backwards to the plains of the ancient Pleuron,
-
-and having changed its course to the west, turns again to the
-
-south, where it empties itself. It was formerly called Lycormas. There Nessus, who had the post of ferryman, is said
-
-to have been killed by Hercules for having attempted to force
-
-Deianeira while he was conveying her across the river.
-
-
The poet calls Olenus and Pylene Ætolian cities, the
-
-former of which, of the same name as the Achæan city, was
-
-razed by the Æolians. It is near the new city Pleuron.
-
-The Acarnanians disputed the possession of the territory.
-
-They transferred Pylene to a higher situation, and changed
-
-its name to Proschium. Hellanicus was not at all acquainted
-
-with the history of these cities, but speaks of them as still existing in their ancient condition, but Macynia and Molycria,
-
-which were built subsequent to the return of the Heracleidæ,
-
-
-
-
This, then, is the general account of the country of the - -Acarnanians and Ætolians. We must annex to this some - -description of the sea-coast and of the islands lying in front - -of it. -
If we begin from the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf, the - -first place we meet with in Acarnania is Actium. The temple - -of Apollo Actius has the same name as the promontory, which - -forms the entrance of the Gulf, and has a harbour on the - -outside. -
At the distance of 40 stadia from the temple is Anactorium, situated on the Gulf; and at the distance of 240 stadia
-
-is Leucas.
This was, anciently, a peninsula belonging to the territory of the Acarnanians. The poet calls it the coast of
-
-Epirus, meaning by Epirus the country on the other side of
-
-Ithaca,
-
-
-
-we must understand the coast of Acarnania.
-
To Leucas also belonged Neritus, which Lærtes said he
-
-took-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and the cities which he mentions in the Catalogue,
-
-
-
-as when I was chief of the Cephallenians, and took Nericus, a well built city, on the coast of Epirus,
-
-
-
-Menander then says that Sappho was the first who took the
-
-leap, but persons better acquainted with ancient accounts assert that it was Cephalus, who was in love with Pterelas, the
-
-son of Deioneus.Here Sappho first 'tis said,
(according to Menander,) in pursuit of
-
-the haughty Phaon, and urged on by maddening desire, threw herself
a daughter of Pterelas who
-
-was in love with Cephalus.
See below, § 14.
At present those are called Cephallenians who inhabit
-
-Cepliallenia. But Homer calls all those under the command
-
-of Ulysses by this name, among whom are the Acarnanians;
-
-for when he says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-(the remarkable mountain in this island; so also,
-
-
-
-Ulysses led the Cephallenians, those who possessed Ithaca, and Neritum, waving with woods,
-
-
-
-he means by Epirus the country opposite to the islands, intending to include together with Leucas the rest of Acarnania,
-
-of which he says,
-
-
-
-and they who inhabited Crocyleia and rocky Ægilips, Zacynthus, Samos, Epirus, and the country opposite to these islands;
The present Cephallenia he calls Samos, as when he says,
-
-
-
-
But Apollodorus at one time says that the ambiguity is removed by the epithet, which the poet uses, when he says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-meaning the island; and at another time he pretends that we
-
-ought to write
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and not
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and evidently supposes that the city is called by either name,
-
-Samos or Samé, but the island by that of Samos only. That
-
-the city is called Same is evident from the enumeration of
-
-the suitors from each city, where the poet says,
-
-
-
-
There is reason in this. For the poet does not express
-
-himself distinctly either about Cephallenia, or Ithaca, or the
-
-other neighbouring places, so that both historians and commentators differ from one another.
-
-
For instance, with respect to Ithaca, when the poet
-
-says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-but whether he means the city, or the island, is not clear, at
-
-least from this verse;
-
-
-
-I dwell at Ithaca, turned to the western sun; where is a mountain,
-
-Neritum, seen from afar with its waving woods;
-
-
-
-Any one would understand these words in their proper sense
-
-to mean the city, as we speak of Athens, Lycabettus, Rhodes,
-
-Atabyris, Lacedæmon, and Taygetus, but in a poetical sense
-
-the contrary is implied.
-
In the verses,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-the meaning is plain, because the mountain is on the island
-
-and not in the city; and when he says,
-
-
-
-I dwell at Ithaca, turned to the western sun, in which is a mountain
-
-Neritum,
waving
-
-with woods;
the other as a well-built city;
one in Ithaca,
-
-the other on the sea-beach of Epirus.]
But this line seems to imply some contradiction;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-for there is not any island in the sea exposed to the western sun,
The expression does imply contradictions, which admit how-
-
-ever of some explanation. They do not understand low,
but its contiguity to the continent, to which it approaches very close; nor by towards
-
-darkness,
the contrary to which is towards the south, (at a distance,
and apart,
as
-
-if the other islands lay to the south, and more distant from the
-
-continent, but Ithaca near the continent and towards the north.
-
-That the poet designates the southern part (of the heavens) in
-
-this manner appears from these words,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and still more evidently in these lines,
-
-
-
-whether they go to the right hand, towards the morning and the sun, or
-
-to the left, towards cloudy darkness;
-
-
-
-We may here understand the four climates,my friends, we know not where darkness nor where morning lie, nor
-
-where sets nor where rises the sun which brings light to man.
The circuit of Ithaca is about 80
The poet does not mention Cephallenia, which contains
-
-four cities, by its present name, nor any of the cities except
-
-one, either Samé or Samos, which no longer exists, but traces
-
-of it are shown in the middle of the Strait near Ithaca. The
-
-inhabitants have the name of Samæ. The rest still exist at
-
-present, they are small cities, Paleis, Pronesus, and Cranii.
-
-In our time Caius Antonius, the uncle of Marcus Antonius,
-
-founded an additional city, when (being an exile after his consulship in which he was the colleague of Cicero the orator) he
-
-lived at Cephallenia, and was master of the whole island, as
-
-if it had been his own property. He returned from exile before he completed the foundation of the settlement, and died
-
-when engaged in more important affairs.
-
-
Some writers do not hesitate to affirm, that Cephallenia
-
-and Dulichium are the same; others identify it with Taphos,
-
-and the Cephallenians with Taphians, and these again with
-
-Teleboæ. They assert that Amphitryon, with the aid of Cephalus, the son of Deioneus, an exile from Athens, undertook
-
-an expedition against the island, and having got possession of
-
-it, delivered it up to Cephalus; hence this city bore his name,
-
-and the rest those of his children. But this is not in accordance with Homer, for the Cephallenians were subject to
-
-Ulysses and Lærtes, and Taphos to Mentes;
-
-
-
-
companion of Phyleides, chief of the magnanimous Epeii;
but Ulysses led the magnanimous Cephallenes.
Cephallenia is situated opposite to Acarnania, at the distance from Leucatas of about 50, or according to others, of 40
-
-stadia, and from Chelonatas
Between Ithaca and Cephallenia is the small island
-
-
-
-
The poet also gives the name of Samos to Thracia,
-
-which we now call Samothracé. He was probably acquainted
-
-with the Ionian island, for he seems to have been acquainted
-
-with the Ionian migration. He would not, otherwise, have
-
-made a distinction between islands of the same names, for in
-
-speaking of Samothrace, he makes the distinction sometimes
-
-by the epithet,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-one of the Saii is exulting in the possession of an honourable shield,
-
-which I left against my will near a thicket.
Of the islands subject to Ulysses there remains to be
-
-described Zacynthus.
To the east of this island, and of Cephallenia, are situated the Echinades
Dolicha is situated opposite to the Œniadæ, and the mouth
-
-of the Achelous: it is distant from Araxus,
-
-
-
-Some writers add, that this was the horn of Amaltheia, which
-
-Hercules broke off from the Achelous, and presented to
-
-Œneus as a bridal gift. Others, conjecturing the truth included in this story, say, that Achelous is reported to have
-
-resembled a bull, like other rivers, in the roar of their waters,
-
-and the bendings of their streams, which they term horns;
-
-and a serpent from its length and oblique course; and bull-fronted because it was compared to a bull's head; and that
-
-Hercules, who, on other occasions, was disposed to perform
-
-acts of kindness for the public benefit, so particularly, when he
-
-was desirous of contracting an alliance with Œneus, performed
-
-for him these services; he prevented the river from overflowing its banks, by constructing mounds and by diverting its
-
-streams by canals, and by draining a large tract of the Paracheloitis, which had been injured by the river; and this is the
-
-horn of Amaltheia.
-My suitor was a river, I mean the Achelous, who demanded me of my
-
-father under three forms; one while coming as a bull of perfect form,
-
-another time as a spotted writhing serpent, at another with the body of a
-
-man and the forehead of a bull.
Homer says, that in the time of the Trojan war the Echinades, and the Oxeiæ were subject to Meges,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-The father of Phyleus was Augeas, king of Elis, and of the
-
-Epeii. The Epeii then, who possessed these islands, were
-
-those who had migrated to Dulichium with Phyleus.
-
-son of the hero Phyleus, beloved of Jupiter, who formerly repaired to
-
-Dulichium on account of a quarrel with his father.
The islands of the Taphii, and formerly of the Teleboæ, among which was Taphus, now called Taphius, were
-
-distinct from the Echinades, not separated by distance, (for
-
-they lie near one another,) but because they were ranged under different chiefs, Taphii and Teleboæ. In earlier times
-
-Amphitryon, in conjunction with Cephalus, the son of Deioneus, an exile from Athens, attacked, and then delivered them
-
-up to the government of Cephalus. But the poet says that
-
-
-
-
So much then concerning the islands off Acarnania.
-
-
Between Leucas and the Ambracian gulf is a sea-lake,
-
-called Myrtuntium.the labours of Hercules,
the workmanship
-
-of Lysippus, which was lying in an unsuitable place, being a
-
-deserted spot.
Next are Crithote,
Next is the river Evenus, which is distant from Actium - -670 stadia. -
Then follows the mountain Chalcis, which Artemidorus
-
-calls Chalcia; [next Pleuron, then Licyrna, a village, above
-
-which in the interior is situated Calydon at the distance of 30
-
-stadia. Near Calydon is the temple of Apollo Laphrius;]
Artemidorus does not place the mountain, whether Chalcis
-
-or Chalcia, between the Achelous and Pleuron, but Apollo-
-
-
-
-
Near Calydon is a large lake, abounding with fish. It belongs to the Romans of Patræ.
-
-
Apollodorus says, that there is in the inland parts of
-
-Acarnania, a tribe of Erysichæi, mentioned by Aleman,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Olenus belonged to Ætolia; Homer mentions it in the Ætolian Catalogue,not an Erysichæan, nor a shepherd; but I came from the extremities
-
-of Sardis.
Lysimachia also was near Olenus. This place has disappeared. It was situated upon the lake, the present Lysimachia, formerly Hydra, between Pleuron and the city Arsinoë,
Pylene has experienced nearly the same fate as Olenus. -
When the poet describes Calydon
The Acarnanians, and the Ætolians, like many other - -nations, are at present worn out, and exhausted by continual - -wars. The Ætolians however, in conjunction with the Acarnanians, during a long period withstood the Macedonians and - -the other Greeks, and lastly the Romans, in their contest for - -independence. -
But since Homer, and others, both poets and historians,
-
-frequently mention them, sometimes in clear and undisputed
-
-terms, and sometimes less explicitly, as appears from what we
-
-have already said of these people, we must avail ourselves of
-
-some of the more ancient accounts, which will supply us with
-
-
-
-
First then with respect to Acarnania. We have already said, that it was occupied by Lærtes and the Cephallenians; but as many writers have advanced statements respecting the first occupants in terms sufficiently clear, indeed, but - -contradictory, the inquiry and discussion are left open to us. -
They say, that the Taphii and Teleboæ, as they are called, - -were the first inhabitants of Acarnania, and that their chief, - -Cephalus, who was appointed by Amphitryon sovereign of the - -islands about Taphus, was master also of this country. Hence - -is related of him the fable, that he was the first person who - -took the reputed leap from Leucatas. But the poet does not - -say, that the Taphii inhabited Acarnania before the arrival of - -the Cephallenians and Lærtes, but that they were friends of - -the Ithacenses; consequently, in his time, either they had - -not the entire command of these places, or had voluntarily retired, or had even become joint settlers. -
A colony of certain from Lacedæmon seems to have settled
-
-in Acarnania, who were followers of Icarius, father of Penelope, for the poet in the Odyssey represents him and the
-
-brothers of Penelope as then living;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-And with respect to the brothers;
-
-
-
-who did not dare to go to the palace of Icarius with a view of his disposing of his daughter in marriage.
-
-
-
-Nor is it probable that they were living at Lacedæmon, for
-
-Telemachus would not, in that case, have been the guest of
-
-Menelaus upon his arrival, nor is there a tradition, that they
-
-had any other habitation. But they say that Tyndareus and
-
-his brother Icarius, after being banished from their own
-
-country by Hippocoon, repaired to Thestius, the king of the
-
-Pleuronii, and assisted in obtaining possession of a large
-
-tract of country on the other side of the Achelous on condition of receiving a portion of it; that Tyndareus, having
-
-espoused Leda the daughter of Thestius, returned home; that
-
-Icarius continued there in possession of a portion of Acarnania, and had Penelope and her brothers by his wife Poly-
-
-casta, daughter of Lygæus.
-
-
-
-for now a long time both her father and her brothers were urging her
-
-to marry Eurymachus.
-
-
-
-But Epirus was never called Acarnania, nor Acté, Leucas.
-
-
Ephorus does not say that they took part in the expedition against Troy; but he says that Alcmæon, the son of
-
-Amphiaraus, who was the companion of Diomede, and the
-
-other Epigoni in their expedition, having brought the war
-
-against the Thebans to a successful issue, went with Diomede
-
-to assist in punishing the enemies of Œneus, and having delivered up Ætolia to Diomede, he himself passed over into
-
-Acarnania, which country also he subdued. In the mean
-
-time Agamemnon attacked the Argives, and easily overcame
-
-them, the greatest part having attached themselves to the followers of Diomede. But a short time afterwards, when the
-
-expedition took place against Troy, he was afraid, lest, in his
-
-absence with the army, Diomede and his troops should return
-
-home, (for there was a rumour that he had collected a large
-
-force,) and should regain possession of a territory to which
-
-they had the best right, one being the heir of Adrastus, the
-
-other of his father. Reflecting then on these circumstances,
-
-he invited them to unite in the recovery of Argos, and to
-
-take part in the war. Diomede consented to take part in the
-
-expedition, but Alcmæon was indignant and refused; whence
-
-the Acarnanians were the only people who did not participate in the expedition with the Greeks. The Acarnanians,
-
-probably by following this account, are said to have imposed
-
-upon the Romans, and to have obtained from them the privilege of an independent state, because they alone had not
-
-taken part in the expedition against the ancestors of the Romans, for their names are neither in the Ætolian Catalogue,
-
-nor are they mentioned by themselves, nor is their name
-
-mentioned anywhere in the poem.
-
-
Ephorus then having represented Acarnania as subject
-
-to Alcmeon before the Trojan war, ascribes to him the foundation of Amphilochian Argos, and says that Acarnania had
-
-its name from his son Acarnan, and the Amphilochians from
-
-his brother Amphilochus; thus he turns aside to reports contrary to the history in Homer. But Thucydides and other
-
-
-
-
SOME writers reckon the Curetes among the Acarnanians, others among the Ætolians; some allege that they came
-
-from Crete, others that they came from Eubœa. Since,
-
-however, they are mentioned by Homer, we must first examine his account of them. It is thought that he does not
-
-mean the Acarnanians, but the Ætolians, in the following
-
-verses, for the sons of Porthaon were,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-nor
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-But we have shown in a former part of this work, that this
-
-mode of expression is usual with Homer, and even trite among
-
-other poets. This objection then is easily answered. But
-
-let the objectors explain, how, if these people were not Æto-
-
-
-
-
Ephorus, after having asserted that the nation of the
-
-Ætolians were never in subjection to any other people, but,
-
-from all times of which any memorial remains, their country
-
-continued exempt from the ravages of war, both on account of
-
-its local obstacles and their own experience in warfare, says,
-
-that from the beginning Curetes were in possession of the
-
-whole country, but on the arrival of Ætōlus, the son of Endy-
-
-nion, from Elis, who defeated them in various battles, the
-
-Curetes retreated to the present Acarnania, and the Ætolians
-
-returned with a body of Epeii, and founded ten of the most
-
-ancient cities in Ætolia; and in the tenth generation afterwards Elis was founded, in conjunction with that people, by
-
-Oxylus, the son of Hæmon, who had passed over from Ætolia.
-
-They produce, as proofs of these facts, inscriptions, one
-
-sculptured on the base of the statue of Ætolus at Therma in
-
-Ætolia, where, according to the custom of the country, they
-
-assemble to elect their magistrates;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-And the other inscription on the statue of Oxylus is in the
-
-market-place of Elis;
-
-
-
-this statue of Ætolus, son of Endymion, brought up near the streams of
-
-the Alpheius, and in the neighbourhood of the stadia of Olympia, Ætolians
-
-dedicated as a public monument of his merits.
-
-
-
-Ætolus, having formerly abandoned the original inhabitants of this
-
-country, won by the toils of war the land of the Curetes. But Oxylus,
-
-the son of Hæmon, the tenth scion of that race, founded this ancient
-
-city.
He rightly alleges, as a proof of the affinity subsisting
-
-reciprocally between the Eleii and the $Etolians, these inscriptions, both of which recognise not the affinity alone, but
-
-also that their founders had established settlers in each other's
-
-country. Whence he clearly convicts those of falsehood who
-
-assert, that the Eleii were a colony of Ætolians, and that the
-
-Ætolians were not a colony of Eleii. But he seems to exhibit the same inconsistency in his positions here, that we
-
-proved with regard to the oracle at Delphi. For after asserting that Ætolia had never been ravaged by war from all
-
-time of which there was any memorial, and saying, that from
-
-the first the Curetes were in possession of this country, he
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-he obtained possession of the country of the Curetes by the continued
-
-toils of war.
But perhaps some person may say, that he means Ætolia
-
-was not laid waste, reckoning from the time that it had this
-
-name after the arrival of Ætolus; but he takes away the
-
-ground of this supposition, by saying afterwards, that the
-
-greatest part of the people, that remained among the Ætolians,
-
-were those called Epeii, with whom Ætolians were afterwards intermingled, who had been expelled from Thessaly
-
-together with Bœotians, and possessed the country in common
-
-with these people. But is it probable that, without any hostilities, they invaded the country of another nation and
-
-divided it among themselves and the original possessors,
-
-who did not require such a partition of their land? If this is
-
-not probable, is it to be believed that the victors agreed to an
-
-equal division of the territory? What else then is devastation
-
-of a country, but the conquest of it by arms? Besides, Apollodorus says that, according to history, the Hyantes abandoned Bœotia and came and settled among the Ætolians, and
-
-concludes as confident that his opinion is right by saying it is
-
-our custom to relate these and similar facts exactly, whenever any of them is altogether dubious, or concerning which
-
-erroneous opinions are entertained.
-
-
Notwithstanding these faults in Ephorus, still he is
-
-superior to other writers. Polybius himself, who has studiously given him so much praise, has said that Eudoxus has
-
-written well on Grecian affairs, but that Ephorus has given
-
-the best account of the foundation of cities, of the relationship
-
-subsisting between nations, of changes of settlements, and of
-
-leaders of colonies, in these words, but I shall explain the
-
-
-
-
But you, Polybius, who introduce popular hearsay, and
-
-rumours on the subject of distances, not only of places beyond
-
-Greece, but in Greece itself, have you not been called to
-
-answer the charges sometimes of Posidonius, sometimes of
-
-Artemidorus, and of many other writers? ought you not therefore to excuse us, and not to be offended, if in transferring
-
-into our own work a large part of the historical poets from
-
-such writers we commit some errors, and to commend us when
-
-we are generally more exact in what we say than others, or
-
-supply what they omitted through want of information.
-
-
With respect to the Curetes, some facts are related - -which belong more immediately, some more remotely, to the - -history of the Ætolians and Acarnanians. The facts more - -immediately relating to them, are those which have been - -mentioned before, as that the Curetes were living in the - -country which is now called Ætolia, and that a body of - -Ætolians under the command of Ætolus came there, and drove - -them into Acarnania; and these facts besides, that Æolians - -invaded Pleuronia, which was inhabited by Curetes, and - -called Curetis, took away their territory, and expelled the - -possessors. -
But Archemachus
But according to some writers each tribe derived its name
-
-from some hero;
But, as we have before said, when Ætolia was divided into
-
-two parts, the country about Calydon was said to be in the
-
-possession of Œneus; and a portion of Pleuronia in that of
-
-the Porthaonidæ of the branch of Agrius,
There The myths relating to the Curetes abound with different statements
-
-and confusion. The following are the only points to be borne in mind.
-
-The Curetes belong to the most ancient times of Greece, and probably
-
-are to be counted among the first inhabitants of Phrygia. They were the
-
-authors and expositors of certain religious rites, which they celebrated
-
-with dances. According to mythology they played a part at the birth of
-
-Jupiter. They were sometimes called Idæan Dactyli. Hence their
-
-name was given to the ministers of the worship of the Great Mother
-
-among the Phrygians, which was celebrated with a kind of religious
-
-frenzy. The Curetes were also called Corybantes. Hence also arose the
-
-confusion between the religious rites observed in Crete, Phrygia, and
-
-Samothrace. Again, on the other hand, the Curetes have been mistaken
-
-for an Ætolian people, bearing the same name. Heyne, Not. ad Virgil.
-
-Æn. iii. 130. Religion. et Sacror. cum furore peract. Orig. Comm. Soc.
-
-R. Scient. Gotting. vol. viii. Dupuis, origin de tous les cultes, tom. 2.
-
-Sainte Croix Mém. pour servir a la religion Secrète, &c., Job. Guberleth.
-
-Diss. philol. de Myster. deorum Cabir. Curetic affairs
and concerning
-
-the Curetes
have been considered as identical with accounts
-
-concerning the people (of the same name) who inhabited
-
-Ætolia and Acarnania.
But the former differ from the
-
-latter, and resemble rather the accounts which we have of
-
-Satyri and Silenes, Bacchæ and Tityri; for the Curetes are
-
-represented as certain dæmons, or ministers of the gods, by
-
-those who have handed down the traditions respecting Cretan
-
-and Phrygian affairs, and which involve certain religious
-
-rites, some mystical, others the contrary, relative to the nurture of Jupiter in Crete; the celebration of orgies in honour
-
-of the mother of the gods, in Phrygia, and in the neighbourhood of the Trojan Ida. There is however a very great
-
-varietythis difference only,
as Groskurd observes.Strabo clearly refutes the statements
-
-of those who believed that the Cabeiri, Dactyli, Curetes, Corybantes, and
-
-Telchines, were not only the same kind of persons, but ever separate
-
-members of the same family.
It appears to me, on the contrary, that
-
-this was the opinion adopted by our author.
But since even the historians, through the similarity of
-
-the name Curetes, have collected into one body a mass The history of this people will receive additional and a fitting illustra-
-
-tion by a reference to physical facts,
such as the manner of wearing
-
-their hair, tonsure, &c.tunic-trailers,
and to
-
-bind the hair in the form of the Crobulus and ornamented with a grasshopper.
The hair over the forehead of the Apollo Belvidere is an example of the crobulus.
-
-
-
-selecting Curetes, the bravest of the Ach$eans, to carry from the swift
-
-ship, presents, which, yesterday, we promised to Achilles.
Il. xix. 248. The text is probably mutilated, and Strabo may have
-
-quoted the verses in Homer in which Merion is represented as dancing
-
-in armour.
We are now to consider how the names of these people - -agree together, and the theology, which is contained in their - -history. -
Now this is common both to the Greeks and the Barbarians, to perform their religious ceremonies with the observance of a festival, and a relaxation from labour; some are
-
-performed with enthusiasm, others without any emotion;
-
-some accompanied with music, others without music; some in
-
-mysterious privacy, others publicly; and these are the dictates
-
-of nature.
Hence Plato, and, before his time, the Pythagoreans, - -called music philosophy. They maintained that the world - -subsisted by harmony, and considered every kind of music to - -be the work of the gods. It is thus that the muses are regarded as deities, and Apollo has the name of President of - -the Muses, and all poetry divine, as being conversant about - -the praises of the gods. Thus also they ascribe to music the - -formation of manners, as everything which refines the mind - -approximates to the power of the gods. -
The greater part of the Greeks attribute to Bacchus,
-
-Apollo, Hecate, the Muses, and Ceres, everything connected
-
-with orgies and Bacchanalian rites, dances, and the mysteries
-
-attended upon initiation. They call also Bacchus, Dionysus,
-
-and the chief Dæmon of the mysteries of Ceres.
But in Crete both these, and the sacred rites of Jupiter
-
-in particular, were celebrated with the performance of orgies,
-
-and by ministers, like the Satyri, who are employed in the worship of Dionysus. These were called Curetes, certain youths
-
-who executed military movements in armour, accompanied
-
-with dancing, exhibiting the fable of the birth of Jupiter, in
-
-which Saturn was introduced, whose custom it was to devour
-
-his children immediately after their birth; Rhea attempts to
-
-conceal the pains of childbirth, and to remove the new-born
-
-infant out of sight, using her utmost endeavours to preserve it.
-
-
-
-
But the Berecyntes, a tribe of Phrygians, the Phrygians in general, and the Trojans, who live about Mount Ida,
-
-themselves also worship Rhea, and perform orgies in her
-
-honour; they call her mother of gods, Agdistis, and Phrygia,
We have the testimony of the poets in favour of these
-
-opinions. Pindar, in the Dithyrambus, which begins in this
-
-manner;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-After mentioning the hymns, both ancient and modern, in
-
-honour of Bacchus, he makes a digression, and says,
-
-
-
-formerly the dithyrambus used to creep upon the ground, long and
-
-trailing.
-
-
-
-where he combines with one another the rites celebrated
-
-among the Greeks in honour of Dionysus with those performed among the Phrygians in honour of the mother of the
-
-
-
-for thee, O Mother, resound the large circles of the cymbals, and the
-
-ringing crotala; for thee, blaze the torches of the yellow pine;
"Then forsaking Tmolus, the rampart of Lydia, my maidens, my pride,
-
-[whom I took from among barbarians and made the partners and companions of my way, raise on high the tambourine of Phrygia, the tambourine of the great mother Rhea,] my invention.
-
-
-
-
-
-And again, in what follows, he combines with these the Cretan rites.
-
-
-
-Blest and happy he who, initiated into the sacred rites of the gods,
-
-leads a pure life; who celebrating the orgies of the Great Mother Cybele, who brandishing on high the thyrsus and with ivy crowned, becomes
-
-Dionysus' worshipper. Haste, Bacchanalians, haste, and bring Bromius
-
-Dionysus down from the Phrygian mountains to the wide plains of
-
-Greece.
-
-
-Hail, sacred haunt of the Curetes, and divine inhabitants of Crete,
-
-progenitors of Jove, where for me the triple-crested Corybantes in their
-
-caves invented this skin-stretched circle [of the tambourine], who
-
-mingled with Bacchic strains the sweet breath of harmony from Phrygian
-
-pipes, and placed in Rhea's hands this instrument which re-echoes to the
-
-joyous shouts of Bacchanalians: from the Mother Rhea the frantic
-
-Satyri succeeded in obtaining it, and introduced it into the dances of the
-
-Trieterides, among whom Dionysus delights to dwell.
-
-
-
-
-Not revelling with Dionysus, who together with his mother was cheered
-
-with the resounding drums along the tops of Ida.
Conjoining then Seilenus, Marsyas, and Olympus, and
-
-ascribing to them the invention of the flute, they thus again
-
-combine Dionysiac and Phrygian rites, frequently confounding Ida and Olympus,
They invented terms appropriate to the sounds of the
-
-pipe, of the crotala, cymbals, and drums; to the noise also of
-
-shouts; to the cries of Evoe; and to the beating of the ground
-
-with the feet. They invented certain well-known names also
-
-to designate the ministers, dancers, and servants employed
-
-about the sacred rites, as Cabeiri, Corybantes, Pans, Satyri,
-
-Tityri, the god Bacchus; Rhea, Cybele, Cybebe, and Dindymene, from the places where she was worshipped. [The
-
-god] Sabazius belongs to the Phrygian rites, and may be
-
-considered the child as it were of the [Great] Mother. The
-
-traditional ceremonies observed in his worship are those of
-
-Bacchus.
The rites called Cotytia, and Bendideia,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-And in another passage;
-
-
-
-one holding the bombyces, the admirable work of the turner, with the
-
-fingers makes the loud notes resound, exciting frenzy; another makes
-
-the brass-bound cotylæ to re-echo.
-
-
-
-for these are like the Phrygian ceremonies, nor is it at all
-
-improbable that, as the Phrygians themselves are a colony of
-
-Thracians, so they brought from Thrace their sacred ceremonies, and by joining together Dionysus and the Edonian
-
-Lycurgus they intimate a similarity in the mode of the worship of both.
-
-The song of victory is poured forth; invisible mimes low and bellow
-
-from time to time like bulls, inspiring fear, and the echo of the drum rolls
-
-along like the noise of subterranean thunder;
From the song, the rhythm, and the instruments, all
-
-Thracian music is supposed to be Asiatic. This is evident
-
-also from the places where the Muses are held in honour.
-
-For Pieria, Olympus, Pimpla, and Leibethrum were anciently
-
-places, and mountains, belonging to the Thracians, but at
-
-present they are in the possession of the Macedonians. The
-
-Thracians, who were settled in Bœotia, dedicated Helicon to
-
-the Muses, and consecrated the cave of the Nymphs, Leibethriades. The cultivators of ancient music are said to have
-
-been Thracians, as Orpheus, Musaus, Thamyris; hence also
-
-Eumolpus had his name. Those who regard the whole
-
-of Asia as far as India as consecrated to Bacchus, refer to
-
-that country as the origin of a great portion of the present
-
-music. One author speaks of striking forcibly the Asiatic
-
-cithara;
another calls the pipes Berecynthian and Phry-
-
-
-
-
As in other things the Athenians always showed
-
-their admiration of foreign customs, so they displayed it in
-
-what respected the gods. They adopted many foreign sacred
-
-ceremonies, particularly those of Thrace and Phrygia; for
-
-which they were ridiculed in comedies. Plato mentions the
-
-Bendidean, and Demosthenes the Phrygian rites, where he
-
-is exposing Æschines and his mother to the scorn of the
-
-people; the former for having been present when his mother
-
-was sacrificing, and for frequently joining the band of Bacchanalians in celebrating their festivals, and shouting, Evoi,
-
-Saboi, Hyes Attes, and Attes Hyes, for these cries belong to
-
-the rites of Sabazius and the Great Mother.
-
-
But there may be discovered respecting these dæmons,
-
-and the variety of their names, that they were not called ministers only of the gods, but themselves were called gods. For
-
-Hesiod says that Hecaterus and the daughter of Phoroneus
-
-had five daughters,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-The author of the Phoronis calls the Curetes, players upon
-
-the pipe, and Phrygians; others call them earth-born, and
-
-wearing brazen shields.
Another author terms the Corybantes, and not the Curetes, Phrygians, and the Curetes, Cretans. Brazen shields were first worn in Eubœa, whence the
-
-people had the name of Chalcidenses.
The Scepsian (Demetrius) who has collected fabulous
-
-stories of this kind, does not receive this account because
-
-no mysterious tradition about the Cabeiri is preserved in Samothrace, yet he gives the opinion of Stesimbrotus of Thasus,
-
-to the effect that the sacred rites in Samothrace were celebrated
-
-in honour of the Cabeiri.
The Scepsian says in another place, in contradiction to
-
-Euripides, that it is not the custom in Crete to pay divine
-
-honours to Rhea, and that these rites were not established
-
-there, but in Phrygia only, and in the Troad, and that they
-
-who affirm the contrary are mythologists rather than historians; and were probably misled by an identity of name, for
-
-Ida is a mountain both in the Troad and in Crete; and
-
-Dicte is a spot in the Scepsian territory, and a mountain in
-
-Crete.
But Acusilaus, the Argive, mentions a Camillus, the
-
-
-
-
According to Pherecydes, there sprung from Apollo and - -Rhetia nine Corybantes, who lived in Samothrace; that from - -Cabeira, the daughter of Proteus and Vulcan, there were - -three Cabeiri, and three Nymphs, Cabeirides, and that each - -had their own sacred rites. But it was at Lemnos and Imbros that the Cabeiri were more especially the objects of - -divine worship, and in some of the cities of the Troad; their - -names are mystical. -
Herodotus
The Scepsian says, that it is probable that the Curetes and
-
-Corybantes are the same persons, who as youths and boys
-
-were employed to perform the armed dance in the worship of
-
-the mother of the gods. They were called CorybantesCorybantes.
-
-
-
-Because the Corybantes are dancers, and are frantic, we call
-
-those persons by this name whose movements are furious.
-
-Come hither, you who are the best skilled Betarmones among the
-
-Phæacians.
Some writers say that the first inhabitants of the
-
-country at the foot of Mount Ida were called Idæan Dac-
-
-
-
-
But Sophocles
Although we are not fond of fabulous stories, yet we - -have expatiated upon these, because they belong to subjects of - -a theological nature. -
All discussion respecting the gods requires an examination
-
-of ancient opinions, and of fables, since the ancients expressed
-
-enigmatically their physical notions concerning the nature of
-
-things, and always intermixed fable with their discoveries.
-
-It is not easy therefore to solve these enigmas exactly, but if
-
-we lay before the reader a multitude of fabulous tales, some
-
-consistent with each other, others which are contradictory, we
-
-
-
-
HAVING described the islands about the Peloponnesus,
-
-and other islands also, some of which are upon, and others in
-
-front of, the Corinthian Gulf, we are next to speak of Crete,Kandax,
Megalo Kastron, became with the Venetian writers
-
-Candia; the word for a long time denoted only the principal city of the
-
-island, which retained its ancient name in the chroniclers and in Dante,
-
-Inferno xiv. 94. It is described by Strabo as lying between Cyrenaica
-
-and that part of Hellas which extends from Sunium to Laconia, and
-
-parallel in its length from W. to E. of these two points. The words
-
-
At present we are to speak first of Crete.
-
-
-
-
The western extremity of the island is near Phalasarna;
Sosicrates, who, according to Apollodorus, had an exact
-
-knowledge of this island, determines its length (not?)Its width is not in proportion to its length.
Kramer says
-
-that the preposition
The greatest breadth is in the middle of the island. -
Here again the shores approach, and form an isthmus
-
-narrower than the former, of about 60 stadia in extent, reckoning from Minoa,
The island is mountainous and woody, but has fertile - -valleys. -
The mountains towards the west are called Leuca, or the
-
-White Mountains,
From the Cyrenæan
One language is intermixed with another, says the poet;
-
-there are in Crete,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Of these people, says Staphylus, the Dorians occupy the
-
-eastern parts of the island, Cydonians the western, Eteocretans
-
-the southern, to whom Prasus, a small town, belonged, where
-
-is the temple of the Dictæan Jupiter; the other nations, being
-
-more powerful, inhabited the plains. It is probable that the
-
-EteocretansAchæi, the brave Eteocretans, Cydones, Dorians divided into three
-
-bands,
There are many cities in Crete, but the largest and
-
-most distinguished are Cnossus,
According to Ephorus, Minos was an imitator of Rhada-
-
-manthus, an ancient personage, and a most just man. He had
-
-the same name as his brother, who appears to have been the
-
-first to civilize the island by laws and institutions, by founding
-
-cities, and by establishing forms of government. He pre-
-
-tended to receive from Jupiter the decrees which he promul-
-
-gated. It was probably in imitation of Rhadamanthus that
-
-Minos went up to the cave of Jupiter, at intervals of nine
-
-years, and brought from thence a set of ordinances, which he
-
-<*> the commands of Jove; for which reason the poet <*>
-
-
-
-
-
-
It is difficult to determine which is right. There is
-
-another story also not generally received; some persons affirming that Minos was a foreigner, others that he was a
-
-native of the island. Homer seems to support the latter
-
-opinion, when he says, that
-
-
-
-
It is generally admitted with regard to Crete that in ancient times it was governed by good laws, and induced the
-
-wisest of the Greeks to imitate its form of government, and
-
-particularly the Lacedæmonians, as Plato shows in his Laws,
-
-and Ephorus has described in his work Europe.
Afterwards there was a change in the government, and for the
-
-most part for the worse. For the Tyrrheni, who chiefly infested our sea, were followed by the Cretans, who succeeded
-
-to the haunts and piratical practices of the former people, and
-
-these again afterwards were subject to the devastations of
-
-the Cilicians. But the Romans destroyed them all after the
-
-conquest of Crete,
So much then respecting Cnossus, a city to which I
-
-am no stranger; but owing to the condition of human affairs,
-
-their vicissitudes and accidents, the connexion and intercourse that subsisted between ourselves and the city is at an
-
-end. Which may be thus explained. Dorylaiis, a military
-
-tactician, a friend of Mithridates Euergetes, was appointed,
-
-on account of his experience in military affairs, to levy a body
-
-of foreigners, and was frequently in Greece and Thrace, and
-
-often in the company of persons who came from Crete, before
-
-the Romans were in possession of the island. A great multitude of mercenary soldiers was collected there, from whom
-
-
-
-
So much then respecting Cnossus.
-
-
After Cnossus, the city Gortyna seems to have held - -the second place in rank and power. For when these cities - -acted in concert they held in subjection all the rest of the inhabitants, and when they were at variance there was discord - -throughout the island; and whichever party Cydonia espoused, - -to them she was a most important accession. -
The city of the Gortynians lies in a plain, and was perhaps
-
-anciently protected by a wall, as Homer also intimates,
-
-
-
-
Leucocomas and Euxynthetus his erastes (or lover),
-
-whom Theophrastus mentions in his discourse on Love, were
-
-natives of Leben.
Cydonia is situated on the sea, fronting Laconia, at an
-
-equal distance from both Cnossus and Gortyn, about 800
-
-stadia, and from Aptera 80, and from the sea in this quarter
-
-40 stadia. Cisamus
Of the three cities founded by Minos, the last, which
-
-was Phæstus,
Cherrhonesus,
Miletus and Lycastus, the cities which were enumerated
-
-together with Lyctus, no longer exist; but the territory, after
-
-they had razed the city (Lyctus), was partitioned among
-
-Lyctians and Cnossians.
-
-
As the poet in one place speaks of Crete as having a
-
-hundred, and in another ninety, cities, Ephorus says, that ten
-
-were founded in later times after the Trojan war by the Dori-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-for he would have mentioned such a misfortune. Ulysses indeed might not have been acquainted with the destruction of
-
-these cities, for he had not had any intercourse with any of the
-
-Greeks either during or after his wanderings; but (Nestor),
-
-who had been the companion of Idomeneus in the expedition
-
-and in his escape from shipwreck, could not be ignorant of
-
-what had happened at home during the expedition and before
-
-his return. But he must certainly have been aware of what
-
-occurred after his return. For if he and all his companions
-
-escaped, he returned so powerful that their enemies were not
-
-in a position to deprive them of ten cities.
-but Idomeneus brought back all his companions who had survived the
-
-war to Crete; the sea had not deprived him of any of them;
Such then is the general description of the country of Crete.
-
-
With respect to the form of government, which Ephorus has described at large, it will be sufficient to give a cur-
-
-sory account of the principal parts. The law-giver, says
-
-Ephorus, seems to lay, as the foundation of his constitution,
-
-the greatest good that states can enjoy, namely, liberty; for it
-
-is this alone which makes the property of every kind which
-
-a man possesses his own; in a state of slavery it belongs to
-
-the governor, and not to the governed. The liberty also
-
-which men enjoy must be guarded. Unanimity ensues, when
-
-the dissensions that arise from covetousness and luxury
With a view that courage, and not fear, should predominate, - -they were accustomed from childhood to the use of arms, and - -to endure fatigue. Hence they disregarded heat and cold, - -rugged and steep roads, blows received in gymnastic exercises and in set battles. -
They practised archery, and the dance in armour, which
-
-the Curetes first invented, and was afterwards perfected by
-
-Pyrrhichus, and called after him Pyrrhiche. Hence even their
-
-sports were not without their use in their training for war.
-
-With the same intention they used the Cretan measures in
-
-their songs; the tones of these measures are extremely loud;
-
-they were invented by Thales, to whom are ascribed the
-
-pæans and other native songs and many of their usages.
-
-They adopted a military dress also, and shoes, and considered
-
-armour as the most valuable of all presents.
-
-
Some, he says, alleged that many of the institutions
-
-supposed to be Cretan were of Lacedæmonian origin; but the
-
-truth is, they were invented by the former, but perfected by the
-
-Spartans. The Cretans, when their cities, and particularly
-
-Cnossus, were ravaged, neglected military affairs, but some
-
-usages were more observed by the Lyttii and Gortynii, and
-
-some other small cities, than by the Cnossians. Those persons, who maintain the priority of the Laconian institutions,
-
-adduce as evidence of this those of the Lyttii, because as colonists they would retain the customs of the parent state. Otherwise, it would be absurd for those, who lived under a better
-
-form of constitution and government, to be imitators of a
-
-worse. But this is not correct. For we ought not to form
-
-conjectures respecting the ancient from the present state of
-
-things, for each has undergone contrary changes. The Cretans were formerly powerful at sea, so that it was a proverbial saying addressed to those who pretended to be ignorant of what they knew, a Cretan, and not know the sea;
-
-but at present they have abandoned nautical affairs.
-
-
-
-
Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator, he says, was five
-
-generations later than Althæmenes, who conducted the colony
-
-into Crete. He is said by historians to have been the son of
-
-Cissus, who founded Argos
-
-
-
-In festivals and in joyous assemblies of the Andreia, it is fit to begin
-
-the pean in honour of the guests.
The occasion of the journey of Lycurgus to Crete is
-
-said by the inhabitants to be as follows. The elder brother
-
-of Lycurgus was Polydectes, who, at his death, left his wife
-
-pregnant. Lycurgus reigned in place of his brother till the
-
-
-
-
The following are the principal of the laws of Crete, - -which Ephorus has given in detail. -
All the Cretans, who are selected at the same time from
-
-the troop (
The woman's dower, if she has brothers, is half of the brother's portion. -
The children are taught to read, to chaunt songs taken - -from the laws, and some kinds of music. -
While they are still very young they are taken to the Syssitia, called Andreia. They sit on the ground, eating their food
-
-together, dressed in mean garments, which are not changed
-
-in winter or summer. They wait upon themselves and on the
-
-men. Both those of the same and those of different messes
-
-have battles with one another. A trainer of boys presides
-
-over each Andreion. As they grow older they are formed into
-
-
-
-
On certain set days troop encounters troop, marching in
-
-time to the sound of the pipe and lyre, as is their custom in
-
-actual war. They inflict blows, some with the hand, and
-
-some even with iron weapons.
-
-
They have a peculiar custom with respect to their attachments. They do not influence the objects of their love - -by persuasion, but have recourse to violent abduction. The - -lover apprizes the friends of the youth, three or more days - -beforehand, of his intention to carry off the object of his affection. It is reckoned a most base act to conceal the youth, or - -not to permit him to walk about as usual, since it would be - -an acknowledgment that the youth was unworthy of such a - -lover. But if they are informed that the ravisher is equal or - -superior in rank, or other circumstances, to the youth, they - -pursue and oppose the former slightly, merely in conformity - -with the custom. They then willingly allow him to carry off - -the youth. If however he is an unworthy person, they take - -the youth from him. This show of resistance does not end, - -till the youth is received into the Andreium to which the - -ravisher belongs. They do not regard as an object of affection a youth exceedingly handsome, but him who is distinguished for courage and modesty. The lover makes the youth - -presents, and takes him away to whatever place he likes. - -The persons present at the abduction accompany them, and - -having passed two months in feasting, and in the chase, (for - -it is not permitted to detain the youth longer,) they return to - -the city. The youth is dismissed with presents, which consist of a military dress, an ox, and a drinking cup; the last - -are prescribed by law, and besides these many other very - -costly gifts, so that the friends contribute each their share in - -order to diminish the expense. -
The youth sacrifices the ox to Jupiter, and entertains at a
-
-feast those who came down with him from the mountains.
-
-He then declares concerning the intercourse with the lover,
-
-
-
-
The parastathentes, for this is the name which they give - -to those youths who have been carried away, enjoy certain - -honours. At races and at festivals they have the principal - -places. They are permitted to wear the stole, which distinguishes them from other persons, and which has been presented to them by their lovers; and not only at that time, but - -in mature age, they appear in a distinctive dress, by which - -each individual is recognised as Kleinos, for this name is - -given to the object of their attachment, and that of Philetor - -to the lover. -
These then are the usages respecting attachments.
-
-
They elect ten Archons. On matters of highest moment they have recourse to the counsel of the Gerontes, as - -they are called. They admit into this council those who - -have been thought worthy of the office of Cosmi, and who - -were otherwise persons of tried worth. -
I considered the form of government among the Cretans as - -worthy of description, on account both of its peculiarity and - -its fame. Few of these institutions are now in existence, and - -the administration of affairs is chiefly conducted according to - -the orders of the Romans, as is the case also in their other - -provinces. - - -
THE islands about Crete are Thera,
-
-
-
-and in another, he mentions Thera only,
-
Mother of my country, celebrated for its fine breed of horses.
-
-Thera is a long island, about 200 stadia in circumference. It
-
-lies opposite to the island Dia,a Siphnian pledge,
-
-a Siphnian bone (astragalus),
-
-on account of its insignificance. Still nearer, both to Cimolus and Crete, is Melos,
These islands are situated in the Cretan sea. Delos,
The city of Delos is in a plain. Delos contains the temple of Apollo, and the Latoum, or temple of Latona. The
-
-Cynthus,
-
-
-
-The islands lying about it, called Cyclades, gave it celebrity,
-
-since they were in the habit of sending at the public charge,
-
-as a testimony of respect, sacred delegates, (Theori,) sacrifices,
-
-and bands of virgins; they also repaired thither in great
-
-multitudes to celebrate festivals.Before this time,
(says Pindar,Delos was carried about by the
-
-waves, and by winds blowing from every quarter, but when the daughter
-
-of Cœus set her foot upon it, who was then suffering the sharp pangs of
-
-approaching child-birth, at that instant four upright columns, resting on
-
-adamant, sprang from the depths of the earth and retained it fast on the
-
-rugged rock; there she brought forth, and beheld her happy offspring.
Originally, there were said to be twelve Cyclades, but
-
-many others were added to them. Artemidorus enumerates
-
-(fifteen?) where he is speaking of the island Helena,
Aratus,"O Latona, thou art shortly going to pass by me
-
-
-
-
Although Delos
Rheneia
Formerly it had the name of Ortygia.
Ceos
-
There was an ancient law among these people, mentioned
-
-by Menander.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-For the law, it seems, ordained that those above sixty years
-
-old should be compelled to drink hemlock, in order that there
-
-might be sufficient food for the rest. It is said that once
-
-when they were besieged by the Athenians, a decree was
-
-passed to the effect that the oldest persons, fixing the age,
-
-should be put to death, and that the besiegers retired in consequence.
-Phanias, that is a good law of the Ceans; who cannot live comfortably
-
-(or well), let him not live miserably (or ill).
The city lies on a mountain, at a distance from the sea of
-
-about 25 stadia. Its arsenal is the place on which Coressia
-
-was built, which does not contain the population even of a
-
-village. Near the Coressian territory and Pϑessa is a temple of Apollo Sminthius. But between the temple and the
-
-ruins of Pϑessa is the temple of Minerva Nedusia, built by
-
-Nestor, on his return from Troy. The river Elixus runs
-
-around the territory of Coressia.
-
-
After Ceos are Naxos
Here also is Syros, (the first syllable is long,) where
-
-Pherecydes the son of Babys was born. The Athenian
-
-Pherecydes is younger than the latter person. The poet seems
-
-to have mentioned this island under the name of Syria;
-
-
-
-
Myconusall under one Myconus,
applied to
-
-persons who collect under one title things that are disjoined
-
-by nature. Some also call bald persons Miconians, because
-
-baldness is frequent among the inhabitants of the island.
Seriphos
Tenos
To the Sporades belongs Amorgos,
-
-
-
-for the Lerians are reputed to have bad dispositions.
-
-the Lerians are bad, not some, but all, except Procles; but Procies is
-
-a Lerian;
Near these islands are Patmos,
Icaria has no inhabitants, but it has pastures, of which the
-
-Samians avail themselves. Notwithstanding its condition it
-
-is famous, and gives the name of Icarian to the sea in front
-
-of it, in which are situated Samos, Cos, and the islands just
-
-mentioned,
In the Carpathian sea, between Cos, Rhodes, and Crete,
-
-are situated many of the Sporades, as Astypalæa,
We shall traverse in the description of Asia the considerable islands adjacent to that country, as Cyprus, Rhodes, Cos,
-
-and those situated on the succeeding line of coast, Samos,
-
-Chios, Lesbos, and Tenedos. At present we are to describe
-
-the remaining islands of the Sporades, which deserve mention.
-
-
Astypalæa lies far out at sea, and contains a city. -
Telos, which is long, high, and narrow, in circumference - -about 140 stadia, with a shelter for vessels, extends along the - -Cnidian territory. -
Chalcia is distant from Telos 80, from Carpathus 400 stadia,
-
-and about double this number from Astypalæa. It has a settlement of the same name, a temple of Apollo, and a harbour.
-
-
Nisyrus lies to the north of Telos, at the distance of
-
-about 60 stadia, which is its distance also from Cos. It is
-
-round, lofty, and rocky, and has abundance of mill-stone,
-
-whence the neighbouring people are well supplied with stones
-
-for grinding. It contains a city of the same name, a harbour,
-
-hot springs, and a temple of Neptune. Its circumference is
-
-80 stadia. Near it are small islands, called the islands of the
-
-Nisyrians. Nisyrus is said to be a fragment broken off from
-
-Cos; a story is also told of Neptune, that when pursuing Polybotes, one of the giants, he broke off with his trident a piece
-
-of the island Cos, and hurled it at him, and that the missile
-
-became the island Nisyrus, with the giant lying beneath it.
-
-But some say that the giant lies beneath Cos.
-
-
Carpathus, which the poet calls Crapathus, is lofty,
-
-having a circumference of 200 stadia. It contained four cities,
-
-and its name was famous, which it imparted to the surrounding sea. One of the cities was called Nisyrus, after the name
-
-of the island Nisyrus. It lies opposite Leuce Acte in Africa,
-
-which is distant about 1000 stadia from Alexandria, and
-
-about 4000 from Carpathus.
-
-
Casus is distant from Carpathus 70, and from the promontory Salmonium in Crete 250 stadia. It is 80 stadia in
-
-circumference. It contains a city of the same name; and many
-
-islands, called the islands of the Casii, lie about it.
-
-
They say that the poet calls the Sporades, Calydnæ,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-they who occupied the islands Nisyrus, Crapathus, Casus, and Cos, the
-
-city of Eurypylus, and Calydnæ.
All the honey of the islands is, for the most part, excellent,
-
-and rivals that of Attica; but the honey of these islands surpasses it, particularly that of Calymna.
SUMMARY.
- -The Eleventh Book commences with Asia and the river Don, which, taking - -its rise in the northern regions, separates Europe from Asia. It includes - -the nations situated in Asia near its sources on the east and south, and - -the barbarous Asiatic nations who occupy the neighbourhood of Mount - -Caucasus, among whom are the Amazones, Massagetæ, Scythians, Albani, Iberes, Bactriani, Caspii, Medes, Persians, and the two Armenias, - -extending to Mesopotamia. Among these nations are included the Troglodytæ, Heniochi, Sceptuchi, Soanes, Assyrians, Polyphagi, Nabiani, - -Siraci, and Tapyri. Mention is made of Jason and Medea, and of the - -cities founded by them:—of Xerxes, Mithridates, and Alexander, son of - -Philip.
ASIA is contiguous to Europe, approaching close to it - -at the Tanaïs or Don. -
I am to describe this country next, after dividing it, for
-
-the sake of perspicuity, by certain natural boundaries. What
-
-Eratosthenes has done with respect to the whole habitable
-
-earth, this I propose to do with respect to Asia.
-
-
The Taurus, extending from west to east, embraces the
-
-middle of this continent, like a girdle, leaving one portion to
-
-the north, another to the south. The Greeks call the former
-
-Asia Within the Taurus,
The Taurus has in many places a breadth of 3000
-
-stadia; its length equals that of Asia, namely 45,000 stadia,
It is divided into many parts, which are circumscribed - -by boundaries of greater or less extent, and distinguished by - -various names. -
But as such an extended range of mountains must comprise
-
-nations some of which are little known, and others with
-
-whom we are well acquainted, as Parthians,
The currents of almost all the rivers which flow from the
-
-Taurus are in a direction contrary to each other, some running to the north, others to the south, at least at the commencement of their course, although afterwards some bend
-
-towards the east or west. They naturally suggest the adoption of this chain of mountains as a boundary in the division
-
-of Asia into two portions; in the same manner that the sea
-
-within the Pillars, which for the most part runs in the same
-
-line with these mountains, conveniently forms two continents, Europe and Africa, and is a remarkable boundary to
-
-both.
-
-
In passing in our geographical description from Europe - -to Asia, the first parts of the country which present themselves are those in the northern division, and we shall therefore begin with these. -
Of these parts the first are those about the Tanaïs, (or
-
-Don,) which we have assumed as the boundary of Europe
-
-and Asia. These have a kind of peninsular form, for they are
-
-surrounded on the west by the river Tanaïs (or Don) and
-
-the Palus Maotis
Those writers do not deserve attention who contract the
-
-isthmus as much as Cleitarchus, according to whom it is subject to inundations of the sea from either side. According to
-
-Posidonius the isthmus is
I know not how any one can rely upon his authority
-
-respecting what is uncertain, when he has nothing probable
-
-to advance on the subject; for he reasons so falsely respecting
-
-things which are evident, and this too when he enjoyed the
-
-friendship of Pompey, who had carried on war against the
-
-Iberes and Albani, and was acquainted with both the Caspian and Colchian
The second portion is that above the Hyrcanian,
The third portion is continuous with the above-mention-
-
-ed isthmus, and consists of the country following next in
-
-order to the isthmus and the Caspian Gates,
The fourth portion consists of the tract within the Halys,
ACCORDING to this disposition, the first portion towards
-
-the north and the Ocean is inhabited by certain tribes of Scythians, shepherds, (nomades,) and Hamaxœci (or those who
-
-live in waggon-houses). Within these tribes live Sarmatians,
-
-who also are Scythians, Aorsi,
Upon the river, and on the lake, stands a city Tanaïs,
-
-founded by the Greeks, who possess the Bosporus; but
-
-lately the King Polemon
In the voyage along the coast, the first object which
-
-presents itself to those who have proceeded to the distance of
-
-800 stadia from the Tanaïs, is the Great Rhombites, as it is
-
-called, where large quantities of fish are captured for the purpose of being salted. Then at the distance of 800 stadia
-
-more is the Lesser Rhombites,
From the Lesser Rhombites to Tyrambe, and the river Anticeites, are 600 stadia; then 120 to the Cimmerian village,
-
-whence vessels set out on their voyage along the lake. In
-
-this coasting voyage we meet with some look-out places, (for
-
-observing the fish,) said to belong to the Clazomenians.
-
-
Cimmericum was formerly a city built upon a peninsula,
-
-the isthmus of which it enclosed with a ditch and mound.
-
-The Cimmerii once possessed great power in the Bosporus,
-
-whence it was called the Cimmerian Bosporus. These are
-
-the people who overran the territory of the inhabitants of
-
-the inland parts, on the right of the Euxine, as far as Ionia.
-
-They were dislodged from these places by Scythians, and the
-
-Scythians by Greeks, who founded Panticapæum,
Thence to the monument of Satyrus are 90 stadia; this
-
-is a mound raised on a promontory,
Near it is Patræus,
Beyond Corocondame is a large lake
Upon sailing
All those who are subject to the princes of the Bosporus
-
-are called Bosporani. The capital of the European Bosporani is Panticapæum, and of the Asian Bosporani, the city of
-
-Phanagorium,
The Sindi, Dandarii, Toreatæ, Agri, Arrhechi, and
-
-besides these, the Tarpetes, Obidiaceni, Sittaceni, Dosci, and
-
-many others, belong to the Mæotæ; to this people belong the
-
-Aspurgiani also, who live between Phanagoria and Gorgipia, at the distance of 500 stadia [from the Mæotis?]. Polemon, the king, entered the country of these people under a
-
-
-
-
With respect to the Asian Mæotæ in general, some of - -them were the subjects of those who possessed the mart on - -the Tanaïs; others, of the Bosporani; and different bodies - -have revolted at different times. The princes of the Bosporani were frequently masters of the country as far as the - -Tanaïs, and particularly the last princes, Pharnaces, Asander, - -and Polemon. -
Pharnaces is said to have once brought even the river
-
-Hypanis over the territory of the Dandarii through some
-
-ancient canal, which he had caused to be cleared, and inundated the country.
-
-
Next to Sindica, and Gorgipia upon the sea, is the - -sea-coast inhabited by the Achæi, Zygi, and Heniochi. It - -is for the most part without harbours and mountainous, being - -a portion of the Caucasus. -
These people subsist by piracy. -
Their boats are slender, narrow, light, and capable of holding about five and twenty men, and rarely thirty. The
-
-Greeks call them camaræ. They say, that at the time of
-
-the expedition of Jason the Achæi Phthio$tæ founded the
-
-Achaia there, and the Lacedæmonians, Heniochia. Their
-
-leaders were Rhecas, and Amphistratus, the charioteers
Such then is their mode of life. But even these people are governed by persons called Sceptuchi, and these again
-
-are subject to the authority of tyrants, or of kings. The
-
-Heniochi had four kings at the time that Mithridates Eupator
-
-fled from the country of his ancestors to the Bosporus, and
-
-passed through their country, which was open to him, but he
-
-avoided that of the Zygi on account of its ruggedness, and
-
-the savage character of the people. He proceeded with difficulty along the sea-coast, frequently embarking in vessels,
-
-till he came to the country of the Achæi, by whom he was
-
-hospitably received. He had then completed a journey from
-
-the Phasis of not much less than 4000 stadia.
-
-
From Corocondame, the course of the voyage is directly towards the east. At the distance of 180 stadia is the
-
-Sindic harbour, and a city. Then at the distance of 400
-
-stadia is Bata,
Next to Bata Artemidorus places the coast of the Cercetæ, - -which has places of shelter for vessels, and villages along an - -extent of about 850 stadia; then at 500 stadia more the - -coast of the Achæi, then that of the Heniochi, at 1000 stadia, - -then the Great Pityus, from which to Dioscurias are 360 - -stadia. -
The authors most worthy of credit who have written the
-
-history of the Mithridatic wars, enumerate the Achæi first,
-
-then Zygi, then Heniochi, then Cercetæ, Moschi, Colchi, and
-
-above these the Phtheirophagi, Soanes, and other smaller
-
-nations about the Caucasus.
-
-
-
-
The whole of the coast of the Achæi, and of the other
-
-nations, as far as Dioscurias, and the inland places lying in a
-
-straight line towards the south, are at the foot of the Caucasus.
-
-
This mountain overhangs both the Euxine and the Caspian seas, forming a kind of rampart to the isthmus which
-
-separates one sea from the other. To the south it is the
-
-boundary of Albania and Iberia, to the north, of the plains
-
-of the Sarmatians. It is well wooded, and contains various kinds of timber, and especially trees adapted to shipbuilding. Eratosthenes says that the Caucasus is called
-
-Mount Caspius by the natives, a name borrowed perhaps
-
-from the Caspii. It throws out forks towards the south, which
-
-embrace the middle of Iberia, and touch the Armenian and
-
-those called the Moschic mountains,
Situated on a bay of this kind, and occupying the most
-
-easterly point of the whole sea, is Dioscurias,
-
-
-
-Not as if the author of the iambic intended to speak of the
-
-river, nor of the city of the same name upon the river, but
-
-Colchis designated by a part, because from the city and the
-
-river there remains a voyage of not less than 600 stadia in a
-
-straight line to the recess of the bay. This same Dioscurias
-
-is the commencement of the isthmus lying between the Caspian Sea and the Euxine. It is a common mart of the nations
-
-situated above it, and in its neighbourhood. There assemble
-
-at Dioscurias 70 or, according to some writers who are careless in their statements,
The greater part of the rest of Colchis lies upon the sea.
-
-The Phasis,eight or nine,
instead of three or two,
the letters T and B being a
-
-corruption of
The country is fertile and its produce is good, except the
-
-
-
-
Above the rivers which I have mentioned in the Moschic
-
-territory is the temple of Leucothea,
-
How great anciently was the celebrity of this country,
-
-appears from the fables which refer obscurely to the expedition
-
-of Jason, who advanced as far even as Media; and still earlier
-
-intimations of it are found in the fables relative to the expedition of Phrixus. The kings that preceded, and who possessed the country when it was divided into Sceptuchies,
The territory of the Moschi, in which is situated the temple, is divided into three portions, one of which is occupied
-
-by Colchians, another by Iberians, and the third by Armenians. There is in Iberia on the confines of Colchis, a small
-
-city, the city of Phrixus, the present Idessa, a place of
-
-strength. The river Charis
Among the nations that assemble at Dioscurias are - -the Phtheiropagi, who have their appellation from their dirt - -and filth. -
Near them live the Soanes, not less dirty in their habits,
-
-but superior perhaps to all the tribes in strength and courage.
-
-They are masters of the country around them, and occupy
-
-the heights of Caucasus above Dioscurias. They have a king,
-
-and a council of three hundred persons. They can assemble,
-
-it is said, an army of two hundred thousand men, for all their
-
-people are fighting men, but not distributed into certain orders.
-
-In their country the winter torrents are said to bring down
-
-even gold, which the Barbarians collect in troughs pierced
-
-with holes, and lined with fleeces; and hence the fable of
-
-the golden fleece. Some
The other neighbouring nations about the Caucasus occupy
-
-barren and narrow tracts of land. But the tribes of the Albanians and Iberians, who possess nearly the whole of the
-
-above-mentioned isthmus, may also be denominated Caucasian, and yet they live in a fertile country and capable of
-
-being well peopled.
-
-
-
-
THE greater part of Iberia is well inhabited, and contains cities and villages where the houses have roofs covered
-
-with tiles, and display skill in building; there are marketplaces in them, and various kinds of public edifices.
-
-
Some part of the country is encompassed by the Caucasian mountains; for branches of this range advance, as I have
-
-said, towards the south. These districts are fruitful, comprise the whole of Iberia, and extend to Armenia and Colchis.
-
-In the middle is a plain watered by rivers, the largest of
-
-which is the Cyrus, which, rising in Armenia, immediately
-
-enters the above-mentioned plain, having received the Aragus,
The plain is occupied by those Iberians who are more
-
-disposed to agriculture, and are inclined to peace. Their
-
-dress is after the Armenian and Median fashion. Those
-
-who inhabit the mountainous country, and they are the most
-
-numerous, are addicted to war, live like the Sarmatians and
-
-Scythians, on whose country they border, and with whom
-
-they are connected by affinity of race. These people however engage in agriculture also, and can assemble many
-
-myriads of persons from among themselves, and from the
-
-Scythians and Sarmatians, whenever any disturbance occurs.
-
-
There are four passes into the country; one through
-
-Sarapana, a Colchian fortress, and through the defiles near it,
-
-along which the Phasis, rendered passable from one side
-
-to the other by a hundred and twenty bridges, in conse-
-
-
-
-
From the Nomades on the north there is a difficult - -ascent for three days, and then a narrow road by the side of - -the river Aragus, a journey of four days, which road admits - -only one person to pass at a time. The termination of the - -road is guarded by an impregnable wall. -
From Albania the entrance is at first cut through rocks,
-
-then passes over a marsh formed by the river (Alazonius),
The inhabitants of this country are also divided into - -four classes; the first and chief is that from which the kings - -are appointed. The king is the oldest and the nearest of his - -predecessor's relations. The second administers justice, and - -is commander of the army. -
The second class consists of priests, whose business it is to - -settle the respective rights of their own and the bordering - -people. -
The third is composed of soldiers and husbandmen. The
-
-fourth comprehends the common people, who are royal slaves,
-
-and perform all the duties of ordinary life.
-
-
-
-
Possessions are common property in families, but the eldest - -governs, and is the steward of each. -
Such is the character of the Iberians, and the nature of - -their country. - - -
THE Albanians pursue rather a shepherd life, and resemble more the nomadic tribes, except that they are not savages, - -and hence they are little disposed to war. They inhabit the - -country between the Iberians and the Caspian Sea, approaching close to the sea on the east, and on the west border upon - -the Iberians. -
Of the remaining sides the northern is protected by the
-
-Caucasian mountains, for these overhang the plains, and are
-
-called, particularly those near the sea, Ceraunian mountains.
-
-The southern side is formed by Armenia, which extends
-
-along it. A large portion of it consists of plains, and a
-
-large portion also of mountains, as Cambysene, where the
-
-Armenians approach close both to the Iberians and the Albanians.
-
-
The Cyrus, which flows through Albania, and the other
-
-rivers which swell the stream of the Cyrus, improve the
-
-qualities of the land, but remove the sea to a distance. For
-
-the mud, accumulating in great quantity, fillsup the channel
-
-in such a manner, that the small adjacent islands are annexed to the continent, irregular marshes are formed, and
-
-difficult to be avoided; the reverberation also of the tide increases the irregular formation of the marshes. The mouth
-
-of the river is said to be divided into twelve branches, some
-
-of which afford no passage through them, others are so shallow
-
-as to leave no shelter for vessels. The shore for an extent
-
-of more than 60 stadia is inundated by the sea, and by the
-
-rivers; all that part of it is inaccessible; the mud reaches
-
-even as far as 500 stadia, and forms a bank along the coast.
-
-The Araxes
Perhaps such a race of people have no need of the sea,
-
-for they do not make a proper use even of the land, which
-
-produces every kind of fruit, even the most delicate, and
-
-every kind of plant and evergreen. It is not cultivated with
-
-the least care; but all that is excellent grows without sowing,
-
-and without ploughing, according to the accounts of persons
-
-who have accompanied armies there, and describe the inhabitants as leading a Cyclopean mode of life. In many places the
-
-ground, which has been sowed once, produces two or three
-
-crops, the first of which is even fifty-fold, and that without
-
-a fallow, nor is the ground turned with an iron instrument,
-
-but with a plough made entirely of wood. The whole plain
-
-is better watered than Babylon or Ægypt, by rivers and
-
-streams, so that it always presents the appearance of herbage,
-
-and it affords excellent pasture. The air here is better than
-
-in those countries. The vines remain always without digging
-
-round them, and are pruned every five years. The young
-
-trees bear fruit even the second year, but the full grown
-
-yield so much that a large quantity of it is left on the
-
-branches. The cattle, both tame and wild, thrive well in this
-
-country.
-
-
The men are distinguished for beauty of person and for
-
-size. They are simple in their dealings and not fraudulent,
-
-for they do not in general use coined money; nor are they
-
-acquainted with any number above a hundred, and transact
-
-their exchanges by loads. They are careless with regard to
-
-the other circumstances of life. They are ignorant of weights
-
-and measures as far as exactness is concerned; they are im-
-
-provident with respect to war, government, and agriculture.
-
-They fight however on foot and on horseback, both in light
-
-and in heavy armour, like the Armenians.
-
-
They can send into the field a larger army than the
-
-Iberians, for they can equip 60,000 infantry and 22,000
-
-horsemen; with such a force they offered resistance to Pompey. The Nomades also co-operate with them against foreigners, as they do with the Iberians on similar occasions. When
-
-there is no war they frequently attack these people and prevent them from cultivating the ground. They use javelins
-
-and bows, and wear breastplates, shields, and coverings for
-
-
-
-
To the country of the Albanians belongs Caspiana, and has - -its name from the Caspian tribe, from whom the sea also has - -its appellation; the Caspian tribe is now extinct. -
The entrance from Iberia into Albania is through the Cambysene, a country without water, and rocky, to the river Alazonius. The people themselves and their dogs are excessively fond of the chase, pursuing it with equal eagerness
-
-and skill.
-
-
Their kings differ from one another; at present one king - -governs all the tribes. Formerly each tribe was governed by - -a king, who spoke the peculiar language of each. They - -speak six and twenty languages from the want of mutual - -intercourse and communication with one another. -
The country produces some venomous reptiles, as scorpions
-
-and tarantulas. These tarantulas cause death in some instances
-
-by laughter, in others by grief and a longing to return home.
-
-
The gods they worship are the Sun, Jupiter, and the
-
-Moon, but the Moon above the rest. She has a temple near
-
-Iberia. The priest is a person who, next to the king, receives the highest honours. He has the government of the
-
-sacred land, which is extensive and populous, and authority
-
-over the sacred attendants, many of whom are divinely inspired, and prophesy. Whoever of these persons, being violently possessed, wanders alone in the woods, is seized by the
-
-priest, who, having bound him with sacred fetters, maintains
-
-him sumptuously during that year. Afterwards he is brought
-
-forth at the sacrifice performed in honour of the goddess, and
-
-is anointed with fragrant ointment and sacrificed together with
-
-other victims. The sacrifice is performed in the following
-
-manner. A person, having in his hand a sacred lance, with
-
-which it is the custom to sacrifice human victims, advances out
-
-of the crowd and pierces the heart through the side, which he
-
-does from experience in this office. When the man has fallen,
-
-certain prognostications are indicated by the manner of the
-
-fall, and these are publicly declared. The body is carried away
-
-to a certain spot, and then they all trample upon it, performing this action as a mode of purification of themselves.
-
-
The Albanians pay the greatest respect to old age, which
-
-is not confined to their parents, but is extended to old persons
-
-
-
-
So much concerning the Albanians. It is said that when - -Jason, accompanied by Armenus the Thessalian, undertook - -the voyage to the Colchi, they advanced as far as the Caspian - -Sea, and traversed Iberia, Albania, a great part of Armenia, - -and Media, as the Jasoneia and many other monuments testify. Armenus, they say, was a native of Armenium, one of - -the cities on the lake Beebeis, between Pheræ and Parisa, and - -that his companions settled in Acilisene, and the Suspiritis, - -and occupied the country as far as Calachene and Adiabene, - -and that he gave his own name to Armenia. - - -
THE Amazons are said to live among the mountains
-
-above Albania. Theophanes, who accompanied Pompey in
-
-his wars, and was in the country of the Albanians, says that
-
-Gelæ and Legæ,
The Mermodas,
It is said that the Gargarenses ascended together with the
-
-Amazons from Themiscyra to these places, that they then
-
-separated, and with the assistance of some Thracians and
-
-Eubœans, who had wandered as far as this country, made war
-
-against the Amazons, and at length, upon its termination, entered into a compact on the conditions above mentioned, namely,
-
-that there should be a companionship only with respect to
-
-
-
-
There is a peculiarity in the history of the Amazons.
-
-In other histories the fabulous and the historical parts are
-
-kept distinct. For what is ancient, false, and marvellous is
-
-called fable. But history has truth for its object, whether
-
-it be old or new, and it either rejects or rarely admits the
-
-marvellous. But, with regard to the Amazons, the same facts
-
-are related both by modern and by ancient writers; they are
-
-marvellous and exceed belief. For who can believe that an
-
-army of women, or a city, or a nation, could ever subsist
-
-without men? and not only subsist, but make inroads upon
-
-the territory of other people, and obtain possession not only
-
-of the places near them, and advance even as far as the present Ionia, but even despatch an expedition across the sea to
-
-Attica? This is as much as to say that the men of those
-
-days were women, and the women men. But even now the
-
-same things are told of the Amazons, and the peculiarity of
-
-their history is increased by the credit which is given to
-
-ancient, in preference to modern, accounts.
-
-
They are said to have founded cities, and to have given
-
-their names to them, as Ephesus, Smyrna, Cyme, Myrina,
-
-besides leaving sepulchres and other memorials. Themiscyra,
-
-the plains about the Thermodon, and the mountains lying
-
-above, are mentioned by all writers as once belonging to the
-
-Amazons, from whence, they say, they were driven out. Where
-
-they are at present few writers undertake to point out, nor do
-
-they advance proofs or probability for what they state; as in
-
-the case of Thalestria, queen of the Amazons, with whom
-
-Alexander is said to have had intercourse in Hyrcania with
-
-the hope of having offspring. Writers are not agreed on this
-
-point, and among many who have paid the greatest regard to
-
-truth none mention the circumstance, nor do writers of the
-
-highest credit mention anything of the kind, nor do those who
-
-record it relate the same facts. Cleitarchus says that Thalestria set out from the Caspian Gates and Thermodon to
-
-meet Alexander. Now from the Caspian Gates to Thermodon
-
-are more than 6000 stadia.
-
-
Stories circulated for the purpose of exalting the fame
-
-[of eminent persons] are not received with equal favour by
-
-all; the object of the inventors was flattery rather than truth;
-
-
-
-
The highest points of the actual Caucasus are the most
-
-southerly, and lie near Albania, Iberia, the Colchi, and Heniochi. They are inhabited by the people whom I have mentioned as assembling at Dioscurias. They resort thither
-
-chiefly for the purpose of procuring salt. Of these tribes
-
-some occupy the heights; others live in wooded valleys, and
-
-subsist chiefly on the flesh of wild animals, wild fruits, and
-
-milk. The heights are impassable in winter; in summer they
-
-are ascended by fastening on the feet shoes as wide as drums,
-
-made of raw hide, and furnished with spikes on account of the
-
-snow and ice. The natives in descending with their loads
-
-slide down seated upon skins, which is the practice in Media,
-
-Atropatia, and at Mount Masius in Armenia, but there they
-
-fasten circular disks of wood with spikes to the soles of their
-
-feet. Such then is the nature of the heights of Caucasus.
-
-
On descending to the country lying at the foot of these
-
-heights the climate is more northerly, but milder, for the
-
-land below the heights joins the plains of the Siraces. There
-
-are some tribes of Troglodytæ who inhabit caves on account
-
-
-
-
Next to the Troglodytee are Chamæcœt,
Immediately afterwards follow shepherd tribes, situated
-
-between the Mæotis and the Caspian Sea, Nabiani, Pangani,
The Aorsi and Siraces seem to be a fugitive people from
-
-parts situated above. The Aorsi lie more to the north.
Abeacus, king of the Siraces, when Pharnases occupied - -the Bosporus, equipped 20,000 horse, and Spadines, king of - -the Aorsi 200,000, and the Upper Aorsi even a larger body, - -for they were masters of a greater extent of territory, and - -nearly the largest part of the coast of the Caspian Sea was - -under their power. They were thus enabled to transport on - -camels the merchandise of India and Babylonia, receiving - -it from Armenians and Medes. They wore gold also in their - -dress in consequence of their wealth. -
The Aorsi live on the banks of the Tanaïs, and the Siraces - -on those of Achardeus, which rises in Caucasus, and dis- - -charges itself into the Mæotis. - - -
THE second portion of northern Asia begins from the - -Caspian Sea, where the first terminates. This sea is called - -also the Hyrcanian Sea. We must first speak of this sea, and - -of the nations that live near its shores. -
It is a bay extending from the Ocean to the south. At its
-
-commencement it is very narrow; as it advances further inwards, and particularly towards the extremity, it widens to
-
-the extent of about 500 stadia. The voyage from the entrance
-
-
-
-
Eratosthenes says that the navigation of this sea was known
-
-to the Greeks, that the part of the voyage along the coast of
-
-the Albanians and Cadusii
But with respect to the places situated in this portion of
-
-Asia, and to those lying so far removed from our own country, we must not understand the accounts of writers in too
-
-literal a sense, particularly with regard to distances.
-
-
Upon sailing into the Caspian, on the right hand, contiguous to the Europeans, Scythians and Sarmatians occupy - -the country between the Tanaïs and this sea; they are chiefly - -Normades, or shepherd tribes, of whom I have already spoken. - -On the left hand are the Eastern Scythian Nomades, who - -extend as far as the Eastern sea, and India. -
The ancient Greek historians called all the nations towards
-
-the north by the common name of Scythians, and Kelto-Scy-
-
-thians. Writers still more ancient than these called the nations
-
-living above the Euxine, Danube, and Adriatic, Hyperboreans,
-
-Sauromatæ, and Arimaspi.
For these authors, having observed that those who professedly were writers of fables obtained repute and success,
-
-supposed that they also should make their writings agreeable,
-
-
-
-
We cannot easily credit the generality of the historians of - -Alexander, for they practise deception with a view to enhance the glory of Alexander; the expedition also was directed to the extremities of Asia, at a great distance from our - -country, and it is difficult to ascertain or detect the truth or - -falsehood of what is remote. The dominion of the Romans - -and of the Parthians has added very much to former discoveries, and the writers who speak of these people describe - -nations and places, where certain actions were performed, in a - -manner more likely to produce belief than preceding historians, - -for they had better opportunities of personal observation. - - -
THE nomades, or wandering tribes, who live on the left
-
-side of the coast on entering the Caspian Sea, are called by
-
-the moderns Dahæ, and surnamed Parni.
A small part of this country at the foot of the mountains,
-
-as far as the heights, if we reckon from the sea, is inhabited by
-
-some tribes of Albanians and Armenians, but the greater portion by Gelæ, Cadusii, Amardi, Vitii, and Anariacæ. It is said,
-
-that some Parrhasii were settled together with the Anariace,
-
-who are now called Parrhasii, (Parsii?) and that the $SAEnianes
-
-built a wailed city in the territory of the Vitii, which city is
-
-
-
-
Hyrcania
But neither this country, nor the sea which is named after
-
-it, has received proper care and attention from the inhabitants, for there are no vessels upon the sea, nor is it turned to
-
-any use. According to some writers there are islands on it, capable of being inhabited, in which gold is found. The cause of
-
-this neglect is this; the first governors of Hyrcania were
-
-barbarians, Medes, and Persians, and lastly, people who were
-
-more oppressive than these, namely, Parthians. The whole
-
-of the neighbouring country was the haunt of robbers and
-
-wandering tribes, and abounded with tracts of desert land.
-
-For a short time Macedonians were sovereigns of the country,
-
-but being engaged in war were unable to attend to remote
-
-
-
-
Nesæa
Hyrcania is watered by the rivers Ochus and Oxus as - -far as their entrance into the sea. The Ochus flows through - -Nesæa, but some writers say that the Ochus empties itself - -into the Oxus. -
Aristobulus avers that the Oxus was the largest river, except those in India, which he had seen in Asia. He says
-
-also that it is navigable with ease, (this circumstance both
-
-Aristobulus and Eratosthenes borrow from Patrocles,) and
-
-that large quantities of Indian merchandise are conveyed by
-
-it to the Hyrcanian Sea, and are transferred from thence into
-
-Albania by the Cyrus, and through the adjoining countries to
-
-the Euxine. The Ochus is not often mentioned by the ancients, but Apollodorus, the author of the Parthica, frequently
-
-mentions it, [and describes it] as flowing very near the Parthians.
-
-
Many additional falsehoods were invented respecting
-
-this sea, to flatter the ambition of Alexander and his love of
-
-glory; for, as it was generally acknowledged that the river
-
-Tanaïs separated Europe from Asia throughout its whole
-
-course, and that a large part of Asia, lying between this sea
-
-and the Tanaïs, had never been subjected to the power of the
-
-Macedonians, it was resolved to invent an expedition, in order
-
-that, according to fame at least, Alexander might seem to
-
-have conquered those countries. They therefore made the
-
-lake Mæotis, which receives the Tanaïs, and the Caspian Sea,
-
-which also they call a lake, one body of water, affirming that
-
-there was a subterraneous opening between both, and that
-
-one was part of the other. Polycleitus produces proofs to
-
-show that this sea is a lake, for instance, that it breeds serpents, and that the water is sweetish.
Among the peculiarities recorded of the Hyrcanian sea, - -Eudoxus and others relate the following. There is a certain - -coast in front of the sea hollowed out into caverns, between - -which and the sea there lies a flat shore. Rivers on reaching - -this coast descend from the precipices above with sufficient force - -to dart the water into the sea without wetting the intervening - -shore, so that even an army could pass underneath sheltered - -by the stream above. The inhabitants frequently resort to - -this place for the purposes of festivity and of performing - -sacrifices, one while reclining beneath the caverns, at another - -basking in the sun (even) beneath the fall of water. They - -divert themselves in various ways, having in sight on each - -side the sea and shore, the latter of which by the dew [and - -moisture of the falls] is rendered a grassy and flowery meadow. - - -
IN proceeding from the Hyrcanian Sea towards the east,
-
-on the right hand are the mountains which the Greeks call
-
-Taurus, extending as far as India. They begin from Pamphylia and Cilicia, and stretch to this part from the west in
-
-a continuous line, bearing different names in different places.
-
-
-
-
From the Hyrcanian sea to the Arii are about 6000 stadia.
On the left hand
Between these people, Hyrcania, and Parthia as far as
-
-Aria lies a vast and arid desert, which they crossed by long
-
-journeys, and overran Hyrcania, the Nesæan country, and
-
-the plains of Parthia. These people agreed to pay a tribute
-
-on condition of having permission to overrun the country at
-
-stated times, and to carry away the plunder. But when these
-
-incursions became more frequent than the agreement allowed,
-
-war ensued, afterwards peace was made, and then again war
-
-was renewed. Such is the kind of life which the other Nomades also lead, continually attacking their neighbours, and
-
-then making peace with them.
-
-
The Sacæ had made incursions similar to those of the
-
-Cimmerians and Treres, some near their own country, others
-
-at a greater distance. They occupied Bactriana, and got
-
-possession of the most fertile tract in Armenia, which was
-
-called after their own name, Sacasene. They advanced even
-
-as far as the Cappadocians, those particularly situated near
-
-the Euxine; who are now called Pontici. When they were
-
-assembled together and feasting on the division of the booty,
-
-they were attacked by night by the Persian generals who
-
-were then stationed in that quarter, and were utterly exterminated. The Persians raised a mound of earth in the form
-
-of a hill over a rock in the plain, (where this occurred,) and
-
-fortified it. They erected there a temple to Anaïtis and tile
-
-gods Omanus and Anadatus, Persian deities who have a
-
-common altar.
Such is the account which is given of the Sacæ by some
-
-writers. Others say, that Cyrus in an expedition against the
-
-
-
-
The Massagetæ signalized their bravery in the war with
-
-Cyrus, of which many writers have published accounts; we
-
-must get our information from them. Such particulars as
-
-the following are narrated respecting this nation; some
-
-tribes inhabit mountains, some plains, others live among
-
-marshes formed by the rivers, others on the islands among the
-
-marshes. The Araxes is said to be the river which is the chief
-
-cause of inundating the country; it is divided into various
-
-branches and discharges itself by many mouths into the other
-
-sea
Those who live in the islands have no corn-fields. Their - -food consists of roots and wild fruits. Their clothes are made - -of the bark of trees, for they have no sheep. They press out - -and drink the juice of the fruit of certain trees. -
The inhabitants of the marshes eat fish. They are clothed - -in the skins of seals, which come upon the island from the sea. -
The mountaineers subsist on wild fruits. They have besides a few sheep, but they kill them sparingly, and keep - -them for the sake of their wool and milk. Their clothes - -they variegate by steeping them in dyes, which produce a - -colour not easily effaced. -
The inhabitants of the plains, although they possess land,
-
-do not cultivate it, but derive their subsistence from their
-
-flocks, and from fish, after the manner of the nomades and
-
-Scythians. I have frequently described a certain way of life
-
-common to all these people. Their burial-places and their
-
-manners are alike, and their whole manner of living is independent, but rude, savage, and hostile; in their compacts, however, they are simple and without deceit.
-
-
The Attasii (Augasii?) and the Chorasmii belong to - -the Massagetæ and Sacæ, to whom Spitamenes directed his - -flight from Bactria and Sogdiana. He was one of the Persians who, like Bessus, made his escape from Alexander by - -flight, as Arsaces afterwards fled from Seleucus Callinicus, - -and retreated among the Aspasiacæ. -
Eratosthenes says, that the Bactrians lie along the Arachoti
-
-and Massagetæ on the west near the Oxus, and that Sacæ and
-
-Sogdiani, through the whole extent of their territory,
These are the distances which he gives. - - - -
He also assigns the following distances from the Caspian - -Gates to India. - - - -
Thus much then respecting the Sacæ. - - -
PARTHIA is not an extensive tract of country; for this
-
-reason it was united with the Hyrcani for the purpose of paying tribute under the Persian dominion and afterwards, during
-
-a long period when the Macedonians were masters of the country. Besides its small extent, it is thickly wooded, mountainous, and produces nothing; so that the kings with their
-
-multitude of followers pass with great speed through the
-
-country, which is unable to furnish subsistence for such numbers even for a short time. At present it is augmented in
-
-extent. Comisene
From the Caspian Gates to Rhagæ are 500 stadia according to Apollodorus, and to Hecatompylos, the royal seat of
-
-the Parthians,
Disturbances having arisen in the countries beyond the
-
-Taurus in consequence of the kings of Syria and Media,
-
-who possessed the tract of which we are speaking, being engaged in other affairs,
They say that the Dahæ Parni were an emigrant tribe - -from the Dahæ above the Mæotis, who are called Xandii - -and Parii. But it is not generally acknowledged that Dahæ - -are to be found among the Scythians above the Meotis, yet - -from these Arsaces according to some was descended; according to others he was a Bactrian, and withdrawing himself from the increasing power of Diodotus, occasioned the - -revolt of Parthia. -
We have enlarged on the subject of the Parthian customs - -in the sixth book of historical commentaries, and in the second - -of those, which are a sequel to Polybius: we shall omit what - -we said, in order to avoid repetition; adding this only, that - -Poseidonius affirms that the council of the Parthians is composed of two classes, one of relatives, (of the royal family,) - -and another of wise men and magi, by both of which kings - -are chosen. - - -
ARIA and Margiana, which are the best districts in this
-
-portion of Asia, are partly composed of valleys enclosed by
-
-
-
-
Aria borders upon Bactriana, and the mountain
Drangiana as far as Carmania furnished jointly with Aria - -payment of the tribute. The greater part of this country - -is situated at the foot of the southern side of the mountains; - -some tracts however approach the northern side opposite Aria. -
Arachosia, which belongs to the territory of Aria, is not far - -distant; it lies at the foot of the southern side of the mountains, and extends to the river Indus. -
The length of Aria is about 2000 stadia, and the breadth - -of the plain 300 stadia. Its cities are Artacaëna, Alexandreia, - -and Achaia, which are called after the names of their founders. -
The soil produces excellent wines, which may be kept for
-
-three generations in unpitched vessels.
-
-
Margiana is like this country, but the plain is surrounded by deserts. Antiochus Soter admired its fertility; he
-
-enclosed a circle of
SOME parts of Bactria lie along Aria to the north, - -but the greater part stretches beyond (Aria) to the east. It - -is an extensive country, and produces everything except oil. -
The Greeks who occasioned its revolt became so powerful
-
-by means of the fertility and advantages of the country, that
-
-they became masters of Ariana and India, according to
-
-Apollodorus of Artamita. Their chiefs, particularly Menander, (if he really crossed the Hypanis to the east and reached
-
-Isamus,)
Their cities were Bactra, which they call also Zariaspa,
-
-(a river of the same name flows through it, and empties itself
-
-into the Oxus,) and Darapsa,
Anciently the Sogdiani and Bactriani did not differ
-
-much from the nomades in their mode of life and manners,
-
-yet the manners of the Bactriani were a little more civilized.
-
-Onesicritus however does not give the most favourable account
-
-of this people. Those who are disabled by disease or old age
-
-are thrown alive to be devoured by dogs kept expressly for
-
-this purpose, and whom in the language of the country they
-
-call entombers.
Alexander, it is said, founded eight cities in Bactriana - -and Sogdiana; some he razed, among which were Cariatæ in - -Bactriana, where Callisthenes was seized and imprisoned; - -Maracanda in Sogdiana, and Cyra, the last of the places - -founded by Cyrus, situated upon the river Iaxartes, and the - -boundary of the Persian empire. This also, although it was - -attached to Cyrus, he razed on account of its frequent revolts. -
Alexander took also, it is said, by means of treachery, strong
-
-fortified rocks; one of which belonged to Sisimithres in Bactriana, where Oxyartes kept his daughter Roxana; another to
-
-Oxus in Sogdiana, or, according to some writers, to Ariamazas. The stronghold of Sisimithres is described by historians to have been fifteen stadia in height, and eighty stadia
-
-in circuit. On the summit is a level ground, which is fertile
-
-and capable of maintaining 500 men. Here Alexander was
-
-entertained with sumptuous hospitality, and here he espoused
-
-Roxana the daughter of Oxyartes. The height of the fortress
-
-in Sogdiana is double the height of this. It was near these
-
-places that he destroyed the city of the Branchidæ, whom
-
-Xerxes settled there, and who had voluntarily accompanied him
-
-from their own country. They had delivered up to the Persians the riches of the god at Didymi, and the treasure there
-
-deposited. Alexander destroyed their city in abhorrence of
-
-their treachery and sacrilege.
-
-
Aristobulus calls the river, which runs through Sogdiana, Polytimetus, a name imposed by the Macedonians, as
-
-they imposed many others, some of which were altogether
-
-new, others were deflections
It is said that on digging near the river Ochus a spring of
-
-oil was discovered. It is probable, that as certain nitrous, astringent, bituminous, and sulphurous fluids permeate the
-
-earth, greasy fluids may be found, but the rarity of their occurrence makes their existence almost doubtful.
-
-
-
-
The Iaxartes is distinct from the Oxus from its commencement to its termination, and empties itself into the same sea. - -Their mouths, according to Patrocles, are about 80 parasangs - -distant from each other. The Persian parasang some say - -contains 60, others 30 or 40, stadia. -
When I was sailing up the Nile, schœni of different measures were used in passing from one city to another, so that
-
-the same number of schœni gave in some places a longer, in
-
-others a shorter, length to the voyage. This mode of computation has been handed down from an early period, and is
-
-continued to the present time.
-
-
In proceeding from Hyrcania towards the rising sun as
-
-far as Sogdiana, the nations beyond (within?) the Taurus
-
-were known first to the Persians, and afterwards to the Macedonians and Parthians. The nations lying in a straight line
It is not generally admitted, that persons have passed
-
-round by sea from India to Hyrcania, but Patrocles asserts
-
-that it may be done.
-
-
It is said that the termination of Taurus, which is called
-
-Imaus, approaches close to the Indian Sea, and neither advances towards nor recedes from the East more than India
-
-itself. But on passing to the northern side, the sea contracts
-
-(throughout the whole coast) the length and breadth of India,
-
-so as to shorten on the East the portion of Asia we are now
-
-
-
-
The greatest length of this portion, reckoned from the Hyrcanian Sea to the (Eastern) Ocean opposite Imaus, is about
-
-30,000 stadia, The arguments contained in this paragraph on the whole appear to me
-
-strange; they rest on a basis which it is difficult to comprehend; they
-
-establish explicitly a proposition which disagrees with what the author
-
-has said elsewhere, and lastly they present an enormous geographical
-
-error.
- It will therefore be useful to the reader to explain, as far as I understand it the argument of our author.
-
- 1.The exact form of the chlamys is unknown to us, but it was such, that
-
-its greatest 2. The greatest 3. The meridian which passes at the distance of 35,000 stadia from the
-
-eastern or western extremities of the Habitable Earth, is that which,
-
-drawn from the mouth of the Hyrcanian Sea to the Northern Ocean, and
-
-prolonged in another direction through the mouth of the Persian Gulf
-
-to the sea called Erythræan, would pass through the city Artemita. Consequently it is on the meridian of Artemita that we must look for the
-
-greatest breadth of the Habitable Earth.
-
- 4. On this same meridian, we must reckon from the parallel of the
-
-last habitable country in the south to the mouth of the Persian Gulf;
-
-about 8000 stadia; then from the mouth of the Persian Gulf to Artemita,
-
-8000 stadia; and from Artemita to the bottom of the Hyrcanian Sea,
-
-8000 stadia: total 24,000 stadia.
-
- 5. It being established that the breadth of the Habitable Earth is
-
-30,000 stadia, and not to extend it northwards beyond the parallel of the
-
-mouth of the Hyrcanian Sea, where it communicates with the Northern
-
-Ocean, the distance to this point from the bottom of this same sea must.
-
-be calculated at 6000 stadia. less than 10,000 stadia.
This
-
-passage therefore seems to present great difficulties. The difficulties
-
-respecting the parallel can only be perceived by an examination and
-
-comparison of the numerous passages where our author indicates the
-
-direction of the chain of mountains which form the Taurus.greatest length,
-
-and 10,000 stadia as its greatest breadth,
Strabo proceeds to prove
-
-what he had just advanced respecting its greatest length. Then he
-
-should, it seems, have endeavoured to furnish us, in the same manner,
-
-with a proof that its greatest breadth is not more, as he says, than 10,000.
-
-But in what follows there is nothing advanced on this point; all that he
-
-says is to develope another proposition, viz. that the extent of the Hyrcanian—Caspian Sea is at the utmost 6000 stadia.
-
-
What Euripides expresses in the following lines is said to
-
-be a custom among them;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-they lament the birth of the new-born on account of the many evils to
-
-which they are exposed; but the dead, and one at rest from his troubles,
-
-is carried forth from his home with joy and gratulation.
Other tribes do not put to death even the greatest offenders, - -but only banish them from their territories together with - -their children; which is contrary to the custom of the Derbices, who punish even slight offences with death. The Derbices worship the earth. They neither sacrifice, nor eat the - -female of any animal. Persons who attain the age of above - -seventy years are put to death by them, and their nearest relations eat their flesh. Old women are strangled, and then - -buried. Those who die under seventy years of age are not - -eaten, but are only buried. -
The Siginni in general practise Persian customs. They - -have small horses with shaggy hair, but which are not able - -to carry a rider. Four of these horses are harnessed together, - -driven by women, who are trained to this employment from - -childhood. The best driver marries whom she pleases. Some, - -they say, make it their study to appear with heads as long as - -possible, and with foreheads projecting over their chins. -
The Tapyrii have a custom for the men to dress in black,
-
-and wear their hair long, and the women to dress in white,
-
-and wear their hair short. [They live between the Derbices
-
-and Hyrcani.]
The Caspii starve to death those who are above seventy
-
-years old, by exposing them in a desert place. The exposed
-
-are observed at a distance; if they are dragged from their
-
-resting-place by birds, they are then pronounced happy; but
-
-if by wild beasts, or dogs, less fortunate; but if by none of
-
-these, ill-fated.
-
-
-
-
SINCE the Taurus constitutes the northern parts of Asia, - -which are called also the parts within the Taurus, I propose - -to speak first of these. -
They are situated either entirely,—or chiefly, among the
-
-mountains. Those to the east of the Caspian Gates admit of
-
-a shorter description on account of the rude state of the people, nor is there much difference whether they are referred to
-
-one climate
Media lies towards the west, an extensive country, and
-
-formerly powerful; it is situated in the middle of Taurus,
-
-which here has many branches, and contains large valleys, as
-
-is the case in Armenia.
-
-
This mountain has its beginning in Caria and Lycia,
-
-but does not exhibit there either considerable breadth or
-
-height. It first appears to have a great altitude opposite the
-
-Chelidoneæ,
From the south flow both rivers, the Euphrates and
-
-the Tigris, which encircle Mesopotamia, and approach close
-
-to each other at Babylonia, and then discharge themselves
-
-into the sea on the coast of Persia. The Euphrates is the
-
-larger river, and traverses a greater tract of country with a tortuous course, it rises in the northern part of Taurus, and flows
-
-toward the west through Armenia the Greater, as it is called,
-
-to Armenia the Less, having the latter on the right and
-
-Acilisene on the left hand. It then turns to the south, and
-
-at its bend touches the boundaries of Cappadocia. It leaves
-
-this and Commagene on the right hand; on the left Acilisene and Sophene,
The Tigris takes its course from the southern part of the
-
-same mountains to Seleucia,
The sources of the Tigris and of the Euphrates are distant
-
-from each other about 2500 stadia.
-
-
Towards the north there are many forks which branch - -away from the Taurus. One of these is called Anti-Taurus, - -for there the mountain had this name, and includes Sophene - -in a valley situated between Anti-Taurus and the Taurus. -
Next to the Anti-Taurus on the other side of the Euphrates,
-
-along the Lesser Armenia, there stretches towards the north
-
-a large mountain with many branches, one of which is called
-
-Paryadres,
The southern mountains on the other side of the Euphrates,
-
-extending towards the east from Cappadocia and Commagene,above
these cities, would appear to mean overhanging them both, as it is situated between them.
In the middle of these branches are situated Media and - -Armenia, which comprise many mountains, and many mountain plains, as well as plains and large valleys. Numerous - -small tribes live around among the mountains, who are for - -the most part robbers. -
We thus place within the Taurus Armenia and Media, to
-
-which belong the Caspian Gates.
-
-
In our opinion these nations may be considered as situated to the north, since they are within the Taurus. But
-
-Eratosthenes, having divided Asia into southern and northern
-
-portions, and what he calls seals, (or sections,)
MEDIA is divided into two parts, one of which is called
-
-the Greater Media. Its capital is Ecbatana,
The other division is Atropatian Media. It had its name
-
-from Atropatus, a chief who prevented this country, which is
-
-a part of Greater Media, from being subjected to the dominion of the Macedonians. When he was made king he
-
-established the independence of this country; his successors
-
-continue to the present day, and have at different times contracted marriages with the kings of Armenia, Syria, and
-
-Parthia.
-
-
Atropatian Media borders upon Armenia and Matiane
According to Apollonides its strength is not inconsiderable, - -since it can furnish 10,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry. -
It contains a lake called Spauta,
The summer palace is at Gazaka, situated in a plain;
-
-the winter palace
The other parts of this country are fertile, but that towards
-
-the north is mountainous, rugged, and cold, the abode of the
-
-mountain tribes of Cadusii Amardi, Tapyri, Curtii, and other
-
-similar nations, who are migratory, and robbers. These people are scattered over the Zagrus and Niphates. TheCurtii
-
-in Persia, and Mardi, (for so they call the Amardi,) and
-
-those in Armenia, and who bear the same name at present,
-
-have the same kind of character.
-
-
The Cadusii have an army of foot soldiers not inferior
-
-in number to that of the Ariani. They are very expert in
-
-throwing the javelin. In the rocky places the soldiers engage in battle on foot, instead of on their horses. The expedition of Antony was harassing to the army, not by the
-
-nature of the country, but by the conduct of their guide,
-
-Artavasdes, king of the Armenii, whom Antony rashly made
-
-his adviser, and master of his intentions respecting the war,
-
-when at the same time that prince was contriving a plan for
-
-his destruction. Antony punished Artavasdes, but too late;
-
-the latter had been the cause of many calamities to the
-
-Romans, in conjunction with another person; he made the
-
-march from the Zeugma on the Euphrates to the borders of
-
-Atropatene to exceed 8000 stadia, or double the distance of
-
-the direct course, [by leading the army] over mountains, and
-
-places where there were no roads, and by a circuitous route.
-
-
-
-
Media is bounded on the east by Parthia, and by the - -mountains of the Cossæi, a predatory tribe. They once furnished the Elymæi, whose allies they were in the war against - -the Susii and Babylonians, with 13,000 archers. Nearchus - -says that there were four robber tribes; the Mardi, who were - -contiguous to the Persians; the Uxii and Elymæi, who were - -on the borders of the Persians and Susii; and the Cossæi, on - -those of the Medes; that all of them exacted tribute from the - -kings; that the Cossæi received presents, when the king, having passed his summer at Ecbatana went down to Babylonia; - -that Alexander attacked them in the winter time, and repressed their excessive insolence. Media is bounded on the - -east by these nations, and by the Parætaceni, who are contiguous to the Persians, and are mountaineers, and robbers; - -on the north by the Cadusii, who live above the Hyrcanian - -Sea, and by other nations, whom we have just enumerated; - -on the south by the Apolloniatis, which the ancients called - -Sitacene, and by the Zagrus, along which lies Massabatica, - -which belongs to Media, but according to others, to Elymæa; - -on the west by the Atropatii, and by some tribes of the Armenians. -
There are also Grecian cities in Media, founded by Macedonians, as Laodiceia, Apameia, Heracleia near Rhagæ, and
-
-Rhaga itself, founded by Nicator, who called it Europus, and
-
-the Parthians Arsacia, situated about 500 stadia to the south
-
-of the Caspian Gates, according to Apollodorus of Artemita.
-
-
The greater part of Media consists of high ground, and is
-
-cold; such are the mountains above Ecbatana, and the places
-
-about Rhagæ and the Caspian Gates, and the northern parts
-
-in general extending thence as far as Matiane and Armenia.
-
-
-
-
The herbage which constitutes the chief food of the horses
-
-we call peculiarly by the name of Medic, from its growing in
-
-Media in great abundance. The country produces Silphium,
Such then is the nature of the country with respect to
-
-magnitude; its length and breadth are nearly equal. The
-
-greatest breadth (length?)length.
The account of the tribute paid agrees with the extent and
-
-wealth of the country. Cappadocia paid to the Persians
-
-yearly, in addition to a tribute in silver,
Many of their customs are the same as those of the Armenians, from the similarity of the countries which they inhabit. The Medes however were the first to communicate
-
-them to the Armenians, and still before that time to the Persians, who were their masters, and successors in the empire
-
-of Asia.
-
-
-
-
Some writers say that Medeia, when with Jason she
-
-ruled in these countries, introduced this kind of dress, and
-
-concealed her countenance as often as she appeared in public
-
-in place of the king; that the memorials of Jason are, the
-
-Jasonian heroa,
It is a Median custom to elect the bravest person as - -king, but this does not generally prevail, being confined to - -the mountain tribes. The custom for the kings to have many - -wives is more general, it is found among all the mountaineers - -also, but they are not permitted to have less than five. In the - -same manner the women think it honourable for husbands to - -have as many wives as possible, and esteem it a misfortune if - -they have less than five. -
While the rest of Media is very fertile, the northern and
-
-mountainous part is barren. The people subsist upon the
-
-produce of trees. They make cakes of apples, sliced and
-
-
-
-
THE southern parts of Armenia lie in front of the Taurus, which separates Armenia from the whole of the country
-
-situated between the Euphrates and the Tigris, and which is
-
-called Mesopotamia. The eastern parts are contiguous to
-
-the Greater Media, and to Atropatene. To the north are the
-
-range of the mountains of Parachoathras lying above the
-
-Caspian Sea, the Albanians, Iberians, and the Caucasus. The
-
-Caucasus encircles these nations, and approaches close to the
-
-Armenians, the Moschic and Colchic mountains, and extends as far as the country of the people called Tibareni. On
-
-the west are these nations and the mountains Paryadres and
-
-Scydises, extending to the Lesser Armenia, and the country
-
-on the side of the Euphrates, which divides Armenia from
-
-Cappadocia and Commagene.
-
-
The Euphrates rises in the northern side of the Taurus, and flows at first towards the west through Armenia, it - -then makes a bend to the south, and intersects the Taurus - -between the Armenians, Cappadocians, and Commageni. - -Then issuing outwards and entering Syria, it turns towards - -the winter sun-rise as far as Babylon, and forms Mesopotamia - -with the Tigris. Both these rivers terminate in the Persian - -Gulf. -
Such is the nature of the places around Armenia, almost - -all of them mountainous and rugged, except a few tracts - -which verge towards Media. -
To the above-mentioned Taurus, which commences again
-
-in the country on the other side of the Euphrates, occupied
-
-
-
-
Above Mount Masius far to the east along Gordyene is the
-
-Niphates, then the Abus,
We have described the course of the Euphrates. The
-
-Araxes, after running to the east as far as Atropatene, makes
-
-a bend towards the west and north. It then first flows beside
-
-Azara, then by Artaxata,
There are many mountains in Armenia, and many - -mountain plains, in which not even the vine grows. There - -are also many valleys, some are moderately fertile, others - -are very productive, as the Araxenian plain, through which - -the river Araxes flows to the extremities of Albania, and - -empties itself into the Caspian Sea. Next is Sacasene, - -which borders upon Albania, and the river Cyrus; then - -Gogarene. All this district abounds with products of the soil, - -cultivated fruit trees and evergreens. It bears also the olive. -
There is Phauene, (Phanenæ, Phasiana?) a province of Armenia, Comisene, and Orchistene, which furnishes large bodies of cavalry.
-
-
-
-
They say that hollow masses are consolidated in the snow,
-
-which contain good water, enveloped as in a coat; that animals are bred in the snow, which Apollonides call scoleces,
According to historians, Armenia, which was formerly
-
-a small country, was enlarged by Artaxias and Zariadris,
-
-who had been generals of Antiochus the Great, and at last,
-
-after his overthrow, when they became kings, (the former
-
-of Sophene, Acisene, (Amphissene?) Odomantis, and some
-
-other places, the latter of the country about Artaxata,) they
-
-simultaneously aggrandized themselves, by taking away portions of the territory of the surrounding nations: from the
-
-Medes they took the Caspiana, Phaunitis, and Basoropeda;
-
-from the Iberians, the country at the foot of the Paryadres, the Chorzene, and Gogarene, which is on the other
-
-side of the Cyrus; from the Chalybes, and the Mosynœci,
-
-Carenitis and Xerxene, which border upon the Lesser Armenia, or are even parts of it; from the Cataones, Acilisene,
The cities of Armenia are Artaxata, called also Artax-
-
-
-
-
Not far from the city are the treasure-storehouses of Tigranes and Artavasdes, the strong fortresses Babyrsa, and
-
-Olane. There were others also upon the Euphrates. Ador,
-
-(Addon?) the governor of the fortress, occasioned the revolt
-
-of Artageræ, but the generals of Cæsar retook it after a
-
-long siege, and destroyed the walls.
-
-
There are many rivers in the country. The most celebrated are the Phasis and Lycus; they empty themselves
-
-into the Euxine; (Eratosthenes instead of the Lycus mentions the Thermodon, but erroneously;) the Cyrus and the
-
-Araxes into the Caspian, and the Euphrates and the Tigris
-
-into the Persian Gulf.
-
-
There are also large lakes in Armenia; one the Mantiane,blue,
this explanation of Strabo's appears to refer to the lake Spauta or Kapauta,
-
-above, c. xiii. § 2.
The next is Arsene,
There are mines of gold in the Hyspiratis,
This country is so well adapted, being nothing inferior in this
-
-respect to Media, for breeding horses, that the race of Nesean
-
-horses, which the kings of Persia used, is found here also;
-
-the satrap of Armenia used to send annually to the king
-
-of Persia
Not only do the Medes and Armenians, but the Albanians
-
-also, admire this kind of cavalry, for the latter use horses
-
-covered with armour.
-
-
Of the riches and power of this country, this is no
-
-slight proof, that when Pompey imposed upon Tigranes, the
-
-father of Artavasdes, the payment of 6000 talents of silver, he
-
-immediately distributed the money among the Roman army,
-
-to each soldier 50 drachmæ, 1000 to a centurion, and a talent
-
-to a Hipparch and a Chiliarch.
-
-
Theophanes represents this as the size of the country;
-
-its breadth to be 100 schœni, and its length double this number, reckoning the schœnus at 40 stadia; but this computation exceeds the truth. It is nearer the truth to take the
-
-
-
-
Such then is the nature of the country of Armenia, and its
-
-power.
-
-
There exists an ancient account of the origin of this - -nation to the following effect. Armenus of Armenium, a Thessalian city, which lies between Pheræ and Larisa on the lake - -Bœbe, accompanied Jason, as we have already said, in his expedition into Armenia, and from Armenus the country had - -its name, according to Cyrsilus the Pharsalian and Medius - -the Larisæan, persons who had accompanied the army of - -Alexander. Some of the followers of Armenus settled in - -Acilisene, which was formerly subject to the Sopheni; others - -in the Syspiritis, and spread as far as Calachene and Adiabene, beyond the borders of Armenia. -
The dress of the Armenian people is said to be of Thessalian origin; such are the long tunics, which in tragedies are called Thessalian; they are fastened about the body with a girdle, - -and with a clasp on the shoulder. The tragedians, for they - -required some additional decoration of this kind, imitate the - -Thessalians in their attire. The Thessalians in particular, - -from wearing a long dress, (probably because they inhabit the - -most northerly and the coldest country in all Greece,) afforded the most appropriate subject of imitation to actors for their - -theatrical representations. The passion for riding and the - -care of horses characterize the Thessalians, and are common - -to Armenians and Medes. -
The Jasonia are evidence of the expedition of Jason: some
-
-of these memorials the sovereigns of the country restored, as
-
-Parmenio restored the temple of Jason at Abdera.
-
-
It is supposed that Armenus and his companions called
-
-the Araxes by this name on account of its resemblance to
-
-the Peneius, for the Peneius had the name of Araxes from
-
-bursting through Tempe, and rending (
Some tribes of Ænianes are mentioned, some of whom - -settled in Vitia, others above the Armenians beyond the Abus - -and the Nibarus. These latter are branches of Taurus; the - -Abus is near the road which leads to Ecbatana by the temple - -of Baris (Zaris?). -
Some tribes of Thracians, surnamed Saraparæ, or decapitators, are said to live above Armenia, near the Gouranii and - -Medes. They are a savage people, intractable mountaineers, - -and scalp and decapitate strangers; for such is the meaning - -of the term Saraparæ. -
I have spoken of Medeia in the account of Media, and it is
-
-conjectured from all the circumstances that the Medes and
-
-Armenians are allied in some way to the Thessalians, descended from Jason and Medeia.
-
-
This is the ancient account, but the more recent, anc - -extending from the time of the Persians to our own age, may - -be given summarily, and in part only (as follows); Persians - -and Macedonians gained possession of Armenia, next those - -who were masters of Syria and Media. The last was Orontes, - -a descendant of Hydarnes, one of the seven Persians: it was - -then divided into two portions by Artaxias and Zariadris, - -generals of Antiochus the Great, who made war against the - -Romans. These were governors by permission of the king, - -but upon his overthrow they attached themselves to the Romans, were declared independent, and had the title of kings. - -Tigranes was a descendant of Artaxias, and had Armenia, - -properly so called. This country was contiguous to Media, - -to the Albani, and to the Iberes, and extended as far as Colchis, and Cappadocia upon the Euxine. -
Artanes the Sophenian was the descendant of Zariadris, and had the southern parts of Armenia, which verge
-
-rather to the west. He was defeated by Tigranes, who became master of the whole country. He had experienced
-
-many vicissitudes of fortune. At first he had served as a
-
-
-
-
Artavasdes, his successor, prospered as long as he continued a friend of the Romans. But having betrayed Antony to the Parthians in the war with that people, he suffered
-
-punishment for his treachery. He was carried in chains to
-
-Alexandria, by order of Antony, led in procession through
-
-the city, and kept in prison for a time. On the breaking
-
-out of the Actiac war he was then put to death. Many
-
-kings reigned after Artavasdes, who were dependent upon
-
-Cæsar and the Romans. The country is still governed in
-
-the same manner.
-
-
Both the Medes and Armenians have adopted all the
-
-sacred rites of the Persians, but the Armenians pay particu-
-
-lar reverence to Anaitis, and have built temples to her honour in several places, especially in Acilisene. They dedicate
-
-there to her service male and female slaves; in this there
-
-is nothing remarkable, but it is surprising that persons of the
-
-highest rank in the nation consecrate their virgin daughters
-
-to the goddess. It is customary for these women, after being
-
-
-
-
SUMMARY.
- -The Twelfth Book contains the remainder of Pontus, viz. Cappadocia, Gala - -tia, Bithynia, Mysia, Phrygia, and Mæonia: the cities, Sinope in Pontus, - -Heracleia, and Amaseia, and likewise Isauria, Lycia, Pamphylia, and - -Cilicia, with the islands lying along the coast; the mountains and rivers.
The nations speaking the same language are chiefly those
-
-who are bounded on the south by the Cilician Taurus,
Among the nations that speak the same language, the
-
-ancients placed the Cataonians by themselves, contra-dis-
-
-tinguishing them from the Cappadocians, whom they considered as a different people. In the enumeration of the nations
-
-they placed Cataonia after Cappadocia, then the Euphrates,
-
-and the nations on the other side of that river, so as to
-
-include even Melitene in Cataonia, although Melitene lies
-
-between Cataonia and the Euphrates, approaches close to
-
-Commagene, and constitutes a tenth portion of Cappadocia,
-
-
-
-
Cataonia is a tenth portion of Cappadocia. In our time
-
-each province had its own governor, and since no difference
-
-appears in the language of the Cataonians compared with
-
-that of the other Cappadocians, nor any difference in their
-
-customs, it is surprising how entirely the characteristic marks
-
-of a foreign nation have disappeared, yet they were distinct
-
-nations; Ariarathes, the first who bore the title of king of
-
-the Cappadocians, annexed the Cataonians to Cappadocia.
-
-
This country composes the isthmus, as it were, of a - -large peninsula formed by two seas; by the bay of Issus, extending to Cilicia Tracheia, and by the Euxine lying between - -Sinope and the coast of the Tibareni. -
The isthmus cuts off what we call the peninsula; the whole
-
-tract lying to the west of the Cappadocians, to which Herodotus
This Asia comprises, first, the nations on the east, Paphlagonians, Phrygians, and Lycaonians; then Bithynians, Mysians, and the Epictetus; besides these, Troas, and Hellespontia; next to these, and situated on the sea, are the Æolians - -and Ionians, who are Greeks; the inhabitants of the remaining portions are Carians and Lycians, and in the inland parts - -are Lydians. -
We shall speak hereafter of the other nations.
-
-
The Macedonians obtained possession of Cappadocia
-
-after it had been divided by the Persians into two satrapies,
-
-and permitted, partly with and partly without the consent of
-
-the people, the satrapies to be altered to two kingdoms, one
-
-of which they called Cappadocia Proper, and Cappadocia
-
-
-
-
We are ignorant at present how Cappadocia the Great
-
-was at first distributed; upon the death of Archelaus the
-
-king, Cæsar and the senate decreed that it should be a Roman province. But when the country was divided in the
-
-time of Archelaus and of preceding kings into ten provinces, they reckoned five near the Taurus, Melitene, Cataonia,
-
-Cilicia, Tyanitis, and Garsauritis; the remaining five were
-
-Laviansene, Sargarausene, Saravene, Chamanene, Morimene.
-
-The Romans afterwards assigned to the predecessors of Archelaus an eleventh province formed out of Cilicia, consisting of the country about Castabala and Cybistra,
MELITENE resembles Commagene, for the whole of it is
-
-planted with fruit-trees, and is the only part of all Cappadocia
-
-which is planted in this manner. It produces oil, and the
-
-wine Monarites, which vies with the wines of Greece. It is
-
-situated opposite to Sophene, having the river Euphrates
-
-flowing between it and Commagene, which borders upon it.
-
-n the country on the other side of the river is Tomisa, a
-
-considerable fortress of the Cappadocians. It was sold to the
-
-prince of Sophene for a hundred talents. Lucullus presented
-
-it afterwards as a reward of valour to the Cappadocian prince
-
-for his services in the war against Mithridates.
-
-
Cataonia is a plain, wide and hollow,
In the Anti-Taurus are deep and narrow valleys, in
-
-which is situated Comana,
The river Sarus flows through this city, and passes out
-
-through the valleys of the Taurus to the plains of Cilicia, and
-
-to the sea lying below them.
-
-
The Pyramus,
-
-
-The time will come, when Pyramus, with its deep whirlpools, by ad-
-
-vaucing on the sea-shore, will reach the sacred Cyprus.
Something similar to this takes place in Egypt. The Nile
-
-is continually converting the sea into continent by an accumulation of earth; accordingly Herodotus calls Egypt a gift
-
-of the river, and Homer says, that the Pharos was formerly
-
-out at sea, not as it is at present connected with the mainland of Egypt.
-
-
[The third
Neither the plain of the Cataonians nor Melitene have
-
-any city, but strongholds upon the mountains, as Azamora, and
-
-Dastarcum, round which runs the river Carmalas.
In Morimene, among the Venasii, is a temple of Jupiter,
-
-with buildings capable of receiving nearly three thousand servants of the temple. It has a tract of sacred land attached to
-
-it, very fertile, and affording to the priest a yearly revenue of
-
-fifteen talents. The priest is appointed for life like the priest
-
-at Comana, and is next to him in rank.
-
-
Two provinces only have cities. In the Tyanitis is
-
-Tyana,Eusebeia at the Taurus.
-
-Tyanitis is fertile, and the greatest part of it consists of
-
-plains. Tyana is built upon the mound of Semiramis, which
-
-is fortified with good walls. At a little distance from this
-
-city are Castabala and Cybistra, towns which approach still
-
-nearer to the mountain. At Castabala is a temple of Diana
-
-Perasia, where, it is said, the priestesses walk with naked
-
-feet unhurt upon burning coals. To this place some persons
-
-apply the story respecting Orestes and Diana Tauropolus, and
-
-say that the goddess was called Perasia, because she was conveyed from beyond (
In Tyanitis, one of the ten provinces above mentioned, is
-
-the city Tyana. But with these I do not reckon the cities
-
-that were afterwards added, Castabala, and Cybistra, and
-
-those in Cilicia Tracheia, to which belongs Elæussa, a small
-
-
-
-
In the Cilician province, as it is called, is Mazaca,Eusebeia,
with the
-
-addition at the Argæus,
for it is situated at the foot of the
-
-Argeus,
Mazaca is not adapted in other respects by nature for the
-
-settlement of a city, for it is without water, and unfortified.
-
-Through the neglect of the governors, it is without walls, perhaps intentionally, lest, trusting to the wall as to a fortification,
-
-the inhabitants of a plain, which has hills situated above it, and
-
-not exposed to the attacks of missile weapons, should addict
-
-themselves to robbery. The country about, although it consists of plains, is entirely barren and uncultivated, for the soil
-
-is sandy, and rocky underneath. At a little distance further
-
-there are burning plains, and pits full of fire to an extent of
-
-many stadia, so that the necessaries of life are brought from a
-
-distance. What seems to be a peculiar advantage (abundance
-
-of wood) is a source of danger. For though nearly the whole
-
-of Cappadocia is without timber, the Argæus is surrounded
-
-by a forest, so that wood may be procured near at hand, yet
-
-even the region lying below the forest contains fire in many
-
-parts, and springs of cold water; but as neither the fire nor
-
-the water break out upon the surface, the greatest part of the
-
-country is covered with herbage. In some parts the bottom
-
-is marshy, and flames burst out from the ground by night.
-
-Those acquainted with the country collect wood with caution;
-
-but there is danger to others, and particularly to cattle, which
-
-fall into these hidden pits of fire.
-
-
In the plain in front of the city, and about 40 stadia
-
-from it, is a river of the name of Melas,
Ariarathes the king filled in some narrow channels by
-
-which the Melas entered the Halys, and converted the neighbouring plain into a wide lake. There he selected some small
-
-islands like the Cyclades, where he passed his time in boyish
-
-and frivolous diversions. The barrier, however, was broken
-
-down all at once, and the waters again flowed abroad and
-
-swelled the Halys, which swept away a large part of the Cappadocian territory, and destroyed many buildings and plantations; it also damaged a considerable part of the country of
-
-the Galatians, who occupy Phrygia. In compensation for
-
-this injury he paid a fine of three hundred talents to the inhabitants, who had referred the matter to the decision of the
-
-Romans. The same was the case at Herpa; for he there
-
-obstructed the stream of the Carmalas, and, on the bursting
-
-of the dyke, the water damaged some of the places in the
-
-Cilician territories about Mallus; he was obliged to make
-
-compensation to those who had sustained injury.
-
-
Although the territory of the Mazaceni is destitute in
-
-many respects of natural advantages, it seems to have been
-
-preferred by the kings as a place of residence, because it was
-
-nearest the centre of those districts which supplied timber,
-
-stone for building, and fodder, of which a very large quantity
-
-was required for the subsistence of their cattle. Their city
-
-was almost a camp. The security of their persons and treasure
Mazaca is distant from Pontus
The breadth of the country from Pontus to the Taurus is
-
-about
In Cappadocia is found the red earth called the Sinopic, - -which is better than that of any other country. The Spanish - -only can rival it. It had the name of Sinopic, because the - -merchants used to bring it down from Sinope, before the traffic - -of the Ephesians extended as far as the people of Cappadocia. - -It is said that even plates of crystal and of the onyx stone were - -discovered by the miners of Archelaus near the country of the - -Galatians. There was a place where was found a white stone - -of the colour of ivory in pieces of the size of small whetstones, - -from which were made handles for small swords. Another - -place produced large masses of transparent stone for windows, - -which were exported. -
The boundary of Pontus and Cappadocia is a mountainous
-
-range parallel to the Taurus, commencing from the western
-
-extremities of Chammanene, (where stands Dasmenda, a fortress
-
-built upon a precipice,) and extending to the eastern parts of
-
-
-
-
When the Romans, after the defeat of Antiochus, first
-
-governed Asia, they made treaties of friendship and alliance
-
-both with the nations and with the kings. This honour was
-
-conferred upon the other kings separately and independently,
-
-but upon the king of Cappadocia in common with the nation.
-
-On the extinction of the royal race, the Romans admitted the
-
-independence of the Cappadocians according to the treaty of
-
-friendship and alliance which they had made with the nation.
-
-The deputies excused themselves from accepting the liberty
-
-which was offered to them, declaring that they were unable to
-
-bear it, and requested that a king might be appointed. The
-
-Romans were surprised that any people should be unwilling
-
-to enjoy liberty, but permitted
So much respecting the Greater Cappadocia. -
With regard to Cilicia Tracheia, which was annexed to - -the Greater Cappadocia, it will be better to describe it when - -we give an account of the whole of Cilicia. - - -
MITHRIDATES Eupator was appointed King of Pontus.
-
-His kingdom consisted of the country bounded by the Halys,
In later times the Roman emperors made different divisions - -of the same country, appointing kings and rulers, making - -some cities free, and subjecting others to the authority of rulers, - -others again were left under the dominion of the Roman people. -
As we proceed in our description according to the present - -state of things, we shall touch slightly on their former condition, whenever it may be useful. -
I shall begin from Heracleia,
In sailing out of the Propontis into the Euxine Sea, on
-
-the left hand are the parts adjoining to Byzantium, (Constantinople,) and these belong to the Thracians. The parts
-
-on the left of the Pontus are called Aristera (or left) of Pontus; the parts on the right are contiguous to Chalcedon. Of
-
-these the first tract of country belongs to the Bithynians, the
-
-next to the Mariandyni, or, as some say, to the Caucones; next
-
-is that of the Paphlagonians, extending to the Halys, then that
-
-of the Cappadocians near the Pontus, and then a district
-
-reaching to Colchis.
It is generally acknowledged by writers, that the Bithynians, who were formerly Mysians, received this name from
-
-Bithynians and Thyni, Thracian people, who came and settled
-
-among them. They advance as a proof of their statement,
-
-first as regards the Bithynians, that there still exists in Thrace
-
-a people called Bithynians, and then, as regards the Thyni,
-
-that the sea-shore, near Apollonia
Such is the account given of these people.
-
-
There is not, however, the same agreement among writers
-
-with regard to the Mariandyni, and the Caucones. For they
-
-say that Heracleia is situated among the Mariandyni, and was
-
-founded by Milesians.
Theopompus says that Mariandynus, who governed a part
-
-of Paphlagonia, which was subject to many masters, invaded
-
-and obtained possession of the country of the Bebryces, and
-
-that he gave his own name to the territory which he had before occupied. It is also said that the Milesians who first
-
-founded Heracleia, compelled the Mariandyni, the former possessors of the place, to serve as Helots, and even sold them,
-
-but not beyond the boundaries of their country. For they
-
-were sold on the same conditions as the class of persons called
-
-Mnoans, who were slaves to the Cretans, and the Penestæ,
The Caucones, who, according to history, inhabited the
-
-line of sea-coast which extends from the Mariandyni as far as
-
-the river Parthenius, and to whom belonged the city Tieium,
-
-
-
-for the territory extends from Heracleia, and the Mariandyni
-
-as far as the Leucosyri, whom we call Cappadocians. But
-
-the tribe of the Caucones about Tieium extends to the Parthenius; that of the Heneti, who occupy Cytorum,
Heracleia is a city with a good harbour, and of importance in other respects. It has sent out colonies, among which
-
-are the Cherronesus,
Between Chalcedon and Heracleia are several rivers, as
-
-the Psillis,
The Sangarius thus increased in bulk, and navigable, although not so formerly, is the boundary of Bithynia at the part - -of the coast where it discharges itself. In front of this coast - -is the island Thynia. -
In the territory of Heracleia grows the aconite. -
This city is distant from the temple at Chalcedon about
-
-
Tieium is now a small town and has nothing remarkable - -belonging to it, except that it was the birth-place of Philetærus, - -the founder of the family of the Attalic kings. -
Next is the river Parthenius, flowing through a country
-
-abounding with flowers; from these it obtained its name.
-
-
-
-for at present, they say, no Heneti are to be found in Paphlagonia. Others say that it is a village on the shore distant
-
-ten schœni from Amastris. But Zenodotus writes the verse
-
-in this manner, the brave Pylæmenes led the Paphlagonians out of the country of the
-
-Heneti, where they have a race of wild mules;
From Heneta,
and says that it means the
-
-present Amisus. According to others it was a tribe bordering upon the Cappadocians, which engaged in an expedition
-
-with the Cimmerians, and were afterwards driven away into
-
-Adria. But the account most generally received is, that the
-
-Heneti were the most considerable tribe of the Paphlagonians;
-
-that Pylæmenes was descended from it; that a large body of
-
-this people accompanied him to the Trojan war; that when
-
-they had lost their leader they passed over to Thrace upon
-
-the capture of Troy; and in the course of their wanderings
-
-arrived at the present Henetic territory.
-
Some writers say that both Antenor and his sons participated in this expedition, and settled at the inner recess of the
-
-
-
-
The boundary of the Paphlagonians to the east is the
-
-river Halys, which flows from the south between the Syrians
-
-and the Paphlagonians; and according to Herodotus,
-
-
-
-thus designating the people that lived at Themiscyra.the Amazons commanded a Syrian band, armed with spears with broad
-
-iron heads;
The river Halys forms the boundary of the Paphlagonians - -to the east; Phrygians and the Galatians settled among that - -people, on the south; and on the west Bithynians and Mariandyni (for the race of the Caucones has everywhere entirely - -disappeared); on the north the Euxine. This country is - -divided into two parts, the inland, and the maritime, extending from the Halys as far as Bithynia. Mithridates Eupator - -possessed the maritime part as far as Heracleia, and of the - -inland country he had the district nearest to Heracleia, some - -parts of which extended even beyond the Halys. These are - -also the limits of the Roman province of Pontus. The remainder was subject to chiefs, even after the overthrow of - -Mithridates. -
We shall afterwards speak of those Paphlagonians in the
-
-inland parts, who were not subject to Mithridates; we propose
-
-at present to describe the country which he governed, called
-
-Pontus.
-
-
After the river Parthenius is Amastris, bearing the
-
-same name as the princess by whom it was founded. It is
-
-
-
-
Ægialus is a line of sea-coast, in length more than 100 stadia.
-
-On it is a village of the same name,
-
-
-
-The Erythini are said to be the present Erythrini, and to have
-
-their name from their (red) colour. They are two rocks.
Next to Ægialus is Carambis, a large promontory stretching
-
-towards the north, and the Scythian Chersonesus. We have
-
-frequently mentioned this promontory, and the Criu-metopon
-
-opposite it, which divides the Euxine into two seas.
Next to Carambis is Cinolis,
-
-
-
-It is a village of the Sinopenses, with a harbour.
-
-
Next is Sinope itself, distant from Armene 50 stadia,
-
-the most considerable of all the cities in that quarter. It was
-
-founded by Milesians, and when the inhabitants had established a naval force they commanded the sea within the Cya-
-
-
-
-
The peninsula projects in a circular form; the shores are
-
-surrounded by a chain of rocks, and in some parts there are
-
-cavities, like rocky pits, which are called Chœnicides. These
-
-are filled when the sea is high. For the above reason, the
-
-place is not easily approached; besides which, along the whole
-
-surface of rock the road is covered with sharp-pointed stones,
-
-and persons cannot walk upon it with naked feet. The lands
-
-in the higher parts and above the city have a good soil, and
-
-are adorned with fields dressed as gardens, and this is the case
-
-in a still greater degree in the suburbs. The city itself is
-
-well secured with walls, and magnificently ornamented with
-
-a gymnasium, forum, and porticos. Notwithstanding these
-
-advantages for defence, it was twice taken; first by Pharnaces, who attacked it unexpectedly; afterwards by Lucullus,
-
-who besieged it while it was harassed by an insidious tyrant
-
-within the walls. For Bacchides,
Proceeding thence, next in order is the mouth of the
-
-river Halys. It has its name from the
Next to the mouth of the Halys is Gadilónitis, extending
-
-as far as the Saramene; it is a fertile country, wholly consisting of plains, and produces every kind of fruit. It affords
-
-also pasture for flocks of sheep which are covered
The Amiseni possess one part of this country. Pompey
-
-gave another to Deïotarus, as well as the tract about Pharnacia and Trapezus as far as Colchis and the Lesser Armenia.
-
-Pompey appointed him king of these people and countries: he
-
-had already inherited the tetrarchy of the Galatians, called the
-
-Tolistobogii. Upon his death various persons succeeded to
-
-the different parts of his kingdom.
-
-
Next to Gadilon
This city also was in the possession of the kings. Mithridates Eupator embellished it with temples, and added a part
-
-to it. Lucullus, and afterwards Pharnaces, who came from
-
-across the Bosporus, besieged it. Antony surrendered it to
-
-the kings of Pontus, after it had been declared free by Divus
-
-Cæsar. Then the Tyrant Strato oppressed the inhabitants,
-
-who again recovered their liberty under Cæsar Augustus after
-
-the battle of Actium. They are now in a prosperous condition. Among other fertile spots is Themiscyra,
Another river very similar to this, of the name of Iris,
Next to Themiscyra is Sidene, a fertile plain, but not
-
-watered in the same manner by rivers as Themiscyra. It has
-
-strongholds on the sea-coast, as Side,
Among the natives of Amisus
Next to Sidene is Pharnacia
In sailing along this coast from Amisus we first come to
-
-the Heracleian promontory;
I have already spoken of Colchis, and of the sea-coast beyond.
Above Trapezus and Pharnacia are situated Tibareni,
-
-Chaldæi, Sanni, (who were formerly called Macrones,
The present Chaldæi were anciently called Chalybes.
-
-It is in their territory chiefly that Pharnacia is situated. On
-
-the sea-coast it has natural advantages for the capture of the
-
-pelamydes. For this fish is first caught at this place. On
-
-the mainland there are at present mines of iron; formerly
-
-there were also mines of silver. The sea-shore along all these
-
-places is very narrow, for directly above it are hills, which
-
-abound with mines and forests; much, however, of the country
-
-is not cultivated. The miners derive their subsistence from
-
-the mines, and the fishermen from the fisheries, especially
-
-from the capture of pelamydes and dolphins. The dolphins
-
-pursue shoals of fish, the cordyla, the tunny, and even the
-
-pelamys; they grow fat on them, and as they approach the
-
-land incautiously, are easily taken. They are caught with a
-
-bait and then cut into pieces; large quantities of the fat are
-
-used for all purposes.
-
-
These I suppose are the people who are called by
-
-Homer Halizoni, who in his Catalogue follow the Paphlagonians.
-
-
-
-far from Chalybe,
-
-or whether the people were formerly called Alybes instead of
-
-Chalybes. We cannot at present say that it is possible that
-
-Chaldæi should be read for Chalybes, but it cannot be maintained that formerly Chalybes could not be read for Alybes, espe-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-This same people have now the name of Sapæi. For all
-
-these people were settled about Abdera, they also held Lemnos and the islands about Lemnos. Thus also Brygi, Briges,
-
-and Phryges are the same people; and Mysi, Mæones, and
-
-Meones are the same people. But it is unnecessary to multiply instances of this kind.
-one of the Saii exults in having a shield, which, without blame, I involuntarily left behind in a thicket.
The Scepsian (Demetrius) throws some doubt on the alteration of the name from Alybes to Chalybes, but not understanding what follows, nor what accords with it, nor, in particular, why the poet calls the Chalybes Alizoni, he rejects
-
-the opinion that there has been an alteration of name. In
-
-comparing his opinion with my own I shall consider also the
-
-hypotheses entertained by others.
-
-
Some persons alter the word to Alazones, others to
-
-Amazons, and Alybe
to Alope,
or Alobe,
calling
-
-the Scythians above the Borysthenes Alazones and Callipidæ,
-
-and by other names, about which Hellanicus, Herodotus, and
-
-Eudoxus have talked very absurdly; some say that the Amazons were situated between Mysia, Caria, and Lydia near
-
-Cyme, which is the opinion also of Ephorus, who was a native
-
-of the latter place. And this opinion may not be unreasonable, for he may mean the country which in later times was
-
-inhabited by the Æolians and Ionians, but formerly by Amazons. There are some cities, it is said, which have their
-
-names from the Amazons; as Ephesus, Smyrna, Cyme, and
-
-Myrina. But would any one think of inquiring in these
-
-places after Alybe, or, according to some writers, Alope, or
-
-Alobe; what would be the meaning of from afar,
or where
-
-is the silver mine?
-
-
These objections he solves by an alteration in the text,
-
-for he writes the verses in this manner,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-But by this solution he has invented another fiction. For
-
-
-
-
The Scepsian (Demetrius) does not adopt the opinion of
-
-Ephorus, nor does he agree with those who suppose them to
-
-be the Halizoni about Pallene, whom we mentioned in the description of Macedonia. He is at a loss also to understand
-
-how any one could suppose that auxiliaries could come to the
-
-Trojans from the Nomades situated above the Borysthenes.
-
-He much approves of the opinion of Hecateus the Milesian,
-
-and of Menecrates of Elea, disciples of Xenocrates, and that
-
-of Palæphatus. The first of these says in his work entitled
-
-the Circuit of the Earth,
near the city Alazia is the river
-
-Odrysses, which after flowing through the plain of Mygdonia
-
-from the west, out of the lake Dascylitis, empties itself into
-
-the Rhyndacus.
He further relates that Alazia is now deserted, but that many villages of the Alazones through which
-
-the Odrysses flows are inhabited. In these villages Apollo
-
-is worsihpped with peculiar honours, and especially on the
-
-confines of the Cyziceni.
-
Menecrates, in his work the Circuit of the Hellespont,
-
-says that above the places near Myrleia there is a continuous
-
-mountain tract occupied by the nation of the Halizoni. The
-
-name, he says, ought to be written with two l's, Hallizoni,
-
-but the poet uses one only on account of the metre.
-
Palæphatus says that Odius and Epistrophus levied their
-
-army from among the Amazons then living in Alope, but at
-
-present in Zeleia.
Do the opinions of these persons deserve approbation? For
-
-besides their alteration of the ancient text, and the position of
-
-this people, they neither point out the silver mines, nor where
-
-in Myrleatis Alope is situated, nor how they, who came
-
-thence to Troy, came from afar,
although it should be
-
-granted that there existed an Alope, or an Alazia. For these
-
-are much nearer Troy than the places about Ephesus. Those,
-
-however, are triflers, in the opinion of Demetrius, who speak of
-
-the existence of Amazons near Pygela, between Ephesus,
-
-Magnesia, and Priene, for the words from afar
do not
-
-agree with the spot; much less will they agree with a situation about Mysia, and Teuthrania.
-
-
-
-far from Chalybe.
For having conceded
-
-that, although at present there are not silver mines among the
-
-Chalybes, they might formerly have existed, he does not
-
-grant that they were far-famed, and worthy of notice, like
-
-the iron mines. But some one may say, what should prevent
-
-them from being as famous as the iron mines, or does an
-
-abundance of iron make a place celebrated, and not an abundance of silver? Again, if the silver mines had obtained
-
-celebrity in the age of Homer, but not in the heroic times can
-
-any one blame the poet's representation? How did their fame
-
-reach him? How did the fame of the copper mines at Temesa
-
-in Italy, or of the wealth of Thebes in Egypt, reach his ears,
-
-although Egyptian Thebes was situated almost at double the
-
-distance of the Chaldæi.
-
But Demetrius does not altogether agree with those whose
-
-opinions he espouses. For when he is describing the neighbourhood of Scepsis his own birth-place, he mentions Enea, a
-
-village, Argyria, and Alazonia, as near Scepsis, and the Æsepus;
With regard to Apollodorus, who mentions these places
-
-in his discourse on the array of the Trojan forces, we have
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-He will not be able to reply. Next we will ask the reason
-
-why he does not admit that some auxiliaries came from the
-
-country on the other side of the Halys. For if it was the
-
-case, that all the rest were living on this side the Halys, except the Thracians, nothing prevented this one body of allies
-
-from coming from afar, from the country beyond the Leuco-
-
-Syrians? Or, was it possible for the persons immediately
-
-engaged in the war to pass over from those places, and from
-
-the country beyond them, as the Amazons, Treres, and Cimmerians, but impossible for allies to do so?
-
The Amazons were not allies, because Priam had fought in
-
-alliance with the Phrygians against them:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-at that time, says Priam, I was among their auxiliaries on that day,
-
-when the Amazons came to attack them.
The people also who were living on the borders of the
-
-country of the Amazons were not situated at so great a distance that it was difficult to send for them from thence, nor
-
-did any animosity exist, I suppose, at that time to prevent
-
-them from affording assistance.
-
-
Nor is there any foundation for the opinion, that all the
-
-ancients agree that no people from the country beyond the
-
-Halys took part in the Trojan war. Testimony may be
-
-found to the contrary. Mæandrius at least says that Heneti
-
-came from the country of the Leuco-Syrians to assist the Tro-
-
-jans in the war; that they set sail thence with the Thracians,
-
-and settled about the recess of the Adriatic; and that the
-
-Heneti, who had no place in the expedition, were Cappadocians.
-
-This account seems to agree with the circumstance, that the
-
-people inhabiting the whole of that part of Cappadocia near the
-
-Halys, which extends along Paphlagonia, speak two dialects,
-
-and that their language abounds with Paphlagonian names, as
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and says, that Hecatæus the Milesian understands Henete to
-
-mean Amisus. But we have shown that Amisus belongs to
-
-the Leuco-Syrians, and is situated beyond the Halys.
-
-
He also somewhere says that the poet obtained his - -knowledge of the Paphlagonians, situated in the interior, from - -persons who had travelled through the country on foot, but - -that he was not acquainted with the sea-coast any more than - -with the rest of the territory of Pontus; for otherwise he - -would have mentioned it by name. We may, on the contrary, after the description which has just been given of the - -country, retort and say that he has traversed the whole of the - -sea-coast, and has omitted nothing worthy of record which - -existed at that time. It is not surprising that he does not - -mention Heracleia, Amastris, or Sinope, for they were not - -founded; nor is it strange that he should omit to speak of - -the interior of the country; nor is it a proof of ignorance - -not to specify by name many places which were well known, - -as we have shown in a preceding part of this work. -
He says that Homer was ignorant of much that was remarkable in Pontus, as rivers and nations, otherwise he would
-
-have mentioned their names. This may be admitted with
-
-respect to some very remarkable nations and rivers, as the
-
-Scythians, the Palus Mæotis, and the Danube. For he would
-
-not have described the Nomades, by characteristic signs, as
-
-living on milk, Abii, a people without certain means of subsistence, most just
and renowned Hippemolgi,
(milkers
-
-of mares,) and not distinguished them as Scythians, or Sauromatæ, or Sarmatæ, if, indeed, they had these names among
-
-the Greeks (at that time). Nor in mentioning the Thracians
-
-and Mysians, who live near the Danube, would he have
-
-passed over in silence the Danube itself, one of the largest
-
-rivers, particularly as, in other instances, he is inclined to
-
-mark the boundaries of places by rivers; nor in speaking of
-
-the Cimmerians would he have omitted the Bosporus, or the
-
-Mæotis.
-
-
-
-
It is evident from all these circumstances that every person - -who concludes that because a certain thing is not mentioned - -by the poet he was therefore ignorant of it, uses a bad argument; and we must prove by several examples that it is bad, - -for many persons employ this kind of evidence to a great - -extent. We must refute them therefore by producing such - -instances as these which follow, although we shall repeat what - -has been already said. -
If any one should maintain that the poet was not acquainted
-
-with a river which he has not mentioned, we should say that
-
-his argument is absurd, for he has not mentioned by name even
-
-the river Meles, which runs by Smyrna, his birth-place according to many writers, while he has mentioned the rivers
-
-Hermus and Hyllus by name, but yet not the Pactolus,
The argument drawn from this is false; the true argument
-
-would have been to show that the poet has asserted what is
-
-not true. Apollodorus has not succeeded in this attempt, and
-
-he has more particularly failed when he ventures to call by the
-
-name of fiction the renowned Hippemolgi and Galactophagi.
-
-So much then in reply to Apollodorus. I now return to the
-
-part of my description which follows next in order.
-
-
Above the places about Pharnacia and Trapezus are - -the Tibareni, and Chaldæi, extending as far as the Lesser - -Armenia. -
The Lesser Armenia is sufficiently fertile. Like Sophene
-
-it was always governed by princes who were sometimes in
-
-alliance with the other Armenians, and sometimes acting independently. They held in subjection the Chaldæi and Tibareni.
-
-Their dominion extended as far as Trapezus and Pharnacia.
-
-When Mithridates Eupator became powerful, he made himself
-
-master of Colchis, and of all those places which were ceded to
-
-him by Antipater the son of Sisis. He bestowed however so
-
-much care upon them, that he built seventy-five strongholds,
-
-in which he deposited the greatest part of his treasure. The
-
-most considerable of these were Hydara, Basgedariza, and
-
-
-
-
All the mountainous range of the Paryadres has many such
-
-convenient situations for fortresses, being well supplied with
-
-water and timber, it is intersected in many places by abrupt
-
-ravines and precipices. Here he built most of the strongholds
-
-for keeping his treasure. At last on the invasion of the
-
-country by Pompey he took refuge in these extreme parts of
-
-the kingdom of Pontus, and occupied a mountain near Dasteira in Acilisene, which was well supplied with water. The
-
-Euphrates also was near, which is the boundary between Acilisene and the Lesser Armenia. Mithridates remained there
-
-till he was besieged and compelled to fly across the mountains
-
-into Colchis, and thence to Bosporus. Pompey built near this
-
-same place in the Lesser Armenia Nicopolis, a city which yet
-
-subsists, and is well inhabited.
-
-
The Lesser Armenia, which was in the possession of
-
-different persons at different times, according to the pleasure
-
-of the Romans, was at last subject to Archelaus. The Tibareni, however, and Chaldæi, extending as far as Colchis, Pharnacia, and Trapezus, are under the government of Pythodoris,
-
-a prudent woman, and capable of presiding over the management of public affairs. She is the daughter of Pythodorus of
-
-Tralles. She was the wife of Polemo, and reigned conjointly with him for some time. She succeeded, after his
-
-death, to the throne. He died in the country of the Aspurgiani, a tribe of barbarians living about Sindica. She had
-
-two sons by Polemo, and a daughter who was married to
-
-Cotys the Sapæan. He was treacherously murdered, and she
-
-became a widow. She had children by him, the eldest of whom
-
-is now king. Of the sons of Pythodoris, one as a private
-
-person, administers, together with his mother, the affairs of
-
-the kingdom, the other has been lately made king of the
-
-Greater Armenia. Pythodoris however married Archelaus,
-
-and remained with him till his death. At present she is a
-
-widow, and in possession of the countries before mentioned,
-
-and of others still more beautiful, of which we shall next speak.
-
-
Sidene, and Themiseyra are contiguous to Pharnacia.
-
-Above these countries is situated Phanarœa, containing the
-
-best portion of the Pontus, for it produces excellent oil and
-
-
-
-
There also is the Cainochorion, (New Castle,) as it is - -called, a fortified and precipitous rock, distant from Cabeira - -less than 200 stadia. On its summit is a spring, which throws - -up abundance of water, and at its foot a river, and a deep ravine. - -The ridge of rocks on which it stands is of very great height, - -so that it cannot be taken by siege. It is enclosed with an excellent wall, except the part where it has been demolished by - -the Romans. The whole country around is so covered with - -wood, so mountainous, and destitute of water, that an enemy - -cannot encamp within the distance of 120 stadia. There - -Mithridates had deposited his most valuable effects, which are - -now in the Capitol, as offerings dedicated by Pompey. -
Pythodoris is in possession of all this country; (for it is contiguous to that of the barbarians, which she holds as a conquered country;) she also holds the Zelitis and the Megalopolitis. - -After Pompey had raised Cabeira to the rank of a city, and - -called it Diospolis, Pythodoris improved it still more, changed - -its name to Sebaste, (or Augusta,) and considers it a royal city. -
She has also the temple of Men surnamed of Pharnaces, at
-
-Ameria, a village city, inhabited by a large body of sacred
-
-menials, and having annexed to it a sacred territory, the produce of which is always enjoyed by the priest. The kings
-
-held this temple in such exceeding veneration, that this was
-
-the Royal oath, by the fortune of the king, and by Mēn of
-
-
-
-
This is also the temple of the moon, like that
-
-among the Albani, and those in Phrygia, namely the temple of
-
-Mēn in a place of the same name, the temple of Ascæus at
-
-Antioch in Pisidia, and another in the territory of Antioch.
-
-
Above Phanarœa is Comana
We have formerly mentioned Dorylaus the Tactician,
-
-who was my mother's great grandfather; and another Dorylaus,
-
-who was the nephew of the former, and the son of Philetærus;
-
-I said that, although he had obtained from Mithridates the
-
-highest dignities and even the priesthood of Comana, he was
-
-detected in the fact of attempting the revolt of the kingdom
-
-to the Romans. Upon his fall the family also was disgraced.
-
-At a later period however Moaphernes, my mother's uncle, rose
-
-to distinction near upon the dissolution of the kingdom. But a
-
-second time he and his friends shared in the misfortunes of
-
-the king, except those persons who had anticipated the calamity and deserted him early. This was the case with my
-
-maternal grandfather, who, perceiving the unfortunate progress
-
-of the affairs of the king in the war with Lucullus, and at the
-
-same time being alienated from him by resentment for having
-
-lately put to death his nephew Tibius, and his son Theophilus.
-
-undertook to avenge their wrongs and his own. He obtained
-
-pledges of security from Lucullus, and caused fifteen fortresses
-
-to revolt; in return he received magnificent promises. On
-
-the arrival of Pompey, who succeeded Lucullus in the conduct
-
-of the war, he regarded as enemies (in consequence of the
-
-enmity which subsisted between himself and that general) all
-
-those persons who had performed any services that were acceptable to Lucullus. On his return home at the conclusion
-
-of the war he prevailed upon the senate not to confirm those
-
-honours which Lucullus had promised to some persons of
-
-
-
-
The affairs of Comana were administered as has been - -described in the time of the kings. Pompey, when he had obtained the power, appointed Archelaus priest, and assigned to - -him a district of two schoeni, or 60 stadia in circuit, in addition to the sacred territory, and gave orders to the inhabitants - -to obey Archelaus. He was their governor, and master of the - -sacred slaves who inhabited the city, but had not the power of - -selling them. The slaves amounted to no less than six thousand. -
This Archelaus was the son of that Archelaus who received - -honours from Sylla and the senate; he was the friend of - -Gabinius, a person of consular rank. When the former was - -sent into Syria, he came with the expectation of accompanying - -in, when he was making preparations for the Parthian war, - -out the senate would not permit him to do so, and he abandoned - -this, and conceived a greater design. -
Ptolemy, the father of Cleopatra, happened at this time to be
-
-ejected from his kingdom by the Ægyptians. His daughter
-
-however, the elder sister of Cleopatra, was in possession of the
-
-throne. When inquiries were making in order to marry her to
-
-a husband of royal descent, Archelaus presented himself to
-
-those who were negotiating the affair, and pretended to be
-
-the son of Mithridates Eupator. He was accepted, but reigned
-
-only six months. He was killed by Gabinius in a pitched
-
-battle, in his attempt to restore Ptolemy.
-
-
His son however succeeded to the priesthood, and Lycomedes succeeded him, to whom was assigned an additional - -district of four schœni (or 120 stadia) in extent. When Lycomedes was dispossessed he was succeeded by Dyteutus, the - -son of Adiatorix, who still occupies the post, and appears to - -have obtained this honour from Cæsar Augustus on account of - -his good conduct on the following occasion. -
Cæsar, after leading in triumph Adiatorix, with his wife and
-
-children, had resolved to put him to death together with the
-
-eldest of his sons. Dyteutus was the eldest; but when the
-
-second of his brothers told the soldiers who were leading them
-
-away to execution that he was the eldest, there was a contest
-
-between the two brothers, which continued for some time, till
-
-
-
-
Comana is populous, and is a considerable mart, frequented by persons coming from Armenia. Men and women - -assemble there from all quarters from the cities and the country - -to celebrate the festival at the time of the exodi or processions - -of the goddess. Some persons under the obligation of a vow - -are always residing there, and perform sacrifices in honour - -of the goddess. -
The inhabitants are voluptuous in their mode of life. All
-
-their property is planted with vines, and there is a multitude
-
-of women, who make a gain of their persons, most of whom
-
-are dedicated to the goddess. The city is almost a little
-
-Corinth. On account of the multitude of harlots at Corinth,
-
-who are dedicated to Venus, and attracted by the festivities of
-
-the place, strangers resorted thither in great numbers. Merchants and soldiers were quite ruined, so that hence the proverb originated,
-
-every man cannot go to Corinth.
-
-Such is the character of Comana.
-
-
All the country around is subject to Pythodoris, a .d - -she possesses also Phanarœa, the Zelitis, and the Megalopolitis. -
We have already spoken of Phanarœa. -
In the district Zelitis is the city Zela,
There remain to be described the parts of Pontus, - -situated between this country and the districts of Amisus, and - -Sinope, extending towards Cappadocia, the Galatians, and the - -Paphlagonians. -
Next to the territory of the Amiseni is Phazemonitis,
The part of Phazemonitis towards Phanarœa is occupied by
-
-a lake, sea-like in magnitude, called Stiphane,
Above the district of Amasis are the hot springs
My native city, Amaseia, lies in a deep and extensive
-
-valley, through which runs the river Iris.
A valley extends from the river; it is not very wide at its - -commencement, but afterwards increases in breadth, and forms - -the plain called the Chiliocomon (The Thousand Villages). - -Next is the Diacopene, and the Pimolisene, the whole of which - -is a fertile district extending to the Halys. -
These are the northern parts of the country of the Amasenses, and are in length about 500 stadia. Then follows the
-
-remainder, which is much longer, extending as far as Babanomus, and the Ximene,
So much respecting Pontus.
-
-
Next to Pompeiopolis is the remainder of the inland
-
-parts of Paphlagonia as far as Bithynia towards the west.
-
-This tract, although small in extent, was governed, a little before our time, by several princes, but their race is extinct; at
-
-present it is in possession of the Romans. The parts bordering upon Bithynia are called Timonitis; the country of Geza-
-
-
-
-a goat
in the Paphlagonian
-
-language. In ecclesiastical writers it is often mentioned as the metropolitan see of Paphlagonia. The orchards of this town were celebrated
-
-for their apples. Athen. iii.—
Eudoxus, without defining the spot, says, that fossil
-
-fish
We have described Paphlagonia bordering upon Pontus; - -and as the Bithynians border upon the Paphlagonians towards the west, we shall endeavour to describe this region - -also. We shall then set out again from the Bithynians and - -the Paphlagonians, and describe the parts of the country next - -to these nations lying towards the south; they extend as far - -as the Taurus, and are parallel to Pontus and Cappadocia; - -for some order and division of this kind are suggested by the - -nature of the places. - - -
BITHYNIA is bounded on the east by the Paphlagonians,
-
-Mariandyni, and by some tribes of the Epicteti; on the north
-
-by the line of the sea-coast of the Euxine, extending from the
-
-mouth of the Sangarius
Next follows the coast of the Chalcedonians, the bay of
-
-Astacus,
Here Nicomedia
On the same bay was Astacus a city founded by Megareans
-
-and Athenians; it was afterwards again colonized by Dœdalsus. The bay had its name from the city. It was razed by
-
-Lysimachus. The founder of Nicomedia transferred its inhabitants to the latter city.
-
-
There is another bay
The Prusienses having shown a friendly disposition towards - -the Romans in their administration of public affairs, obtained - -their freedom. But the Apamies were obliged to admit a - -Roman colony. -
Prusa, situated below the Mysian Olympus, on the borders
-
-of the Phrygians and the Mysians, is a well-governed city;
-
-it was founded by Cyrus,
It is difficult to define the boundaries of the Bithynians,
-
-Mysians, Phrygians, of the Doliones about Cyzicus, and of the
-
-Mygdones and Troes; it is generally admitted that each of
-
-these tribes ought to be placed apart from the other. A proverbial saying is applied to the Phrygians and Mysians,
-
-The boundaries of the Mysi and Phryges are apart from one another,
-
-but it is difficult to define them respectively. The reason is
-
-this; strangers who came into the country were soldiers and
-
-barbarians; they had no fixed settlement in the country of
-
-which they obtained possession, but were, for the most part,
-
-wanderers, expelling others from their territory, and being expelled themselves. All these nations might be supposed to be
-
-Thracians, because Thracians occupy the country on the other
-
-side, and because they do not differ much from one another.
-
-
But as far as we are able to conjecture, we may place
-
-Mysia between Bithynia and the mouth of the Æsepus, contiguous to the sea, and nearly along the whole of Olympus.
-
-Around it, in the interior, is the Epictetus, nowhere reaching
-
-the sea, and extending as far as the eastern parts of the Ascanian lake and district, for both bear the same name. Part of
-
-this territory was Phrygian, and part Mysian; the Phrygian
-
-was further distant from Troy; and so we must understand
-
-the words of the poet
Phorcys, and the god-like Ascanius, were the leaders of the Phryges
-
-far from Ascania,
-
-that is, the Phrygian Ascania; for the other, the Mysian
-
-Ascania, was nearer to the present Nicæa, which he mentions,
-
-when he says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Palmys, Ascanius, and Morys, sons of Hippotion, the leader of the
-
-Mysi, fighting in close combat, who came from the fertile soil of Ascania,
-
-as auxiliaries.
It is not then surprising that he should speak of an Ascanius, a leader of the Phrygians, who came from Ascania, and
-
-of an Ascanius, a leader of the Mysians, coming also from
-
-Ascania, for there is much repetition of names derived from
-
-rivers, lakes, and places.
-
-
The poet himself assigns the Æsepus as the boundary of
-
-the Mysians, for after having described the country above
-
-Ilium, and lying along the foot of the mountains subject to
-
-Æneas, and which he calls Dardania, he places next towards
-
-the north Lycia, which was subject to Pandarus, and where
-
-Zeleia
-
-
-
-below Zeleia, towards the sea, on this side of Æsepus, lies the
-
-plain of Adrasteia, and Tereia, Pitya, and in general the present district of Cyzicene near Priapus,They who inhabited Zeleia, at the very foot of Ida, Aphneii Trojans,
-
-who drink of the dark stream of Æsepus;
In the inland parts of Bithynia is Bithynium,
That Bithynia was a colony of the Mysians, first Scylax
-
-of Caryanda will testify, who says that Phrygians and Mysians dwell around the Ascanian lake. The next witness is
-
-Dionysius, who composed a work on the foundation of cities.
-
-He says that the straits at Chalcedon, and Byzantium, which
-
-are now called the Thracian, were formerly called the Mysian
-
-Bosporus. Some person might allege this as a proof that the
-
-Mysians were Thracians; and Euphorio says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and thus also Alexander the Ætolian,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-These authors testify the same thing, because the Ascanian
-
-lake is found in no other siuation but this.
-
-who have their dwellings near the Ascanian waters, on the margin of the
-
-Ascanian lake, where Dolion dwelt, the son of Silenus and of Melia.
Men distinguished for their learning, natives of Bithynia,
-
-were Xenocrates the philosopher, Dionysius the dialectician,
-
-Hipparchus, Theodosius and his sons the mathematicians,
-
-Cleophanes the rhetorician of Myrleia, and Asclepiades the
-
-physician of Prusa.on Spherics
still exists, and was printed in Paris in India,
and the Anabasis
(the Asiatic expedition) of
-
-Alexander,
was also born at Nicomedia towards the end of A. 1. 100.
To the south of the Paphlagonians are the Galatians, of
-
-whom there are three tribes; two of them, the Trocmi and
-
-the Tolistobogii, have their names from their chiefs; the third,
-
-the Tectosages, from the tribe of that name in Celtica. The
-
-Galatians took possession of this country after wandering about
-
-for a long period, and overrunning the country subject to the
-
-Attalic and the Bithynian kings, until they received by a
-
-voluntary cession the present Galatia, or Gallo-Græcia, as it is
-
-called. Leonnorius seems to have been the chief leader of these
-
-people when they passed over into Asia. There were three
-
-nations that spoke the same language, and in no respect differed from one another. Each of them was divided into four
-
-portions called tetrarchies, and had its own tetrarch, its own
-
-judge, and one superintendent of the army, all of whom were
-
-under the control of the tetrarch, and two subordinate super-
-
-
-
-
The Trocmi occupy the parts near Pontus and Cappadocia, which are the best which the Galatians possess. They - -have three walled fortresses, Tavium, a mart for the people in - -that quarter, where there is a colossal statue of Jupiter in brass, - -and a grove, which is used as a place of refuge; Mithridatium, - -which Pompey gave to Bogodiatarus, (Deïotarus?) having - -separated it from the kingdom of Pontus; and thirdly, Danala, - -where Pompey, when he was about to leave the country to - -celebrate his triumph, met Lucullus and delivered over to him - -as his successor the command of the war. -
This is the country which the Trocmi possess. -
The Tectosages occupy the parts towards the greater
-
-Phrygia near Pessinus,
Pessinus is the largest mart of any in that quarter. It
-
-contains a temple of the Mother of the Gods, held in the
-
-highest veneration. The goddess is called Agdistis. The
-
-priests anciently were a sort of sovereigns, and derived a large
-
-revenue from their office. At present their consequence is
-
-much diminished, but the mart still subsists. The sacred
-
-enclosure was adorned with fitting magnificence by the Attalic
-
-kings,
The mountain Dindymus is situated above the city; from
-
-Dindymus comes Dindymene, as from Cybela, Cybele. Near
-
-it runs the river Sangarius, and on its banks are the ancient
-
-dwellings of the Phrygians, of Midas, and of Gordius before
-
-his time, and of some others, which do not preserve the
-
-vestiges of cities, but are villages a little larger than the rest.
-
-Such is Gordium,
Next to Galatia towards the south is the lake Tatta,
SUCH is the description of Tatta. The places around
-
-Orcaorci, Pitnisus and the mountainous plains of Lycaonia,
-
-are cold and bare, affording pasture only for wild asses; there
-
-is a great scarcity of water, but wherever it is found the wells
-
-are very deep, as at Soatra, where it is even sold. Soatra is
-
-a village city near Garsabora (Garsaura?). Although the
-
-country is ill supplied with water, it is surprisingly well
-
-adapted for feeding sheep, but the wool is coarse. Some
-
-persons have acquired very great wealth by these flocks alone.
-
-Amyntas had above three hundred flocks of sheep in these
-
-
-
-
Here the Taurus approaches this country, separating Cappadocia and Lycaonia from Cilicia Tracheia. It is the boundary of the Lycaonians and Cappadocians, between Coropassus,
-
-a village of the Lycaonians, and Gareathyra (Garsaura), a
-
-small town of the Cappadocians. The distance between these
-
-fortressess is about 120 stadia.
-
-
To Lycaonia belongs Isaurica, near the Taurus, in which
-
-are the Isaura, two villages of the same name, one of which is
-
-surnamed Palæa, or the Old, the other [the New], the latter is
-
-well fortified.
Derbe,
For being in possession of Antiocheia near Pisidia, and
-
-the country as far as Apollonias,
Cremna is occupied by a Roman colony. -
Sagalassus is under the command of the same Roman governor, to whom all the kingdom of Amyntas is subject. It - -is distant from Apameia a day's journey, having a descent of - -nearly 30 stadia from the fortress. It has the name also of - -Selgessus. It was taken by Alexander. -
Amyntas made himself master of Cremna and passed into
-
-the country of the Homonadeis, who were supposed to be the
-
-most difficult to reduce of all the tribes. He had already got
-
-into his power most of their strong-holds, and had killed the
-
-tyrant himself, when he was taken prisoner by an artifice of
-
-the wife of the tyrant, whom he had killed, and was put to
-
-death by the people. Cyrinius (Quirinus)governor of Syria
in St. Luke.
-
-Tacitus (Ann. B. iii. c. 48) speaks of his expedition against the Ho-
-
-monadeis, and Josephus of his arrival in Syria, where he was sent with
-
-Coponius by Augustus.
Among the heights of Taurus, and in the midst of rocks - -and precipices for the most part inaccessible, is a hollow and - -fertile plain divided into several valleys. The inhabitants - -cultivate this plain, but live among the overhanging heights - -of the mountains, or in caves. They are for the most part - -armed, and accustomed to make incursions into the country of - -other tribes, their own being protected by mountains, which - -serve as a wall. - - -
CONTIGUOUS to these, among other tribes of the Pisidians, - -are the Selgeis, the most considerable tribe of the nation. -
The greater part of the Pisidians occupy the summits of
-
-Taurus, but some tribes situated above Side
Artemidorus says that Selge, Sagalassus, Petnelissus,
-
-Adada, Tymbrias, Cremna, Pityassus, (Tityassus?) Amblada,
-
-Anabura, Sinda, Aarassus, Tarbassus, Termessus, are cities of
-
-the Pisidians. Of these some are entirely among the mountains, others extend on each side even as far as the country at
-
-the foot of the mountains, and reach to Pamphylia and Milyas,
-
-and border on Phrygians, Lydians, and Carians, all of whom
-
-are disposed to peace, although situated to the north.
The Pamphylians, who partake much of the character of - -the Cilician nation, do not altogether abstain from predatory - -enterprises, nor permit the people on the confines to live in - -peace, although they occupy the southern parts of the country - -at the foot of Taurus. -
On the confines of Phrygia and Caria, are Tabæ,
All the rest of the mountain tribes of the Pisidians - -whom I have spoken of are divided into states governed by - -tyrants, and follow like the Cilicians a predatory mode of - -life. It is said that anciently some of the Leleges, a wandering people, were intermixed with them, and from the similarity of their habits and manners settled there. -
Selge
The Selgic iris
Their position with respect to the Romans was that they
-
-possessed this tract on certain conditions. They sent ambassadors to Alexander and offered to receive his commands in the
-
-character of friends, but at present they are altogether subject
-
-to the Romans, and are included in what was formerly the
-
-kingdom of Amyntas.
-
-
-
-
THE people called Mysians, and Phrygians, who live - -around the so-called Mysian Olympus, border upon the Bithynians to the south. Each of these nations is divided into - -two parts. One is called the Greater Phrygia, of which - -Midas was king. A part of it was occupied by the Galatians. - -The other is the Lesser, or Phrygia on the Hellespont, or - -Phrygia around Olympus, and is also called Epictetus. -
Mysia is also divided into two parts; Olympic Mysia,
-
-which is continuous with Bithynia, and with the Epictetus,
-
-(which, Artemidorus says, was inhabited by the Mysians beyond the Danube,) and the part around the Caïcus,
This country, however, as we have frequently observed,
-
-has undergone so many changes, that it is uncertain whether
-
-the district around Sipylus,
-
-
-
-
The Lydians also, and the Mæones, whom Homer calls
-
-Meones, are in some way confounded with these people
-
-and with one another; some authors say that they are the
-
-same, others that they are different, nations. Add to this that
-
-some writers regard the Mysians as Thracians, others as Lydians, according to an ancient tradition, which has been preserved by Xanthus the Lydian, and by Menecrates of Elæa,
-
-who assign as the origin of the name Mysians, that the
-
-Lydians call the beech-tree (Oxya) Mysos, which grows in
-
-great abundance near Olympus, where it is said decimated persons
The confusion which has existed among the nations in - -this district, and even the fertility of the country within the - -Halys, particularly near the sea, have contributed to the invention of fables of this sort. The richness of the country - -provoked attacks, from various quarters, and at all times, of - -tribes who came from the opposite coast, or neighbouring - -people contended with one another for the possession of it. - -Inroads and migrations took place chiefly about the period - -of the Trojan war, and subsequently to that time, Barbarians - -as well as Greeks showing an eagerness to get possession of - -the territory of other nations. This disposition, however, - -showed itself before the time of the Trojan war; for there - -existed then tribes of Pelasgi, Caucones, and Leleges, who are - -said to have wandered, anciently, over various parts of Europe. - -The poet represents them as assisting the Trojans, but not as - -coming from the opposite coast. The accounts respecting the - -Phrygians and the Mysians are more ancient than the Trojan - -times. -
Two tribes bearing the name of Lycians, lead us to suppose
-
-that they are the same race; either the Trojan Lycians sent
-
-colonies to the Carians, or the Carian Lycians to the Trojans.
-
-Perhaps the same may be the case with the Cilicians, for they
-
-also are divided into two tribes; but we have not the same
-
-evidence that the present Cilicians existed before the Trojan
-
-times. Telephus may be supposed to have come with his
-
-mother from Arcadia; by her marriage with Teuthras, (who
-
-had received them as his guests,) Telephus was admitted into the
-
-
-
-
The Carians, who were formerly islanders, and Leleges,
it is said, settled on the continent with the assistance
-
-of the Cretans. They built Miletus, of which the founder was
-
-Sarpedon from Miletus in Crete. They settled the colony
-
-of Termilmæ in the present Lycia, but, according to Herodotus,
-
-This account shows that the Solymi and Lycians were the
-
-same people, but the poet distinguishes them. He represents
-
-Bellerophon setting out from Lycia, and
-
-
-
-
That the common prize, proposed to be obtained by the
-
-conquerors, was the fertile country which I am describing, is
-
-confirmed by many circumstances which happened both before and after the Trojan times. When even the Amazons
-
-ventured to invade it, Priam and Bellerophon are said to have
-
-undertaken an expedition against these women. Anciently
-
-there were cities which bore the names of the Amazons. In
-
-the Ilian plain there is a hill
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-who, according to historians, was one of the Amazons, and
-
-they found this conjecture on the epithet, for horses are said
-
-to be which men call Batieia, but the immortals, the tomb of the bounding
-
-(
After the Trojan times, the migrations of Greeks and
-
-of Treres, the inroads of Cimmerians and Lydians, afterwards of Persians and Macedonians, and lastly of Galatians, threw everything into confusion. An obscurity arose
-
-not from these changes only, but from the disagreement between authors in their narration of the same events, and in
-
-their description of the same persons; for they called Trojans
-
-Phrygians, like the Tragic poets; and Lycians Carians, and
-
-similarly in other instances. The Trojans who, from a small
-
-beginning, increased so much in power that they became kings
-
-of kings, furnished a motive to the poet and his interpreters, for determining what country ought to be called Troy.
-
-For the poet calls by the common name of Trojans all their
-
-auxiliaries, as he calls their enemies Danai and Achæi. But
-
-certainly we should not give the name of Troy to Paphlagonia, or to Caria, or to Lycia, which borders upon it. I
-
-mean when the poet says,
-
-
-
-
We must endeavour, however, to distinguish as far as we are
-
-able one nation from another, notwithstanding this uncertainty. If anything relative to ancient history escapes my
-
-notice, it must be pardoned, for this is not the province of
-
-the geographer; my concern is with the present state of
-
-people and places.
-
-
There are two mountains situated above the Propontis,
-
-the Mysian Olympus
We shall afterwards speak of Troy, and of the places continuous with it on the south. At present we shall give an - -account of the places about Olympus, and of the adjoining - -country as far as the Taurus, and parallel to the parts which - -we have previously described. -
The country lying around Olympus is not well inhabited.
-
-On its heights are immense forests and strongholds, well adapt-
-
-
-
-
Cleon was a native of the village Gordium, which he
-
-afterwards enlarged, and erected into a city, giving it the
-
-name of Juliopolis. His first retreat and head-quarters was
-
-a place called Callydium, one of the strongest holds. He was
-
-of service to Antony in attacking the soldiers who collected
-
-money for Labienus, at the time that the latter occupied Asia,
-
-and thus hindered the preparations which he was making for
-
-his defence. In the Actian war he separated himself from
-
-Antony and attached himself to the generals of Cæsar; he
-
-was rewarded above his deserts, for in addition to what he received from Antony he obtained power from Cæsar, and exchanged the character of a freebooter for that of a petty
-
-prince. He was priest of Jupiter Abrettenus, the Mysian
-
-god, and a portion of the Morena was subject to him, which,
-
-like Abrettena, is Mysian. He finally obtained the priesthood of Comana in Pontus, and went to take possession of it,
-
-but died within a month after his arrival. He was carried
-
-off by an acute disease, occasioned either by excessive repletion,
-
-or, according to the account of those employed about the
-
-temple, inflicted by the anger of the goddess. The story is
-
-this. Within the circuit of the sacred enclosure is the dwelling
-
-of the priest and priestess. Besides other sacred observances
-
-relative to the temple, the purity of this enclosure is an
-
-especial object of vigilance, by abstinence from eating swine's
-
-flesh. The whole city, indeed, is bound to abstain from this
-
-food, and swine are not permitted to enter it. Cleon, however,
-
-immediately upon his arrival displayed his lawless disposition
-
-and character by violating this custom, as if he had come
-
-there not as a priest, but a polluter of sacred things.
-
-
The description of Olympus is as follows. Around
-
-it, to the north, live Bithynians, Mygdonians, and Doliones; the rest is occupied by Mysians and Epicteti. The
-
-tribes about Cyzicus
Cyzicus is an island
In this island of the Cyziceni is the mountain Artace, well
-
-wooded, and in front of it lies a small island of the same name;
-
-near it is the promontory Melas (or Black), as it is called,
-
-which is met with in coasting from Cyzicus to Priapus.
To Phrygian Epictetus belong the Azani, and the cities
-
-Nacoleia, Cotiæium,
Mysia extends in the inland parts from Olympene to Pergamene, and to the plain of Caïcus, as it is called; so that it lies
-
-between Ida and the Catacecaumene, which some place in
-
-Mysia, others in Mæonia.
-
-
Beyond the Epictetus to the south is the Greater Phrygia, leaving on the left Pessinus, and the parts about Orcaorci,
-
-and Lycaonia, and on the right Mæones, Lydians, and Carians.
-
-In the Epictetus are Phrygia Paroreia, and the country towards Pisidia, and the parts about Amorium,
The Paroreia
Synnada is not a large city. In front of it is a plain planted
-
-with olives, about 60 stadia in extent. Beyond is Docimia, a
-
-village, and the quarry of the Synnadic marble. This is the
-
-name given to it by the Romans, but the people of the country
-
-call it Docimite and Docimæan. At first the quarry produced
-
-small masses, but at present, through the extravagance of the
-
-Romans, pillars are obtained, consisting of a single stone and
-
-of great size, approaching the alabastrite marble in variety
-
-of colours; although the distant carriage of such heavy loads
-
-to the sea is difficult, yet both pillars and slabs of surprising
-
-magnitude and beauty are conveyed to Rome.
-
-
Apameia is a large mart of Asia, properly so called,
-
-and second in rank to Ephesus, for it is the common staple for
-
-merchandise brought from Italy and from Greece. It is
-
-built upon the mouth of the river Marsyas, which runs through
-
-the middle of it, and has its commencement above the city;
-
-being carried down to the suburb with a strong and precipitous current, it enters the Mæander,
Laodiceia,
The country around Laodiceia breeds excellent sheep, remarkable not only for the softness of their wool, in which they - -surpass the Milesian flocks, but for their dark or raven colour. The Laodiceans derive a large revenue from them, as - -the Colosseni do from their flocks, of a colour of the same - -name. -
Here the Caprus and the Lycus, a large river, enter the
-
-Mæander. From the Lycus, a considerable river, Laodiceia has
-
-the name of Laodiceia on the Lycus. Above the city is the
-
-mountain Cadmus, from which the Lycus issues, and another
-
-river of the same name as the mountain. The greater part of
-
-its course is under-ground; it then emerges, and unites with
-
-other rivers, showing that the country abounds with caverns
-
-and is liable to earthquakes. For of all countries Laodiceia is very subject to earthquakes, as also the neighbouring
-
-district Carura.
-
-
Carura
Phrygia Catacecaumene, (or the Burnt,) which is occupied by Lydians and Mysians, obtained this name from something of the following kind. In Philadelphia,
Apameia among other cities experienced, before the invasion
-
-of Mithridates, frequent earthquakes, and the king, on his
-
-arrival, when he saw the overthrow of the city, gave a hundred talents for its restoration. It is said that the same thing
-
-happened in the time of Alexander; for this reason it is probable that Neptune is worshipped there, although they are an
-
-inland people, and that it had the name of Celænæ from Celva-
-
-nus,
We must listen, however, to the ancient historians, and
-
-to the account of Xanthus, who composed a history of Lydian
-
-affairs; he relates the changes which had frequently taken place
-
-in this country,—I have mentioned them in a former part of my
-
-work.
Between Laodiceia and Carura is a temple of Mén
-
-Carus, which is held in great veneration. In our time there
-
-was a large Herophilian
The names of some Phrygian tribes, as the Berecyntes
-
-[and Cerbesii], are mentioned, which no longer exist. And
-
-Aleman says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-They speak also of a Cerbesian pit which sends forth destructive exhalations; this however exists, but the people have no
-
-longer the name of Cerbesii. Æschylus in his Niobe
-
-
-
-and again;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-—and Tantalus says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-I sow the furrows of the Berecynthian fields, extending twelve days'
-
-journey, where the seat of Adrasteia and Ida resound with the lowing of
-
-herds and the bleating of sheep; all the plain re-echoes with their cries.
SUMMARY.
- -The Thirteenth Book contains the part of Asia south of the Propontis (Sea - -of Marmara), the whole of the sea-coast, and the adjacent islands. The - -author dwells some time on Troy, though deserted, on account of its distinction, and the great renown it derived from the war.
THESE are the limits of Phrygia. We return again to
-
-the Propontis, and to the sea-coast adjoining the Æsepus,
The first country which presents itself on the sea-coast is
-
-the Troad.
The coast of the Propontis extends from Cyzicene and
-
-the places about the Æsepus and Granicus
The poet implies that it was the Trojans chiefly who were
-
-divided into eight or even nine bodies of people, each forming a petty princedom, who had under their sway the places
-
-about Æsepus, and those about the territory of the present
-
-Cyzicene, as far as the river Caïcus. The troops of auxiliaries
-
-are reckoned among the allies.
-
-
The writers subsequent to Homer do not assign the
-
-same boundaries, but introduce other names, and a greater
-
-number of territorial divisions. The Greek colonies were the
-
-cause of this; the Ionian migration produced less change,
-
-for it was further distant from the Troad, but the Æolian
-
-colonists occasioned it throughout, for they were dispersed
-
-over the whole of the country from Cyzicene as far as
-
-the Caïcus, and occupied besides the district between the
-
-Caïcus and the river Hermus. It is said that the Æolian
-
-preceded the Ionian migration four generations, but it was attended with delays, and the settlement of the colonies took up
-
-a longer time. Orestes was the leader of the colonists, and
-
-died in Arcadia. He was preceded by his son Penthilus,
-
-who advanced as far as Thrace, sixty years
On the other side, Cleuas, the son of Dorus, and Malaus,
-
-who were descendants of Agamemnon, assembled a body of
-
-men for an expedition about the same time as Penthilus, but
-
-the band of Penthilus passed over from Thrace into Asia before them; while the rest consumed much time near Locris,
-
-and the mountain Phricius. At last however they crossed the
-
-sea, and founded Cyme, to which they gave the name of Phriconis, from Phricius, the Locrian mountain.
-
-
The Æolians then were dispersed over the whole country, which we have said the poet calls the Trojan country. - -Later writers give this name to the whole, and others to a part, - -of Æolis; and so, with respect to Troja, some writers understand the whole, others only a part, of that country, not entirely agreeing with one another in anything. -
According to Homer, the commencement of the Troad is at
-
-the places on the Propontis, reckoning it from the Æsepus.
-
-According to Eudoxus, it begins from Priapus, and Artace,
-
-situated in the island of the Cyziceni opposite to Priapus, and
-
-thus lie contracts the boundaries [of the Troad]. Damastes
-
-contracts them still more by reckoning its commencement
-
-from Parium.
The situation of the country actually called Troja is best - -marked by the position of Ida, a lofty mountain, looking to the - -west, and to the western sea, but making a slight bend to the - -north and towards the northern coast. This latter is the coast - -of the Propontis, extending from the straits near Abydos to - -the Æsepus, and to the territory of Cyzicene. The western - -sea is the exterior (part of the) Hellespont, and the Ægtæan - -Sea. -
Ida has many projecting parts like feet, and resembles in
-
-figure a tarantula, and is bounded by the following extreme
-
-points, namely, the promontory
-
-
-
-where the poet describes Lectum in appropriate terms, for he
-
-says correctly that Lectum is a part of Ida, and that this was
-
-the first place of disembarkation for persons intending to
-
-ascend Mount Ida.They (namely, Somnus and Juno) came, says Homer, to Ida, abounding with springs, the nurse of wild beasts, to Lectum where first they
-
-left the sea,
abounding
-
-with springs;
for the mountain, especially in that part, has
-
-a very large supply of water, which appears from the great
-
-number of rivers which issue from it;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-and others, which he mentions afterwards, and which are now
-
-to be seen by us.]
-all the rivers which rise in Ida, and proceed to the sea, the Rhesus, and
-
-Heptaporus,
In speaking of the projections like feet on each side of
-
-Ida, as Lectum, and Zeleia,
On doubling Lectum a large bay opens,
Those who have paid particular attention to this subject conjecture, from the expressions of the poet, that all
-
-this coast was subject to the Trojans, when it was divided
-
-into nine dynasties, but that at the time of the war it was
-
-under the sway of Priam, and called Troja. This appears
-
-from the detail. Achilles and his army perceiving, at the beginning of the war, that the inhabitants of Ilium were defended by walls, carried on the war beyond them, made a circuit, and took the places about the country;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-I sacked with my ships twelve cities, and eleven in the fruitful land of
-
-Troja.
-
-
-
-and Neoptolemus,
-
-
-
-as when he slew with his sword the hero Eurypylus, the son of Telephus;
-
-
-
-The poet says these places were laid waste, and even Lesbos;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-for by calling Lyrnessus Thou didst not permit me, when the swift-footed Achilles slew my husband, and destroyed the city of the divine Mynes, to make any lamentation;
the city of the divine Mynes,
the
-
-poet implies that it was governed by him who was killed
-
-fighting in its defence.
-
Chryseïs was carried away from Thebe;
-
-
-
-Andromache, daughter of the magnanimous Eetion, Eetion king of the
-
-Cilicians, who dwelt under the woody Placus at Thebe Hypoplacia.
-
-
-
This is the second Trojan dynasty after that of Mynes, and
-
-in agreement with what has been observed are these words of
-
-Andromache;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-The words are not to be understood in their direct sense,
-
-but by a transposition; Hector, wretch that I am; we were both born under the same destiny;
-
-thou at Troja in the palace of Priam, but I at Thebe.
both born in Troja, thou in the
-
-house of Priam, but I at Thebe.
-
The third dynasty is that of the Leleges, which is also a
-
-Trojan dynasty;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-This is the sixth dynasty.
-Aphneian Trojans, who inhabited Zeleia at the farthest extremity of
-
-Ida, who drink of the dark waters of Æsepus, these were led by Pandarus, the illustrious son of Lycaon.
The people, also, who lived between the Æsepus and Abydos were Trojans, for the country about Abydos was governed by Asius;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Now it is manifest that a son of Priam, who had the care of
-
-his father's brood mares, dwelt at Abydos;
-
-
-
-those who dwelt about Percote and Practius, at Sestos, Abydos, and
-
-the noble Arisbe, were led by Asius, the son of Hyrtacus.
-
-
-
-At Percote,he wounded the spurious son of Priam, Democoon, who came from
-
-Abydos from the pastures of the swift mares.
-
-
-
-first he addressed the brave son of Hicetaon, Melanippus, who was lately
-
-tending the oxen in their pastures at Percote.
All therefore were Trojans from Abydos to Adrasteia, divided, however, into two bodies, one governed by Asius, the
-
-other by the Meropidæ, as the country of the Cilicians is divided into the Thebaic and the Lyrnessian Cilicia. To this
-
-district may have belonged the country under the sway of
-
-Eurypylus, for it follows next to the Lyrnessis, or territory of
-
-Lyrnessus.
That Priam The Trojans, properly so called, occupied the basin of the Scamander
-
-(Menderes-Tschai).
- The Cilicians, commanded by Eetion, occupied the territory which surrounds the present Gulf of Adramytti.
- The Cilicians of Mynes were to the south of the above.
- The Leleges extended along a part of the northern coast of the Gulf of
-
-Adramytti, from Cape Baba.
- The Dardanians were above the Trojans, and the chain of Ida. On the
-
-north, extending on both sides of the Hellespont, were the people of
-
-Arisbe, Sestos, and Abydos.
- The people of Adrasteia occupied the Propontis, as far as the Granicus.
- The Lycians, the country beyond, as far as the Æsepus and Zeleia.
- Strabo mentioned a ninth (c. i. § 2) principality subject to Priam; he
-
-does not mention it by name, or rather it is wanting in the text. M. de
-
-Choiseul-Gouffier, (Voyage Pittoresque de la Gréce, vol. ii.,) with much
-
-probability, thinks that this principality was that of the island of Lesbos.
-
-
-
-
-
-we have heard, old man, that your riches formerly consisted in what
-
-
-
-
Such was the state of the country at that time. Afterwards changes of various kinds ensued. Phrygians occupied - -the country about Cyzicus as far as Practius; Thracians, the - -country about Abydos; and Bebryces and Dryopes, before the - -time of both these nations. The next tract of country was - -occupied by Treres, who were also Thracians; the plain of - -Thebe, by Lydians, who were then called Mæonians, and by - -the survivors of the Mysians, who were formerly governed by - -Telephus and Teuthoras. -
Since then the poet unites together Æolis and Troja, and
-
-since the Æolians occupied all the country from the Hermus
-
-as far as the sea-coast at Cyzicus, and founded cities, we shall
-
-not do wrong in combining in one description Æolis, properly
-
-so called, (extending from the Hermus to Lectum,) and the
-
-tract which follows, as far as the Æsepus; distinguishing them
-
-again in speaking of them separately, and comparing what
-
-is said of them by Homer and by other writers with their present state.
-
-
According to Homer, the Troad begins from the city
-
-Cyzicus and the river Æsepus. He speaks of it in this
-
-manner:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-These people he calls also Lycians. They had the name of
-
-Aphneii, it is thought, from the lake Aphnitis, for this is the
-
-name of the lake Dascylitis.
-
-Aphneian Trojans, who inhabited Zeleia at the farthest extremity of
-
-Ida, who drink the dark waters of Æsepus, these were led by Pandarus,
-
-the illustrious son of Lycaon.
Now Zeleia is situated at the farthest extremity of the
-
-country lying at the foot of Ida, and is distant 190 stadia
-
-from Cyzicus, and about 80
The poet then immediately gives in detail the parts of the
-
-sea-coast which follow the Æsepus;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-those who occupied Adrasteia, and the territory of Apæsus, and Pityeia
-
-and the lofty mountain Tereia, these were commanded by Adrastus, and
-
-Amphius with the linen corslet, the two sons of Merops of Percote,
Above the mouth of the Æsepus about * * stadia is a - -hill on which is seen the sepulchre of Memnon, the son of - -Tithonus. Near it is the village of Memnon. Between the - -Æsepus and Priapus flows the Granicus, but for the most - -part it flows through the plain of Adrasteia, where Alexander - -defeated in a great battle the satraps of Dareius, and obtained - -possession of all the country within the Taurus and the Euphrates. -
On the banks of the Granicus was the city Sidene, with a - -large territory of tile same name. It is now in ruins. -
Upon the confines of Cyzicene and Priapene is Harpagia, a
-
-place from which, so says the fable, Ganymede was taken
-
-away by force. Others say that it was at the promontory
-
-Dardanium, near Dardanus.
-
-
Priapus is a city on the sea, with a harbour. Some
-
-say that it was built by Milesians, who, about the same time,
-
-founded Abydos and Proconnesus; others, that it was built
-
-by Cyziceni. It has its name from Priapus,
It was in later times that Priapus was considered as a god.
-
-
-
-
This district was called Adrasteia, and the plain of - -Adrasteia, according to the custom of giving two names to the - -same place, as Thebe, and the plain of Thebe; Mygdonia, - -and the plain of Mygdonia. -
Callisthenes says that Adrasteia had its name from King
-
-Adrastus, who first built the temple of Nemesis. The city
-
-Adrasteia is situated between Priapus and Parium, with a
-
-plain of the same name below it, in which there was an oracle
-
-of the Actæan Apollo and Artemis near the sea-shore.
-
-
-
-There is a great goddess Nemesis, who has received all these things
-
-from the immortals. Adrastus first raised an altar to her honour on the
-
-banks of the river Æsepus, where she is worshipped under the name of
-
-Adrasteia.
The city of Parium lies upon the sea, with a harbour - -larger than that of Priapus, and has been augmented from the - -latter city; for the Pariani paid court to the Attalic kings, - -to whom Priapene was subject, and, by their permission, appropriated to themselves a large part of that territory. -
It is here the story is related that the Ophiogeneis have
-
-some affinity with the serpent tribe (
Pitya is situated in Pityus in the Parian district, and
-
-having above it a mountain abounding with pine trees (
In the voyage along the coast from Parium to Priapus
-
-are the ancient and the present Proconnesus,
Aristeas, the writer of the poems called Arimaspeian, the
-
-greatest of impostors, was of Proconnesus.
-
-
With respect to the mountain Tereia, some persons say
-
-that it is the range of mountains in Peirossus, which the Cyziceni occupy, contiguous to Zeleia, among which was a royal
-
-chase for the Lydian, and afterwards for the Persian, kings.
-
-Others say that it was a hill forty stadia from Lampsacus, on
-
-which was a temple sacred to the mother of the gods, surnamed Tereia.
-
-
Lampsacus, situated on the sea, is a considerable city
-
-with a good harbour, and, like Abydos, supports its state
-
-well. It is distant from Abydos about 170 stadia. It had
-
-formerly, as they say Chios had, the name of Pityusa. On
-
-the opposite territory in Cherronesus is Callipolis,
In the interval between Lampsacus and Parium was
-
-Pæsus, a city, and a river Pæsus.
Neoptolemus,Rhetoric addressed to Alexander,
-
-now known as The Rhetoric of Aristotle, has been ascribed to him. For
-
-the above see Athænæus.
It was from Lampsacus that Agrippa transported the
-
-Prostrate Lion, the workmanship of Lysippus, and placed it
-
-in the sacred grove between the lakeStagnum Agrippe
in Tacit. Ann. b. xv. c. 37.
Next to Lampsacus is Abydos, and the intervening
-
-places, of which the poet speaks in such a manner as to comprehend both Lampsacene and some parts of Pariane, for, in
-
-the Trojan times, the above cities were not yet in existence:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-those who inhabited Percote, Practius, Sestos, Abydos, and the famed
-
-Arisbe, were led by Asius, the son of Hyrtacus,
-
-
-
-implying by these words that Arisbe was the royal seat of
-
-Asius, whence, he says, he came,
-
-
-
-came from Arisbe, from the river Selleïs in a chariot drawn by large
-
-and furious coursers;
-
-
-
-But these places are so little known, that writers do not agree
-
-among themselves about their situation, except that they are
-
-near Abydos, Lampsacus, and Parium, and that the name of
-
-the last place was changed from Percope to Percote.
-
-
With respect to the rivers, the poet says that the Selleis flows near Arisbe, for Asius came from Arisbe and the
-
-river Selleis. Practius is a river, but no city of that name, as
-
-some have thought, is to be found. This river runs between
-
-Abydos and Lampsacus; the words, therefore,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-must be understood of the river, as these expressions of the
-
-poet,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-who was the maternal uncle of the hero Hector, own brother of Hecu-
-
-ba, and son of Dymas who lived in Phrygia on the banks of the Sangarius.
Abydos was founded by Milesians by permission of
-
-Gyges, king of Lydia; for those places and the whole of the
-
-Troad were under his sway. There is a promontory near
-
-
-
-
Sestos is the finest
After the Trojan war, Abydos was inhabited by Thracians, - -then by Milesians. When the cities on the Propontis were - -burnt by Dareius, father of' Xerxes, Abydos shared in the - -calamity. Being informed, after his return from Scythia, - -that the Nomades were preparing to cross over to attack him, - -in revenge for the treatment which they had experienced, he - -set fire to these cities, apprehending that they would assist in - -transporting the Scythian army across the strait. -
In addition to other changes of this kind, those occasioned - -by time are a cause of confusion among places. -
We spoke before of Sestos, and of the whole of the Cherronesus, when we described Thrace. Theopompus says that
-
-
-
-
In the Troad, above the territory of Abydos is Astyra, - -which now belongs to the Abydeni,—a city in ruins, but it - -was formerly an independent place, and had gold-mines, - -which are now nearly exhausted, like those in Mount Tmolus - -near the Pactolus. -
From Abydos to the Æsepus are, it is said, about 700
-
-stadia, but not so much in sailing in a direct line.
-
-
Beyond Abydos are the parts about Ilium, the seacoast as far as Lectum, the places in the Trojan plain, and
-
-the country at the foot of Ida, which was subject to Æneas.
-
-The poet names the Dardanii in two ways, speaking of them
-
-as
-
-
-
-
It is probable that the Dardania,
Plato conjectures that, after the deluges, three kinds
-
-of communities were established; the first on the heights of
-
-the mountains, consisting of a simple and savage race, who
-
-had taken refuge there through dread of the waters, which
-
-overflowed the plains; the second, at the toot of the mountains, who regained courage by degrees, as the plains began
-
-to dry; the third, in the plains. But a fourth, and perhaps
-
-a fifth, or more communities might be supposed to be
-
-formed, the last of which might be on the sea-coast, and
-
-in the islands, after all fear of deluge was dissipated. For
-
-as men approached the sea with a greater or less degree
-
-of courage, we should have greater variety in forms of
-
-government, diversity also in manners and habits, accord-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-all things grow there,
he says, "without sowing seed, and without the
-
-plough.
-
-But they have no assemblies for consulting together, nor administration of laws, but live on the heights of lofty mountains, in deep caves, and
-
-each gives laws to his wife and children.
As an example of the second form of society, he alleges
-
-the mode of life und er Dardanus;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-he founded Dardania; for sacred Ilium was not yet a city in the plain
-
-with inhabitants, but they still dwelt at the foot of Ida abounding with
-
-streams.
An example of the third state of society is taken from that
-
-in the time of Ilus, when the people inhabited the plains. He
-
-is said to have been the founder of Ilium, from whom the
-
-city had its name. It is probable that for this reason he was
-
-buried in the middle of the plain, because he first ventured to
-
-make a settlement in it,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-they rushed through the middle of the plain by the wild fig-tree near
-
-the tomb of ancient Ilus, the son of Dardanus.
He did not, however, place entire confidence in the situation,
-
-for he did not build the city where it stands at present, but
-
-nearly thirty stadia higher to the east, towards Ida, and
-
-Dardania, near the present village of the Ilienses. The present Ilienses are ambitious of having it supposed that theirs is
-
-the ancient city, and have furnished a subject of discussion to
-
-those who form their conjectures from the poetry of Homer;
-
-but it does not seem to be the city meant by the poet. Other
-
-writers also relate, that the city had frequently changed its
-
-place, but at last about the time of Cræsus it became station-
-
-
-
-
The present city of Ilium was once, it is said, a village,
-
-containing a small and plain temple of Minerva; that Alexander, after
After the death of Alexander, it was Lysimachus who
-
-took the greatest interest in the welfare of the place; built
-
-a temple, and surrounded the city with a wall of about 40
-
-stadia in extent. He settled here the inhabitants of the ancient cities around, which were in a dilapidated state. It was
-
-at this time that he directed his attention to Alexandreia,
-
-founded by Antigonus, and surnamed Antigonia, which was
-
-altered (into Alexandreia). For it appeared to be an act of
-
-pious duty in the successors of Alexander first to found cities
-
-which should bear his name, and afterwards those which should
-
-be called after their own. Alexandreia continued to exist, and
-
-became a large place; at present it has received a Roman
-
-colony, and is reckoned among celebrated cities.
-
-
The present Ilium was a kind of village-city, when
-
-the Romans first came into Asia and expelled Antiochus the
-
-Great from the country within the Taurus. Demetrius of Scepsis says that, when a youth, he came, in the course of his
-
-travels, to this city, about that time, and saw the houses so
-
-neglected that even the roofs were without tiles. HegesianaxWe had no Hector to defend the city.
-
Sylla afterwards came, defeated Fimbrias, and dismissed - -Mithridates, according to treaty, into his own territory. Sylla - -conciliated the Ilienses by extensive repairs of their city. In - -our time divus Cæsar showed them still more favour, in imitation of Alexander. He was inclined to favour them, for the - -purpose of renewing his family connexion with the Ilienses, - -and as an admirer of Homer. -
There exists a corrected copy of the poems of Homer,
-
-called the casket-copy.
Alexander perused it in company
-
-with Callisthenes and Anaxarchus, and having made some
-
-marks and observations deposited it in a casket
But Cæsar, who admired the character of Alexander, and
-
-had strong proofs of his affinity to the Ilienses, had the greatest possible desire to be their benefactor. The proofs of his
-
-affinity to the Ilienses were strong, first as being a Roman,
-
-—for the Romans consider Æneas to be the founder of their
-
-race,—next he had the name of Julius, from Iulus, one of his
-
-
-
-
Next to Abydos is the promontory Dardanis,
-
-
-
Dardanus is an ancient settlement, but so slightly thought
-
-of, that some kings transferred its inhabitants to Abydos,
-
-others re-settled them in the ancient dwelling-place. Here
-
-Cornelius Sylla, the Roman general, and Mithridates, surnamed Eurptor, conferred together, and terminated the war
-
-by a treaty.
-
-
Near Dardanus is Ophrynium, on which is the grove
-
-dedicated to Hector in a conspicuous situation, and next is
-
-Pteleos, a lake.
-
-
Then follows Rhœteium, a city on a hill, and continuous
-
-to it is a shore on a level with the sea, on which is situated
-
-a monument and temple of Ajax, and a statue. Antony took
-
-away the latter and carried it to Ægypt, but Augustus Cæsar
-
-restored it to tie inhabitants of Rhœteium, as he restored other
-
-
-
-
After Rhœteium is Sigeium,
Opposite the Sigeian promontory on the Cherronesus is the
-
-Protesilæium,
The extent of this sea-coast as we sail in a direct line
-
-from Rhœteium to Sigeium, and the monument of Achilles, is
-
-60 stadia. The whole of the coast lies below the present
-
-Ilium; the part near the port of the Achæans, The other 30 stadia, which, according to Strabo, or rather according to
-
-Demetrius of Scepsis, was the distance from New Ilium to the town of
-
-the Ilienses, are equal to 2440 toises, and terminate at the most eastern
-
-edge of the table-land of Tchiblak, in a spot where ruins of a temple and
-
-other edifices are seen. Thus there is nothing to prevent our taking this
-
-place for the site of the town of the Ilienses, and this is the opinion of
-
-many modern travellers. But did this town occupy the same ground as
-
-the ancient Ilium, as Demetrius of Scepsis believed? Strabo thinks not,
-
-and we shall hereafter see the objections he has to offer against the opinion of Demetrius.—
Near the Sigeium is a temple and monument of Achilles,
-
-and monuments also of Patroclus and Anthlochus.
A short way from this coast is the Achæïum, situated on
-
-the continent opposite Tenedos.
-
-
Such, then, is the nature of the places on the sea-coast.
-
-Above them lies the plain of Troy, extending as far as Ida to
-
-the east, a distance of many stadia.
From the mountainous tract of Ida near these places,
-
-two arms, he says, extend to the sea, one in the direction of
-
-Rhœteium, the other of Sigeium, forming a semicircle, and
-
-terminate in the plain at the same distance from the sea as
-
-the present Ilium, which is situated between the extremities
-
-of the above-mentioned arms, whereas the ancient Ilium was
-
-situated at their commencement. This space comprises the
-
-Simoïsian plain through which the Simoeis runs and the
-
-Scamandrian plain, watered by the Scamander. This latter
-
-plain is properly the plain of Troy, and Homer makes it the
-
-scene of the greatest part of his battles, for it is the widest of
-
-the two; and there we see the places named by him, the Erineos, the tomb of Æsyetes, Groskurd reads The topography of the plain of Troy and its neighbourhood is not yet
-
-sufficiently known to be able to distinguish all the details given by Demetrius. It appears only that he took the Tchiblak for the Simoïs, and
-
-placed the plain of Troy to the right of the present Menderé, which he
-
-called the Scamander. This opinion, lately renewed by Major Rennell,
-
-presents great and even insurmountable difficulties when we endeavour to
-
-explain on this basis the principal circumstances of the Iliad. It must be
-
-remembered that in the time of Demetrius the remembrance of the position of ancient Troy was entirely lost, and that this author constantly
-
-reasoned on the hypothesis, much contested in his time, that the town of
-
-the Ilienses corresponded with that of ancient Ilium. Both-mentioned plains are separated from each other by a long
-
-neck of land between the above-mentioned arms, which takes its commencement from the present Ilium and unites with it, extending itself in
-
-a straight line as far as Cebrenia, and forms with the arms on each side
-
-the letter
-
A little above this ridge of land is the village of the - -Ilienses, supposed to be the site of the ancient Ilium, at the - -distance of 30 stadia from the present city. Ten stadia above - -the village of the Ilienses is Callicolone, a hill beside which, - -at the distance of five stadia, runs the Simoeis. -
The description of the poet is probable. First what he
-
-says of Mars,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-for since the battle was fought on the Scamandrian plain,
-
-Mars might, according to probability, encourage the men, one
-
-while from the citadel, at another time from the neighbouring
-
-places, the Simoeis and the Callicolone, to which the battle
-
-might extend. But since Callicolone is distant from the
-
-present Ilium 40 stadia, where was the utility of changing
-
-places at so great a distance, where the array of the troops
-
-did not extend? and the words
-
-
-
-but on the other side Mars arose, like a black tempest, one while with
-
-a shrill voice calling upon the Trojans from the summit of the citadel, at
-
-another time running along Callicolone beside the Simoeis;
-
-
-
-but it is very far distant from the present city. The beech-tree was a little lower than the Erineos; of the former Achilles says,
-
-
-
-but place your bands near Erineos, where the city is most accessible to
-
-the enemy, and where they can mount the wall,
-
-
-
-When I fought with the Achæans Hector was not disposed to urge the
-
-fight away from the wall, but advanced only as far as the Scæan gates,
-
-and the beech-tree.
Besides, the Naustathmus which retains its name at
-
-present, is so near the present city that any person may justly
-
-be surprised at the imprudence of the Greeks, and the want of
-
-spirit in the Trojans;—imprudence on the part of the Greeks,
-
-that they should have left the place for so long a time unfortified with a wall, in the neighbourhood of so large a city, and
-
-so great a body of men, both inhabitants and auxiliaries; for
-
-the wall, Homer says, was constructed at a late period; or perhaps no wall was built and the erection and destruction of it,
-
-as Aristotle says, are due to the invention of the poet;—a want
-
-of spirit on the part of the Trojans, who, after the wall was
-
-built, attacked that, and the Naustathmus, and the vessels
-
-themselves, but had not the courage before there was a wall
-
-to approach and besiege this station, although the distance was
-
-not great, for the Naustathmus is near Sigeium. The Scamander discharges itelf near this place at the distance of 20
-
-stadia from Ilium.
Polydamas also says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Consider well, my friends, what is to be done, for my advice is to return now to the city, for we are far from the walls.
Demetrius (of Scepsis) adds the testimony of Hestiæa
Polites also,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-was acting absurdly. For although he was seated
-
-
-
-who was the scout of the Trojans, trusting to his swiftness of foot, and
-
-who was on the summit of the tomb of the old Æsyetes,
-
-
-
-yet he might have observed from the much greater height of
-
-the citadel, situated nearly at the same distance, nor would
-
-his swiftness of foot have been required for the purpose of
-
-security, for the tomb of Æsyetes, which exists at present on
-
-the road to Alexandreia, is distant five stadia from the citadel.
-
-
-
-
Nor is the course of Hector round the city at all a probable
-
-circumstance, for the present city will not admit of a circuit
-
-round it on account of the continuous ridge of hill, but the
-
-ancient city did allow such a course round it. But it is difficult to conceive how, at so distant a period and among a
-
-people half savage, a space of ground so large and without water could
-
-be entirely occupied by a town, whose power scarcely extended beyond
-
-25 leagues. On the other hand, as the exterior circuit of this mountain
-
-is more than 5500 toises, it is not to be conceived how Homer, so exact
-
-in his description of places, should have represented Achilles and Hector,
-
-already fatigued by a long-continued battle, as making an uninterrupted
-
-course of about seven leagues round this mountain, before commencing
-
-in single combat. It appears to me therefore that the Troy of Homer
-
-must have covered a much less space of ground than is generally supposed, and according to all appearances this space was bounded by a
-
-hillock, on which is now the village of Bounar-bachi. This hillock is
-
-about 700 or 800 toises in circumference; it is isolated from the rest of the
-
-mountain; and warriors in pursuing one another could easily make the
-
-circuit. This would not prevent Pergamus from being the citadel of
-
-Ilium, but it was separated from it by an esplanade, which served as a
-
-means of communication between the town and the fortress.—
No trace of the ancient city remains. This might be
-
-expected, for the cities around were devastated, but not entirely destroyed, whereas when Troy was overthrown from its
-
-foundation all the stones were removed for the reparation of
-
-the other cities. Archæanax of Mitylene is said to have fortified Sigeium with the stones brought from Troy. Sigeium
-
-was taken possession of by the Athenians, who sent Phryno,
-
-the victor in the Olympic games, at the time the Lesbians
-
-advanced a claim to nearly the whole Troad. They had in-
-
-
-
-
Demetrius accuses Timæus of falsehood, for saying - -that Periander built a wall round the Achilleium out of the - -stones brought from Ilium as a protection against the attacks - -of the Athenians, and with a view to assist Pittacus; whereas - -this place was fortified by the Mitylenæans against Sigeium, - -but not with stones from Ilium, nor by Periander. For how - -should they choose an enemy in arms to be arbitrator? -
The Achilleium is a place which contains the monument of - -Achilles, and is a small settlement. It was destroyed, as also - -Sigeium, by the Ilienses on account of the refractory disposition of its inhabitants. For all the sea-coast as far as Dardanus was afterwards, and is at present, subject to them. -
Anciently the greatest part of these places were subject to
-
-the Æolians, and hence Ephorus does not hesitate to call all
-
-the country from Abydos to Cume by the name of Æolis.
-
-But Thucydidesall the
-
-towns possessed by the Mitylenæans.
The present Ilienses affirm that the city was not entirely demolished when it was taken by the Achæans, nor at
-
-any time deserted. The Locrian virgins began to be sent
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-He does not mention any force having been used, nor does
-
-he attribute the death of Ajax by shipwreck to the wrath of
-
-Minerva, nor to any similar cause, but says, in general terms,
-
-that he was an object of hatred to Minerva, (for she was incensed against all who had profaned her temple,) and that
-
-Ajax died by the agency of Neptune for his boasting speeches.
-He slew Othryoneus, who had lately come to the war from Cabesus, induced by the glory of the contest, and who sought in marriage the most
-
-beautiful of the daughters of Priam, Cassandra, without a dower.
The Locrian virgins were sent there when the Persians
-
-were masters of the country.
-
-
Such is the account of the Ilienses. But Homer
-
-speaks expressly of the demolition of the city:
-
-
-
-
Of this they produce evidence of the following kind; the
-
-statue of Minerva, which Homer represents as in a sitting
-
-posture, is seen at present to be a standing figure, for he
-
-orders them
-
-
-
-by placing the robe at the knees,
and adduce this line,
-
-
-
-near the hearth.
For what would the laying the robe
-
-at the knees mean? And they who alter the accent, and for
-
-who has not heard, when it was
-
-once razed by the Greeks, that it was uninhabited?
It is conjectured that those who afterwards proposed - -to rebuild it avoided the spot as inauspicious, either on account of its calamities, of which it had been the scene, or - -whether Agamemnon, according to an ancient custom, had devoted it to destruction with a curse, as Crcesus, when he destroyed Sidene, in which the tyrant Glaucias had taken refuge, uttered a curse against those who should rebuild its - -walls. They therefore abandoned that spot and built a city - -elsewhere. -
The Astypalæans, who were in possession of Rhœteium, - -were the first persons that founded Polium near the Simoïs, - -now called Polisma, but not in a secure spot, and hence it - -was soon in ruins. -
The present settlement, and the temple, were built in the - -time of the Lydian kings; but it was not then a city; a long - -time afterwards, however, and by degrees, it became, as we - -have said, a considerable place. -
Hellanicus, in order to gratify the Ilienses, as is his custom,
-
-maintains that the present and the ancient city are the same.
-
-But the district on the extinction of the city was divided by
-
-the possessors of Rhœteium and Sigeium, and the other
-
-neighbouring people among themselves. Upon the rebuilding
-
-of the city, however, they restored it.
-
-
Ida is thought to be appropriately described by Homer,
-
-
-
-
Demetrius, who was acquainted with these places, (for he
-
-was a native,) thus speaks of them: Modern travellers accuse Demetrius with having confounded the Scamander with the Simoïs. The Simoïs they say rises in Cotylus, (Kasdagh,) as also the Granicus, (Oustrola,) and the Æsepus, (Satal-dere,)
-
-but the sources of the Scamander are below, and to the W. of Ida, near
-
-the village called by the Turks Bounar-bachi, which signifies the head of
-
-the source. If it is an error, Demetrius is not alone responsible for it,
-
-as Hellenicus (Schol in Iliad xxi. 242) also says that the Scamander
-
-had its source in Mount Ida itself. Both probably rested on the authority of Homer, who places the source of the Scamander in Ida. They did
-
-not, however, observe that Homer employs the expression There is a height of
-
-Ida called Cotylus; it is situated about 120 stadia above
-
-Scepsis, and from it flow the Scamander, the Granicus, and
-
-the Æsepus;
-
We may, however, ask why the poet says,
-
-
-
- In the time of Homer these two rivers united together and discharged
-
-themselves into the sea by the same mouth: but the course of the Scamander has been changed for a long time, since, according to Pliny, (v.
-
-c. 33,)a part of its waters spread themselves over a marsh, and the remainder flowed unto the Ægæan Sea, between Alexandria-Troas and
-
-Sigeum. This ancient author therefore gave to the little river (which
-
-he called Palæscamander, the old Scamander) exactly the same course
-
-which the stream Bounar-bachi still follows. This change of direction
-
-in the course of the river appears to me to have been anterior to the time
-
-of Demetrius of Scepsis, for this alone can explain his error. For, no
-
-longer finding a stream which runs on the left of the present Menderé,
-
-and which might represent the Scamander, he thought proper to transfer
-
-this latter name to the Simoïs, and to look for the site of the Ilium of
-
-Homer, as also of the plain which was the scene of the combats described by the poet, on the right of this river. Thence he is persuaded
-
-that the town of the Ilienses occupied the same site as the ancient Ilium,
-
-and that the stream of the Tschiblak was the Simoïs.
- I must remark that the Menderé is a torrent, the waters of which fail
-
-during a great part of the year, whilst the stream of the Bounar-bachi
-
-always continues to flow. This advantage is probably the reason why it
-
-preserved the name of Scamander to the sea, although it ran into the bed
-
-of the Simoïs and was far inferior to this torrent in the length of its course.
-
-Hence it may be perceived how the name of Scamander, now changed
-
-into that of Menderé, has remained attached to this ancient mouth, how
-
-ultimately it was given to the whole course of the Simoïs, and how Demetrius of Scepsis was led into error by the change in the course of the
-
-true Scamander, and by the transfer of its name to the Simois.—Voyage
-
-Pittorcsque de la Grèce par Troad, par
-
-
-
-that is, hot; he proceeds, however,
-
-
-
-They came to the fair fountains, whence burst forth two streams of the
-
-eddying Scamander, one flowing with water warm,
-
-
-
-for no warm springs are now found in that spot, nor is the
-
-source of the Scamander there, but in the mountain, and
-
-there is one source instead of two.around issues vapour as though caused by fire—the other gushes out in
-
-the summer, cold like hail, or frozen as snow,
The Andirus empties itself into the Scamander; a
-
-
-
-
Demetrius again says, the river Rhesus is now called - -Rhoeites, unless it is the Rhesus which empties itself into - -the Granicus. -
The Heptaporus, which is called also Polyporus, is crossed - -seven times in travelling from the places about Cale Peuce (or - -the beautiful pitch tree) to the village Melænæ and to the - -Asclepieium, founded by Lysimachus. -
Attalus, the first king, gives this account of the beautiful - -pitch tree; its circumference, he says, was 24 feet; the - -height of the trunk from the root was 67 feet; it then formed - -three branches, equally distant from each other; it then contracts into one head, and here it completes the whole height - -of two plethra, and 15 cubits. It is distant from Adramyttium 180 stadia towards the north. -
The Caresus flows from Malus, a place situated between - -Palæscepsis and Achæïum, in front of the isle of Tenedos, and - -empties itself into the Æsepus. -
The Rhodius flows from Cleandria and Gordus, which are
-
-distant 60 stadia from Cale Peuce, and empties itself into the
-
-Ænius (Æsepus?).
-
-
In the valley about the Æsepus, on the left of its
-
-course, the first place we meet with is Polichna, a walled
-
-stronghold; then Palæscepsis, next Alizonium, a place invented for the supposed existence of the Halizoni whom we have
-
-mentioned before.silver mines.
But
Where then is Alybe, or Alope, or in whatever way they - -please to play upon the name? For they ought to have had - -the impudence to invent this place also, and not to leave their - -system imperfect and exposed to detection, when they had - -once ventured so far. This is the contradiction which may - -be given to Demetrius. -
As to the rest, we ought at least in the greatest number of - -instances to attend to a man of experience, and a native of the - -country, who also had bestowed so much thought and time on - -this subject as to write thirty books to interpret little more - -than 60 lines of the catalogue of the Trojan forces. -
Palæscepsis, according to Demetrius, is distant from Ænea
-
-50, and from the river Æsepus 30, stadia, and the name of
-
-Palæscepsis is applied to many other places.
We return to the sea-coast, from which we have digressed.
-
-
After the Sigeian promontory, and the Achilleium, is
-
-the coast opposite to Tenedos, the Achæïum, and Tenedos itself, distant not more than 40 stadia from the continent. It is
-
-about 80 stadia in circumference. It contains an Æolian
-
-city, and has two harbours, and a temple of Apollo Smintheus, as the poet testifies;
-
-
-
-
Continuous with the Achæium are Larisa and Colonæ,
-
-formerly belonging to the people of Tenedos, who occupied
-
-the opposite coast; and the present Chrysa, situated upon a
-
-rocky height above the sea, and Hamaxitus lying below, and
-
-close to Lectum. But at present Alexandreia is continuous
-
-with the Achæium; the inhabitants of those small towns, and
-
-of many other strongholds, were embodied in Alexandreia.
-
-Among the latter were Cebrene and Neandria. The territory
-
-is in the possession of the Alexandrini, and the spot in which
-
-Alexandreia is now situated was called Sigia.
-
-
The temple of Apollo Smintheus is in this Chrysa, and
-
-the symbol, a mouse, which shows the etymology of the epithet Smintheus, lying under the foot of the statue.
The Teucri, who came from Crete, (of whom Callinus, the
-
-elegiac poet, gave the first history, and he was followed by
-
-many others,) were directed by an oracle to settle wherever
-
-the earth-born inhabitants should attack them, which, it is
-
-said, occurred to them near Hamaxitus, for in the night-time
-
-great multitudes of field-mice came out and devoured all arms
-
-or utensils which were made of leather; the colony therefore
-
-settled there. These people also called the mountain Ida,
-
-after the name of the mountain in Crete.
-
-
-
-
Others say, that a certain Teucer came from Attica, who - -belonged to the Demus of Troes, which is now called Xypeteon, but that no Teucri came from Crete. They adduce as - -a proof of the intermixture of Trojans with Athenians, that - -an Ericthonius was a founder of both people. -
This is the account of modern writers. But the traces
-
-which now exist in the plain of Thebe, and at Chrysa situated
-
-there, coincide better with the description of Homer; and of
-
-these we shall speak immediately.
The name of Smintheus is to be found in many places, for
-
-near Hamaxitus itself, besides the Sminthian Apollo at the
-
-temple, there are two places called Sminthia, and others in the
-
-neighbouring district of Larissa. In the district also of Pariane
-
-is a place called Sminthia; others in Rhodes,On the
-
-Sminthia of Rhodes.
Separate from the other is the Halesian plain near Lectum,
-
-which is not extensive, and the Tragasæan salt-pan near Ha-
-
-maxitus,the salt-pans.
These places are in sight of Ilium, at the distance of a little
-
-more than 200 stadia. On the other side the parts about
-
-Abydos are visible, although Abydos is somewhat nearer.
-
-
After doubling Lectum, there follow the most considerable cities of the Æolians, the bay of Adramyttium, on which
-
-Homer seems to have placed the greater part of the Leleges,
-
-and the Cilicians, divided into two tribes. There also is the
-
-coast of the Mitylenæans with some villages of the Mitylenæans on the continent. The bay has the name of the Idæan
-
-bay, for the ridge extending from Lectum to Ida overhangs
-
-
-
-
I have spoken before of the Leleges, and I shall now
-
-add that the poet speaks of a Pedasus, a city of theirs which
-
-was subject to Altes;
-
-
-
-below Satnioeis,
as if the city lay at the foot of a
-
-mountain called Satnioeis; yet there is no mountain there
-
-called Satnioeis, but a river, on which the city is placed. The
-
-city is at present deserted. The poet mentions the river;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-And in another place;
-
-
-
-Ajax pierced with his spear Satnius, the son of Œnops, whom the beautiful nymph Naïs bore to Œnops, when he tended herds on the banks of
-
-the Satnioeis.
-
-
-
-Later writers called it Satioeis, and some writers Saphnioeis.
-
-It is a great winter torrent, which the poet, by mentioning it,
-
-made remarkable. These places are continuous with the
-
-districts Dardania and Scepsia, and are as it were another
-
-Dardania, but lower than the former.
-
-Œnops dwelt on the banks of the smooth-flowing Satnioeis
-
-In lofty Pedasus.
The country comprised in the districts of Antandria,
-
-Cebrene, Neandria, and the Hamaxitus, as far as the sea opposite to Lesbos, now belongs to the people of Assus and Gargara.
The Neandrians are situated above Hamaxitus on this - -side Lectum, but more towards the interior, and nearer to - -Ilium, from which they are distant 130 stadia. Above - -these people are the Cebrenii, and above the Cebrenii the - -Dardanii, extending as far as Palæscepsis, and even to - -Scepsis. -
The poet Alcæus calls Antandrus a city of the Leleges:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Demetrius of Scepsis places it among the adjacent cities, so
-
-that it might be in the country of the Cilicians, for these
-
-people are rather to be regarded as bordering upon the Le-
-
-
-
-
Next is Astyra, a village and grove sacred to Artemis Astyrene. Close to it is Adramyttium, a city founded by a - -colony of Athenians, with a harbour, and a station for vessels. - -Beyond the gulf and the promontory Pyrrha is Cisthene, a - -deserted city with a harbour. Above it in the interior is a - -copper mine, Perperena, Trarium, and other similar settle- - -ments. -
On this coast after Cisthene are the villages of the Mitylenæans, Coryphantis and Heracleia; next to these is Attea;
-
-then Atarneus,
We shall resume our description of each place, lest we
-
-should have omitted any one that is remarkable. And first
-
-with regard to Scepsis.
-
-
Palescepsis is situated above Cebrene towards the
-
-most elevated part of Ida near Polichna. It had the name of
-
-
-
-
The Scepsian (Demetrius) supposes that Scepsis was
-
-the palace of Æneas, situated between the dominion of Æneas
-
-and Lyrnessus, where, it is said, he took refuge when pursued by Achilles.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Remember you not,
says Achilles, how I chased you when alone and
-
-apart from the herds, with swift steps, from the heights of Ida, thence indeed you escaped to Lyrnessus; but I took and destroyed it.
Present traditions respecting Æneas do not agree with the
-
-story respecting the first founders of Scepsis. For it is said
-
-that he was spared on account of his hatred to Priam:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-His companion chiefs, the Antenoridæ, and Antenor, and myself, escaped on account of the hospitality which the latter had
-
-shown to Menelaus.
-he ever bore hatred to Priam, for never had Priam bestowed any
-
-honour upon him for his valour.
Sophocles, in his play, The Capture of Troy, says, that a
-
-panther's skin was placed before Antenor's door as a signal
-
-that his house should be spared from plunder. Antenor and
-
-
-
-
Homer does not agree either with these writers or with
-
-what is said respecting the founders of Scepsis. For he represents Æneas as remaining at Troy, succeeding to the kingdom, and delivering the succession to his children's children
-
-after the extinction of the race of Priam:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-the son of Saturn hated the family of Priam: henceforward Æneas
-
-shall reign over the Trojans, and his children's children to late generations.
In this manner not even the succession of Scamandrius
-
-could be maintained. He disagrees still more with those
-
-writers who speak of his wanderings as far as Italy, and
-
-make him end his days in that country. Some write the
-
-verse thus:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-The race of Æneas and his children's children,
meaning the Romans,
-
-shall rule over all nations."
The Socratic philosophers, Erastus, Coriscus, and Neleus, the son of Coriscus, a disciple of Aristotle, and Theophrastus, were natives of Scepsis. Neleus succeeded to the
-
-possession of the library of Theophrastus, which included that
-
-of Aristotle; for Aristotle gave his library, and left his school,
-
-
-
-
Even Rome contributed to this increase of errors; for immediately on the death of Apellicon, Sylla, who captured
-
-Athens, seized the library of Apellicon. When it was
-
-brought to Rome, Tyrannion,
This may suffice on this subject.
-
-
Demetrius the grammarian, whom we have frequently
-
-mentioned, was a native of Scepsis. He composed a comment on the catalogue of the Trojan forces. He was contemporary with Crates and Aristarchus. He was succeeded
-
-by Metrodorus,on anointing with oil,
or
-
-on oil used in the public exercises.
It seems however very probable
-
-that the treatise on the Troad, (
So much then respecting Scepsis.
-
-
Next to Scepsis are Andeira, Pioniæ, and Gargaris.
-
-There is found at Andeira a stone, which when burnt becomes
-
-iron. It is then put into a furnace together with some kind
-
-of earth, when it distils a mock silver, (Pseudargyrum,) or
-
-with the addition of copper it becomes the compound called
-
-oreichalcum. There is found a mock silver near Tmolus
-
-also. These places and those about Assus were occupied by
-
-the Leleges.
-
-
Assus is a strong place, and well fortified with walls.
-
-There is a long and perpendicular ascent from the sea and
-
-the harbour, so that the verse of Stratonicus the citharist
-
-seems to be applicable to it;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-The harbour is formed of a large mole.
-
Cleanthes, the Stoic philosopher, was a native of this place.
-
-He succeeded to the school of Zeno of Citium, and left it to
-
-Chrysippus of Soli. Here also Aristotle resided for some
-
-time, on account of his relationship to Hermeas the tyrant.
-
-Hermeas was an eunuch, servant of a money-changer. When
-
-he was at Athens he was the hearer both of Plato and of
-
-Aristotle. On his return he became the associate in the
-
-tyranny of his master, who attacked the places near Atarneus and Assus. He afterwards succeeded his master, sent
-
-for both Aristotle and Xenocrates, and treated them with
-
-kindness. He even gave his niece in marriage to Aristotle.
-
-But Memnon of Rhodes, who was at that time general in the
-
-service of the Persians, invited to his house Hermeas, under
-
-the mask of friendship, and—on pretence of business. He
-
-seized Hermeas, and sent him to the king, who ordered him
-
-to be hanged. The philosophers, avoiding places in possession of the Persians, escaped by flight.
-
-
Myrsilus says that Assus was founded by Methymnæ-
-
-ans; but according to Hellanicus it was an Æolian city, like
-
-Gargara and Lamponia of the Æolians. Gargara The town called Lamponia by Strabo is called Lamponium by Hellanicus and Herodotus.the kings,
we must probably understand the kings of Bithynra
-
-rather than the kings of Persia, as understood by Rambach (De Mileto
-
-ejusque colonize); for if we suppose that colonists are here meant who
-
-came to Gargara from Miletus after the destruction of this latter town by
-
-the Persians, how could Demetrius of Scepsis say of the Gargareans
-
-that, Eolians as they were, or instead of Æolians they became semibarbarians?
He ought at least to have said, that they became Ionians,
for Miletus, a Greek city of Ionia, at the time of its destruction by
-
-the Persians, was far from being barbarous. But Miletopolis, although
-
-from its name and position in the territory of Cyzicus was probably, like
-
-Cyzicus, a colony of Miletus, yet might have been peopled with barbarians at the time Gargara received colonists. Mualitsh is the modern name
-
-of Miletopolis.
-
-
-
-The Leleges were therefore a different people from the Carians, and lived between the people subject to Æneas and the
-
-Cilicians, as they are called by the poet. After being plundered by Achilles, they removed to Caria, and occupied the
-
-country about the present Halicarnassus.
-
-Near the sea are Carians, and Pœonians with curved bows, Leleges, and
-
-Caucones.
Pedasus, the city which they abandoned, is no longer - -in existence. But in the interior of the country belonging to - -the people of Halicarnassus there was a city called by them - -Pedasa, and the territory has even now the name of Pedasis. - -It is said that this district contained eight cities, occupied by - -the Leleges, who were formerly so populous a nation as to - -possess Caria as far as Myndus, Bargylia, and a great part of - -Pisidia. In later times, when they united with the Carians in - -their expeditions, they were dispersed throughout the whole of - -Greece, and the race became extinct. -
Mausolus, according to Callisthenes, assembled in Halicarnassus
There is now existing in the territory of the Stratoniceis
The tract of sea-coast following next after the Leleges
-
-was occupied, according to Homer, by Cilicians, but at present
-
-it is occupied by Adramytteni, Atarneitæ, and Pitanæi as far
-
-as the mouth of the Caïcus. The Cilicians were divided into
-
-
-
-
Homer says that Thebe was the city of Eetion;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-he says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-to Thebe, ravaged it, and carried everything away; the sons of the
-
-Achtæans divided the booty among themselves, but selected for Atrides the
-
-beautiful Chryseis.
Lyrnessus he calls the city of Mynes, for
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-the poet cannot mean Thebe, for that belonged to Eetion, but
-
-Lyrnessus, for both cities lay in what was afterwards called
-
-the plain of Thebe, which, on account of its fertility, was a
-
-subject of contest among the Mysians and Lydians formerly,
-
-and latterly among the Greeks who had migrated from Æolis
-
-and Lesbos. At present Adramytteni possess the greater
-
-part of it; there are Thebe and Lyrnessus, a strong place,
-
-but both are deserted. One is situated at the distance of 60
-
-stadia from Adramyttium on one side, and the other 88 stadia
-
-on the other side.
-
-you suffered me not to weep when the swift Achilles slew my husband,
-
-and laid waste the city of the divine Mynes,
In the Adramyttene district are Chrysa and Cilla.
-
-There is at present near Thebe a place called Cilla, in which
-
-is a temple of Apollo Cillæus. Beside it runs a river, which
-
-comes from Mount Ida. These places are near Antandria.
-
-The Cillæum in Lesbos has its name from this Cilla. There
-
-is also amountain Cillæum between Gargara and Antandrus.
-
-Dæs of Colonæ says that the temple of Apollo Cillæus was
-
-founded at Colonæ by the Æolians, who came by sea from
-
-Greece. At Chrysa also it is said that there is a Cillæan
-
-Apollo, but it is uncertain whether it is the same as Apollo
-
-Smintheus, or a different statue.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Nor is it near Thebe, but it is near it, according to Homer, for
-
-he says, that Chryseis was taken away from thence.
-Chryseïs left the ship; then the sage Ulysses, leading her to the altar,
-
-placed her in the hands of her beloved father.
Nor is there any place of the name of Cilla in the district
-
-of the Alexandreia, (Troas,) nor a temple of Apollo Cillæus,
-
-whereas the poet joins them together:
-
-
-
-
The story about the Teucri, and the mice from whom
-
-the name of Smintheus is derived, (for mice are called Sminthii,) must be transferred to this place.
-
-
-
-
The country about Adramyttium is Mysia. It was - -once subject to Lydians, and there are now Pylæ Lydiæ (or - -the Lydian Gates) at Adramyttium, the city having been - -founded, it is said, by Lydians. -
Astyra also, the village near Adramyttium, is said to belong to Mysia. It was once a small city, in which was the - -temple of Artemis Astyrene, situated in a grove. The Antandrians, in whose neighbourhood it is more immediately - -situated, preside over it with great solemnity. It is distant - -20 stadia from the ancient Chrysa, which also has a temple in - -a grove. There too is the Rampart of Achilles. At the distance of 50 stadia in the interior is Thebe, uninhabited, which - -the poet says was situated below the woody Placus; but - -there is neither a place called Placus nor Plax there, nor a - -wood above it, although it is near Ida. -
Thebe is distant from Astyra 70, and from Andeira 60
-
-stadia. All these are names of uninhabited places, or thinly
-
-inhabited, or of rivers which are torrents. But they owe
-
-their fame to ancient history.
-
-
Assus and Adramyttium are considerable cities. Adramyttium was unfortunate in the Mithridatic war, for Diodorus
-
-the general, in order to gratify the king, put to death the
-
-council of the citizens, although at the same time he pretended
-
-to be a philosopher of the Academy, pleaded causes, and professed to teach rhetoric. He accompanied the king on his
-
-voyage to Pontus, but upon his overthrow Diodorus was
-
-punished for his crimes. Many accusations were simultane-
-
-
-
-
Adramyttium produced Xenocles, a distinguished orator,
-
-who adopted the Asiatic style of eloquence and was remarkable for the vehemence of his manner; he defended Asia before the senate, at the time when that province was accused of
-
-favouring the party of Mithridates.
-
-
Near Astyra is a lake called Sapra, full of deep holes, - -that empties itself by a ravine among ridges of rocks on the - -coast. Below Andeira is a temple dedicated to the Andeirenian - -Mother of the gods, and a cave with a subterraneous passage - -extending to Palæa. Palæa is a settlement distant 130 stadia - -from Andeira. A goat, which fell into the opening, discovered the subterraneous passage. It was found at Andeira - -the next day, accidentally, by the shepherd, who had gone - -there to a sacrifice. -
Atarneus
Arcesilaus of the Academy was a native of Pitane, and a - -fellow-disciple of Zeno of Citium in the school of Polemo. -
There is a place in Pitane called Atarneus under Pitane,
-
-opposite to the island called Elæussa.
-
It is said that at Pitane bricks float upon the water, as was
-
-the case with a small islanda certain earth.
Pliny, b. ii. c.
-
-95 speaks of islands which are always floating;
something of the kind
-
-occurs in volcanic lakes.
After Pitane the Caïcus
At 100 stadia farther is Cane, the promontory opposite to Lectum, and forming the gulf of Adramyttium, of
-
-which the Elaitic Gulf is a part. Canoe is a small city of the
-
-Locrians who came from Cynus; it is situated in the Canæan
-
-territory, opposite the most southerly extremities of Lesbos.
-
-This territory extends to the Arginusæ, and the promontory
-
-above, which some call Æga, or the goat. The second syllable however must be pronounced long, Aigan, like Actan
-
-and Archan, for this was the name of the whole mountain,
-
-which at present is called Cane, or Canæ.
-
-
-
-Homer here rather proposes an enigma than a clear meaning. For we do not know who the Cetæi were, nor what people we are to understand by this name, nor what is meant by
-
-the words, as when he slew the son of Telephus, the hero Eurypylns, and many of
-
-his companions, the Ceæi, were killed around him for the sake of the
-
-gifts of women.
for the sake of the gifts of women.
Let us dismiss this doubtful matter, and turn to what - -is more certain; for instance, according to Homer, Eurypylus - -appears to have been king of the places about the Caïcus, so - -that perhaps a part of the Cilicians were his subjects, and - -that there were not only two but three dynasties among that - -people. -
This opinion is supported by the circumstance that in the
-
-Elaïtis there is a small river, like a winter torrent, of the
-
-name of Ceteium. This falls into another like it, then again
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-for Celænæ is at a great distance from Ida, and so are the
-
-sources of the Caïcus, for they are to be seen in the plain.
-
There is a mountain, Temnum, which separates this and
-
-the plain of Asia; it lies in the interior above the plain of
-
-Thebe. A river, Mysius, flows from Temnum and enters
-
-the Caïcus below its source. Hence some persons suppose
-
-that Æschylus refers to it in the beginning of the prologue
-
-to the play of the Myrmidons,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Near its source is a village called Gergitha, to which Attalus
-
-transferred the inhabitants of Gergitha in the Troad, after
-
-destroying their own stronghold.
-
-
-
SINCE Lesbos, a very remarkable island, lies along and
-
-opposite to the sea-coast, extending from Lectum to Canæ,
-
-and since it is surrounded by small islands, some of which lie
-
-beyond it, others in the space between Lesbos and the continent, it is now proper to describe them, because they are
-
-Æolian places, and Lesbos is, as it were, the capital of the
-
-Æolian cities. We shall begin where we set out to describe
-
-the coast opposite to the island.
-
-
In sailing from Lectum to Assos the Lesbian district
-
-begins opposite to Sigrium,
From Methymna to Malia,
Mitylene, the largest city, lies between Methymna and
-
-Malia, at the distance from Malia of 70 stadia, and from Canæ
-
-of 120, and as many from the Arginussæ islands,
Mitylene has two harbours; of which the southern is a
-
-close harbour and capable of holding 50 triremes. The northern harbour is large, and deep, and protected by a mole. In
-
-front of both lies a small island, which contains a part of the
-
-city. Mitylene is well provided with everything.
-
-
It formerly produced celebrated men, as Pittacus, one of
-
-the Seven Wise Men; Alcæus the poet, and his brother Antimenidas, who, according to Alcæus, when fighting on the side
-
-of the Babylonians, achieved a great exploit, and extricated
-
-them from their danger by killing
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Contemporary with these persons flourished Sappho, an extraordinary woman; for at no period within memory has any
-
-woman been known at all to be compared to her in poetry.
-
At this period Mitylene was ruled by many tyrants, in consequence of the dissensions among the citizens. These dissensions are the subject of the poems of Alcæus called Stasiotica (the Seditions). One of these tyrants was Pittacus:
-
-Alcæus inveighed against him as well as against Myrsilus,
-
-Melanchrus the Cleanactidæ, and some others; nor was he
-
-
-
-
At a late period afterwards appeared Diophanes the rhetorician; in our times Potamo, Lesbocles, Crinagoras, and
-
-Theophanes the historian.
The Athenians were in danger of incurring irremediable
-
-disgrace by passing a decree that all the Mitylenæans who
-
-had attained the age of puberty should be put to death. They,
-
-however, recalled their resolution, and the counter-decree
-
-reached their generals only one day before the former order
-
-was to be executed.
-
-
Pyrrha is in ruins. But the suburb is inhabited, and
-
-has a port, whence to Mitylene is a passage of 80 stadia. Next
-
-after Pyrrha is Eressus.
Eressus was the birth-place of Theophrastus, and of Phanias, Peripatetic philosophers, disciples of Aristotle. Theophrastus was called Tyrtamus before his name was changed by
-
-Aristotle to Theophrastus, thus getting rid of the cacophony
-
-of the former name, and at the same time expressing the
-
-
-
-
Antissa
-
-
-we have relinquished the song adapted to four strings, and shall cause
-
-new hymns to resound on a seven-stringed cithara.
The historian Hellanicus, and Callias, who has commented
-
-on Sappho and Alcæus, were Lesbians.
-
-
Near the strait situated between Asia and Lesbos there
-
-are about twenty small islands, or, according to Timosthenes,
-
-forty. They are called Hecatonnesoi,hundred islands,
the word being composed not of Hecatus but of
-
-Hecaton, a hundred,
and islands.
Near these islands is Pordoselene, which contains a city of
-
-the same name, and in front of this city is another island
Some persons, in order to avoid the indecorum couched
-
-in these names,with clothes dripping with wet,
(the country is
-
Lesbos is at the same distance, rather less than 500 stadia, - -from Tenedos, Lemnos, and Chios. - - -
SINCE there subsisted so great an affinity among the
-
-Leleges and Cilicians with the Trojans, the reason is asked,
-
-why these people are not included in Homer's Catalogue. Perhaps it is that, on account of the loss of their leaders and the
-
-devastation of the cities, the few Cilicians that were left
-
-placed themselves under the command of Hector. For Eetion
-
-and his sons are said to have been killed before the Catalogue
-
-is mentioned;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-says Andromache,
-
-
-
-killed my father, and destroyed Thebe, with its lofty gates, the city of
-
-the Cilicians.
—
-
-I had seven brothers in the palace; all of them went in one day to
-
-Hades, for they were all slain by the swift-footed divine Achilles.
Those also under the command of Mynes had lost their
-
-leaders, and their city;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-And in another place,
-
-
-
-on the sea-coast are Carians, and Pæonians with curved bows, Leleges,
-
-and Caucones.
-
-
-
-for they had not been so completely annihilated as to prevent
-
-
-
-he killed Satnius with a spear—the son of Enops, whom a beautiful
-
-nymph Neis bore to Enops, when he was tending herds near the banks of
-
-Satnioeis,
-
-
-my mother Laothoë, daughter of the old Altes, brought me into the
-
-world to live but a short time; of Altes, king of the war-loving Leleges.
Such is the reasoning, from probability, which this subject
-
-admits.
-
-
We reason from probability when we endeavour to determine by the words of the poet the exact bounds of the - -territory of the Cilicians, Pelasgi, and of the people situated - -between them, namely, the Ceteii, who were under the command of Eurypylus. -
We have said of the Cilicians and of the people under the - -command of Eurypylus what can be said about them, and that - -they are bounded by the country near the Caïcus. -
It is agreeable to probability to place the Pelasgi next to
-
-these people, according to the words of Homer and other histories. Homer says,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Hippothous led the tribes of the Pelasgi, who throw the spear, who inhabited the fertile Larisa; their leaders were Hippothous and Pylæus, a
-
-son of Mars, both sons of Lethus the Pelasgian, son of Teutamis.
He here represents the numbers of Pelasgi as considerable,
-
-for he does not speak of them as a tribe, but tribes,
and
-
-specifies the place of their settlement, Larisa. There are
-
-many places of the name of Larisa, but we must understand
-
-some one of those near the Troad, and perhaps we might not
-
-be wrong in supposing it to be that near Cyme; for of three
-
-places of the name of Larisa, that near Hamaxitus is quite in
-
-sight of Ilium and very near it, at the distance of about 200
-
-stadia, so that Hippothous could not be said consistently with
-
-probability to fall, in the contest about Patroclus,
-
-
-
-
It is said that the people who set out from Phricium, a
-
-Locrian mountain above Thermopylæ, settled on the spot
-
-where Cyme is now situated; and finding the Pelasgi, who
-
-had been great sufferers in the Trojan war, yet still in possession of Larisa, distant about 70 stadia from Cyme, erected as a
-
-defence against them what is at present called Neon-teichos,
-
-(or the New Wall,) 30 stadia from Larisa. They took Larisa,
That the Pelasgi were a great nation, history, it is said, - -furnishes other evidence. For Menecrates of Elæa, in his - -work on the foundation of cities, says, that the whole of the - -present Ionian coast, beginning from Mycale and the neighbouring islands, were formerly inhabited by Pelasgi. But - -the Lesbians say, that they were commanded by Pylæus, who - -is called by the poet the chief of the Pelasgi, and that it was - -from him that the mountain in their country had the name of - -Pylæmem. -
The Chians also say, that the Pelasgi from Thessaly were
-
-
-
-
Something peculiar took place among the Larisæans in
-
-the plain of the Cayster, in the Phriconis, and in Thessaly. All
-
-of them occupied a country, the soil of which has been accumulated by rivers, by the Caÿster,
At Larisa Phriconis Piasus is said to receive great honours. He was chief of the Pelasgi, and enamoured, it is
-
-said, of his daughter Larisa, whom he violated, and was punished for the outrage. She discovered him leaning over a
-
-cask of wine, seized him by his legs, lifted him up, and dropped him down into the vessel. These are ancient accounts.
-
-
To the present Æolian cities we must add Ægæ and - -Temnus, the birth-place of Hermagoras, who wrote a book on - -the Art of Rhetoric. -
These cities are on the mountainous country which is above - -the district of Cyme, and that of the Phocæans and Smyrnæans, - -beside which flows the Hermus. -
Not far from these cities is Magnesia under Sipylus, made
-
-a free city by a decree of the Romans. The late earthquakes
-
-have injured this place. To the opposite parts, which incline
-
-towards the Caïcus to Cyme from Larisa, in passing to which
-
-the river Hermus is crossed, are 70 stadia; thence to Myrina
-
-40 stadia; thence to Grynium 40 stadia, and thence to Elæa.
-
-But, according to Artemidorus, next to Cyme is Adæ; then,
-
-at the distance of 40 stadia, a promontory, which is called
-
-Hydra, and forms the Elaïtic Gulf with the opposite promontory Harmatus. The breadth of the entrance is about 80
-
-stadia, including the winding of the bays. Myrina, situated at
-
-60 stadia, is an Æolian city with a harbour, then the harbour
-
-of Achæans, where are altars of the twelve gods; next is
-
-Grynium, a small city [of the Myrinæans], a temple of Apollo,
-
-an ancient oracle, and a costly fane of white marble. To
-
-Myrina are 40 stadia; then 70 stadia to Elæa, which has a
-
-harbour and a station for vessels of the Attalic kings, founded
-
-
-
-
The places about Pitane, and Atarneus, and others in this
-
-quarter, which follow Elæa, have been already described.
-
-
Cyme is the largest and best of the Æolian cities. - -This and Lesbos may be considered the capitals of the other - -cities, about 30 in number, of which not a few exist no longer. - -The inhabitants of Cyme are ridiculed for their stupidity, for, - -according to some writers, it is said of them that they only - -began to let the tolls of the harbour three hundred years after - -the foundation of their city, and that before this time the town - -had never received any revenue of the kind; hence the report - -that it was late before they perceived that they inhabited a - -city lying on the sea. -
There is another story, that, having borrowed money in the
-
-name of the state, they pledged their porticos as security for
-
-the payment of it. Afterwards, the money not having been
-
-repaid on the appointed day, they were prohibited from walking in them. The creditors, through shame, gave notice by
-
-the crier whenever it rained, that the inhabitants might take
-
-shelter under the porticos. As the crier called out, Go
-
-under the porticos,
a report prevailed that the Cymæans did
-
-not perceive that they were to go under the porticos when it
-
-rained unless they had notice from the public crier.
Ephorus, a man indisputably of high repute, a disciple of - -Isocrates the orator, was a native of this city. He was an - -historian, and wrote the book on Inventions. -
Hesiod the poet, who long preceded Ephorus, was a native
-
-of this place, for he himself says, that his father Dius left
-
-Cyme in Æolis and migrated to the Bœotians;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-he dwelt near Helicon in Ascra, a village wretched in winter, in summer oppressive, and not pleasant at any season.
It is not generally admitted that Homer was from Cyme, for - -many dispute about him. -
The name of the city was derived from an Amazon, as that
-
-of Myrina was the name of an Amazon, buried under the
-
-Batieia in the plain of Troy;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-men call this Batieia; but the immortals, the tomb of the bounding
-
-Myrina.
Ephorus is bantered, because, having no achievements of
-
-his countrymen to commemorate among the other exploits in
-
-his history, and yet being unwilling to pass them over unnoticed, he exclaims,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
After having described the Trojan and Æolian coasts, we - -ought next to notice cursorily the interior of the country as - -far as Mount Taurus, observing the same order. - - -
PERGAMUM
Pergamum was the treasure-hold of Lysimachus, the son - -of Agathocles, and one of the successors of Alexander. It is - -situated on the very summit of the mountain which terminates in a sharp peak like a pine-cone. Phileterus of Tyana - -was intrusted with the custody of this strong-hold, and of the - -treasure, which amounted to nine thousand talents. He - -became an eunuch in childhood by compression, for it happened that a great body of people being assembled to see a - -funeral, the nurse who was carrying Philetærus, then an infant, in her arms, was entangled in the crowd, and pressed - -upon to such a degree that the child was mutilated. -
He was therefore an eunuch, but having been well educated he was thought worthy of this trust. He continued for
-
-
-
-
During these disorders the eunuch remained in the fortress,
-
-continually employing the policy of promises and other courtesies with those who were the strongest and nearest to
-
-himself. He thus continued master of the strong-hold for
-
-twenty years.
-
-
He had two brothers, the elder of whom was Eumenes,
-
-the younger Attalus. Eumenes had a son of the same name,
-
-who succeeded to the possession of Pergamum, and was then
-
-sovereign of the places around, so that he overcame in a battle near Sardes
Attalus, the son of Attalus and Antiochis, daughter of
-
-Achæus, succeeded to the kingdom. He was the first person
-
-who was proclaimed king after a victory, which he obtained
-
-in a great battle with the Galatians. He became an ally of
-
-the Romans, and, in conjunction with the Rhodian fleet,
-
-assisted them in the war against Philip. He died in old age,
-
-having reigned forty-three years. He left four sons by
-
-Apollonis, a woman of Cyzicus,—Eumenes, Attalus, Philetærus,
-
-and Athenæus. The younger sons continued in a private
-
-station, but Eumenes, the elder, was king. He was an ally
-
-of the Romans in the war with Antiochus the Great, and with
-
-Perseus; he received from the Romans all the country within
-
-the Taurus which had belonged to Antiochus. Before this
-
-time there were not under the power of Pergamum many places
-
-which reached to the sea at the Elaïtic and the Adramyttene Gulfs. Eumenes embellished the city, he ornamented
-
-the Nicephorium
He appointed as guardian of his son, who was very young,On brotherly love,
and by Livy, xlii. c. 15 and 16.
The Caïcus flows past Pergamum through the plain of
-
-Caïcus, as it is called, and traverses a very fertile country, indeed almost the best soil in Mysia.
-
-
The celebrated men in our times, natives of Pergamum, - -were Mithridates, the son of Menodotus and the daughter of - -Adobogion; he was of the family of the Tetrarchs of Galatia. - -Adobogion, it is said, had been the concubine of Mithridates - -the king; the relatives therefore gave to the child the name - -of Mithridates, pretending that he was the king's son. -
This prince became so great a friend of Divus Cæsar, that he
-
-was promoted to the honour of Tetrarch (of Galatia) out of
-
-regard to his mother's family; he was appointed also king of
-
-Bosporus and of other places. He was overthrown by
-
-Asander, who put to death Pharnaces the king and obtained
-
-
-
-
But the friendship of Augustus Cæsar, whom he instructed
-
-in oratory, was the principal cause of the elevation of Apollodorus. He had a celebrated scholar Dionysius, surnamed
-
-Atticus, his fellow-citizen, who was an able teacher of philosophy, an historian, and composer of orations.
-
-
Proceeding from the plain and the city towards the
-
-east, we meet with Apollonia, a city on an elevated site. To
-
-the south is a mountainous ridge, which having crossed on
-
-the road to Sardes, we find on the left hand the city Thyateira, a colony of the Macedonians, which some authors say
-
-is the last city belonging to the Mysians. On the right hand
-
-is Apollonis, 300 stadia from Pergamum, and the same distance
-
-from Sardes. It has its name from Apollonis of Cyzicus
-
-(wife of Attalus). Next are the plains of Hermus and Sardes. The country to the north of Pergamum is principally
-
-occupied by Mysians; it lies on the right hand of the people
-
-called Abaïtæ, on whose borders is the Epictetus, extending
-
-to Bithynia.
-
-
Sardes is a large city, of later date than the Trojan - -times, yet ancient, with a strong citadel. It was the royal - -seat of the Lydians, whom the poet calls Meones, and later - -writers Meones, some asserting that they are the same, - -others that they are a different people, but the former is the - -preferable opinion. -
Above Sardes is the Tmolus, a fertile mountain having on
-
-its summit a seat
The Hermus takes its rise in Mysia, descending from the - -sacred mountain of Dindymene; after traversing the Catacecaumene, it enters the Sardian territory, and passes through - -the contiguous plains to the sea, mentioned above. Below - -the city lie the plains of Sardes, of the Cyrus, of the Hermus, - -and of the Caÿster, which are contiguous to one another and - -the most fertile anywhere to be found. -
At the distance of 40 stadia from the city is the lake
-
-Gygæa, as it is called by the poet.
The verses in Homer are to this effect,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Some persons add a fourth verse to these,
-
-
-
-Mesthles and Antiphus, sons of Talæmenes, born of the lake Gygæa,
-
-were the leaders of the Meones, who live below Tmolus.
-
-
-
-But no Hyde
-
-
-
-Some lay the scene of the last fable in Cilicia, others in Syria,
-
-others among the Pithecussæ (islands),among the
-
-Arini,
(which in Roman letters would be in the Pithecussæ Islands,
according to the opinion of those who placed Typhoëus in Italy.
-
-But it is remarkable that from the two words
The Scepsian (Demetrius) says that the opinion of those
-
-authors is most to be depended upon who place the Arimi in
-
-the Catacecaumene in Mysia. But Pindar associates the
-
-Pithecussæ which lie in front of the Cymæan territory and
-
-Sicily with Cilicia, for the poet says that Typhon lay beneath
-
-Ætna;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-And again,
-
-
-
-Once he dwelt in far-famed Cilician caverns, but now Sicily, and the
-
-sea-girt isle, o'ershadowing Cyme, press upon his shaggy breast.
-
-
-
-And again,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Others understand Syrians by the Arimi, who are now called
-
-Aramæi, and maintain that the Cilicians in the Troad migrated and settled in Syria, and deprived the Syrians of the
-
-country which is now called Cilicia.
-
-
-
-'Twas the great Jove alone of gods that overpowered, with resistless
-
-force, the fifty-headed monster Typhon, of yore among the Arimi.
The monuments of the kings lie around the lake Coloë.
-
-At Sardes is the great mound of Alyattes upon a lofty base,
-
-the work, according to Herodotus,
Some historians say, that Coloë is an artificial lake, designed - -to receive the superabundant waters of the rivers when they - -are full and overflow. -
Hyptæpa
Callisthenes says that Sardes was taken first by Cimmerians, then by Treres and Lycians, which Callinus also,
-
-the elegiac poet, testifies, and that it was last captured in the
-
-time of Cyrus and Crœsus. When Callinus says that the
-
-incursion of the Cimmerians when they took Sardes was
-
-directed against the Esioneis, the Scepsian (Demetrius) supposes the Asioneis to be called by him Esioneis, according to.
-
-the Ionian dialect; for perhaps Meonia, he says, was called
-
-Asia, as Homer describes the country,
-
-
-
-
The distinguished natives of Sardes were two orators of - -the same name and family, the Diodori; the elder of whom was - -called Zonas, who had pleaded the cause of Asia in many suits. - -At the time of the invasion of Mithridates the king, he was - -accused of occasioning the revolt of the cities from him, but - -in his defence he cleared himself of the charge. -
The younger Diodorus was my friend; there exist of his
-
-
-
-
Xanthus, the ancient historian, is said to be a Lydian,
-
-but whether of Sardes I do not know.
-
-
After the Lydians are the Mysians, and a city Philadelphia, subject to constant earthquakes. The walls of the
-
-houses are incessantly opening, and sometimes one, sometimes
-
-another, part of the city is experiencing some damage. The
-
-majority of people (for few persons live in the city) pass their
-
-lives in the country, employing themselves in agriculture, and
-
-cultivate a good soil. Yet it is surprising that there should
-
-be even a few persons so much attached to a place where
-
-their dwellings are insecure; but one may marvel more at
-
-those who founded the city.
-
-
Next is the tract of country called the Catacecaumene, - -extending 500 stadia in length, and in breadth 400. It is - -uncertain whether it should be called Mysia or Meonia, for - -it has both names. The whole country is devoid of trees, excepting vines, from which is obtained the Catacecaumenite - -wine; it is not inferior in quality to any of the kinds in repute. The surface of the plains is covered with ashes, but the - -hilly and rocky part is black, as if it were the effect of combustion. This, as some persons imagine, was the effect of - -thunder-bolts and of fiery tempests, nor do they hesitate to - -make it the scene of the fable of Typhon. Xanthus even says - -that a certain Arimus was king of these parts. But it is - -unreasonable to suppose that so large a tract of country was - -all at once consumed; it is more natural to suppose that the - -effect was produced by fire generated in the soil, the sources - -of which are now exhausted. Here are to be seen three pits, - -which are called Physæ, or breathing holes, situated at the - -distance of 40 stadia from each other. Above are rugged - -hills, which probably consist of masses of matter thrown up - -by blasts of air (from the pits). -
That ground of this kind should be well adapted to vines,
-
-may be conceived from the nature of the country Catana,
Some persons, in allusion to such countries as these, wittily
-
-observe that Bacchus is properly called Pyrigenes, or fire-born.
-
-
-
-
The Tmolus is a well compacted mass of mountain,
So also the rivers, and particularly the Mæander, are the - -actual boundaries of some nations, but take their course - -through the middle of others, rendering accurate distinction - -between them difficult. -
The same may be said of plains, which are found on each
-
-side of a mountainous range and on each side of a river. Our
-
-attention however is not required to obtain the same degree of
-
-accuracy as a surveyor, but only to give such descriptions as
-
-have been transmitted to us by our predecessors.
-
-
Contiguous on the east to the plain of Caÿster, which
-
-lies between the Mesogis and Tmolus, is the plain Cilbianum.
-
-It is extensive, well inhabited, and fertile. Then follows the
-
-Hyrcanian plain, a name given by the Persians, who brought
-
-colonists from Hyrcania (the plain of Cyrus, in like manner
-
-had its name from the Persians). Next is the Peltine plain,
-
-belonging to the Phrygians, and the Cillanian and the Tabenian plains, the latter of which contains small towns, inhabited
-
-by a mixed population of Phrygians, with a portion of Pisidians. The plains have their names from the towns.
-
-
After crossing the Mesogis, situated between the Cari-
-
-
-
-between Carura and Nysa.
The Plutonium, situated below a small brow of the overhanging mountain, is an opening of sufficient size to admit a
-
-man, but there is a descent to a great depth. In front is a
-
-quadrilateral railing, about half a plethrum in circumference.
-
-This space is filled with a cloudy and dark vapour, so dense
-
-that the bottom can scarcely be discerned. To those who approach round the railing the air is innoxious, for in calm
-
-weather it is free from the cloud which then continues within
-
-the enclosure. But animals which enter within the railing
-
-die instantly. Even bulls, when brought within it, fall down
-
-and are taken out dead. We have ourselves thrown in sparrows, which immediately fell down lifeless. The Galli,
The conversion of water into stone is said to be the property of certain rivers in Laodiceia, although the water is fit
-
-for the purpose of drinking. The water at Hierapolis is peculiarly adapted for the dyeing of wool. Substances dyed with
-
-the roots,
After Hierapolis are the parts beyond the Mæander.
-
-Those about Laodiceia and Aphrodisias,
Antioch is a city of moderate size situated on the banks - -of the Mæander, at the side towards Phrygia. There is a - -bridge over the river. A large tract of country, all of which - -is fertile, on each side of the river, belongs to the city. It - -produces in the greatest abundance the fig of Antioch, as it is - -called, which is dried. It is also called Triphyllus. This - -place also is subject to shocks of earthquakes. -
A native of this city was Diotrephes, a celebrated sophist;
-
-his disciple was Hybreas, the greatest orator of our times.
-
-
The Cabaleis, it is said, were Solymi. The hill situated above the Termessian fortress is called Solymus, and the
-
-Termessians themselves Solymi. Near these places is the
-
-rampart of Bellerophon and the sepulchre of Peisander his son,
-
-who fell in the battle against the Solymi. This account agrees
-
-with the words of the poet. Of Bellerophon he speaks thus,
-
-
-
-
The Cibyratæ are said to be descendants of the Lydians
-
-who occupied the territory Cabalis. The city was afterwards in
-
-the possession of the Pisidians, a bordering nation, who occupied
-
-it, and transferred it to another place, very strongly fortified,
-
-the circuit of which was about 100 stadia. It flourished in consequence of the excellence of its laws. The villages belonging
-
-to it extended from Pisidia, and the bordering territory Milyas,
-
-as far as Lycia and the country opposite to Rhodes. Upon the
-
-
-
-
The Cibyratæ used four languages, the Pisidic, that of the - -Solymi, the Greek, and the Lydian, but of the latter no traces - -are now to be found in Lydia. -
At Cibyra there is practised the peculiar art of carving - -with ease ornamental work in iron. -
Milya is the mountain-range extending from the defiles - -near Termessus, and the passage through them to the parts - -within the Taurus towards Isinda, as far as Sagalassus and - -the country of Apameia. - - - - - - - -
SUMMARY.
-The Fourteenth Book contains an account of the Cyclades islands and the - -region opposite to them, Pamphylia, Isauria, Lycia, Pisidia, Cilicia as far - -as Seleucia of Syria, and that part of Asia properly called Ionia.
THERE remain to be described Ionia, Caria, and the
-
-sea-coast beyond the Taurus, which is occupied by Lycians,
-
-Pamphylians, and Cilicians.
The navigation around Ionia along the coast is about
-
-3430 stadia. It is a considerable distance, on account of the
-
-gulfs, and of the peninsular form for the most, part of the
-
-country, but the length in a straight line is not great. The
-
-distance, for example, from Ephesus to Smyrna is a journey
-
-in a straight line of 320 stadia; to Metropolis
According to Pherecydes, Miletus, Myus,
Pherecydes says that the leader of the Ionian, which was - -posterior to the Æolian migration, was Androclus, a legitimate son of Codrus king of the Athenians, and that he was - -the founder of Ephesus, hence it was that it became the seat - -of the royal palace of the Ionian princes. Even at present - -the descendants of that race are called kings, and receive certain honours, as the chief seat at the public games, a purple - -robe as a symbol of royal descent, a staff instead of a sceptre, - -and the superintendence of the sacrifices in honour of the - -Eleusinian Ceres. -
Neleus, of a Pylian family, founded Miletus. The Messenians and Pylians pretend that there is some affinity between - -them; in reference to which later poets say that even Nestor - -was a Messenian, and that many Pylians accompanied Melanthus, the father of Codrus, to Athens, and that all this - -people sent out the colony in common with the Ionians. There - -is also to be seen on the promontory Poseidium an altar erected by Neleus. -
Myus was founded by Cydrelus, a spurious son of Codrus;
-
-Lebedos
These are the twelve Ionian cities. At a subsequent
-
-period Smyrna also was added to the Ionian association at
-
-the instance of the Ephesians, for anciently they inhabited the
-
-same city, at which time Ephesus was called Smyrna. Callinus somewhere gives it this name, and calls the Ephesians
-
-Smyrnæans in the address to Jupiter:
-
-
-
-and in another passage,
-
-And pity the Smyrnæans;
-
-Smyrna was an Amazon, who got possession of Ephesus;
-
-from her the inhabitants and the city had their name, in the
-
-same manner as some Ephesians were called Sisyrbitæ from
-
-Sisyrba; and a certain spot in Ephesus was called Smyrna,
-
-as Hipponax testifies:
-
-remember now, if ever, the beautiful thighs of the oxen [which the
-
-Smyrnæans burnt in sacrifice].
-
-The mountain Prion was called Lepre Acta; it overhangs the
-
-present city, and has on it a portion of the wall. Even now
-
-the farms at the back of the Prion retain the name in the
-
-term Opistholepria. The country along the foot of the mountain about Coressus was called Tracheia. The city was anciently built about the Athenaeum, which is now beyond the
-
-city, at the (fountain) Hypelæus. Smyrna therefore was situated near the present gymnasium, at the back of the present
-
-city, but between Tracheia and Lepre Acta. The Smyrnæans, upon quitting the Ephesians, marched to the place where
-
-Smyrna now stood, and which was in the possession of Leleges. They expelled these people and founded the ancient
-
-Smyrna, which is distant from the present city about 20 stadia.
-
-They were themselves afterwards expelled by Æolians, and
-
-took refuge at Colophon; they then returned with a body of
-
-men from the latter place, and recovered their own city,
-
-Smyrna. Mimnermus relates this in his poem of Nanno, and
-
-says of Smyrna, that it was always a subject of contention;
-
-
-
-He lived in Smyrna, at the back of the city between Tracheia and Lepre Acta.
-after leaving Pylus, the lofty city of Neleus, we came in our voyage to
-
-the long wished-for Asia, and settled at Colophon, and hastening thence
-
-from the river Astëeis, by the will of the gods we took Æolian Smyrna.
So much then on this subject. -
We must, however, again describe each place in particular,
-
-beginning with the principal cities, from which the first settlements originated, I mean Miletus and Ephesus, for these
-
-are superior to all others, and the most celebrated.
-
-
Next after the Poseidium of the Milesians, at the distance of 18
The Milesians afterwards built a temple, which exceeded - -in size all others, but it remained without a roof on account - -of its magnitude. The circuit of the sacred enclosure contained within it a village with a magnificent grove, which also - -extended beyond it; other sacred enclosures contain the oracle, and what belongs to the worship of the god. -
Here is laid the scene of the fable of Branchus, and Apollo's - -love for him. The temple is adorned with the most costly - -offerings, the productions of ancient art. -
Thence to the city the journey is not long either by land
-
-or sea.
Ephorus relates that Miletus was first founded and fortified by the Cretans on the spot above the sea-coast where
-
-at present the ancient Miletus is situated, and that Sarpedon
-
-conducted thither settlers from the Miletus in Crete,
The present city has four harbours, one of which will admit a fleet of ships.
Anaximenes of Lampsacus says, that the Milesians colonized - -both the island Icarus and Lerus, and Limnæ on the Hellespont, in the Chersonesus; in Asia, Abydus, Arisba, and - -Pæsus; on the island of the Cyziceni, Artace and Cyzicus; - -in the interior of the Troad, Scepsis. We have mentioned, in - -our particular description of places, other cities which this - -writer has omitted. -
Both the Milesians and Delians invoke Apollo Ulius, as
-
-dispensing health and curing diseases; for health and good welcome;
for
-
-Apollo is a healer, and Artemis has her name from making
-
-persons
Illustrious persons, natives of Miletus, were Thales, one
-
-of the seven wise men, the first person who introduced among
-
-the Greeks physiology and mathematics; his disciple Anaximander, and Anaximenes the disciple of Anaximander.
-
-Besides these, Hecatæus the historian;and Cadmus
to be here omitted. Kramer considers this correction to be very
-
-doubtful; see b. i. c. ii. § 6.
Miletus shut her gates against Alexander, and experienced
-
-the misfortune of being taken by storm, which was also the fate
-
-of Halicarnassus; long before this time it was captured by the
-
-Persians. Callisthenes relates, that Phrynichus the tragic
-
-writer was fined a thousand drachmæ by the Athenians for
-
-composing a play entitled The taking of Miletus by Darius.
-
-
-
-
The island Lade lies close in front of Miletus, and small
-
-islands about Tragææ,
Next follows the Gulf of Latmus, on which is situated
-
-Heracleia under Latmus,
At a little distance further, after crossing a small river near
-
-Latmus, there is seen in a cave the sepulchre of Endymion.
-
-Then from Heracleia to Pyrrha, a small city, is about 100
-
-stadia by sea, but a little more from Miletus to Heracleia, if
-
-we include the winding of the bays.
-
-
From Miletus to Pyrrha, in a straight line by sea, is 30
-
-stadia; so much longer is the journey by sailing near the
-
-land.
-
-
When we are speaking of celebrated places, the reader - -must endure with patience the dryness of such geographical - -descriptions. -
From Pyrrha to the mouth of the Mæander are 50 stadia.
-
-The ground about it is marshy and a swamp. In sailing up
-
-the river in vessels rowed by oars to the distance of 30 stadia,
-
-we come to Myus,
At four stadia from Myus is Thymbria, a Carian village,
-
-near which is Aornum; this is a sacred cave called Charo-
-
-
-
-
After the mouths of the Mæander follows the shore of
-
-Priene. Above it is Priene,
-
-More just in pleadings than Bias of Priene.
In front of Trogilium lies an island of the same name.
-
-Thence, which is the nearest way, is a passage across to
-
-Sunium of
From Trogilium to Samos are 40 stadia. Both this
-
-and the harbour, which has a station for vessels, have a southern aspect. A great part of it is situated on a flat, and is
-
-overflowed by the sea, but a part also rises towards the mountain which overhangs it. On the right hand, in sailing towards the city, is the Poseidium, a promontory, which forms
-
-towards Mycale the strait of 7 stadia. It has upon it a
-
-temple of Neptune. In front is a small island, Narthecis;
-
-on the left, near the Heræum, is the suburb, and the river Imbrasus, and the Heræum, an ancient temple, and a large nave,
-
-which at present is a repository for paintings. Besides the
-
-great number of paintings in the Heræum, there are other
-
-repositories and some small chapels, filled with works of
-
-ancient art. The Hypæthrum also is full of the best statues.
-
-Of these, three of colossal size, the work of Myron, stand
-
-
-
-
The voyage round the island Sarnos is 600 stadia.
Samos is not very fortunate as regards the production of
-
-wine, but in general it is fertile, as appears from its possession
-
-being a subject of warlike contention, and from the language
-
-of its panegyrists, who do not hesitate to apply to it the proverb,
-
-
-
-as Menander somewhere says. This was the cause also of
-
-the tyrannies established there, and of the enmity of the
-
-Athenians.
-
-It produces even birds' milk,
The tyrannies were at their height in the time of Polycrates and his brother Syloson. The former was distinguished
-
-for his good fortune, and the possession of such a degree of
-
-power as made him master of the sea. It is related as an instance of his good fortune, that having purposely thrown into
-
-the sea his ring, which was of great value both on account of
-
-
-
-
It is said that in his time Pythagoras, observing the growing tyranny, left the city, and travelled to Egypt and Babylon, with a view to acquire knowledge. On his return from - -his travels, perceiving that the tyranny still prevailed, he set - -sail for Italy, and there passed the remainder of his life. -
So much respecting Polycrates.
-
-
Syloson was left by his brother in a private station.
-
-But he made a present to Darius, son of Hystaspes, of a robe
-
-which the latter saw him wearing, and very much desired to
-
-possess. Darius was not king at this time, but when he became king, Polycrates received as a compensation the tyranny
-
-of Samos. He governed with so much severity, that the city
-
-was depopulated, which gave occasion to the proverb,
-
-
-
-By the pleasure of Syloson there is room enough.
The Athenians formerly sent Pericles their general, and
-
-with him Sophocles the poet, who harassed with the evils of
-
-a siege the refractory Samians. AfterwardsThe taking of Œchalia.
Callimachus, on the contrary, intimates in an epigram that it was the composition of
-
-
-
-
-
-Some say that he was Homer's master; according to others,
-
-it was not Creophylus, but Aristeas of Proconnesus.
-
-I am the work of the Samian, who once entertained in his house,
-
-as a guest, the divine Homer. I grieve for the sufferings of Eurytus, and
-
-mourn for the yellow-haired Ioleia. I am called Homer's writing. O
-
-Jupiter, how glorious this for Creophylus.
The island of Icaria, from which the Icarian Sea has - -its name, is near Samos. The island has its name from Icarus, - -the son of Dædalus, who, it is said, having accompanied his - -father in his flight, when both of them, furnished with wings, - -set out from Crete, fell on that island, unable to sustain his - -flight. He had mounted too near the sun, and the wings dropped - -off on the melting of the wax [with which they were fastened]. -
The whole island is 300 stadia in circumference; it has no
-
-harbours, but only anchorages, the best of which is called
-
-Histi. A promontory stretches towards the west. There is
-
-also on the island a temple of Diana, called Tauropolium, and
-
-a small town Œnoë; and another, Dracanum,
Next to the Samian strait at Mycale, on the right
-
-hand on the voyage to Ephesus, is the sea-coast of the Ephesians, a part of which even the Samians possess. First on
-
-the sea-coast is the Panionium,
Then follows Neapolis, which formerly belonged to the
-
-Ephesians, but now belongs to the Samians, having exchanged Marathesium
Next is a harbour called Panormus, with a temple of the - -Ephesian Diana; then the city. -
On the same coast, at a little distance from the sea, is Ortygia, a fine wood with trees of all kinds, but the cypress in - -the greatest abundance. Through this wood flows the river - -Cenchrius, in which Latona is said to have bathed after the - -birth of her child. For here is laid the scene of the birth of - -the child, the cares of the nurse Ortygia, the cave in which - -the birth took place, the neighbouring olive tree under which - -the goddess first reposed when the pains of child-birth had - -ceased. -
Above the wood is the mountain Solmissus, where, it is - -said, the Curetes stationed themselves, and with the noise - -of their arms perplexed and terrified Juno, who was enviously watching in secret the delivery of Latona, who was - -thus assisted in concealing the birth of the child. -
There are many temples in the place, some of which are - -ancient, others of later times; in the former are ancient - -statues; in the latter are works of Scopas, Latona holding a - -sceptre, and Ortygia standing by her with a child in each arm. -
A convention and festival are celebrated there every year.
-
-It is the custom for young men to vie with each other, particularly in the splendour of their convivial entertainments.
-
-The body of Curetes celebrate their Symposia at the same
-
-time, and perform certain mystic sacrifices.
-
-
The city of Ephesus was inhabited both by Carians and
-
-Leleges. After Androclus had expelled the greatest part of
-
-the inhabitants, he settled his companions about the Athenæum,
-
-and the Hypelæum, and in the mountainous tract at the foot
-
-of the Coressus. It was thus inhabited till the time of Crœsus. Afterwards, the inhabitants descended from the mountainous district, and settled about the present temple, and
-
-continued there to the time of Alexander. Then Lysimachus
-
-built a wall round the present temple, and, perceiving the in-
-
-
-
-
He called the city Arsinoë, after the name of his wife, but
-
-the old name prevailed. A body of elders was enrolled, with
-
-whom were associated persons called Epicleti, who administered all the affairs of the city.
-
-
Chersiphron
Besides, Artemidorus says, that Alexander promised to defray the expense of its restoration, both what had been and
-
-what would be incurred, on condition that the work should be
-
-attributed to him in the inscription, but the Ephesians refused to accede to this ; much less, then, would they be disposed to acquire fame by sacrilege and spoliation. He praises
-
-also the reply of an Ephesian to the king, that it was not fit
-
-that a god should provide temples in honour of gods.
-
-
After the completion of the temple, which, he says, was
-
-the work of Cheirocrates (the same person who built Alexandria, and also promised Alexander that he would form
-
-
-
-a figure in wax of
-
-Penelope.
Kramer does not adopt the reading, on the ground that no
-
-figures in wax are mentioned by ancient authors.
The priests were eunuchs, who were called Megabyzi. It - -was the practice to send to various places for persons worthy - -of this office, and they were held in high honour. They were - -obliged to appoint virgins as their colleagues in their priesthood. At present some of their rites and customs are observed, - -and some are neglected. -
The temple was formerly, and is at present, a place of refuge, but the limits of the sanctity of this asylum have been
-
-frequently altered; Alexander extended them to the distance
-
-of a stadium. Mithridates discharged an arrow from the
-
-angle of the roof, and supposed that it fell a little beyond the
-
-distance of a stadium. Antonius doubled this distance, and
-
-included within the range of the sanctuary a certain portion
-
-of the city. This was attended with much evil, as it placed
-
-the city in the power of criminals and malefactors. On this
-
-account Augustus Cesar abolished the privilege.
-
-
The city has an arsenal and a harbour. The entrance
-
-of the harbour was made narrow, by order of the king Attalus
-
-Philadelphus, who, together with the persons that constructed
-
-it, was disappointed at the result. The harbour was formerly
-
-shallow, on account of the embankment of earth accumulated
-
-by the Caÿster; but the king, supposing that there would be
-
-
-
-
Such then is the nature of the harbour. -
The city, by the advantages which it affords, daily improves, and is the largest mart in Asia within the Taurus.
-
-
Among illustrious persons in ancient times natives of
-
-Ephesus were Heracleitus, surnamed Scoteinus, or the Obscure, and Hermodorus, of whom Heracleitus himself says:
-
-
-
-Hermodorus seems to have compiled laws for the Romans.
-
-Hipponax the poet was an Ephesian, and the painters Parrhasius and Apelles.
-The Ephesians, youths and all, deserve hanging, for expelling Hermodorus, an honest citizen,
In more recent times was Alexander the orator, surnamed
-
-Lychnus, or the Lamp;
Next to the mouth of the Caÿster is a lake called
-
-Selinusia, formed by the overflowing of the sea. It is succeeded by another, which communicates with this. They afford
-
-a large revenue, of which the kings, although it was sacred,
-
-deprived the goddess, but the Romans restored it; then the
-
-
-
-
In the most retired part of the lake is a temple of a king,
-
-built, it is said, by Agamemnon.
-
-
Next follows the mountain Gallesius, and Colophon,
-
-an Ionian city, in front of which is the grove of Apollo Clarius,
-
-where was once an ancient oracle.
Hesiod relates the fable somewhat in this manner: Calchas
-
-propounds to Mopsus something of this kind:
-
-
-
-Mopsus answered:
-
-I am surprised to see how large a quantity of figs there is on this
-
-small tree; can you tell the number?
-
-Thus he spoke; the number and measure were exact. Then
-
-Calchas closed his eyes in the sleep of death.
-There are ten thousand; they will measure a medimnus, and there is
-
-one over, which you cannot comprehend.
But Pherecydes says, that Calchas proposed a question respecting a pregnant sow, and asked how many young she
-
-had; the other answered, three, one of which is a sow.
-
-Upon his giving the true answer, Calchas died of vexation.
-
-According to others, Calchas propounded the question of the
-
-sow, and Mopsus that of the fig-tree; that Mopsus returned
-
-the true answer, and that Calchas was mistaken, who died of
-
-vexation, according to some oracular prophecy.
-
Sophocles, in his Helen Claimed,
says that he was destined by fate to die when he should meet with a prophet
-
-superior to himself. But this writer transfers the scene of
-
-the rivalry, and of the death of Calchas, to Cilicia.
-
These are ancient traditions.
-
-
-
-
The Colophonians once possessed a considerable armament, consisting both of ships and of cavalry. In the latter
-
-they were so much superior to other nations, that in any obstinate engagement, on whichever side the Colophonian horse were
-
-auxiliaries, they decided it; whence came the proverb, he
-
-put the Colophon to it,
when a person brought any affair to a
-
-decisive issue.
Among some of the remarkable persons born at Colophon
-
-were Mimnermus, a flute-player and an elegiac poet; Xenophanes, the natural philosopher, who composed Silli in verse.
-
-Pindar mentions one Polymnastus also, a Colophonian, as distinguished for his skill in music:
-
-
-
-and some writers affirm that Homer was of that city. The
-
-voyage from Ephesus in a straight line is 70 stadia, and including the winding of the bays, 120.
-
-Thou knowest the celebrated strains of Polymnastus, the Colophonian:
Next to Colophon is the mountain Coracium, and a - -small island sacred to Artemis, to which it is believed that - -the hinds swim across to bring forth their young. -
Then follows Lebedos,
Teos is distant from Lebedos 120 stadia. Between these
-
-two places is the island Aspis,
Teos is situated upon a peninsula, and has a port.
-
-Anacreon, the lyric poet, was a native of this place; in his
-
-time, the Teians, unable to endure the insults and injuries
-
-of the Persians, abandoned Teos, and removed to Abdera,
-
-whence originated the verse—
-
-
-
-Some of them returned in after-times to their own country.
-
-We have said that Apellicon was of Teos, and Hecatæus also,
-
-the historian.
-Abdera, the beautiful colony of the Teians.
There is another port to the north, at the distance of 30
-
-stadia from the city, Gerrhæïdæ.
Next follows Chalcideis, and the isthmus of the peninsula
The passage across the isthmus from the Alexandrine grove
-
-and Chalcideis, as far as the Hypocremnus, is 50 stadia (150?).
-
-The circuit round by sea is more than 1000 stadia. Somewhere about the middle of the voyage is Erythræ,
But before we come to Erythræ, the first place we meet
-
-with is Eræ,
Next is Corycus, a lofty mountain; and below it, Casystes,
-
-a port;
-
-when any one thinks that he has done or said anything not
-
-to be divulged, but is betrayed by spies or persons anxious to
-
-be informed of what does not concern them.
-
-The Corycæan must have overheard it,
Next to Corycus is Halonnesus, a small island, then the
-
-Argennum,
Erythræ was the native place of the Sibyl, an ancient
-
-inspired prophetess. In the time of Alexander there was another Sibyl, who was also a prophetess, whose name was
-
-Athenais, a native of the same city; and in our age there was
-
-Heracleides the Herophilian physician, a native of Erythræ, a
-
-fellow-student of Apollonius surnamed Mus.
-
-
The coasting circumnavigation of Chios is 900 stadia.
-
-It has a cityof the same name
is omitted after
-
-city.
Among illustrious natives of Chios were Ion
-
-The Chians once possessed a naval force, and aspired to the
-
-sovereignty of the sea, and to liberty.Whence also the Homeridæ, the chanters of the rhapsodies, most frequently begin their song.
From Chios to Lesbos is a voyage of about 400 stadia, with
-
-a south wind.
-
-
-
-
After the Hypocremnus is Chytrium, a place where
-
-Clazomenæ
Anaxagoras, the natural philosopher, was a distinguished - -Clazomenian; he was a disciple of Anaximenes the Milesian, - -and master of Archelaus the natural philosopher, and of Euripides the poet. -
Next is a temple of Apollo, and hot springs, the bay of
-
-Smyrna, and the city Smyrna.
-
-
Next is another bay, on which is situated the ancient - -Smyrna, at the distance of 20 stadia from the present city. - -After Smyrna had been razed by the Lydians, the inhabitants - -continued for about four hundred years to live in villages. It - -was then restored by Antigonus, and afterwards by Lysimachus, - -and at present it is the most beautiful city in Ionia. -
One portion of Smyrna is built up on a hill, but the greater - -part is in the plain near the harbour, the Metroum, and the - -Gymnasium. The division of the streets is excellent, and as - -nearly as possible in straight lines. There are paved roads, - -large quadrangular porticos, both on a level with the ground - -and with an upper story. -
There is also a library, and the Homereium, a quadrangular
-
-portico, which has a temple of Homer and a statue. For the
-
-Smyrnæans, above all others, urge the claims of their city to be
-
-the birth-place of Homer, and they have a sort of brass money,
-
-called Homereium.
The river Meles flows near the walls. Besides other conveniences with which the city is furnished, there is a close - -harbour. -
There is one, and not a trifling, defect in the work of the - -architects, that when they paved the roads, they did not make - -drains beneath them; the filth consequently lies on the surface, and, during rains particularly, the receptacles of the filth - -spread it over the streets. -
It was here that Dolabella besieged and slew Trebonius, one
-
-of the murderers of divus Cæsar; he also destroyed many parts
-
-of the city.
-
-
Next to Smyrna is Leucæ,
After Leucæ follows Phocæa,
In the interior of the Ionian maritime territory there remain to be described the places about the road leading from
-
-Ephesus, as far as Antioch
This tract is occupied by a mixed population of Lydians,
-
-Carians, and Greeks.
-
-
The first place after Ephesus is Magnesia, an Æolian
-
-city, and called Magnesia on the Mæander, for it is situated
-
-near it; but it is still nearer the Lethæus, which discharges
-
-itself into the Mæander. It has its source in Pactyes, a mountain in the Ephesian district. There is another Lethæus in
-
-
-
-
Magnesia lies in a plain, near a mountain called Thorax,
-O slaves, with backs purpled with stripes, filings of the gold of Lysimachus, you are the kings of Lydia and Phrygia.
An oracle is said to have warned Daphitas to beware of the
-
-Thorax.Shall I find my horse?
when he had none. The
-
-oracle answered that he would find it. He was afterwards, by the command of Attalus, king of Pergamum, taken and thrown from a precipice
-
-called the Horse.
The Magnesians appear to be the descendants of Delphians who inhabited the Didymæan mountains in Thessaly,
-
-and of whom Hesiod says,
-
-
-or, as the chaste virgin, who inhabits the sacred Didymæan hills in the
-
-plain of Dotium, opposite Amyrus, abounding with vines, and bathes her
-
-feet in the lake Bœbias—
At Magnesia also was the temple of Dindymene, the mother of the gods. Her priestess, according to some writers, - -was the daughter, according to others, the wife, of Themistocles. At present there is no temple, because the city has been - -transferred to another place. In the present city is the temple of Artemis Leucophryene, which in the size of the nave - -and in the number of sacred offerings is inferior to the temple - -at Ephesus; but, in the fine proportion and the skill exhibited - -in the structure of the enclosure, it greatly surpasses the - -Ephesian temple; in size it is superior to all the temples in - -Asia, except that at Ephesus and that at Didymi. -
Anciently the Magnetes were utterly extirpated by Treres,
-
-a Cimmerian tribe, who for a long period made successful inroads. Subsequently Ephesians got possession of the place.
-
-whence we may conjecture that Archilochus was posterior to
-
-Callinus. Yet Callinus mentions some other earlier inroad of
-
-the Cimmerians, when he says—
-
-bewail the misfortunes of the Thasians, not of the Magnetes;
-
-where he is speaking of the capture of Sardis.
-
-and now the army of the daring Cimmerians is advancing,
Among the illustrious natives of Magnesia were Hegesias the orator, who first introduced the Asiatic fervour, as it
-
-was called, and corrupted the established Attic style of eloquence; Simon (Simus?) the lyric poet, who also corrupted
-
-the system and plan of former lyric poets, by introducing the
-
-Simodia; it was still more corrupted by the Lysiodi and Magodi;
The theatres had raised the reputation of Anaxenor, the
-
-player on the cithara, but Antony elevated him as high as
-
-possible, by appointing him receiver of the tribute from four
-
-cities, and by giving him a guard of soldiers for the protection
-
-of his person. His native country also augmented his dignity,
-
-by investing him with the sacred purple of Jupiter Sosipolis,
-
-as is represented in the painted figure in the forum. There
-
-is also in the theatre a figure in brass, with this inscription:
-
-
-
-
-
-The artist who engraved the words was inattentive to the
-
-space which they would occupy, and omitted the last letter of
-
-the second verse, It is truly delightful to listen to a minstrel such as he is, whose voice is
-
-like that of the gods.
After Magnesia is the road to Tralles;
The character of the sites of places is the same even as far
-
-as Nysa
The city of Tralles is built upon ground in the shape somewhat of a trapezium. It has a citadel strongly fortified, and
-
-the places around are well defended. It is as well peopled as
-
-any of the cities in Asia, and its inhabitants are wealthy;
-
-some of them constantly occupy chief stations in the province,
-
-and are called Asiarchs. Among the latter was Pythodorus,
-
-originally a native of Nysa; but, induced by the celebrity of
-
-the place, he migrated hither. He was one of the few friends
-
-of Pompey who were fortunate. His wealth was kingly,
-
-and consisted of more than two thousand talents, which he
-
-redeemed when it was confiscated by divus Cæsar, on account
-
-of his attachment to Pompey, and left it undiminished to
-
-his children. Pythodoris, who is at present queen in Pontus,
-
-and whom we have mentioned before. is his daughter. Pythodorus flourished in our times, and also Menodorus, an eloquent man, and a person of dignified and grave demeanour;
-
-he was priest of Jupiter Larisæus. He was circumvented by
-
-the adherents of Domitius Ænobarbus, who, on the credit of
-
-
-
-
Tralles produced also celebrated orators, Dionysocles, and - -after him Damasus, surnamed Scombrus. -
It is said to have been founded by Argives and a body of
-
-Tralli Thracians,
Nysa is situated near the Mesogis, resting for the most - -part against the mountain. It is as it were a double town, - -for a kind of torrent watercourse divides it into two parts, - -and forms a valley, one part of which has a bridge over it, - -connecting the two towns; the other is adorned with an - -amphitheatre; underneath it is a passage through which the - -waters of the torrents flow out of sight. -
Near the theatre are situated
On the road between Tralles and Nysa is a village of - -the Nysæans, not far from the city Acharaca, in which is the - -Plutonium, to which is attached a large grove, a temple of - -Pluto and Proserpine, and the Charonium, a cave which - -overhangs the grove, and possesses some singular physical - -properties. The sick, it is said, who have confidence in the - -cures performed by these deities, resort thither, and live in - -the village near the cave, among experienced priests, who - -sleep at night in the open air, on behoof of the sick, and direct - -the modes of cure by their dreams. The priests invoke the - -gods to cure the sick, and frequently take them into the - -cave, where, as in a den, they are placed to remain in - -quiet without food for several days. Sometimes the sick - -themselves observe their own dreams, but apply to these persons, in their character of priests and guardians of the mysteries, to interpret them, and to counsel what is to be done. - -To others the place is interdicted and fatal. -
An annual festival, to which there is a general resort, is
-
-celebrated at Acharaca, and at that time particularly are to be
-
-
-
-
Thirty stadia from Nysa, as you cross the Mesogis to-words the southern parts of Mount Tmolus,
-
-and they show a temple dedicated to two heroes, Caÿstrius
-
-and Asius, and the Caÿster flowing near it.
-
-On the Asian mead,
Historians relate that three brothers, Athymbrus,
-
-Athymbradus, and Hydrelus, coming hither from Lacedæmon, founded (three?) cities, to which they gave their
-
-own names; that the population of these towns afterwards
-
-declined, but that out of these jointly Nysa was peopled. The
-
-Nysæans at present regard Athymbrus as their founder.
-
-
Beyond the Mæander and in the neighbourhood are
-
-considerable settlements, Coscinia
Among illustrious natives of Nysa were Apollonius the
-
-Stoic philosopher, the most eminent of the disciples of Panætius, and of Menecrates, the disciple of Aristarchus; Aristodemus, the son of Menecrates, whom, when I was a very
-
-young man, I heard lecturing on philosophy, in extreme old
-
-
-
-
THE places beyond the Mæander, which remain to be - -described, belong to the Carians. The Carians here are not - -intermixed with Lydians, but occupy the whole country by - -themselves, if we except a small portion of the sea-coast, of - -which the Milesians and Mysians have taken possession. -
Caria
The whole voyage along the coast, including the winding
-
-
-
-
The beginning of this tract is Dædala,
The city Caunus has a naval arsenal and a close harbour. Above the city upon a height is Imbrus, a stronghold. - -Although the country is fertile, yet the city is allowed by all - -to be unhealthy in summer, on account of the heat, and in - -autumn, from the abundance of fruits. -
Stories of the following kind are related respecting the city.
-
-Stratonicus, the player on the cithara, seeing the Caunians
-
-somewhat dark and yellow,
-
-When he was accused of ridiculing the unhealthiness of the
-
-city, he answered, As are the leaves, so is the race of men.
Can I be so bold as to call that city unhealthy, where even the dead walk about?
-
The Caunians once revolted from the Rhodians, but, by a - -decision of the Romans, they were received again by the - -Rhodians into favour. There is in existence an oration of - -Molo against the Caunians. -
It is said that they speak the same language as the Carians,
-
-that they came from Crete, and retained their own laws and
-
-customs.
Next is Physcus,
The city of the Rhodians is on the eastern promontory. - -With regard to harbours, roads, walls, and other buildings, it - -so much surpasses other cities, that we know of none equal, - -much less superior to it. -
Their political constitution and laws were excellent, and
-
-the care admirable with which they administered affairs of
-
-state generally, and particularly those relative to their marine.
-
-Hence being for a long period masters of the sea, they put
-
-an end to piracy, and became allies of the Romans, and of
-
-those kings who were well affected to the Romans and the
-
-Greeks; hence also the city was suffered to preserve her independence, and was embellished with many votive offerings.
-
-These are distributed in various places, but the greatest part
-
-of them are deposited in the Dionysium and in the gymnasium. The most remarkable is the Colossus of the Sun, which,
-
-the author of the iambics says, was
-
-
-
-It now lies on the ground, having been thrown down by an
-
-earthquake, and is broken off at the knees. An oracle prohibited its being raised again. This is the most remarkable of the
-
-votive offerings, and it is allowed to be one of the seven
-
-wonders of the world.seventy cubits in height, the work of Chares of Lindus.
The Rhodians, although their form of government is not
-
-democratic, are attentive to the welfare of the people, and endeavour to maintain the multitude of poor. The people receive allowances of corn, and the rich support the needy, according to an ancient usage. There are also public offices in
-
-the state, the object of which is to procure and distribute
-
-provisions,
Some of the dockyards are kept private, and the multitude
-
-are prohibited from seeing them. If any person should be
-
-found inspecting, or to have entered them, he would be punished with death. As at Massalia and Cyzicus,
Like the people of Halicarnasus,
But these migrations are more recent than the events re-
-
-
-
-
-
-and adds afterwards—
-
-slew the maternal uncle of his father, the aged Licymnius. He immediately built ships, and, collecting a large body of people, fled away with
-
-them:
-
-and mentions by name the cities then existingafter many sufferings on the voyage, he came to Rhodes; they settled
-
-there according to their tribes, in three bodies:
-
-the city of the Rhodians not being yet founded.
-Lindus, Ialysus, and the white Cameirus,
Homer does not here mention Dorians by name, but means - -Æolians and Bœotians, since Hercules and Licymnius lived in - -Bœotia. If however, as others relate, Tlepolemus set out from - -Argos and Tiryns, even so the colony would not be Dorian, - -for it was settled before the return of the Heracleidæ. -
And of the Coans also Homer says—
-
-
-
-and these names designate rather an Æolian than a Dorian
-
-origin.
-
-their leaders were Pheidippus and Antiphus, two sons of Thessalus the
-
-King, an Heracleid;
Rhodes was formerly called Ophiussa and Stadia, then
-
-Telchinis, from the Telchines, who inhabited the island.
These Telchines are called by some writers charmers and - -enchanters, who besprinkle animals and plants, with a view to - -destroy them, with the water of the Styx, mingled with sulphur. Others on the contrary say, that they were persons - -who excelled in certain mechanical arts, and that they were - -calumniated by jealous rivals, and thus acquired a bad reputation; that they came from Crete, and first landed at Cyprus, - -and then removed to Rhodes. They were the first workers - -in iron and brass, and were the makers of Saturn's scythe. -
I have spoken of them before, but the variety of fables
-
-
-
-
After the Telchines, the Heliadæ
-
-Others say, that Tlepolemus founded them, and gave to them
-
-the names of some of the daughters of Danaüs.
-
-Lindus, Ialysus, and the white Cameirus.
The present city was built during the Peloponnesian
-
-war, by the same architect,
It is related of the Rhodians that their maritime affairs
-
-were in a flourishing state, not only from the time of the foundation of the present city, but that many years before the institution of the Olympic festival, they sailed to a great distance from
-
-their own country for the protection of sailors. They sailed
-
-as far as Spain, and there founded Rhodus, which the people
-
-of Marseilles afterwards occupied; they founded Parthenope
Some of the Rhodians settled in the neighbourhood of
-
-
-
-
-
-Other writers have applied these verses to a fable, according
-
-to which, at the birth of Minerva, it rained gold on the island
-
-from the head of Jupiter, as Pindar has said.they settled according to their tribes, in three companies, and were the
-
-favourites of Jupiter, who showered upon them great wealth.
The island is 920 stadia in circumference.
-
-
In sailing from the city, and leaving the island on the
-
-right hand, the first place we meet with is Lindus,
Cleobulus, one of the seven wise men, was a native of
-
-Lindus.
-
-
Next to Lindus is Ixia,
There have been many remarkable persons, natives of
-
-Rhodes, both generals and athlete, among whom were the
-
-ancestors of Panætius the philosopher. Among statesmen,
-
-orators, and philosophers, were Panætius, Stratocles, Andronicus the Peripatetic, Leonides the Stoic, and long before the
-
-time of these persons, Praxiphanes, Hieronymus, and Eudemus. Poseidonius was concerned in the administration of the
-
-affairs of state, and taught philosophy at Rhodes, (but he was
-
-a native of Apameia in Syria,) as did Apollonius Malacus, and
-
-
-
-late comer,
This is sufficient on the subject of the island of Rhodes.
-
-
There is a bend of the Carian coast opposite to Rhodes,
-
-immediately after Eleus
Then follows Cnidus,
Illustrious natives of Cnidus were, first, Eudoxus the mathematician, a disciple of Plato's; Agatharchides, the Peripatetic - -philosopher and historian; Theopompus, one of the most powerful of the friends of divus Cæsar, and his son Artemidorus. - -Ctesias also, the physician of Artaxerxes, was a native of this - -place. He wrote a history of Assyria and Persia. -
Next after Cnidus are Ceramus
Then follows Halicarnasus, formerly called Zephyra,
-
-the royal seat of the dynasts of Caria. Here is the sepulchre
-
-of Mausolus, one of the seven wonders of the world;a work,
suggests that there is some omission in the text. Coraÿ supposes that the name of the architect or architects is
-
-wanting. Groskurd would supply the words the work of Scopas and other artificers.
See Pliny, N. H. xxxvi., and
-
-Vitruvius Præf. b. vii.
There is an acropolis at Halicarnasus. In front of it lies
-
-Arconnesus.
Among the natives of Halicarnasus were Herodotus the
-
-historian, who was afterwards called Thurius, because he was
-
-concerned in sending out the colony to Thurii; Heracleitus
-
-the poet, the friend of Callimachus; and in our time, Dionysius
-
-the historian.
-
-
Halicarnasus suffered, when it was taken by storm by
-
-Alexander. Hecatomnus, who was then king of the Carians,
-
-had three sons, Mausolus, Hidrieus, and Pixodarus, and two
-
-daughters. Mausolus, the eldest son, married Artemisia, the
-
-eldest daughter; Hidrieus, the second son, married Ada,
-
-the other sister. Mausolus came to the throne, and, dying
-
-without children, left the kingdom to his wife, by whom the
-
-above-mentioned sepulchre was erected. She pined away for
-
-grief at the loss of her husband. Hidrieus succeeded her; lie
-
-died a natural death, and was succeeded by his wife Ada.
-
-She was ejected by Pixodarus, the surviving son of Hecatomnus. Having espoused the party of the Persians, Pixodarus
-
-sent for a satrap to share the kingdom with him. After the
-
-death of Pixodarus, the satrap became master of Halicarnasus.
-
-But upon the arrival of Alexander, he sustained a siege. His
-
-wife was Ada, daughter of Pixodarus, and Aphneïs, a woman
-
-of Cappadocia. But Ada, the daughter of Hecatomnus, whom
-
-Pixodarus ejected, entreated Alexander, and endeavoured to
-
-prevail upon him to reïnstate her in the kingdom of which
-
-she had been deprived; she promised (in return) her assistance in reducing to obedience the parts of the country which
-
-had revolted; for the persons who were in possession of them
-
-
-
-
Next is Termerium,
The city of the Coans was formerly called Astypalæa,
-
-and was built in another place, but is at present on the sea-coast. Afterwards, on account of a sedition, they migrated
-
-to the present city, near Scandarium, and changed the name to
-
-that of the island, Cos. The city is not large, but beautifully
-
-built, and a most pleasing sight to mariners who are sailing
-
-by the coast. The island is about 550 stadia in circumference.
-
-The whole of it is fertile, and produces, like Chios and Lesbos,
-
-excellent wine. It has, towards the south, the promontory
-
-Laceter,
It is said, that Hippocrates learned and practised the dietetic
-
-part of medicine from the narrative of cures suspended in the
-
-temple. He is one of the illustrious natives of Cos. Simus,
-
-also, the physician, Philetas the poet and critic, Nicias of our
-
-time, who was tyrant of Cos; Ariston, the disciple and heir of
-
-Ariston the Peripatetic philosopher; and Theomnestus, a minstrel of name, who was of the opposite political party to Nicias.
-
-
-
-
On the coast of the continent opposite to the Myndian
-
-territory is Astypalæa a promontory, and Zephyrium. The city
-
-Myndus follows immediately after, which has a harbour; then
-
-the city Bargylia. In the intervening distance is Caryanda
Among the distinguished natives of Bargylia was Protarchus
-
-the Epicurean; Demetrius surnamed Lacon was his disciple.
-
-
Next follows Iasus, situated upon an island,
As a player on the cithara was displaying his art in public,
-
-every one listened to him attentively till the market bell rung
-
-for the sale of fish, when he was deserted by all except one
-
-man, who was quite deaf. The minstrel coming up to him
-
-said, Friend, I am much obliged to you for the honour you
-
-have done me, and I admire your love of music, for all the
-
-others have left me at the sound of the bell.
—What say you,
-
-has the bell rung?
—Yes, he replied?
—Good bye to
-
-you,
said the man, and away he also went.
-
Diodorus the Dialectician was a native of this place. He
-
-was surnamed Cronus (or Old Time); the title was not properly his from the first; it was his master Apollonius who (in
-
-the first instance) had received the surname of Cronus, but it
-
-was transferred to Diodorus on account of the want of celebrity
-
-in the true Cronus.
-
-
Next to Iasus is Cape Poseidium
Mylasa is situated in a very fertile plain; a mountain,
-
-containing a very beautiful marble quarry, overhangs the
-
-city; and it is no small advantage to have stone for building
-
-
-
-If the
-
-founder of the city had no fear, he had no shame.
-
The Mylasians have two temples, one of Jupiter called - -Osogo, and another of Jupiter Labrandenus. The former is - -in the city. Labranda is a village on the mountain, near the - -passage across it from Alabanda to Mylasa, at a distance from - -the city. At Labranda is an ancient temple of Jupiter, and - -a statue of Jupiter Stratius, who is worshipped by the neighbouring people and by the inhabitants of Mylasa. There is - -a paved road for a distance of about 60 stadia from the temple - -to the city; it is called the Sacred Way, along which the sacred - -things are carried in procession. The most distinguished - -citizens are always the priests, and hold office during life. - -These temples belong peculiarly to the city. There is a third - -temple of the Carian Jupiter, common to all the Carians, in - -the use of which the Lydians, also, and Mysians participate, - -as being brethren. -
Mylasa is said to have been anciently a village, but the
-
-native place and royal residence of Hecatomnus and the Carians.
-
-The city approaches nearest to the sea at Physcus, which is
-
-their naval arsenal.
-
-
Mylasa has produced in our time illustrious men, who
-
-were at once orators and demagogues, Euthydemus and
-
-Hybreas. Euthydemus inherited from his ancestors great
-
-wealth and reputation. He possessed commanding eloquence,
-
-and was regarded as a person of eminence, not only in his
-
-own country, but was thought worthy of the highest honours
-
-even in Asia. The father of Hybreas, as he used to relate
-
-the circumstance in his school, and as it was confirmed by his
-
-fellow-citizens, left him a mule which carried wood, and a
-
-mule driver. He was maintained for a short time by their
-
-labour, and was enabled to attend the lectures of Diotrephes
-
-of Antioch. On his return he held the office of superintendent
-
-of the market. But here being harassed, and gaining but
-
-
-
-
The saying of Hybreas, at the conclusion of an harangue to
-
-the people, is applauded: Euthydemus, you are an evil necessary to the city; for we can live neither with thee nor without
-
-thee.
Hybreas, although he had acquired great power, and had
-
-the reputation of being both a good citizen and an excellent
-
-orator, was defeated in his political opposition to Labienus.
-
-For the citizens, unarmed, and disposed to peace, surrendered
-
-to Labienus, who attacked them with a body of troops and with
-
-Parthian auxiliaries, the Parthians being at that time masters
-
-of Asia. But Zeno of Laodiceia and Hybreas, both of them
-
-orators, did not surrender, but caused their own cities to revolt. Hybreas provoked Labienus, an irritable and vain young
-
-man, by saying, when the youth announced himself emperor
-
-of the Parthians, Then I shall call myself emperor of the
-
-Carians.
Upon this Labienus marched against the city,
-
-having with him cohorts drafted from the Roman soldiery
-
-stationed in Asia. He did not however take Hybreas prisoner,
-
-who had retreated to Rhodes, but plundered and destroyed
-
-his house, which contained costly furniture, and treated the
-
-whole city in the same manner. After Labienus had left
-
-Asia, Hybreas returned, and restored his own affairs and those
-
-of the city to their former state.
-
This then on the subject of Mylasa.
-
-
Stratoniceia is a colony of Macedonians. It was embellished by the kings with costly edifices. In the district of
-
-the Stratoniceians are two temples. The most celebrated, that
-
-of Hecate, is at Lagina, where every year great multitudes
-
-assemble at a great festival. Near the city is the temple of
-
-Jupiter Chrysaoreus,
In the time of our ancestors there flourished at Stratoniceia
-
-a distinguished person, Menippus the orator, surnamed Catocas, whom Cicero
There is another Stratoniceia, called Stratoniceia at the
-
-Taurus, a small town adjacent to the mountain.
-
-
Alabanda lies at the foot of two eminences, in such a - -manner as to present the appearance of an ass with panniers. - -On this account Apollonius Malacus ridicules the city, and - -also because it abounds with scorpions; he says, it was an - -ass, with panniers full of scorpions. -
This city and Mylasa, and the whole mountainous tract between them, swarm with these reptiles. -
The inhabitants of Alabanda are addicted to luxury and - -debauchery. It contains a great number of singing girls. -
Natives of Alabanda, distinguished persons, were two orators, brothers, Menecles, whom we mentioned a little above,
-
-and Hierocles, Apollonius, and Molo; the two latter afterwards went to Rhodes.
-
-
Among the various accounts which are circulated respecting the Carians, the most generally received is that the - -Carians, then called Leleges, were governed by Minos, and - -occupied the islands. Then removing to the continent, they - -obtained possession of a large tract of sea-coast and of the - -interior, by driving out the former occupiers, who were, for - -the most part, Leleges and Pelasgi. The Greeks again, - -Ionians and Dorians, deprived the Carians of a portion of the - -country. -
As proofs of their eager pursuit of war, the handles of
-
-shields, badges, and crests, all of which are called Carian, are
-
-alleged. Anacreon says,
-
-
-
-and Alcæus—
-
-Come, grasp the well-made Caric handles;
-
-
-
-Shaking a Carian crest.
But when Homer uses these expressions, Masthles
-
-commanded the Carians, who speak a barbarous language,
-
-and in another place—
-
-A man whose fame has spread through Greece and Argos;
-
-But if there was no such term as Barbarian, how could he
-
-properly speak of people as Barbarophonoi (i. e. speaking a
-
-barbarous language)?
-But if you wish to go through Hellas and the middle of Argos.
Neither is Thucydides nor Apollonius the grammarian
-
-right, because the Greeks, and particularly the Ionians, applied to the Carians a common term in a peculiar and vituperative sense, in consequence of their hatred of them for their
-
-animosity and continual hostile incursions. Under these circumstances he might call them Barbarians. But we ask, why
-
-does he call them Barbarophonoi, but not once Barbarians?
-
-Because, replies Apollonius, the plural number does not fall in
-
-with the metre; this is the reason why Homer does not call
-
-them Barbarians. Admitting then that the genitive case
-
-(
-
-and of the same kind is the word TroïiTrojans, Lycians, and Dardani;
-Like the Troïi horses
(
Nor is the reason to be found in the alleged excessive harshness of the Carian language, for it is not extremely harsh;
-
-and besides, according to Philippus, the author of a history of
-
-Caria, their language contains a very large mixture of Greek
-
-words.
-
-
-
-barbarian
was at first invented to
-
-designate a mode of pronunciation which was embarrassed,
-
-harsh, and rough; as we use the words battarizein, traulizein, psellizein,
As those who pronounce their words with a thick enunciation are called Barbarians, so foreigners, I mean those who - -were not Greeks, were observed to pronounce their words in - -this manner. The term Barbarians was therefore applied - -peculiarly to these people, at first by way of reproach, as - -having a thick and harsh enunciation; afterwards the term - -was used improperly, and applied as a common gentile term - -in contradistinction to the Greeks. For after a long intimacy - -and intercourse had subsisted with the Barbarians, it no - -longer appeared that this peculiarity arose from any thickness of enunciation, or a natural defect in the organs of the - -voice, but from the peculiarities of their languages. -
But there was in our language a bad and what might be - -called a barbarous utterance, as when any person speaking - -Greek should not pronounce it correctly, but should pronounce - -the words like the Barbarians, who, when beginning to learn - -the Greek language, are not able to pronounce it perfectly, - -as neither are we able to pronounce perfectly their languages. -
This was peculiarly the case with the Carians. For other
-
-nations had not much intercourse with the Greeks, nor were
-
-disposed to adopt the Grecian manner of life, nor to learn our
-
-language, with the exception of persons who by accident
-
-and singly had associated with a few Greeks; but the Carians
-
-were dispersed over the whole of Greece, as mercenary soldiers. Then the barbarous pronunciation was frequently met
-
-with among them, from their military expeditions into Greece;
-
-and afterwards it spread much more, from the time that they
-
-occupied the islands together with the Greeks: not even when
-
-
-
-
Hence arose the expression, to barbarize,
for we are accustomed to apply this term to those whose pronunciation of
-
-the Greek language is vicious, and not to those who pronounce it like the Carians.
-
We are then to understand the expressions, barbarous
-
-speaking
and barbarous speakers,
of persons whose pronunciation of the Greek language is faulty. The word to
-
-barbarize
was formed after the word to Carize,
and transferred into the books which teach the Greek language; thus
-
-also the word to solœcize
was formed, derived either from
-
-Soli or some other source.
-
-
Artemidorus says that the journey from Physcus, on
-
-the coast opposite to Rhodes, towards Ephesus, as far as Lagina is 850 stadia; thence to Alabanda 250 stadia; to Tralles
-
-160. About halfway on the road to Tralles the Mæander is
-
-crossed, and here are the boundaries of Caria. The whole
-
-number of stadia from Physcus to the Mæander, along the
-
-road to Ephesus, is
But as there is a public frequented road by which all travellers pass on their way from Ephesus to the east, Artemidorus thus describes it. [From Ephesus] to Carura, the
-
-boundary of Caria towards Phrygia, through Magnesia and
-
-Tralles, Nysa, Antioch, is a journey of 740 stadia. From
-
-Carura, the first town in Phrygia, through Laodiceia, Apameia,
-
-Metropolis, and Chelidoniæ,
The places in a straight line with these, as far as India, are - -described in the same manner by Artemidorus and Eratosthenes. Polybius says, that with respect to those places we - -ought chiefly to depend upon Artemidorus. He begins from - -Samosata in Commagene, which is situated at the passage, - -and the Zeugma of the Euphrates, to Samosata across the - -Taurus, from the mountains of Cappadocia about Tomisa, he - -says is a distance of 450 stadia. - - -
AFTER the part of the coast oppositeAfter the Peræa of Rhodes.
Peræa
-
-was the name of the coast of Caria opposite to Rhodes, which for several
-
-centuries formed a dependency of that opulent republic. In the time of
-
-Scylax, the Rhodians possessed only the peninsula immediately in face of
-
-their island. As a reward for their assistance in the Antiochian war, the
-
-Romans gave them a part of Lycia, and all Caria as far as the Mæander.
-
-By having adopted a less prudent policy in the second Macedonic war,
-
-they lost it all, including Caunus, the chief town of Peræa. It was not
-
-long, however, before it was restored to them, together with the small
-
-islands near Rhodes; and from this time Peræa retained the limits which
-
-Strabo has described, namely, Dedala on the east and Mount Loryma
-
-on the west, both included Vespasian finally reduced Rhodes itself into
-
-the provincial form, and joined it to Caria.—
The description of this coast will complete the account of
-
-the whole peninsula. We shall then pass to the rest of Asia
-
-without the Taurus, and lastly we shall describe Africa.
-
-
After Dedala of the Rhodians there is a mountain of
-
-Lycia, of the same name, Dedala, and here the whole Lycian
-
-coast begins, and extends
At Side,
But the Lycians continued to live as good citizens, and with
-
-so much restraint upon themselves, that although the Pamphylians had succeeded in obtaining the sovereignty of the
-
-sea as far as Italy, yet they were never influenced by the desire of base gain, and persevered in administering the affairs
-
-of the state according to the laws of the Lycian body.
-
-
There are three and twenty cities in this body, which
-
-have votes. They assemble from each city at a general congress, and select what city they please for their place of meeting. Each of the largest cities commands three votes, those
-
-of intermediate importance two, and the rest one vote. They
-
-contribute in the same proportion to taxes and other public
-
-charges. The six largest cities, according to Artemidorus,
-
-are Xanthus,
At the congress a lyciarch is first elected, then the other
-
-officers of the body. Public tribunals are also appointed for
-
-
-
-
Thus judges and magistrates are elected according to the
-
-proportion of the number of votes belonging to each city.
The poets, however, particularly the tragic poets, confound
-
-nations together; for instance, Trojans, Mysians, and Lydians,
-
-whom they call Phrygians, and give the name of Lycians to
-
-Carians.
-
-
After Dædala is a Lycian mountain, and near it is Telmessus,
Then follows Anticragus, a precipitous mountain, on
-
-which is Carmylessus,
-
-for this Pandarus, it is said, came from Lycia.
-
-thus the pale nightingale, daughter of Pandarus;
Next is the river Xanthus, formerly called Sirbis.
Next is Myra, at the distance of 20 stadia from the sea,
-
-situated upon a lofty hill; then the mouth of the river Limyrus, and on ascending from it by land 20 stadia, we come to
-
-the small town Limyra. In the intervening distance along
-
-the coast above mentioned are many small islands and harbours. The most considerable of the islands is Cisthene, on
-
-which is a city of the same name. Later writers, says Leake, make no mention of Cisthene; and Ptolemy,
-
-Pliny, Stephanus, agree in showing that Megiste and Dolichiste were the
-
-two principal islands on the coast of Lycia: the former word Megiste,
-
-
-
-Groskurd would read Among others is
-
-Megiste an island, and a city of the same name, and Cisthene.
-
-
Then follow the Sacred Promontory
The Chelidoniæ islands seem to be situated in a manner
-
-opposite to Canopus,
From the Sacred Promontory to Olbia
Then follows Phaselis,
About Phaselis, near the sea, are narrow passes through - -which Alexander conducted his army. There is a mountain - -called Climax. It overhangs the sea of Pamphylia, leaving a - -narrow road along the coast, which in calm weather is not - -covered with water, and travellers can pass along it, but when - -the sea is rough, it is in a great measure hidden by the - -waves. The pass over the mountains is circuitous and steep, - -but in fair weather persons travel on the road along the - -shore. Alexander came there when there was a storm, and - -trusting generally to fortune, set out before the sea had receded, and the soldiers marched during the whole day up to - -the middle of the body in water. -
Phaselis also is a Lycian city, situated on the confines of
-
-Pamphylia. It is not a part of the Lycian body, but is an
-
-independent city.
-
-
The poet distinguishes the Solymi from the Lycians,
-
-When he despatches Bellerophon by the king of the Lycians to
-
-this second adventure;
-
-
-
-
-
-he encountered the brave Solymi;
AFTER Phaselis is Olbia; here Pamphylia begins. It is
-
-a large fortress. It is followed by the Cataractes,
Next is Attaleia,
It is said, that between Phaselis and Attaleia, Thebe and
-
-Lyrnessus
Next is the river Cestrus;
Then at the distance of about 40 stadia from the sea is
-
-[Syllium],
Herodotus says,all,
and nation.
OF Cilicia without the Taurus one part is called Cilicia - -Tracheia, the rugged; the other, Cilicia Pedias, the flat or - -plain country. -
The coast of the Tracheia is narrow, and either has no level - -ground or it rarely occurs; besides this, the Taurus overhangs it, which is badly inhabited as far even as the northern - -side, about Isaura and the Homonadeis as far as Pisidia. - -This tract has the name of Tracheiotis, and the inhabitants - -that of Tracheiotæ. The flat or plain country extends from - -Soli and Tarsus as far as Issus, and the parts above, where - -the Cappadocians are situated on the northern side of the - -Taurus. This tract consists chiefly of fertile plains. -
I have already spoken of the parts within the Taurus; I
-
-shall now describe those without the Taurus, beginning with
-
-the Tracheiotæ.
-
-
The first place is Coracesium,
Tryphon was the cause of originating among the Cilicians - -a piratical confederacy. They were induced also to do this - -by the imbecility of the kings who succeeded each other on - -the thrones of Syria and Cilicia. In consequence of his introduction of political changes, others imitated his example, - -and the dissensions among brothers exposed the country to - -the attacks of invaders. -
The exportation of slaves was the chief cause of inducing
-
-them to commit criminal acts, for this traffic was attended
-
-with very great profit, and the slaves were easily taken. Delos was at no great distance, a large and rich mart, capable of
-
-receiving and transporting, when sold, the same day, ten
-
-thousand slaves; so that hence arose a proverbial saying,
-
-
-
-The Romans, having acquired wealth after the destruction of
-
-Carthage and Corinth, employed great numbers of domestic
-
-slaves, and were the cause of this traffic. The pirates, observing the facility with which slaves could be procured, issued
-
-forth in numbers from all quarters, committing robbery and
-
-dealing in slaves.
-Merchant, come into port, discharge your freight—everything is sold.
The kings of Cyprus and of Egypt, who were enemies - -of the Syrians, favoured their marauding enterprises; the - -Rhodians were no less hostile to the Syrians, and therefore - -afforded the latter no protection. The pirates, therefore, under - -the pretence of trading in slaves, continued without intermission their invasions and robbery. -
The Romans paid little attention to the places situated - -without the Taurus; they sent, however, Scipio Æmilianus. - -and afterwards some others, to examine the people and the - -cities. They discovered that the evils arose from negligence - -on the part of the sovereigns, but they were reluctant to deprive the family of Seleucus Nicator of the succession, in - -which he had been confirmed by themselves. -
For the same reason the Parthians, who occupied the parts
-
-
-
-
The Romans were subsequently compelled to reduce the - -Cilicians, after their aggrandizement, by war and expeditions, - -whose progress, however, and advancement they had not obstructed; yet it would be improper to accuse the Romans of - -neglect, because, being engaged with concerns nearer at hand, - -they were unable to direct their attention to more distant - -objects. -
I thought proper to make these remarks in a short digression from my subject.
-
-
Next to the Coracesium is the city Syedra;
Then follows Laertes a fortress, situated upon the crest of
-
-a hill, of a pap-like form; a port belongs to it; next, the city
-
-Selinus,
From the boundaries of Pamphylia to Anemurium, the voyage along the Cilician coast is 820 stadia; the remainder of
-
-it as far as Soli
Some writers,
Next is Holmi,
In our time there flourished at that place remarkable persons of the Peripatetic sect of philosophers, Athenæus and
-
-Xenarchus. The former was engaged in the administration
-
-of the affairs of state in his own country, and for some time
-
-espoused the party of the people; he afterwards contracted a
-
-friendship with Murena, with whom he fled, and with whom
-
-he was captured, on the discovery of the conspiracy against
-
-Augustus Cæsar; but he established his innocence, and was
-
-set at liberty by Cæsar. When he returned from Rome, he
-
-addressed the first persons who saluted him, and made their
-
-inquiries, in the words of Euripides—
-
-
-
-He survived his return but a short time, being killed by the
-
-fall, during the night, of the house in which he lived.
-I come from the coverts of the dead, and the gates of darkness.
Xenarchus, whose lectures I myself attended, did not long
-
-remain at home, but taught philosophy at Alexandreia, Athens,
-
-and Rome. He enjoyed the friendship of Areius, and afterwards of Augustus Cæsar; he lived to old age, honoured and
-
-respected. Shortly before his death he lost his sight, and
-
-died a natural death.
-
-
-
-
After the Calycadnus, is the rock called Pœcile,bitter water
is given to it.
-
-
After Corycus, is the island Elæussa,
At the extremity of the Taurus is Olympus a moun-
-
-
-
-
Next to Lamus is Soli,
Chrysippus the Stoic philosopher, the son of an inhabitant
-
-of Tarsus, who left it to live at Soli; Philemon the comic
-
-poet; and Aratus, who composed a poem called the Phænomena,
were among the illustrious natives of this place.
-
-
Next follows Zephyrium,SARDANAPALUS,
-
-THE SON OF ANACYNDARAXES, BUILT ANCHIALE AND TARSUS IN ONE DAY. EAT, DRINK, BE MERRY; EVERYTHING ELSE
-
-IS NOT WORTH
—the snapping of the fingers.
-
Chœrilus mentions this inscription, and the following lines
-
-are everywhere known:
-
-
-
-Meat and drink, wanton jests, and the delights of love, these I have enjoyed; but my great wealth I have left behind.
$$4
Above Anchiale is situated Cyinda a fortress, where
-
-the Macedonian kings formerly kept their treasure. Eumenes,
-
-when he revolted from Antigonus, took it away. Further
-
-above this place and Soli, is a mountainous tract, where is
-
-situated Olbe a city, which has a temple of Jupiter, founded
-
-by Ajax, son of Teucer. The priest of this temple was master
-
-
-
-
Next to Anchiale are the mouths of the Cydnus
The whole of the sea-coast, beginning from the part
-
-opposite to Rhodes, extends to this place in the direction from
-
-the western to the eastern point of the equinoctial. It then
-
-turns towards the winter solstice, as far as Issus, and thence
-
-immediately makes a bend to the south to Phœnicia. The
-
-remainder towards the west terminates at the pillars (of Hercules).
The actual isthmus of the peninsula, which we have described, is that which extends from Tarsus and the mouth of the
-
-Cydnus as far as Amisus, for this is the shortest distance from
-
-Amisus to the boundaries of Cilicia; from these to Tarsus are
-
-120 stadia, and not more from Tarsus to the mouth of the
-
-Cydnus. To Issus, and the sea near it, there is no shorter
-
-road from Amisus than that leading through Tarsus, nor
-
-from Tarsus to Issus is there any nearer than that leading to
-
-Cydnus; so that it is clear, that, in reality, this is the isthmus.
-
-Yet it is pretended that the isthmus extending as far as the
-
-
-
-
Hence, not aiming at exactness, we say that the line drawn
-
-from the country opposite to Rhodes, which we protracted as
-
-far as Cydnus, is the same as that extending as far as Issus,
-
-and that the Taurus extends in a straight direction with this
-
-line as far as India.
-
-
Tarsus is situated in a plain. It was founded by Argives, who accompanied Triptolemus in his search after Io.
-
-The Cydnus flows through the middle of it, close by the
-
-gymnasium of the young men. As the source is not far distant, and the stream passing through a deep valley, then flows
-
-immediately into the city, the water is cold and rapid in its
-
-course; hence it is of advantage to men and beasts affected
-
-with swellings of the sinews, fluxions, and gout.
The inhabitants of this city apply to the study of philosophy and to the whole encyclical compass of learning with so - -much ardour, that they surpass Athens, Alexandreia, and every - -other place which can be named where there are schools and - -lectures of philosophers. -
It differs however so far from other places, that the studious - -are all natives, and strangers are not inclined to resort thither. - -Even the natives themselves do not remain, but travel abroad - -to complete their studies, and having completed them reside in - -foreign countries. Few of them return. -
The contrary is the case in the other cities which I have
-
-mentioned, except Alexandreia; for multitudes repair to
-
-them, and reside there with pleasure; but you would observe
-
-that few of the natives travel abroad from a love of learning,
-
-or show much zeal in the pursuit of it on the spot. But
-
-both these things are to be seen at Alexandreia, a large number
-
-of strangers is received, (into their schools,) and not a few of
-
-their own countrymen are sent out to foreign countries (to
-
-study). They have schools of all kinds, for instruction in the
-
-liberal arts. In other respects Tarsus is well peopled, extremely powerful, and has the character of being the capital.
The Stoic philosophers Antipater, Archedemus, and
-
-Nestor were natives of Tarsus: and besides these, the two
-
-Athenodori, one of whom, Cordylion, lived with Marcus Cato,
-
-and died at his house; the other, the son of Sandon, called
-
-Cananites, from some village, was the preceptor of Cæsar,Achilles, Agamemnon, and Ulysses, so have I
-
-sung yours. I therefore ought not to be brought before
-
-you on such a charge.
The accuser answered, Homer did
-
-not steal oil from Agamemnon
Yet he contrived to avert the displeasure of
-
-Antony by courteous offices, and continued to plunder the city
-
-until the death of his protector.
-
Athenodorus found the city in this state, and for some time
-
-attempted to control Boëthus and his accomplices by argument; but finding that they continued to commit all kinds of
-
-injustice, he exerted the power given to him by Cæsar, condemned them to banishment, and expelled them. They had
-
-previously caused to be written upon the walls, Action for
-
-the young, counsel for the middle-aged, discharging wind for the
-
-
-
-
but Athenodorus, accepting it as a jest, gave orders to
-
-inscribe by the side of it, Thunder for the old.
Some one,
-
-however, in contempt for his good manners, having a lax
-
-state of body, bespattered the gate and wall of his house as
-
-he passed by it at night. Athenodorus, in an assembly of
-
-the people, accusing persons of being factiously disposed, said,
-
- We may perceive the sickly condition of the city, and its bad
-
-habit of body, from many circumstances, but particularly from
-
-its discharges.
-
These men were Stoics, but Nestor, of our time, the tutor
-
-of Marcellus, son of Octavia, the sister of Cæsar, was of the
-
-Academic sect. He was also at the head of the government, having succeeded Athenodorus, and continued to be
-
-honoured both by the Roman governors and by the citizens.
-
-
Among the other philosophers,
-
-
-
-were Plutiades and Diogenes, who went about from city to
-
-city, instituting schools of philosophy as the opportunity occurred. Diogenes, as if inspired by Apollo, composed and
-
-rehearsed poems, chiefly of the tragic kind, upon any subject
-
-that was proposed. The grammarians of Tarsus, whose writings we have, were Artemidorus and Diodorus. But the best
-
-writer of tragedy, among those enumerated in Those whom I know, and could in order name,
The Pleiad,
-
-was Dionysides. Rome is best able to inform us what number of learned men this city has produced, for it is filled
-
-with persons from Tarsus and Alexandreia.
-
Such then is Tarsus.
-
-
After the Cydnus follows the Pyramus,
Crates the grammarian was a native of this place, and
-
-Panætius is said to have been his disciple.
-
-
Above this coast is situated the Aleian plain, over
-
-which Philotas conducted Alexander's cavalry, he himself
-
-leading the phalanx from Soli along the sea-coast and the
-
-territory of Mallus to Issus, against the forces of Darius. It
-
-is said that Alexander performed sacrifices in honour of Amphilochus, on account of their common affinity to Argos. Hesiod says that Amphilochus was killed by Apollo at Soli;
-
-according to others, at the Aleian plain; and others again say,
-
-in Syria, upon his quitting the Aleian plain on account of the
-
-quarrel.
-
-
Mallus is followed by Ægææ, a small town
Next to Ægææ is Issus, a small town with a shelter for vessels, and a river, the Pinarus.
In Cilicia are the temple of the Sarpedonian Artemis and
-
-an oracle. Persons possessed with divine inspiration deliver
-
-the oracles.
-
-
After Cilicia, the first Syrian city is Seleucia-in-Pieria;
Since the Cilicians of the Troad, whom Homer mentions, are situated at a great distance from the Cilicians without the Taurus, some writers declare that the leaders of the
-
-latter colony were Cilicians of the Troad, and point to Thebe
-
-and Lyrnessus in Pamphylia, places bearing the same name
-
-as those in the Troad; other authors are of a contrary opinion,
-
-and (considering the Cilicians of the Troad as descendants of
-
-those from beyond the Taurus) point to an Aleian plain (in
-
-support of their hypothesis).
-
-
Having described the parts of the before-mentioned - -Chersonesus without the Taurus, I must add these particulars. -
Apollodorus, in his work on the catalogue of the ships - -mentioned in Homer, relates, that all the allies of the Trojans, - -who came from Asia, inhabited, according to the poet, the - -peninsula of which at its narrowest part is the isthmus between the innermost recess of the bay at Sinope and Issus. - -The exterior sides (of this peninsula), which is of a triangular shape, are unequal. Of these, one extends from Cilicia - -to Chelidoniæ, (islands,) another thence to the mouth of the - -Euxine, and the third from the mouth of the Euxine to - -Sinope. -
The assertion that the allies were only those who occupied
-
-the peninsula may be proved to be erroneous by the same
-
-arguments by which we before showed that those who lived
-
-within the Halys were not the only allies. For the places
-
-about Pharnacia, where we said the Halizoni lived, are situated without the Halys, and also without the isthmus, for they
-
-
-
-
But the greatest absurdity is this, that after having said
-
-that the peninsula was of a triangular shape, he speaks of
-
-three The Circuit of
-
-the Earth.
-
He is still liable to the same charge of ignorance, even if
-
-we should suppose the isthmus to be contracted to its least
-
-dimensions, and follow writers who erroneously estimate the
-
-distance at one-half of the sum, namely
Besides, Artemidorus has not correctly described the exterior sides; one side, he says, extends from Issus to the Chelidoniæ islands, although the whole Lycian coast, and the country opposite to Rhodes as far as Physcus, lies in a straight
-
-line with, and is a continuation of it; the continent then
-
-makes a bend at Physcus, and forms the commencement of
-
-the second or western side, extending to the Propontis and
-
-Byzantium.
-
-
Ephorus had said that this peninsula was inhabited by
-
-sixteen tribes, three of which were Grecian, and the rest barbarous, with the exception of the mixed nations; he placed
-
-
-
-
But Apollodorus does not seem to have carefully examined the statements of Ephorus, for he confounds and misrepresents the words of Homer. He ought first to have inquired of Ephorus why he placed the Chalybes within the
-
-peninsula, who were situated at a great distance from Sinope,
-
-and Amisus towards the east. Those who describe the isthmus of this peninsula to be on the line drawn from Issus to
-
-the Euxine, lay down this line as a sort of meridian line,
-
-which some suppose to pass through Sinope, others through
-
-Amisus; but no one through the Chalybes, for such a line
-
-would be altogether an oblique line. For the meridian passing through the Chalybes, drawn through the Lesser Armenia,
-
-and the Euphrates, would comprise (on the east) the whole of
-
-Cappadocia, Commagene, Mount Amanus, and the Bay of Issus.
-
-
-
-
-
-where are they to be placed? Nor does he say whether the
-
-Lydians and the Meonians are two nations or the same nation, or whether they live separately by themselves or are
-
-comprehended in another tribe. For it was impossible for
-
-Ephorus to be ignorant of so celebrated a nation, and does he
-
-not, by passing it over in silence, appear to omit a most important fact?
-
-men, who know not the sea, nor have ever eaten food seasoned with
-
-salt,
But who are the mixed nations
? For we cannot
-
-say that he either named or omitted others, besides those already mentioned, whom we should call mixed nations. Nor,
-
-indeed, should we say that they were a part of those nations
-
-whom he has either mentioned or omitted. For if they were
-
-a mixed people, still the majority constituted them either
-
-Greeks or Barbarians. We know nothing of a third mixed
-
-people.
-
-
But how (according to Ephorus) are there three tribes
-
-of Greeks who inhabit the peninsula? Is it because anciently the Athenians and Ionians were the same people? In that
-
-case the Dorians and the Æolians should be considered as the
-
-same nation, and then there would be (only) two tribes (and
-
-not three, inhabiting the peninsula). But if, following modern
-
-
-
-
It was worth while to controvert the positions of Ephorus,
-
-Apollodorus however disregards all this, and adds a seventeenth to the sixteen nations, namely, the Galatians; although
-
-it is well to mention this, yet it is not required in a discussion
-
-of what Ephorus relates or omits; Apollodorus has assigned
-
-as the reason of' the omission, that all these nations settled
-
-in the peninsula subsequently to the time of Ephorus.
-
-
Passing then to Homer, Apollodorus is correct in saying that there was a great intermixture and confusion among - -the barbarous nations, from the Trojan war to the present time, - -on account of the changes which had taken place; for some - -nations had an accession of others, some were extinct or dispersed, or had coalesced together. -
But he is mistaken in assigning two reasons why the poet
-
-does not mention some nations, namely, either because the
-
-place was not then occupied by the particular people, or because they were comprehended in another tribe. Neither of
-
-these reasons could induce him to be silent respecting Cappadocia or Cataonia, or Lycaonia itself, for we have nothing of
-
-the kind in history relating to these countries. It is ridiculous to be anxious to find excuses why Homer has omitted to
-
-speak of Cappadocia [Cataonia] and Lycaonia, and not to
-
-inform us why Ephorus omitted them, particularly as the proposed object of Apollodorus was to examine and discuss the
-
-opinions of Ephorus; and to tell us why Homer mentions
-
-Mæonians instead of Lydians, and also not to remark that
-
-Ephorus has not omitted to mention either Lydians or Mæonians.
Apollodorus remarks, that Homer mentions certain unknown nations, and he is right in specifying Caucones, Solymi,
-
-Ceteii, Leleges, and the Cilicians from the plain of Thebe;
-
-but the Halizones are a fiction of his own, or rather of those
-
-who, not knowing who the Halizones were, frequently altered
-
-the mode of writing the name, and invented the existence of
-
-
-
-
With this vain intention they collected the stories related
-
-by the Scepsian, (Demetrius,) and taken from Callisthenes
-
-and other writers, who did not clear them from false notions
-
-respecting the Halizones; for example, the wealth of Tantalus and of the Pelopidæ was derived, it is said, from the mines
-
-about Phrygia and Sipylus; that of Cadmus from the mines
-
-about Thrace and Mount Pangæum; that of Priam from the
-
-gold mines at Astyra, near Abydos (of which at present there
-
-are small remains, yet there is a large quantity of matter ejected, and the excavations are proofs of former workings); that
-
-of Midas from the mines about Mount Bermium; that of
-
-Gyges, Alyattes, and Crœsus, from the mines in Lydia and
-
-the small deserted city between Atarneus and Pergamum,
-
-where are the sites of exhausted mines.
We may impute another fault to Apollodorus, that - -although he frequently censures modern writers for introducing new readings at variance with the meaning of Homer, - -yet in this instance he not only neglects his own advice, but - -actually unites together places which are not so represented - -(by Homer). -
(For example), Xanthus the Lydian says, that after the
-
-Trojan times the Phrygians came from Europe (into Asia)
-
-and the left (western) side of the Euxine, and that their leader Scamandrius conducted them from the Berecynti and Ascania. Apollodorus adds, that Homer mentions the same
-
-Ascania as Xanthus,
-
-
-
-If this be so, the migration (from Europe to Asia) must be
-
-later than the Trojan war; but in the Trojan war the auxiliaries mentioned by the poet came from the opposite continent,
-
-from the Berecynti and Ascania. Who then were the Phrygians,
-
-Phorcys and the divine Ascanius led the Phrygians from the distant
-
-Ascania.
-
-when Priam says,
-
-who were then encamped on the banks of the Sangarius,
-
-
-
-And I joined them with these troops as an auxiliary
?
Apollodorus, after having spoken of the Phrygians in this
-
-manner, introduces an account concerning the Mysians which
-
-contradicts this. He says that there is a village of Mysia
-
-called Ascania, near a lake of the same name,
-
-and by Alexander of Ætolia:
-
-near the waters of the Mysian Ascanius;
-
-The district, he says, about Cyzicus, on the road to Miletopolis, is called Dolionis and Mysia.
-they who dwell on the stream of Ascanius, on the brink of the Ascanian
-
-lake, where lived Dolion, the son of Silenus and Melia.
If this is the case, and if it is confirmed by existing places - -and by the poets, what prevented Homer, when he mentioned - -this Ascania, from mentioning the Ascania also of which - -Xanthus speaks? -
I have already spoken of these places in the description of - -Mysia and Phrygia, and shall here conclude the discussion. - - -
IT remains for me to describe the island Cyprus, which
-
-adjoins this peninsula on the south. I have already said, that
-
-the sea comprised between Egypt, Phœnice, Syria, and the
-
-remainder of the coast as far as that opposite to Rhodes, con-
-
-
-
-
In this sea lies the island Cyprus, having its northern side - -approaching to Cilicia Tracheia, and here also it approaches - -nearest to the continent; on the east it is washed by the Bay - -of Issus, on the west by the Pamphylian sea, and on the - -south by that of Egypt. The latter sea is confluent on the - -west with the Libyan and Carpathian seas. On its southern - -and eastern parts is Egypt, and the succeeding tract of coast - -as far as Seleucia and Issus. On the north is Cyprus, and - -the Pamphylian sea. -
The Pamphylian sea is bounded on the north by the extremities of Cilicia Tracheia, of Pamphylia, and of Lycia as far
-
-as the territory opposite to Rhodes; on the west, by the island
-
-of Rhodes; on the east, by the part of Cyprus near Paphos,
-
-and the Acamas; on the south, it unites with the Egyptian
-
-sea.
-
-
The circumference of Cyprus is 3420 stadia, including
-
-the winding of the bays. Its length from Cleides
The Cleides are two small islands lying in front of Cyprus
-
-on the eastern side, at the distance of 700 stadia from the
-
-Pyramus.
The Acamas is a promontory with two paps, and upon it
-
-is a large forest. It is situated at the western part of the
-
-island, but extends towards the north, approaching very near
-
-Selinus in Cilicia Tracheia, for the passage across is only
-
-1000 stadia; to Side in Pamphylia the passage is
The figure of the whole island is oblong, and in some places - -on the sides, which define its breadth, there are isthmuses. -
We shall describe the several parts of the island briefly, beginning from the point nearest to the continent.
-
-
We have said before, that opposite to Anemyrium, a
-
-promontory of Cilicia Tracheia, is the extremity of Cyprus,
-
-namely, the promontory of Crommyon,
From the cape, keeping the island on the right hand, and
-
-
-
-
In the interval is the city Lapathus,
Near and in front lie the Cleides, and many other islands;
-
-next are the Carpasian islands, and after these Salamis, the
-
-birth-place of Aristus the historian; then Arsinoë, a city with
-
-a harbour; next Leucolla, another harbour; then the promontory Pedalium, above which is a hill, rugged, lofty, and
-
-table-shaped, sacred to Venus; to this hill from Cleides are
-
-680 stadia. Then to Citium
Here we may observe the negligence of the author, whether
-
-Hedylus, or whoever he was, of the elegiac lines which begin,
-
-
-
-He says, that the hinds ran down from the Corycian heights,
-
-
-
-We hinds, sacred to Phœbus, hither came in our swift course; we traversed the broad sea, to avoid the arrows of our pursuers.
-
-For it is possible (by doubling the cape) to sail round from
-
-Corycus to the beach of Curias, but not with the assistance of
-
-the west wind, nor by keeping the island on the right, but on'
-
-the left hand; and there is no (direct) passage across.
-That it was a cause of vast surprise to men to think how we scoured
-
-the trackless waves, aided by the vernal Zephyrs.
At Curium is the commencement of the voyage towards the
-
-west in the direction of Rhodes; then immediately follows a
-
-promontory, whence those who touch with their hands the
-
-altar of Apollo are precipitated. Next are Treta,
But why should we be surprised at poets, and those particularly who study modes of expression only, when we compare them with Damastes? The latter gives the length of the - -island from north to south, from Hierocepia, as he says, to - -Cleides. -
Nor does even Eratosthenes give it exactly. For, when
-
-
-
-
Such then is the position of Cyprus.
-
-
It is not inferior in fertility to any one of the islands, - -for it produces good wine and oil, and sufficient corn to supply the wants of the inhabitants. At Tamassus there are - -abundant mines of copper, in which the calcanthus is found, - -and rust of copper, useful for its medicinal properties. -
Eratosthenes says, that anciently the plains abounded with
-
-timber, and were covered with forests, which prevented cultivation; the mines were of some service towards clearing the
-
-surface, for trees were cut down to smelt the copper and silver.
-
-Besides this, timber was required for the construction of fleets,
-
-as the sea was now navigated with security and by a large
-
-naval force; but when even these means were insufficient to
-
-check the growth of timber in the forests, permission was
-
-given to such as were able and inclined, to cut down the trees
-
-and to hold the land thus cleared as their own property, free
-
-from all payments.
-
-
Formerly the Cyprian cities were governed by tyrants, - -but from the time that the Ptolemaic kings were masters of - -Egypt, Cyprus also came into their power, the Romans frequently affording them assistance. But when the last Ptolemy - -that was king, brother of the father of Cleopatra, the queen of - -Egypt in our time, had conducted himself in a disorderly - -manner, and was ungrateful to his benefactors, he was deposed, and the Romans took possession of the island, which - -became a Prætorian province by itself. -
The chief author of the deposition of the king was Pub.
-
-Claudius Pulcher, who having fallen into the hands of the
-
-Cilician pirates, at that time at the height of their power, and
-
-a ransom being demanded of him, despatched a message to
-
-the king, entreating him to send it for his release. The king
-
-sent a ransom, but of so small an amount, that the pirates
-
-disdained to accept it, and returned it, but they dismissed
-
-Pulcher without any payment. After his escape, he remembered what he owed to both parties; and when he became
-
-tribune of the people, he had sufficient influence to have Mar-
-
-
-
-
From this time the island became, as it is at present, a
-
-Prætorian province. During a short intervening period Antony had given it to Cleopatra and her sister Arsinoë, but
-
-upon his death all his arrangements were annulled.
-
-
-
-
SUMMARY.
-The Fifteenth Book contains India and Persia.
THE parts of Asia which remain to be described are
-
-those without the Taurus, except Cilicia, Pamphylia, and Lycia; extending from India to the Nile, and situated between
-
-the Taurus and the exterior Southern Sea.
Next to Asia is Africa, which I shall describe hereafter.
-
-At present I shall begin from India, the first and the largest
-
-country situated towards the east.
-
-
The reader must receive the account of this country with
-
-indulgence, for it lies at a very great distance, and few persons
-
-of our nation have seen it; those also who have visited it have
-
-seen only some portions of it; the greater part of what they
-
-relate is from report, and even what they saw, they became
-
-acquainted with during their passage through the country with
-
-an army, and in great haste. For this reason they do not
-
-agree in their accounts of the same things, although they write
-
-about them as if they had examined them with the greatest
-
-care and attention. Some of these writers were fellow-soldiers
-
-and fellow-travellers, as those who belonged to the army which,
-
-under the command of Alexander, conquered Asia; yet they
-
-frequently contradict each other. If, then, they differ so much
-
-respecting things which they had seen, what must we think of
-
-what they relate from report?
-
-
Nor do the writers who, many ages since Alexander's - -time, have given an account of these countries, nor even - -those who at present make voyages thither, afford any precise - -information. -
Apollodorus, for instance, author of the Parthian History,
-
-when he mentions the Greeks who occasioned the revolt of
-
-Bactriana from the Syrian kings, who were the successors of
-
-
-
-
Very few of the merchants who now sail from Egypt by
-
-the Nile and the Arabian Gulf to India have proceeded as far
-
-as the Ganges; and, being ignorant persons, were not qualified to give an account of places they have visited. From one
-
-place in India, and from one king, namely, Pandion, or, according to others,
If, then, we set aside these stories, and direct our attention to accounts of the country prior to the expedition of - -Alexander, we shall find them still more obscure. It is probable that Alexander, elated by his extraordinary good fortune, believed these accounts. -
According to Nearchus, Alexander was ambitious of conducting his army through Gedrosia,
But how can we place any just confidence in the accounts
-
-
-
- Ptolemy indicates the existence of Pillars,
which he calls the Pillars of Alexander,
above Albania and Iberia, at the commencement of
-
-the Asiatic Sarmatia. But as it is known that Alexander never penetrated
-
-into these regions, it is clear that the title of Alexander
was added by
-
-the Greeks to the names of mountains, which separated a country partly
-
-civilized from that entirely occupied by hordes of savages. Everything
-
-therefore seems to show, that these Pillars near Iberia in Asia, and not
-
-the Pillars of Hercules in Europe, formed the boundary of the expeditions
-
-of Sesostris, Tearcho, and Nabuchodonosor.—
Megasthenes, and a few others, think the stories respecting Hercules and Bacchus to be credible, but the majority
-
-of writers, among whom is Eratosthenes, regard them as incredible and fabulous, like the Grecian stories. Dionysus, in
-
-the Bacchæ of Euripides, makes this boasting speech:
-
-
-
-
-
In Sophocles, also, a person is introduced speaking the praises
-
-of Nysa,'whence I beheld the famed Nysa, the resort of the Bacchanalian bands,
-
-which the horned Iacchus makes his most pleasant and beloved retreat,
-
-where no bird's clang is heard,"
-
-and so on. [He is called also Merotraphes.]
Homer also mentions Lycurgus the Edonian in these words,
-
-
-who formerly pursued the nurses of the infuriate Bacchus along the
-
-sacred mountain Nysa.
So much respecting Bacchus. But with regard to Hercules,
-
-some persons say, that he penetrated to the opposite extremities
-
-on the west only, while others maintain that he also advanced
-
-to those of the east.
-
-
From such stories as those related above, they gave the - -name of Nysæans to some imaginary nation, and called their - -city Nysa, founded by Bacchus; a mountain above the city - -they called Meron, alleging as a reason for imposing these - -names that the ivy and vine grow there, although the latter - -does not perfect its fruit; for the bunches of grapes, in consequence of excessive rains, drop off before they arrive at maturity. -
They say, also, that the Sydracæ (Oxydracæ) are descendants
-
-of Bacchus, because the vine grows in their country, and because their kings display great pomp in setting out on their
-
-warlike expeditions, after the Bacchie manner; whenever
-
-they appear in public, it is with beating of drums, and are
-
-dressed in flowered robes, which is the common custom
-
-among the other Indians.
-
-
-
-
They pretended that the Sibæ This people appear to have been driven towards the east by one of
-
-those revolutions so frequent in all Asia. At least, to the north of Delhi,
-
-and in the neighbourhood of Hardouar, a district is found bearing the
-
-name of Siba.white,
to the great chain of mountains
-
-covered with snow, from whence the Indus, and the greater part of the
-
-rivers which feed it, descend.
That these are the inventions of the flatterers of - -Alexander is evident, first, because the writers do not agree - -with one another, some of whom speak of these things; others - -make no mention of them whatever. For it is not probable, - -that actions so illustrious, and calculated to foster pride and - -vanity, should be unknown, or if known, that they should - -not be thought worthy of record, especially by writers of the - -greatest credit. -
Besides, the intervening people, through whose country the
-
-armies of Bacchus and Hercules must have marched in their
-
-
-
-
Under such circumstances, therefore, we must receive
-
-everything that approaches nearest to probability. I have
-
-already discussed this subject to the extent of my ability at
-
-the beginning of this work;
It appeared from the former discussion, that in the summary - -given by Eratosthenes, in the third book of his Geography, - -is contained the most credible account of the country considered as India at the time of its invasion by Alexander. -
At that period the Indus was the boundary of' India and of
-
-Ariana,
The account of Eratosthenes is as follows:—
-
-
The boundaries of India, on the north, from Ariana
-
-to the Eastern Sea,covered with snow.
The western side, from the Caucasian mountains to the
-
-Southern Sea, is estimated at 13,000 stadia, along the river
-
-Indus to its mouth; wherefore the eastern side opposite, with
-
-the addition of the 3000 stadia of the promontory, will be 16,000
-
-stadia in extent. This is both the smallest and greatest
-
-breadth of India.
The whole, on the shortest computation, will amount to 16,000
-
-stadia, according to Eratosthenes, who says that he took it
-
-from the register of the Stathmi (or the several stages from
-
-place to place),
From what has been said, we may perceive how the
-
-opinions of the other writers differ from one another. Ctesias
-
-says that India is not less than the rest of Asia; Onesicritus
-
-regards it as the third part of the habitable world; Nearchus
-
-says that it is a march of four months through the plain only.
-
-The computations of Megasthenes and Deïmachus are more
-
-moderate, for they estimate the distance from the Southern
-
-Sea to Caucasus
We have replied to these writers in the early part of this
-
-work.
The whole of India is watered by rivers, some of which - -empty themselves into the two largest, the Indus and the - -Ganges; others discharge themselves into the sea by their - -own mouths. But all of them have their sources in the Caucasus. At their commencement their course is towards the - -south; some of them continue to flow in the same direction, - -particularly those which unite with the Indus; others turn to - -the east, as the Ganges. This, the largest of the Indian rivers, - -descends from the mountainous country, and when it reaches - -the plains, turns to the east, then flowing past Palibothra, a - -very large city, proceeds onwards to the sea in that quarter, - -and discharges its waters by a single mouth. The Indus falls - -into the Southern Sea, and empties itself by two mouths, encompassing the country called Patalene, which resembles the - -Delta of Egypt. -
By the exhalation of vapours from such vast rivers, and by
-
-
-
-
The inhabitants of the south resemble the Ethiopians in
-
-colour, but their countenances and hair are like those of other
-
-people. Their hair does not curl, on account of the humidity
-
-of the atmosphere. The inhabitants of the north resemble
-
-the Egyptians.
-
-
Taprobane
This is the account of Eratosthenes. The accounts of other
-
-writers, in addition to this, whenever they convey exact information, will contribute to form the description
Onesicritus, for example, says of Taprobane, that its
-
-magnitude is 5000 stadia, without distinction of length or
-
-breadth, and that it is distant twenty days' sail from the continent, but that it was a voyage performed with difficulty and
-
-danger by vessels with sails ill constructed, and built with
-
-prows at each end, but without holds and keels;
Nearchus, speaking of the accretion of earth form-
-
-
-
-
Aristobulus, however, says, that rain and snow fall
-
-only on the mountains and the country immediately below
-
-them, and that the plains experience neither one nor the
-
-other, but are overflowed only by the rise of the waters of
-
-the rivers; that the mountains are covered with snow in the
-
-winter; that the rains set in at the commencement of spring,
-
-and continue to increase; that at the time of the blowing of
-
-the Etesian winds they pour down impetuously, without intermission, night and day till the rising of Arcturus,
These things, he says, were observed by himself and by
-
-others on their journey into India from the Paropamisadæ.
-
-This was after the setting of the Pleiades,
Nearchus gives the same account, but does not agree
-
-with Aristobulus respecting the rains in summer, but says
-
-that the plains are watered by rain in the summer, and that
-
-they are without rain in winter. Both writers, however,
-
-speak of the rise of the rivers. Nearchus says, that the men
-
-encamped upon the Acesines
Aristobulus gives even the measure of the height to which - -the river rises, namely, forty cubits, of which twenty would - -fill the channel beyond its previous depth up to the margin, - -and the other twenty are the measure of the water when it - -overflows the plains. -
They agree also in saying that the cities placed upon - -mounds become islands, as in Egypt and Ethiopia, and that - -the inundation ceases after the rising of Arcturus, when the - -waters recede. They add, that the ground when half dried is - -sowed, after having been prepared by the commonest labourer, - -yet the plant comes to perfection, and the produce is good. - -The rice, according to Aristobulus, stands in water in an - -enclosure. It is sowed in beds. The plant is four cubits in - -height, with many ears, and yields a large produce. The - -harvest is about the time of the setting of the Pleiades, and - -the grain is beaten out like barley. It grows in Bactriana, - -Babylonia, Susis, and in the Lower Syria. Megillus says - -that it is sowed before the rains, but does not require irrigation or transplantation, being supplied with water from tanks. -
The bosmorum, according to Onesicritus, is a kind of
-
-corn smaller than wheat, and grows in places situated be-
-
-
-
-
Aristobulus, when comparing the circumstances in
-
-which this country resembles, and those in which it differs
-
-from, Egypt and Ethiopia, and observing that the swelling of
-
-the Nile is occasioned by rains in the south, and of the Indian
-
-rivers by rains from the north, inquires why the intermediate
-
-places have no rain; for it does not rain in the Thebais as far
-
-as Syene, nor at the places near Meroe, nor in the parts of
-
-India from Patalene to the Hydaspes. But the country
-
-situated above these parts,
It is probable from what he relates that the country is subject to shocks of earthquakes, that the ground is loose and - -hollow by excess of moisture, and easily splits into fissures, - -whence even the course of rivers is altered. -
He says that when he was despatched upon some business
-
-into the country, he saw a tract of land deserted, which contained more than a thousand cities with their dependent villages; the Indus, having left its proper channel, was diverted
-
-into another, on the left hand, much deeper, and precipitated
-
-itself into it like a cataract, so that it no longer watered the
-
-country by the (usual) inundation on the right hand, from
-
-which it had receded, and this was elevated above the level,
-
-not only of the new channel of the river, but above that of
-
-the (new) inundation.
-
-
The account of Onesicritus confirms the facts of the - -rising of the rivers and of the absence of land breezes. He - -says that the sea-shore is swampy, particularly near the - -mouths of rivers, on account of the mud, tides, and the force - -of the winds blowing from the sea. -
Megasthenes also indicates the fertility of India by the
-
-circumstance of the soil producing fruits and grain twice a
-
-year. Eratosthenes relates the same facts, for he speaks of a
-
-winter and a summer sowing, and of the rain at the same
-
-
-
-
An abundance of fruit is produced by trees; and the roots
-
-of plants, particularly of large reeds, possess a sweetness,
-
-which they have by nature and by coction; for the water,
-
-both from rains and rivers, is warmed by the sun's rays.
-
-The meaning of Eratosthenes seems to be this, that what
-
-among other nations is called the ripening of fruits and juices,
-
-is called among these
India produces many singular trees. There is one whose
-
-branches incline downwards, and whose leaves are not less in
-
-size than a shield. Onesicritus, describing minutely the
-
-country of Musicanus, which he says is the most southerly
-
-part
Aristobulus also, where he mentions the Acesines, and its
-
-confluence with the Hyarotis, speaks of trees with their
-
-boughs bent downwards and of a size that fifty, but, accord-
-
-
-
-
Aristobulus mentions another tree, not large, bearing great
-
-pods, like the bean, ten fingers in length, full of honey,
Aristobulus says of the wool-bearing trees, that the flower
-
-pod contains a kernel, which is taken out, and the remainder
-
-is combed like wool.
-
-
In the country of Musicanus there grows, he says, - -spontaneously grain resembling wheat, and a vine that produces wine, whereas other authors affirm that there is no - -wine in India. Hence, according to Anacharsis, they had no - -pipes, nor any musical instruments, except cymbals, drums, - -and crotala, which were used by jugglers. -
Both Aristobulus and other writers relate that India produces many medicinal plants and roots, both of a salutary - -and noxious quality, and plants yielding a variety of colours. - -He adds, that, by a law, any person discovering a deadly - -substance is punished with death unless he also discover an - -antidote; in case he discovers an antidote, he is rewarded by - -the king. -
Southern India, like Arabia and Ethiopia, produces cinnamon, nard, and other aromatics. It resembles these countries as
-
-regards the effect of the sun's rays, but it surpasses them in having a copious supply of water, whence the atmosphere is humid,
-
-and on this account more conducive to fertility and fecundity;
-
-and this applies to the earth and to the water, hence those
-
-animals which inhabit both one and the other are of a larger
-
-size than are found in other countries. The Nile contributes
-
-to fecundity more than other rivers, and among other animals
-
-of large bulk, produces the amphibious kind. The Egyptian
-
-women also sometimes have four children at a birth, and
-
-Aristotle says that one woman had seven children at one
-
-birth.
It is perhaps owing to this cause that the water of the
-
-Nile boils, as he says, with one half of the heat which other
-
-water requires. In proportion however, he says, as the water
-
-of the Nile traverses in a straight line, a long and narrow
-
-tract of country, passing through a variety of climates and
-
-of atmosphere, while the Indian rivers are poured forth into
-
-wider and more extensive plains, their course being delayed
-
-a long time in the same climate, in the same degree the
-
-waters of India are more nutritious than those of the Nile;
-
-they produce larger animals of the cetaceous kind, and in
-
-greater number (than the Nile), and the water which descends from the clouds has already undergone the process of
-
-coction.
-
-
This would not be admitted by the followers of Aristobulus, who say that the plains are not watered by rain. Onesicritus, however, thinks that rain-water is the cause of the - -peculiar properties of animals, and alleges in proof, that the - -colour of foreign herds which drink of it is changed to that - -of the native animals. -
This is a just remark; but it is not proper to attribute to
-
-the power of the water merely the cause of the black complexion and the woolly hair of the Ethiopians, and yet he
-
-censures Theodectes, who refers these peculiarities to the
-
-effects of the sun, in these words,
-
-
-
-There may be reason in this, for he says that the sun does
-
-not approach nearer to the Ethiopians than to other nations,
-
-but shines more perpendicularly, and that on this account the
-
-heat is greater; indeed, it cannot be correctly said that the
-
-sun approaches near to the Ethiopians, for he is at an equal
-
-distance from all nations. Nor is the heat the cause of the
-
-black complexion, particularly of children in the womb, who
-
-are out of the reach of the sun. Their opinion is to be preferred, who attribute these effects to the sun and to intense
-
-solar heat, causing a great deficiency of moisture on the sur-
-
-
-
-
With respect to children in the womb, they resemble their - -parents (in colour) according to a seminal disposition and constitution, on the same principle that hereditary diseases, and - -other likenesses, are explained. -
The equal distance of the sun from all nations (according to
-
-Onesicritus) is an argument addressed to the senses, and not
-
-to reason. But it is not an argument addressed to the senses
-
-generally, but in the meaning that the earth bears the proportion of a point to the sun, for we may understand such a
-
-meaning of an argument addressed to the senses, by which
-
-we estimate heat to be more or less, as it is near or at a distance, in which cases it is not the same; and in this meaning,
-
-not in that of Onesicritus, the sun is said to be near the
-
-Ethiopians.
-
-
It is admitted by those who maintain the resemblance of - -India to Egypt and Ethiopia, that the plains which are not - -overflowed do not produce anything for want of water. -
Nearchus says, that the old question respecting the rise of
-
-the Nile is answered by the case of the Indian rivers, namely,
-
-that it is the effect of summer rains; when Alexander saw
-
-crocodiles in the Hydaspes, and Egyptian beans in the Acesines, he thought that he had discovered the sources of the
-
-Nile, and was about to equip a fleet with the intention of sailing by this river to Egypt; but he found out shortly after-
-
-wards that his design could not be accomplished,
-
-
-
-into which all the Indian rivers discharge themselves; then
-
-Ariana, the Persian and Arabian Gulfs, all Arabia and Troglodytica.
-for in midway were vast rivers, fearful waters, and first the ocean,
The above is what has been said on the subject of winds
-
-and rains, the rising of rivers, and the inundation of plains.
-
-
We must describe these rivers in detail, with the particulars, which are useful for the purposes of geography, and - -which have been handed down to us by historians. -
Besides this, rivers, being a kind of physical boundaries of
-
-the size and figures of countries, are of the greatest use in
-
-
-
-
We shall speak of the rivers deserving notice, which flow
-
-into the Indus, and of the countries which they traverse; with
-
-regard to the rest we know some particulars, but are ignorant
-
-of more. Alexander, who discovered the greatest portion of
-
-this country, first of all resolved it to be more expedient to
-
-pursue and destroy those who had treacherously killed Darius, and were meditating the revolt of Bactriana. He approached India therefore through Ariana, which he left on
-
-the right hand, and crossed the Paropamisus to the northern
-
-parts, and to Bactriana.
He therefore returned, crossing over the same mountains by
-
-other and shorter roads, having India on the left hand; he
-
-then immediately turned towards it, and towards its western
-
-boundaries and the rivers Cophes and Choaspes.
He was informed that the mountainous and northern parts
-
-were the most habitable and fertile, but that the southern
-
-part was either without water, or liable to be overflowed by
-
-rivers at one time, or entirely burnt up at another, more fit to
-
-be the haunts of wild beasts than the dwellings of men. He
-
-resolved therefore to get possession of that part of India first
-
-which had been well spoken of, considering at the same time
-
-that the rivers which it was necessary to pass, and which flowed
-
-
-
-
Next to the Cophes was the Indus, then the Hydaspes, - -the Acesines, the Hyarotis, and last, the Hypanis. He was - -prevented from proceeding farther, partly from regard to some - -oracles, and partly compelled by his army, which was exhausted by toil and fatigue, but whose principal distress arose - -from their constant exposure to rain. Hence we became acquainted with the eastern parts of India on this side the - -Hypanis, and whatever parts besides which have been described by those who, after Alexander, advanced beyond the - -Hypanis to the Ganges and Palibothra. -
After the river Cophes, follows the Indus. The country
-
-lying between these two rivers is occupied by Astaceni,
-
-Masiani, Nysæi, and Hypasii.
Between the Indus and the Hydaspes is Taxila, a large - -city, and governed by good laws. The neighbouring country - -is crowded with inhabitants and very fertile, and here unites - -with the plains. The people and their king Taxiles received - -Alexander with kindness, and obtained in return more presents than they had offered to Alexander; so that the Macedonians became jealous, and observed, that it seemed as if - -Alexander had found none on whom he could confer favours - -before he passed the Indus. Some writers say that this - -country is larger than Egypt. -
Above this country among the mountains is the territory of
-
-Abisarus,
Other writers also mention the hunting of serpents in the
-
-Emodi mountains,
Between the Hydaspes and Acesines is the country
-
-of Porus,
The other city he called Nicæa from the victory,
In the forest before mentioned it is said there is a vast
-
-number of monkeys,
The chase of this animal is conducted in two different - -manners. It is an imitative creature, and takes refuge up - -among the trees. The hunters, when they perceive a monkey - -seated on a tree, place in sight a basin containing water, - -with which they wash their own eyes; then, instead of water, - -they put a basin of bird-lime, go away, and lie in wait at a - -distance. The animal leaps down, and besmears itself with - -the bird-lime, and when it winks, the eyelids are fastened together; the hunters then come upon it, and take it. -
The other method of capturing them is as follows: the
-
-hunters dress themselves in bags like trowsers, and go away,
-
-leaving behind them others which are downy, with the inside smeared over with bird-lime. The monkeys put them on,
-
-and are easily taken.
-
-
Some writers place Cathaia
A very singular usage is related of the high estimation
-
-in which the inhabitants of Cathaia hold the quality of
-
-
-
-
They dye their heads with various and the most florid - -colours, for the purpose of improving their appearance. This - -custom prevails elsewhere among many of the Indians, who - -pay great attention to their hair and dress; and the country - -produces colours of great beauty. In other respects the - -people are frugal, but are fond of ornament. -
A peculiar custom is related of the Cathæi. The bride and - -the husband are respectively the choice of each other, and the - -wives burn themselves with their deceased husbands. The - -reason assigned for this practice is, that the women sometimes - -fell in love with young men, and deserted or poisoned their - -husbands. This law was therefore established in order to - -check the practice of administering poison; but neither the - -existence nor the origin of the law are probable facts. -
It is said, that in the territory of Sopeithes there is a mountain composed of fossile salt, sufficient for the whole of India.
-
-Valuable mines also both of gold and silver are situated, it is
-
-said, not far off among other mountains, according to the testimony of Gorgus, the miner (of Alexander). The Indians,
-
-unacquainted with mining and smelting, are ignorant of their
-
-own wealth, and therefore traffic with greater simplicity.
-
-
The dogs in the territory of Sopeithes are said to possess remarkable courage: Alexander received from Sopeithes
-
-a present of one hundred and fifty of them. To prove them,
-
-two were set at a lion; when these were mastered, two others
-
-were set on; when the battle became equal, Sopeithes ordered a man to seize one of the dogs by the leg, and to drag
-
-him away; or to cut off his leg, if he still held on. Alexander
-
-at first refused his consent to the dog's leg being cut off, as
-
-he wished to save the dog. But on Sopeithes saying, I will
-
-give you four in the place of it,
Alexander consented; and
-
-he saw the dog permit his leg to be cut off by a slow incision,
-
-rather than loose his hold.
-
-
-
-
The direction of the march, as far as the Hydaspes, - -was for the most part towards the south. After that, to - -the Hypanis, it was more towards the east. The whole of - -it, however, was much nearer to the country lying at the foot - -of the mountains than to the plains. Alexander therefore, - -when he returned from the Hypanis to the Hydaspes and - -the station of his vessels, prepared his fleet, and set sail on - -the Hydaspes. -
All the rivers which have been mentioned (the last of
-
-which is the Hypanis) unite in one, the Indus. It is said
-
-that there are altogether fifteen
Alexander's intention was to relinquish the march towards
-
-the parts situated to the east, first, because he was prevented
-
-from crossing the Hypanis; next, because he learnt by experience the falsehood of the reports previously received, to
-
-the effect that the plains were burnt up with fire, and more
-
-fit for the haunts of wild beasts than for the habitation of
-
-man. He therefore set out in this direction, relinquishing
-
-the other track; so that these parts became better known
-
-than the other.
-
-
The territory lying between the Hypanis and the
-
-Hydaspes is said to contain nine nations and five thousand
-
-cities, not less in size than Cos Meropis;
Below, and next in order, are the people called Sibæ, whom
-
-we formerly mentioned,
Near Patalene is placed the country of Musicanus, that of
-
-Sabus,
Onesicritus says, that the greatest part of the coast in - -this quarter abounds with swamps, particularly at the mouths - -of the river, which is owing to the mud, the tides, and the want - -of land breezes; for these parts are chiefly under the influence - -of winds blowing from the sea. -
He expatiates also in praise of the country of Musicanus,
-
-and relates of the inhabitants what is common to other Indian
-
-tribes, that they are long-lived, and that life is protracted even
-
-to the age of 130 years, (the Seres,
The following are their peculiarities : to have a kind of Lacedæmonian common meal, where they eat in public. Their food - -consists of what is taken in the chase. They make no use of - -gold nor silver, although they have mines of these metals. Instead of slaves, they employed youths in the flower of their age, - -as the Cretans employ the Aphamiotæ, and the Lacedæmonians - -the Helots. They study no science with attention but that - -of medicine; for they consider the excessive pursuit of some - -arts, as that of war, and the like, to be committing evil. - -There is no process at law but against murder and outrage, - -for it is not in a person's own power to escape either one or - -the other; but as contracts are in the power of each individual, - -he must endure the wrong, if good faith is violated by another; - -for a man should be cautious whom he trusts, and not disturb - -the city with constant disputes in courts of justice. -
Such are the accounts of the persons who accompanied
-
-Alexander in his expedition.
-
-
A letter of Craterus to his mother Aristopatra is circulated, which contains many other singular circumstances, and
-
-differs from every other writer, particularly in saying that Alexander advanced as far as the Ganges. Craterus says, that he
-
-himself saw the river, and the whaleswhales or cetaceous animals,
-
-Groskurd proposes and speaks of what he saw on it, of its magnitude,
&c.
At the confluence of the Ganges and of another river
-
-(the Erannoboas
Such also is the custom among the Parthians; for all have
-
-the name Arsacæ,
All the country on the other side of the Hypanis is
-
-allowed to be very fertile, but we have no accurate knowledge of it. Either through ignorance or from its remote
-
-situation, everything relative to it is exaggerated or partakes
-
-of the wonderful. As, for example, the stories of myrmeces
-
-(or ants),
According to Megasthenes, the largest tigers are found - -among the Prasii, almost twice the size of lions, and of such - -strength that a tame one led by four persons seized a mule - -by its hinder leg, overpowered it, and dragged it to him. The - -monkeys are larger than the largest dogs; they are of a white - -colour, except the face, which is black. The contrary is observed in other places. Their tails are more than two cubits - -in length. They are very tame, and not of a mischievous - -disposition. They neither attack people, nor steal. -
Stones are found there of the colour of frankincense, and - -sweeter than figs or honey. -
In some places there are serpents of two cubits in length, with
-
-membraneous wings like bats. They fly at night, and let
-
-fall drops of urine or sweat, which occasions the skin of per-
-
-
-
-
Ebony grows there. There are also dogs of great courage,
-
-which do not loose their hold till water is poured into their
-
-nostrils: some of them destroy their sight, and the eyes of
-
-others even fall out, by the eagerness of their bite. Both a
-
-lion and a bull were held fast by one of these dogs. The
-
-bull was caught by the muzzle, and died before the dog could
-
-be loosened.
-
-
In the mountainous country is a river, the Silas, on the - -surface of which nothing will float. Democritus, who had - -travelled over a large part of Asia, disbelieves this, and Aristotle does not credit it, although atmospheres exist so rare, - -that no bird can sustain its flight in them. Vapours also, - -which ascend (from some substances), attract and absorb, as it - -were, whatever is flying over them; as amber attracts straw, - -and the magnet iron, and perhaps there may be in water - -a similar power. -
As these matters belong to physics and to the question of
-
-floating bodies, these must be referred to them. At present
-
-we must proceed to what follows, and to the subjects more
-
-nearly relating to geography.
-
-
It is said that the Indians are divided into seven - -castes. The first in rank, but the smallest in number, are - -the philosophers. Persons who intend to offer sacrifice, or - -to perform any sacred rite, have the services of these persons - -on their private account; but the kings employ them in a - -public capacity at the time of the Great Assembly, as it is - -called, where at the beginning of the new year all the philosophers repair to the king at the gate, and anything useful - -which they have committed to writing, or observed, tending - -to improve the productions of the earth or animals, or of - -advantage to the government of the state, is then publicly - -declared. -
Whoever has been detected in giving false information
-
-thrice is enjoined silence by law during the rest of his life;
-
-but he who has made correct observations is exempted from all
-
-contributions and tribute.
-
-
The second caste is that of husbandmen, who constitute-
-
-the majority of natives, and are a most mild and gentle people, as they are exempted from military service, and cultivate
-
-
-
-
The third caste consists of shepherds and hunters, who
-
-alone are permitted to hunt, to breed cattle, to sell and to let
-
-out for hire beasts of burden. In return for freeing the
-
-country from wild beasts and birds, which infest sown fields,
-
-they receive an allowance of corn from the king. They lead
-
-a wandering life, and dwell in tents. No private person is
-
-allowed to keep a horse or an elephant. The possession of
-
-either one or the other is a royal privilege, and persons are
-
-appointed to take care of them.
-
-
The manner of hunting the elephant is as follows:
-
-Round a bare spot a ditch is dug, of about four or five stadia
-
-in extent, and at the place of entrance a very narrow bridge
-
-is constructed. Into the enclosure three or four of the tamest
-
-female elephants are driven. The men themselves lie in wait
-
-under cover of concealed huts. The wild elephants do not
-
-approach the females by day, but at night they enter the
-
-enclosure one by one; when they have passed the entrance,
-
-the men secretly close it. They then introduce the strongest
-
-of the tame combatants, the drivers of which engage with the
-
-wild animals, and also wear them out by famine; when the
-
-latter are exhausted by fatigue, the boldest of the drivers gets
-
-down unobserved, and creeps under the belly of his own
-
-elephant. From this position he creeps beneath the belly of
-
-the wild elephant, and ties his legs together; when this is done,
-
-a signal is given to the tame elephants to beat those which are
-
-tied by the legs, till they fall to the ground. After they have
-
-fallen down, they fasten the wild and tame elephants together
-
-by the neck with thongs of raw cow-hide, and, in order that
-
-they may not be able to shake off those who are attempting
-
-to mount them, cuts are made round the neck, and thongs of
-
-leather are put into these incisions, so that they submit to their
-
-bonds through pain, and so remain quiet. Among the ele-
-
-
-
-
They copulate like horses, and produce young chiefly - -in the spring. It is the season for the male, when he is in heat - -and is ferocious. At this period he discharges some fatty - -matter through an opening in the temples. It is the season - -also for the females, when this same passage is open, Eighteen months is the longest, and sixteen the shortest period - -that they go with young. The dam suckles her young six - -years, Many of them live as long as men who attain to the - -greatest longevity, some even to the protracted age of two - -hundred years. -
They are subject to many diseases, which are difficult to be - -cured. A remedy for diseases of the eye is to bathe them - -with cow's milk. For complaints in general, they drink dark - -wine. In cases of wounds, they drink butter; for it draws - -out iron instruments, Their sores are fomented with swine's - -flesh. -
Onesicritus says, that they live three hundred years, and - -rarely five hundred; and that they go with young ten years. - -He and other writers say, that they are larger and stronger - -than the African elephants. They will pull down with their - -trunks battlements, and uproot trees, standing erect upon their - -bind feet. -
According to Nearchus, traps are laid in the hunting
-
-grounds, at certain places where roads meet; the wild elephants are forced into the 'oils by the tame elephants, which
-
-
-
-as camels.
Coraÿ changes the last word to
A woman is greatly honoured who receives from her lover
-
-a present of an elephant, but this does not agree with what he
-
-said before, that a horse and an elephant are the property of
-
-kings alone.
-
-
This writer says that he saw skins of the myrmeces (or - -ants), which dig up gold, as large as the skins of leopards. - -Megasthenes, however, speaking of the myrmeces, says, - -among the Derdæ a populous nation of the Indians, living - -towards the east, and among the mountains, there was a mountain plain of about 3000 stadia in circumference; that below - -this plain were mines containing gold, which the myrmeces, in - -size not less than foxes, dig up. They are excessively fleet, - -and subsist on what they catch. In winter they dig holes, - -and pile up the earth in heaps, like moles, at the mouths of - -the openings. -
The gold-dust which they obtain requires little preparation
-
-by fire. The neighbouring people go after it by stealth, with
-
-beasts of burden; for if it is done openly, the myrmeces fight
-
-furiously, pursuing those that run away, and if they seize
-
-them, kill them and the beasts. In order to prevent discovery,
-
-they place in various parts pieces of the flesh of wild beasts,
-
-and when the myrmeces are dispersed in various directions.
-
-they take away the gold-dust, and, not being acquainted with
-
-the mode of smelting it, dispose of it in its rude state at any
-
-price to merchants.
-
-
Having mentioned what Megasthenes and other writers - -relate of the hunters and the beasts of prey, we must add the - -following particulars. -
Nearchus is surprised at the multitude and the noxious
-
-nature of the tribe of reptiles. They retreat from the plains
-
-to the settlements, which are not covered with water at the
-
-period of inundations, and fill the houses. For this reason
-
-the inhabitants raise their beds at some height from the
-
-
-
-
Aristobulus says, that he saw no animals of these pretended - -magnitudes, except a snake, which was nine cubits and a span - -in length. And I myself saw one in Egypt, nearly of the - -same size, which was brought from India. He says also, that - -he saw many serpents of a much inferior size, and asps and - -large scorpions. None of these, however, are so noxious as - -the slender small serpents, a span long, which are found concealed in tents, in vessels, and in hedges. Persons wounded - -by them bleed from every pore, suffering great pain, and die, - -unless they have immediate assistance; but this assistance is - -easily obtained, by means of the virtues of the Indian roots - -and drugs. -
Few crocodiles, he says, are found in the Indus, and these - -are harmless, but most of the other animals, except the hippopotamus, are the same as those found in the Nile; but - -Onesicritus says that this animal also is found there. -
According to Aristobulus, none of the sea fish ascend the
-
-Nile from the sea, except the shad,to a mountain.
Coraÿ changes the last word to the name of a people,
So much then on the subject of the wild animals of India.
-
-We shall return to Megasthenes, and resume our account
-
-where we digressed.
-
-
After the hunters and the shepherds, follows the fourth
-
-caste, which consists, he says, of those who work at trades,
-
-retail wares, and who are employed in bodily labour. Some
-
-of these pay taxes, and perform certain stated services. But
-
-the armour-makers and ship-builders receive wages and provisions from the king, for whom only they work. The general-in-chief furnishes the soldiers with arms, and the admiral
-
-lets out ships for hire to those who undertake voyages and
-
-traffic as merchants.
-
-
The fifth caste consists of fighting men, who pass the
-
-time not employed in the field in idleness and drinking, and
-
-are maintained at the charge of the king. They are ready
-
-whenever they are wanted to march on an expedition, for they
-
-bring nothing of their own with them, except their bodies.
-
-
The sixth caste is that of the Ephori, or inspectors.
-
-They are intrusted with the superintendence of all that is
-
-going on, and it is their duty to report privately to the king.
-
-The city inspectors employ as their coadjutors the city courtesans; and the inspectors of the camp, the women who follow
-
-it. The best and the most faithful persons are appointed to the
-
-office of inspector.
-
-
The seventh caste consists of counsellors and assessors of - -the king. To these persons belong the offices of state, tribunals of justice, and the whole administration of affairs. -
It is not permitted to contract marriage with a person of
-
-another caste, nor to change from one profession or trade to
-
-another, nor for the same person to undertake several, except
-
-he is of the caste of philosophers, when permission is given,
-
-on account of his superior qualifications.
-
-
Of the magistrates, some have the charge of the market,
-
-others of the city, others of the soldiery. Some have the care
-
-of the rivers, measure the land, as in Egypt, and inspect the
-
-closed reservoirs, from which water is distributed by canals, so
-
-that all may have an equal use of it. These persons have
-
-charge also of the hunters, and have the power of rewarding
-
-or punishing those who merit either. They collect the taxes,
-
-and superintend the occupations connected with land, as woodcutters, carpenters, workers in brass, and miners. They
-
-
-
-
Those who have charge of the city are divided into six - -bodies of five each. The first has the inspection of everything - -relating to the mechanical arts; the second entertain strangers, assign lodgings, observe their mode of life, by means of - -attendants whom they attach to them, escort them out of the - -country on their departure; if they die, take charge of their - -property, have the care of them when sick, and when they - -die, bury them. -
The third class consists of those who inquire at what time - -and in what manner births and deaths take place, which is - -done with a view to tax (on these occasions), and in order that - -the deaths and births of persons both of good and bad character should not be concealed. -
The fourth division consists of those who are occupied in - -sales and exchanges; they have the charge of measures, and - -of the sale of the products in season, by a signal. The same - -person is not allowed to exchange various kinds of articles, - -except he pays a double tax. -
The fifth division presides over works of artisans, and disposes of articles by public notice. The new are sold apart - -from the old, and there is a fine imposed for mixing them - -together. The sixth and last comprises those who collect - -the tenth of the price of the articles sold. Death is the punishment for committing a fraud with regard to the tax. -
These are the peculiar duties performed by each class, but
-
-in their collective capacity they have the charge both of
-
-their own peculiar province and of civil affairs, the repairs of
-
-public works, priceswalls,
in place of, prices.
Next to the magistrates of the city is a third body of governors, who have the care of military affairs. This class also
-
-consists of six divisions, each composed of five persons. One
-
-division is associated with the chief naval superintendent,
-
-another with the person who has the charge of the bullock-teams, by which military engines are transported, of provisions
-
-both for the men and beasts, and other requisites for the army.
-
-They furnish attendants, who beat a drum, and carry gongs;a bell,
or gong, or trumpet?
All the Indians are frugal in their mode of life, and
-
-especially in camp. They do not tolerate useless and undisciplined multitudes, and consequently observe good order. Theft
-
-is very rare among them. Megasthenes, who was in the camp
-
-of Sandrocottus, which consisted of 400,000 men, did not
-
-witness on any day thefts reported, which exceeded the sum
-
-of two hundred drachmae, and this among a people who have
-
-no written laws, who are ignorant even of writing, and regulate
-
-everything by memory. They are, however, happy on account
-
-of their simple manners and frugal way of life. They never
-
-drink wine, but at sacrifices. Their beverage is made from
-
-rice instead of barley, and their food consists for the most part
-
-of rice pottage. The simplicity of their laws and contracts
-
-appears from their not having many law-suits. They have no
-
-suits respecting pledges and deposits, nor do they require
-
-witnesses or seals, but make their deposits, and confide in one
-
-another. Their houses and property are unguarded. These
-
-things denote temperance and sobriety; others no one would
-
-approve, as their eating always alone, and their not having
-
-all of them one common hour for their meals, but each taking
-
-it as he likes. The contrary custom is more agreeable to the
-
-habits of social and civil life.
-
-
As an exercise of the body they prefer friction in
-
-various ways, but particularly by making use of smooth sticks
-
-of ebony, which they pass over the surface of the body.
-
-
-
-
Their sepulchres are plain, and the tumuli of earth low. -
In contrast to their parsimony in other things, they indulge - -in ornament. They wear dresses worked with gold and - -precious stones, and flowered (variegated) robes, and are attended by persons following them with umbrellas; for as they - -highly esteem beauty, everything is attended to, which can - -improve their looks. -
They respect alike truth and virtue; therefore they do not - -assign any privilege to the old, unless they possess superior - -wisdom. -
They marry many wives, who are purchased from their - -parents, and give in exchange for them a yoke of oxen. Some - -marry wives to possess obedient attendants, others with a - -view to pleasure and numerous offspring, and the wives prostitute themselves, unless chastity is enforced by compulsion. -
No one wears a garland when sacrificing, or burning incense, or pouring out a libation. They do not stab, but - -strangle the victim, that nothing mutilated, but that which is - -entire, may be offered to the Deity. -
A person convicted of bearing false testimony suffers a - -mutilation of his extremities. He who has maimed another - -not only undergoes in return the loss of the same limb, - -but his hand also is cut off. If he has caused a workman to - -lose his hand or his eye, he is put to death. -
Megasthenes says, that none of the Indians employ slaves.
-
-But, according to Onesicritus, this is peculiar to the people in
-
-the territory of Musicanus. He speaks of this as an excellent
-
-rule, and mentions many others to be found in that country,
-
-as the effects of a government by good laws.
-
-
The care of the king's person is committed to women, - -who are also purchased of their parents. The body-guard, - -and the rest of the military, are stationed without the gates. - -A woman, who puts to death a king when drunk, is rewarded - -by becoming the wife of his successor. The sons succeed the - -father. The king may not sleep during the day-time, and at - -night he is obliged from time to time to change his bed, from - -dread of treachery. -
The king leaves his palace in time of war; he leaves it also
-
-when he goes to sit in his court as a judge. He remains
-
-there all day thus occupied, not suffering himself to be interrupted even though the time arrives for attending to his per-
-
-
-
-
Another occasion of leaving his palace is to offer sacrifice. -
The third is a sort of Bacchanalian departure to the chace. - -Crowds of women surround him, and on the outside (of these) - -are spear-men. The road is set off with ropes; a man, or - -even a woman, who passes within the ropes is put to death. -
The king is preceded by drums and gongs. He hunts in
-
-the enclosures, and discharges his arrows from a high seat.
-
-Near him stand two or three armed women. When hunting
-
-in the open ground, he shoots his arrows from an elephant;
-
-of the women some are in chariots, some on horses, and others
-
-on elephants; they are provided with all kinds of weapons, as
-
-if they were going on a military expedition.
-
-
These customs when compared with ours are very
-
-strange, but the following are still more extraordinary. According to Megasthenes, the nations who inhabit the Caucasus
-
-have commerce with women in public; and eat the bodies
-
-of their relatives; the monkeys climb precipices, and roll
-
-down large stones upon their pursuers; most of the animals
-
-which are tame in our country are wild in theirs; the horses
-
-have a single horn, with heads like those of deer; reeds
-
-which grow to the height of thirty orguiæ,
He then deviates into fables, and says that there are - -men of five, and even three spans in height, some of whom are - -without nostrils, with only two breathing orifices above the - -mouth. Those of three spans in height wage war with the - -cranes (described by Homer) and with the partridges, which - -are as large as geese; these people collect and destroy the - -eggs of the cranes which lay their eggs there; and nowhere - -else are the eggs or the young cranes to be found; frequently a crane escapes from this country with a brazen point - -of a weapon in its body, wounded by these people. -
Similar to this is the account of the Enotocoitæ,
With respect to the other singular animals, the philosophers - -informed him of a people called Ocypodæ, so swift of foot - -that they leave horses behind them; of Enotocoitæ, or persons having ears hanging down to their feet, so that they lie - -and sleep upon them, and so strong as to be able to pluck up - -trees and to break the sinew string of a bow; of others (Monommati) who have only one eye, and the ears of a dog, the - -eye placed in the middle of the forehead, the hair standing - -erect, and the breasts shaggy; of others (Amycteres) without - -nostrils, devouring everything, eaters of raw meat, short-lived, - -and dying before they arrive at old age; the upper part of - -their mouths projects far beyond the lower lip. -
With respect to the Hyperboreans, who live to the age of - -a thousand years, his description is the same as that of Simonides, Pindar, and other mythological writers. -
The story told by Timagenes of a shower of drops of brass,
-
-which were raked together, is a fable. The account of Megasthenes is more probable, namely, that the rivers bring
-
-down gold-dust, a part of which is paid as a tax to the king;
-
-and this is the case in Iberia (of Armenia).
-
-
Speaking of the philosophers, he says, that those who - -inhabit the mountains are worshippers of Bacchus, and show - -as a proof (of the god having come among them) the wild - -vine, which grows in their country only; the ivy, the laurel, - -the myrtle, the box-tree, and other evergreens, none of which - -are found beyond the Euphrates, except a few in parks, which - -are only preserved with great care. To wear robes and turbans, to use perfumes, and to be dressed in dyed and flowered garments, for their kings to be preceded when they - -leave their palaces, and appear abroad, by gongs and drums, - -are Bacchanalian customs. But the philosophers who live in - -the plains worship Hercules. -
These are fabulous stories, contradicted by many writers,
-
-
-
-
Megasthenes divides the philosophers again into two
-
-kinds, the Brachmanes
The philosophers live in a grove in front of the city within - -a moderate-sized enclosure. Their diet is frugal, and they - -lie upon straw pallets and on skins. They abstain from animal food, and from sexual intercourse with women; their - -time is occupied in grave discourse, and they communicate - -with those who are inclined to listen to them; but the hearer - -is not permitted to speak or cough, or even to spit on the - -ground; otherwise, he is expelled that very day from their - -society, on the ground of having no control over himself. After - -living thirty-seven years in this manner, each individual retires to his own possessions, and lives with less restraint, - -wearing robes of fine linen, and rings of gold, but without profuseness, upon the hands and in the ears. They eat the flesh of - -animals, of those particularly which do not assist man in his - -labour, and abstain from hot and seasoned food. They have - -as many wives as they please with a view to numerous offspring, for from many wives greater advantages are derived. -
As they have no slaves, they require more the services, - -which are at hand, of their children. -
The Brachmanes do not communicate their philosophy to
-
-their wives, for fear they should divulge to the profane, if
-
-
-
-
They discourse much on death, for it is their opinion that - -the present life is the state of one conceived in the womb, and - -that death to philosophers is birth to a real and a happy life. - -They therefore discipline themselves much to prepare for - -death, and maintain that nothing which happens to man is - -bad or good, for otherwise the same things would not be the - -occasion of sorrow to some and of joy to others, opinions being - -merely dreams, nor that the same persons could be affected - -with sorrow and joy by the same things, on different occasions. -
With regard to opinions on physical phenomena, they display,
-
-says Megasthenes, great simplicity, their actions being better
-
-than their reasoning, for their belief is chiefly founded on fables.
-
-On many subjects their sentiments are the same as those of the
-
-Greeks. According to the Brachmanes, the world was created,
-
-and is liable to corruption; it is of a spheroïdal figure; the god
-
-who made and governs it pervades the whole of it; the principles of all things are different, but the principle of the
-
-world's formation was water; in addition to the four elements
-
-there is a fifth nature, of which the heavens and the stars are
-
-composed; the earth is situated in the centre of the universe.
-
-Many other peculiar things they say of the principle of generation and of the soul. They invent fables also, after the manner of Plato, on the immortality of the soul, and on the punishments in Hades, and other things of this kind. This is the
-
-account which Megasthenes gives of the Brachmanes.
-
-
Of the Garmanes, the most honourable, he says, are the
-
-Hylobii, who live in the forests, and subsist on leaves and
-
-wild fruits: they are clothed with garments made of the bark
-
-of trees,
Second in honour to the Hylobii, are the physicians, for - -they apply philosophy to the study of the nature of man. They - -are of frugal habits, but do not live in the fields, and subsist - -upon rice and meal, which every one gives when asked, - -and receive them hospitably. They are able to cause persons - -to have a numerous offspring, and to have either male or female - -children, by means of charms. They cure diseases by diet, - -rather than by medicinal remedies. Among the latter, the most - -in repute are unguents and cataplasms. All others they suppose partake greatly of a noxious nature. -
Both this and the other class of persons practise fortitude, - -as well in supporting active toil as in enduring suffering, so - -that they will continue a whole day in the same posture, without motion. -
There are enchanters and diviners, versed in the rites and
-
-customs relative to the dead, who go about villages and towns
-
-begging. There are others who are more civilized and better
-
-informed than these, who inculcate the vulgar opinions concerning Hades, which, according to their ideas, tend to piety
-
-and sanctity. Women study philosophy with some of them,
-
-but abstain from sexual intercourse.
-
-
Aristobulus says, that he saw at Taxila two sophists - -(wise men), both Brachmanes, the elder had his head shaved, - -but the younger wore his hair; both were attended by disciples. When not otherwise engaged, they spent their time in - -the market-place. They are honoured as public counsellors, - -and have the liberty of taking away, without payment, whatever article they like which is exposed for sale; when any - -one accosts them, he pours over them oil of jessamine, in such - -profusion that it runs down from their eyes. Of honey and - -sesamum, which is exposed for sale in large quantity, they - -take enough to make cakes, and are fed without expense. -
They came up to Alexander's table and took their meal
-
-standing, and they gave an example of their fortitude by retiring to a neighbouring spot, where the elder, falling on the
-
-ground supine, endured the sun and the rain, which had now
-
-set in, it being the commencement of spring. The other stood
-
-on one leg, with a piece of wood three cubits in length raised
-
-in both hands; when one leg was fatigued he changed the
-
-support to the other, and thus continued the whole day. The
-
-younger appeared to possess much more self-command; for,
-
-
-
-
Aristobulus relates also some strange and unusual customs of the people of Taxila. Those, who through poverty - -are unable to marry their daughters, expose them for sale in - -the market-place, in the flower of their age, to the sound of shell - -trumpets and drums, with which the war-note is given. A crowd - -is thus assembled. First her back, as far as the shoulders, is - -uncovered, then the parts in front, for the examination of any - -man who comes for this purpose. If she pleases him, he marries her on such conditions as may be determined upon. -
The dead are thrown out to be devoured by vultures. To
-
-have many wives is a custom common to these and to other
-
-nations. He says, that he had heard, from some persons, of
-
-wives burning themselves voluntarily with their deceased
-
-husbands; and that those women who refused to submit to
-
-this custom were disgraced. The same things have been told
-
-by other writers.
Onesicritus says, that he himself was sent to converse - -with these wise men. For Alexander heard that they went - -about naked, practised constancy and fortitude, and were held - -in the highest honour; that, when invited, they did not go to - -other persons, but commanded others to come to them, if they - -wished to participate in their exercises or their conversation. - -Such being their character, Alexander did not consider it to - -be consistent with propriety to go to them, nor to compel them - -to do anything contrary to their inclination or against the - -custom of their country; he therefore despatched Onesicritus - -to them. -
Onesicritus found, at the distance of 20 stadia from the
-
-city, fifteen men standing in different postures, sitting or
-
-
-
-
He conversed with Calanus, one of these sophists, who
-
-accompanied the king to Persia, and died after the custom of
-
-his country, being placed on a pile of [burning] wood. When
-
-Onesicritus came, he was lying upon stones. Onesicritus
-
-approached, accosted him, and told him that he had been sent
-
-by the king, who had heard the fame of his wisdom, and that
-
-he was to give an account of his interview, if there were no
-
-objection, he was ready to listen to his discourse. When Calanus saw his mantle, head-covering, and shoes, he laughed,
-
-and said, Formerly, there was abundance everywhere of
-
-corn and barley, as there is now of dust; fountains then
-
-flowed with water, milk, honey, wine, and oil, but mankind
-
-by repletion and luxury became proud and insolent. Jupiter,
-
-indignant at this state of things, destroyed all, and appointed
-
-for man a life of toil. On the reappearance of temperance and
-
-other virtues, there was again an abundance of good things.
-
-But at present the condition of mankind approaches satiety
-
-and insolence, and there is danger lest the things which now
-
-exist should disappear.
-
When he had finished, he proposed to Onesicritus, if he
-
-wished to hear his discourse, to strip off his clothes, to lie down
-
-naked by him on the same stones, and in that manner to
-
-listen to him; while he was hesitating what to do, Mandanis,
The tendency of his discourse,
he said, was this, that
-
-the best philosophy was that which liberated the mind from
-
-pleasure and grief; that grief differed from labour, in that
-
-the former was inimical, the latter friendly to men; for that
-
-men exercised their bodies with labour in order to strengthen
-
-the mental powers, by which means they would be able to
-
-put an end to dissensions, and give good counsel to all, to
-
-the public and to individuals; that he certainly should at
-
-present advise Taxiles to receive Alexander as a friend; for
-
-if he entertained a person better than himself, he might be
-
-improved; but if a worse person, he might dispose him to
-
-good.
-
After this Mandanis inquired, whether such doctrines were
-
-taught among the Greeks. Onesicritus answered, that Pythagoras taught a similar doctrine, and enjoined his disciples to
-
-abstain from whatever has life; that Socrates and Diogenes,
-
-whose discourses he had heard, held the same opinions.
-
-Mandanis replied, that in other respects he thought them
-
-wise, but that in one thing they were mistaken, namely, in
-
-preferring custom to nature, for otherwise they would not be
-
-ashamed of going naked, like himself, and of subsisting on
-
-frugal fare; for the best house was that which required
-
-least repairs.
He says also that they employ themselves
-
-much on natural subjects, as prognostics, rain, drought, and
-
-diseases. When they repair to the city, they disperse themselves in the market-places; if they meet any one carrying
-
-figs or bunches of grapes, they take what is offered gratuitously; if it is oil, it is poured over them, and they are
-
-anointed with it. Every wealthy house, even to the women's
-
-apartment, is open to them; when they enter it, they engage in
-
-conversation, and partake of the repast. Disease of the body
-
-they regard as most disgraceful, and he who apprehends it,
-
-after preparing a pyre, destroys himself by fire; he (previously) anoints himself, and sitting down upon it orders it to
-
-be lighted, remaining motionless while he is burning.
-
-
Nearchus gives the following account of the Sophists.
-
-The Brachmanes engage in public affairs, and attend the kings
-
-as counsellors; the rest are occupied in the study of nature.
-
-
-
-
Of the customs of the other Indians, he says, that their laws,
-
-whether relating to the community or to individuals, are not
-
-committed to writing, and differ altogether from those of other
-
-people. For example, it is the practice among some tribes,
-
-to propose virgins as prizes to the conquerors in a trial of skill
-
-in boxing; wherefore they marry without portions; among
-
-other tribes the ground is cultivated by families and in common; when the produce is collected, each takes a load sufficient for his subsistence during the year; the remainder is
-
-burnt, in order to have a reason for renewing their labour, and
-
-not remaining inactive. Their weapons consist of a bow and
-
-arrows, which are three cubits in length, or a javelin, and a
-
-shield, and a sword three cubits long. Instead of bridles, they
-
-use muzzles,
Nearchus, producing proofs of their skill in works of - -art, says, that when they saw sponges in use among the Macedonians, they imitated them by sewing hairs, thin threads, and - -strings in wool; after the wool was felted, they drew out the - -hairs, threads, and strings, and dyed it with colours. There - -quickly appeared also manufactures of brushes for the body, - -and of vessels for oil (lecythi). They write, he says, letters - -upon cloth, smoothed by being well beaten, although other - -authors affirm that they have no knowledge of writing. They - -use brass, which is cast, and not wrought; he does not give - -the reason of this, although he mentions the strange effect, - -namely, if that vessels of this description fall to the ground, - -they break like those made of clay. -
This following custom also is mentioned in accounts of India, that, instead of prostrating themselves before their kings, - -it is usual to address them, and all persons in authority and - -high station, with a prayer. -
The country produces precious stones, as crystal, carbuncles of all kinds, and pearls.
-
-
As an instance of the disagreement among historians,
-
-
-
-
Others say, that a chamber was constructed of wood, which - -was filled with the leaves of trees, and a pyre being raised - -upon the roof, he was shut up in it, according to his directions, - -after the procession, with which he had been accompanied, had - -arrived at the spot. He threw himself upon the pyre, and was - -consumed like a log of wood, together with the chamber. -
Megasthenes says, that self-destruction is not a dogma of
-
-the philosophers, and that those who commit this act are accounted fool-hardy; that some, who are by nature harsh,
-
-inflict wounds upon their ,bodies, or cast themselves down
-
-precipices; those who are impatient of pain drown themselves; those who can endure pain strangle themselves; and
-
-those of ardent tempers throw themselves into the fire. Of
-
-this last description was Calanus, who had no control over
-
-himself, and was a slave to the table of Alexander. Calanus
-
-is censured, while Mandanis is applauded. When Alexander's
-
-messengers invited the latter to come to the son of Jove, promising a reward if he would comply, and threatening punishment if he refused, he answered, Alexander was not the son
-
-of Jove, for he did not govern even the smallest portion of the
-
-earth; nor did he himself desire a gift of one who
Alexander commended and pardoned
-
-him.
-
-who required nothing;
but
Historians also relate that the Indians worship Jupiter
-
-Ombrius (or, the Rainy), the river Ganges, and the indigenous deities of the country; that when the king washes his
-
-hair,
They say, that some of the gold-digging myrmeces (ants)
-
-have wings; and that the rivers, like those of Iberia,
In processions at their festivals, many elephants are in the
-
-train, adorned with gold and silver, numerous carriages
-
-drawn by four horses and by several pairs of oxen; then follows a body of attendants in full dress, (bearing) vessels of
-
-gold, large basins and goblets, an orguiahump-backed oxen,
or zebus.
Cleitarchus speaks of four-wheeled carriages bearing trees
-
-with large leaves, from which were suspended (in cages) different kinds of tame birds, among which the orion
Opposed to the Brachmanes there are philosophers,
-
-called Pramnæ, contentious people, and fond of argument.
-
-They ridicule the Brachmanes as boasters and fools for occupying themselves with physiology and astronomy. Some
-
-of the Pramnæ are called Pramnæ of the mountains, others
-
-Gymnetæ, others again are called Townsmen and Country-
-
-
-
-
The Gymnetæ, as their name imports, are naked and live
-
-chiefly in the open air, practising fortitude for the space of
-
-thirty-seven years; this I have before mentioned; women
-
-live in their society, but without cohabitation. The Gymnetæ
-
-are held in singular estimation.
-
-
The (Pramnæ) Townsmen are occupied in civil affairs, dwell in cities, and wear fine linen, or (as Countrymen
-
-they live) in the fields, clothed in the skins of fawns or antelopes. In short, the Indians wear white garments, white linen
-
-and muslin, contrary to the accounts of those who say that
-
-they wear garments of a bright colour; all of them wear long
-
-hair and long beards, plait their hair, and bind it with a
-
-fillet.
-
-
Artemidorus says that the Ganges descends from the
-
-Emoda mountains and proceeds towards the south; when it
-
-arrives at the city Ganges,
This writer states that at Antioch, near Daphne,
Eight naked servants, with girdles round their waists, and
-
-fragrant with perfumes, presented the gifts which were
-
-brought. The presents were a Hermes (i. e. a man) born
-
-without arms, whom I have seen, large snakes, a serpent ten
-
-cubits in length, a river tortoise of three cubits in length, and a
-
-partridge (?) larger than a vulture. They were accompanied by
-
-the person, it is said, who burnt himself to death at Athens.
-
-This is the practice with persons in distress, who seek escape
-
-from existing calamities, and with others in prosperous circumstances, as was the case with this man. For as everything
-
-hitherto had succeeded with him, he thought it necessary to
-
-depart, lest some unexpected calamity should happen to him
-
-by continuing to live; with a smile, therefore, naked, anointed,
-
-and with the girdle round his waist, he leaped upon the pyre.
-
-On his tomb was this inscription,—ZARMANOCHEGAS,
NEXT to India is Ariana, the first portion of the country
-
-subject to the Persians, lying beyondBeyond,
as Strabo has just been speaking of India, with reference to which Ariana is to the west of the Indus.
The southern side begins from the mouths of the Indus, - -and from Patalene, and terminates at Carmania and the - -mouth of the Persian Gulf, by a promontory projecting a - -considerable distance to the south. It then makes a bend towards the gulf in the direction of Persia. -
The Arbies, who have the same name as the river Arbis,
The greater part of the country inhabited by the
-
-Ichthyophagi is on a level with the sea. No trees, except palms and a kind of thorn, and the tamarisk, grow
-
-there. There is also a scarcity of water, and of food produced by cultivation. Both they and their cattle subsist
-
-upon fish, and are supplied by rain water and wells. The
-
-
-
-
Above the Ichthyophagi is situated Gedrosia,
The summer was purposely chosen for leaving India, for
-
-at that season it rains in Gedrosia, and the rivers and wells
-
-are filled, but in winter they fail. The rain falls in the
-
-higher parts to the north, and near the mountains: when
-
-the rivers swell, the plains near the sea are watered, and the
-
-wells are also filled. Alexander sent persons before him into
-
-the desert country to dig wells and to prepare stations for
-
-himself and his fleet.
-
-
Having separated his forces into three divisions, he set out
-
-with one division through Gedrosia, keeping at the utmost from
-
-the sea not more than 500 stadia, in order to secure the coast for
-
-his fleet; but he frequently approached the sea-side, although
-
-the beach was impracticable and rugged. The second division
-
-he sent forward under the command of Craterus through the
-
-interior, with a view of reducing Ariana, and of proceeding to the same places to which he himself was directing his
-
-march. (The third division), the fleet he intrusted to Nearchus and Onesicritus, his master pilot, giving them orders to
-
-
-
-
5 Nearchus says, that while Alexander was on his march,
-
-he himself commenced his voyage, in the autumn, about the
-
-achronical rising of the Pleiades,
Alexander was greatly distressed throughout the whole
-
-march, as his road lay through a barren country. The supplies of provisions which he obtained came from a distance,
-
-and were scanty and unfrequent, so much so that the army
-
-suffered greatly from hunger, the beasts of burden dropped
-
-down, and the baggage was abandoned, both on the march
-
-and in the camp. The army was saved by eating dates and
-
-the marrow of the palm-tree.
Alexander however (says Nearchus), although acquainted
-
-with the hardships of the enterprise, was ambitious of conducting this large army in safety, as a conqueror, through
-
-the same country where, according to the prevailing report,
-
-Semiramis escaped by flight from India with about twenty,
-
-and Cyrus with about seven men.
-
-
Besides the want of provisions, the scorching heat was
-
-distressing, as also the deep and burning sand. In some
-
-places there were sand-hills, so that in addition to the difficulty of lifting the legs, as out of a pit, there were ascents
-
-and descents. It was necessary also, on account of the watering places, to make long marches of two, four, and sometimes
-
-even of six hundred stadia, for the most part during the night.
-
-Frequently the encampment was at a distance of 30 stadia
-
-from the watering places, in order that the soldiers might
-
-
-
-
The guides, through ignorance, deviated so far into the interior, that the sea was no longer in sight. The king, perceiving the danger, immediately set out in search of the coast;
-
-when he had discovered it, and by sinking wells had found
-
-water fit for drinking, he sent for the army: afterwards he
-
-continued his march for seven days near the shore, with a
-
-good supply of water. He then again returned into the interior.
-
-
There was a plant resembling the laurel, which if eaten - -by the beasts of burden caused them to die of epilepsy, accompanied with foaming at the mouth. A thorn also, the fruit - -of which, like gourds, strewed the ground, and was full of a - -juice; if drops of it fell into the eyes of any kind of animal - -it became completely blind. Many persons were suffocated - -by eating unripe dates. Danger also was to be apprehended - -from serpents; for on the sand-hills there grew a plant, underneath which they crept and hid themselves. The persons - -wounded by them died. -
The Oritæ, it was said, smeared the points of their arrows,
-
-which were of wood hardened in the fire, with deadly poisons.
-
-When Ptolemy was wounded and in danger of his life a person appeared in a dream to Alexander, and showed him a
-
-root with leaves and branches, which he told him to bruise
-
-and place upon the wound. Alexander awoke from his dream,
-
-and remembering the vision, searched and found the root
-
-growing in abundance, of which both he and others made use;
-
-
-
-
Having arrived at the palace
The position of the southern side of Ariana is thus situated, with reference to the sea-coast, the country of the
-
-Gedrosii and the Oritæ lying near and above it. A great
-
-part of Gedrosia extends into the interior until it touches
-
-upon the Drangæ, Arachoti, and Paropamisadæ, of whom
-
-Eratosthenes speaks in the following manner: we cannot give
-
-a better description. Ariana,
he says, "is bounded on the
-
-east by the Indus, on the south by the Great Sea, on the north
-
-by the Paropamisus and the succeeding chain of mountains as
-
-far as the Caspian Gates, on the west by the same limits
The breadth of the country is the length of the Indus,
-
-reckoned from the Paropamisus as far as the mouths of that
-
-river, and amounts to 12,000, or according to others to 13,000,
-
-stadia. The length, beginning from the Caspian Gates, as it
-
-is laid down in Asiatic Stathmi,
The order in which these nations are disposed is as follows. Along the Indus are the Paropamisadæ, above whom
-
-lies the mountain Paropamisus; then towards the south are
-
-the Arachoti; then next to these towards the south, the
-
-Gedroseni, together with other tribes who occupy the sea-coast; the Indus runs parallel along the breadth of these
-
-tracts. The Indians occupy [in part]
The Arii are situated on the west, by the side of the Paropamisadæ, and the Drangæ
We shall better understand the position of the places
-
-about the above-mentioned mountainous tract, if we further
-
-examine the route which Alexander took from the Parthian
-
-territory to Bactriana, when he was in pursuit of Bessus.
-
-He came first to Ariana, next to the Drangæ, where he put
-
-to death Philotas, the son of Parmenio, having detected his
-
-traitorous intentions. He despatched persons to Ecbatana
The Drangæ resemble the Persians in all other respects in
-
-their mode of life, except that they have little wine. Tin is
-
-found in the country.
Alexander next went from the Drangæ to the Euergetæ,benefactors,
in consideration of the services which they had rendered in his expedition against the Scythians.
The southern parts of the Paropamisus belong to India and
-
-Ariana; the northern parts towards the west belong to Bactriana [towards the east to Sogdiana * *
Chaarene is situated somewhere about this part of the
-
-country bordering upon India. This, of all the places subject
-
-to the Parthians, lies nearest to India. It is distant 10,000 or
-
-
-
-
It is probable that those who sailed in the expedition
-
-greatly exaggerated many circumstances; yet their statements
-
-prove the sufferings to which they were exposed, and that
-
-their apprehensions were greater than the real danger. That
-
-which alarmed them the most was the magnitude of the
-
-whales, which occasioned great commotion in the sea from
-
-their numbers; their blowing was attended with so great
-
-a darkness, that the sailors could not see where they stood.
-
-But when the pilots informed the sailors, who were terrified
-
-at the sight and ignorant of the cause, that they were animals
-
-which might easily be driven away by the sound of a trumpet,
-
-and by loud noises, Nearchus impelled the vessels with violence in the direction of the impediment, and at the same
-
-time frightened the animals with the sound of trumpets. The
-
-whales dived, and again rose at the prow of the vessels, so as
-
-to give the appearance of a naval combat; but they soon
-
-made off.
-
-
Those who now sail to India speak of the size of these
-
-animals and their mode of appearance, but as coming neither
-
-in bodies nor frequently, yet as repulsed by shouts and by
-
-the sound of trumpets. They affirm that they do not approach
-
-the land, but that the bones of those which die, bared of flesh,
-
-are readily thrown up by the waves, and supply the Ichthyophagi with the above-mentioned material for the construction
-
-of their cabins. According to Nearchus, the size of these
-
-animals is three and twenty orguiæ in length.
Nearchus says that he proved the confident belief of the - -sailors in the existence of an island situated in the passage, - -and destructive to those who anchored near it, to be false. -
A bark in its course, when it came opposite to this island,
-
-was never afterwards seen, and some men who were sent in
-
-search did not venture to disembark upon the island, but
-
-shouted and called to the crew, when, receiving no answer,
-
-they returned. But as all imputed this disappearance to the
-
-island, Nearchus said that he himself sailed to it, went ashore,
-
-disembarked with a part of his crew, and went round it.
-
-But not discovering any trace of those of whom he was
-
-in search, he abandoned the attempt, and informed his men
-
-that no fault was to be imputed to the island (for otherwise
-
-destruction would have come upon himself and those who
-
-disembarked with him), but that some other cause (and innumerable others were possible) might have occasioned the loss
-
-of the vessel.
-
-
Carmania is the last portion of the sea-coast which begins
-
-from the Indus. Its first promontory projects towards the
-
-south into the Great Sea.Sea
words which he thinks are here omitted; upon insufficient grounds, however, according to Kramer.
Carmania is large, situated in the interior, and extending - -itself between Gedrosia and Persia, but stretches more to the - -north than Gedrosia. This is indicated by its fertility, for it - -not only produces everything, but the trees are of a large - -size, excepting however the olive; it is also watered by rivers. - -Gedrosia also differs little from the country of the Ichthyophagi, so that frequently there is no produce from the - -ground. They therefore keep the annual produce in store - -for several years. -
Onesicritus says, that a river in Carmania brings down gold-dust; that there are mines of silver, copper, and minium; and - -that there are two mountains, one of which contains arsenic, - -the other salt. -
There belongs to it a desert tract, which is contiguous to
-
-Parthia and Parætacene. The produce of the ground is like
-
-that of Persia; and among other productions the vine. The
-
-
-
-
Asses, on account of the scarcity of horses, are generally - -made use of even in war. They sacrifice an ass to Mars, who - -is the only deity worshipped by them, for they are a warlike - -people. No one marries before he has cut off the head of an - -enemy and presented it to the king, who deposits the scull in - -the royal treasury. The tongue is minced and mixed with - -flour, which the king, after tasting it, gives to the person who - -brought it, to be eaten by himself and his family. That king - -is the most highly respected, to whom the greatest number of - -heads are presented. -
According to Nearchus, most of the customs and the language of the inhabitants of Carmania resemble those of the - -Persians and Medes. -
The passage across the mouth of the Persian Gulf does not - -occupy more than one day. - - -
NEXT to Carmania is Persis. A great part of it extends - -along the coast of the Gulf, which has its name from the - -country, but a much larger portion stretches into the interior, - -and particularly in its length, reckoned from the south, and - -Carmania to the north, and to the nations of Media. -
It is of a threefold character, as we regard its natural condition and the quality of the air. First, the coast, extending
-
-for about 4400 or 4300 stadia, is burnt up with heat; it is
-
-sandy, producing little except palm trees, and terminates at
-
-the greatest river in those parts, the name of which is Oroatis.
The third portion lies towards the north, and is bleak and
-
-mountainous. On its borders live the camel-breeders.
-
-
-
-
Its length, according to Eratosthenes, towards the north and
-
-Media,Media
for Caspian Gates
in the text: and insert 9000 stadia,
here from b. ii. c. i. § 26, and, following the same authority, 3000 for 2000 stadia in the text below.
The tribes inhabiting this country are those called the Pateischoreis, the Achæmenidæ, and Magi; these last affect a sedate mode of life; the Curtii and Mardi are robbers, the rest
-
-are husbandmen.
-
-
Susis also is almost a part of Persis. It lies between Persis and Babylonia, and has a very considerable city, Susa. - -For the Persians and Cyrus, after the conquest of the Medes, - -perceiving that their own country was situated towards the - -extremities, but Susis more towards the interior, nearer also - -to Babylon and the other nations, there placed the royal seat of - -the empire. They were pleased with its situation on the confines of Persis, and with the importance of the city; besides the - -consideration that it had never of itself undertaken any great - -enterprise, had always been in subjection to other people, and - -constituted a part of a greater body, except, perhaps, anciently - -in the heroic times. -
It is said to have been founded by Tithonus, the father of
-
-Memnon. Its compass was 120 stadia. Its shape was oblong. The Acropolis was called Memnonium. The Susians
-
-have the name also of Cissii. Æschylus
They embellished the palace at Susa more than the rest,
-
-but they did not hold in less veneration and honour the
-
-
-
-
This was the state of things during the empire of the Persians. But afterwards different princes occupied different
-
-palaces; some, as was natural, less sumptuous, after the power
-
-of Persis had been reduced first by the Macedonians, and
-
-secondly still more by the Parthians. For although the
-
-Persians have still a kingly government, and a king of their
-
-own, yet their power is very much diminished, and they are
-
-subject to the king of Parthia.
-
-
Susa is situated in the interior, upon the river Choaspes, - -beyond the bridge; but the territory extends to the sea: and - -the sea-coast of this territory, from the borders of the Persian - -coast nearly as far as the mouths of the Tigris, is a distance - -of about 3000 stadia. -
The Choaspes flows through Susis, terminating on the same
-
-coast, and has its source in the territory of the Uxii.
Polycletus says, that the Choaspes, and the Eulæus,
According to Nearchus, the sea-coast of Susis is swampy,
-
-and terminates at the river Euphrates; at its mouth is a village,
-
-which receives the merchandise from Arabia; for the coast
-
-of Arabia approaches close to the mouths of the Euphrates
-
-and the Pasitigris; the whole intermediate space is occupied
-
-by a lake which receives the Tigris; on sailing up the Pasitigris 150 stadia is the bridge of rafts leading to Susa from Persis, and is distant from Susa 60 (600?) stadia; the Pasitigris
-
-is distant from the Oroatis about 2000 stadia; the ascent
-
-through the lake to the mouth of the Tigris is 600 (6000?)
-
-stadia;
Onesicritus says that all the rivers discharge themselves
-
-into the lake, both the Euphrates and the Tigris; and that
-
-the Euphrates, again issuing from the lake, discharges itself
-
-into the sea by a separate mouth.
-
-
There are many other narrow defiles in passing out - -through the territory of the Uxii, and entering Persis. These - -Alexander forced in his march through the country at the - -Persian Gates, and at other places, when he was hastening to - -see the principal parts of Persis, and the treasure-holds, in - -which wealth had been accumulated during the long period - -that Asia was tributary to Persis. -
He crossed many rivers, which flow through the country - -and discharge themselves into the Persian Gulf. -
Next to the Choaspes are the Copratas
He next came to Pasargadæ,
Such is the account of Aristobulus, who records the following
-
-inscription on the tomb. "O MAN, I AM CYRUS,Son of Cambyses.
Onesicritus however says that the tower had ten stories,
-
-that Cyrus lay in the uppermost, and that there was an inscription in Greek, cut in Persian letters, I CYRUS, KING OF
-
-KINGS, LIE HERE.
And another inscription to the same effect
-
-in the Persian language.
-
-
Onesicritus mentions also this inscription on the tomb of
-
-Darius: "I WAS A FRIEND TO MY FRIENDS, I WAS THE FIRST
-
-OF HORSEMEN AND ARCHERS, I EXCELLED AS HUNTER, I COULD
-
-DO EVERYTHING.
-
-
-
-
Aristus of Salamis, a writer of a much later age than these, - -says, that the tower consisted of two stories, and was large; - -that it was built at the time the Persians succeeded to the - -kingdom (of the Medes); that the tomb was preserved; - -that the above-mentioned inscription was in the Greek, and - -that there was another to the same purport in the Persian - -language. -
Cyrus held in honour Pasargadæ, because he there conquered, in his last battle, Astyages the Mede, and transferred
-
-to himself the empire of Asia; he raised it to the rank of a city,
-
-and built a palace in memory of his victory.
-
-
Alexander transferred everything that was precious in - -Persis to Susa, which was itself full of treasures and costly - -materials; he did not, however, consider this place, but Babylon, as - -the royal residence, and intended to embellish it. - -There too his treasure was deposited. -
They say that, besides the treasures in Babylon and in the
-
-camp of Alexander, which were not included in the sum, the
-
-treasure found at Susa and in Persis was reckoned to amount
-
-to 40,000, and according to some writers to 50,000, talents.
-
-But others say, that the whole treasure, collected from all
-
-quarters, and transported to Ecbatana, amounted to 180,000
-
-talents, and that the 8,000 talents which Darius carried
-
-away with him in his flight from Media became the booty of
-
-those who put him to death.
-
-
Alexander preferred Babylon, because he saw that it - -far surpassed the other cities in magnitude, and had other - -advantages. Although Susis is fertile, it has a glowing and - -scorching atmosphere, particularly near the city, as he - -(Aristobulus?) says. Lizards and serpents at mid-day in the summer, - -when the sun is at its greatest height, cannot cross the - -streets of the city quick enough to prevent their being burnt - -to death mid-way by the heat. This happens nowhere in - -Persis, although it lies more towards the south. -
Cold water for baths is suddenly heated by exposure to the
-
-sun. Barley spread out in the sun is roasted
The beam made of the palm tree has a peculiar property, - -for although it retains its solidity, it does not as it grows old - -give way downwards, but curves upwards with the weight, and - -is a better support to the roof. -
The cause of the scorching heat is said to be high, overhanging
-
-mountains on the north, which intercept the northern
-
-winds. These, blowing from the tops of the mountains at a
-
-great height, fly over without touching the plains, to the
-
-more southern parts of Susis. There the air is still, particularly
-
-when the Etesian winds cool the other parts of the
-
-country which are burnt up by heat.
-
-
Susis is so fertile in grain, that barley and wheat produce, - -generally, one hundred, and sometimes two hundred - -fold. Hence the furrows are not ploughed close together, for - -the roots when crowded impede the sprouting of the plant. -
The vine did not grow there before the Macedonians planted it, - -both there and at Babylon. They do not dig trenches, - -but thrust down into the ground iron-headed stakes, which - -when drawn out are immediately replaced by the plants. -
Such is the character of the inland parts. The sea-coast is
-
-marshy and without harbours; hence Nearchus says, that he
-
-met with no native guides, when coasting with his fleet from
-
-India to Babylonia, for nowhere could his vessels put in, nor
-
-was he able to procure persons who could direct him by their
-
-knowledge and experience.
-
-
The part of Babylonia formerly called Sitacene, and
-
-afterwards Apolloniatis,
Above both, on the north and towards the east, are the Elymæi
Such is the nature of the countries of Persis and Susiana.
-
-
The manners and customs of the Persians are the same - -as those of the Susians and the Medes, and many other people; and - -they have been described by several writers, yet I - -must mention what is suitable to my purpose. -
The Persians do not erect statues nor altars, but, considering the heaven as Jupiter, sacrifice on a high place.
After the Magus, who directs the sacrifice, has divided the
-
-flesh, each goes away with his share, without setting apart
-
-any portion to the gods; for the god, they say, requires the soul
-
-of the victim, and nothing more. Nevertheless, according to
-
-some writers, they lay a small piece of the caul upon the fire.
-
-
But it is to fire and water especially that they offer - -sacrifice. They throw upon the fire dry wood without the - -bark, and place fat over it; they then pour oil upon it, and - -light it below; they do not blow the flame with their breath, - -but fan it; those who have blown the flame with their breath, - -or thrown any dead thing or dirt upon the fire, are put to - -death. -
They sacrifice to water by going to a lake, river, or fountain; having dug a pit, they slaughter the victim over it,
-
-taking care that none of the pure water near be sprinkled
-
-with blood, and thus be polluted. They then lay the flesh in
-
-order upon myrtle or laurel branches; the Magi touch it with
-
-slender twigs,
15 In Cappadocia (for in this country there is a great body
-
-of Magi, called Pyræthi,who kindle fire.
The Persians have also certain large shrines, called
-
-Pyrætheia.
The Persians never pollute a river with urine, nor wash
-
-nor bathe in it; they never throw a dead body, nor anything
-
-unclean, into it. To whatever god they intend to sacrifice,
-
-they first address a prayer to fire.
-
-
They are governed by hereditary kings. Disobedience - -is punished by the head and arms being cut off, and the body - -cast forth. They marry many women, and maintain at the - -same time a great number of concubines, with a view to a - -numerous offspring. -
The kings propose annual prizes for a numerous family of - -children. Children are not brought into the presence of their - -parents until they are four years old. -
Marriages are celebrated at the beginning of the vernal
-
-equinox. The bridegroom passes into the bride-chamber, having previously eaten some fruit, or camel's marrow, but nothing
-
-else during the day.
-
-
From the age of five to twenty-four years they are
-
-taught to use the bow, to throw the javelin, to ride, and to
-
-speak the truth. They have the most virtuous preceptors,
-
-
-
-
The youths are called to rise before day-break, at the sound - -of brazen instruments, and assemble in one spot, as if for arming - -themselves or for the chase. They are arranged in companies - -of fifty, to each of which one of the king's or a satrap's son - -is appointed as leader, who runs, followed at command by the - -others, an appointed distance of thirty or forty stadia. -
They require them to give an account of each lesson, when
-
-they practise loud speaking, and exercise the breath and lungs.
-
-They are taught to endure heat, cold, and rains; to cross torrents, and keep their armour and clothes dry; to pasture
-
-animals, to watch all night in the open air, and to eat wild
-
-fruits, as the terminthus,
[These persons are called Cardaces, who live upon plunder,
-
-for carda
means a manly and warlike spirit.]Barbari milites quos Persæ Cardacas appellant,
(Cornel. Nepos,) without doubt were Assyrian and Armenian Carduci. See b. xvi. c. i. § 24, and Xenoph. Anab. iv. 3. Later Gordyæi or Gordyeni, now the Kurds.
The daily food after the exercise of the gymnasium is
-
-bread, a cake, cardamum,lepidum perfoliatum
of Linnæus, or the nasturtium orientale
of Tournefort. Xenophon also, Expedit. Cyr. iii. 5 and vii. 8, speaks of the great use made of this plant by the Persians.
Their mode of hunting is by throwing spears from horseback, or - -with the bow or the sling. -
In the evening they are employed in planting trees, cutting
-
-roots, fabricating armour, and making lines and nets. The
-
-youth do not eat the game, but carry it home. The king gives
-
-rewards for running, and to the victors in the other contests
-
-of the pentathla (or five games). The youths are adorned with
-
-gold, esteeming it for its fiery appearance. They do not ornament the
-
-dead with gold, nor apply fire to them, on account
-
-of its being an object of veneration.
-
-
They serve as soldiers in subordinate stations, and in
-
-
-
-
The dress of the chiefs consists of triple drawers, a double - -tunic with sleeves reaching to the knees; the under garment - -is white, the upper of a variegated colour. The cloak for - -summer is of a purple or violet colour, but for winter of a - -variegated colour. The turbans are similar to those of the - -Magi; and a deep double shoe. The generality of people - -wear a double tunic reaching to the half of the leg. A piece - -of fine linen is wrapped round the head. Each person has a - -bow and a sling. -
The entertainments of the Persians are expensive. They
-
-set upon their table entire animals in great number, and of
-
-various kinds. Their couches, drinking-cups, and other articles
-
-are so brilliantly ornamented that they gleam with gold and
-
-silver.
-
-
Their consultations on the most important affairs are - -carried on while they are drinking, and they consider the resolutions made at that time more to be depended upon than - -those made when sober. -
On meeting persons of their acquaintance, and of equal - -rank with themselves, on the road, they approach and kiss - -them, but to persons of an inferior station they offer the - -cheek, and in that manner receive the kiss. But to persons - -of still lower condition they only bend the body. -
Their mode of burial is to smear the bodies over with wax, - -and then to inter them. The Magi are not buried, but the - -birds are allowed to devour them. These persons, according - -to the usage of the country, espouse even their mothers. -
Such are the customs of the Persians.
-
-
The following, mentioned by Polycletus, are perhaps - -customary practices: -
At Susa each king builds in the citadel, as memorials of - -the administration of his government, a dwelling for himself, - -treasure-houses, and magazines for tribute collected (in kind). -
From the sea-coast they obtain silver, from the interior the
-
-
-
-Longhand
here given to Darius are assigned by others to Artaxerxes. It was in fact the latter to whom this surname was given, according to Plutarch, in consequence of the right arm being longer than the left. Therefore Falconer considers this passage an interpolation.
Their habits are in general temperate. But their
-
-kings, from the great wealth which they possessed, degenerated into a luxurious way of life. They sent for wheat from
-
-Assos in Æolia, for ChalybonianThe Chalybonean wine, Posidonius says, is made in Damascus in Syria, from vines which were planted there by the Persians.
Of the barbarians the Persians were the best known - -to the Greeks, for none of the other barbarians who governed - -Asia governed Greece. The barbarians were not acquainted - -with the Greeks, and the Greeks were but slightly acquainted, - -and by distant report only, with the barbarians. As an instance, - -Homer was not acquainted with the empire of the Syrians - -nor of the Medes, for otherwise as he mentions the wealth of - -Egyptian Thebes and of Phœnicia, he would not have passed - -over in silence the wealth of Babylon, of Ninus, and of - -Ecbatana. -
The Persians were the first people that brought Greeks
-
-under their dominion; the Lydians (before them) did the
-
-
-
-
The Persians, (on the contrary, increased in power and,)as
-
-soon as they had destroyed the Median empire, subdued the
-
-Lydians and brought the Greeks of Asia under their dominion.
-
-At a later period they even passed over into Greece and were
-
-worsted in many great battles, but still they continued to
-
-keep possession of Asia, as far as the places on the sea-coast,
-
-until they were completely subdued by the Macedonians.
-
-
The founder of their empire was Cyrus. He was succeeded by his son Cambyses, who was put to death by the Magi.
-
-The seven Persians who killed the Magi delivered the kingdom into the hands of Darius, the son of Hystaspes. The
-
-succession terminated with Arses, whom Bagous the eunuch
-
-having killed set up Darius, who was not of the royal family.
-
-Alexander overthrew Darius, and reigned himself twelve
-
-years.ten or eleven years,
which reading is contrary to all other authorities, and is rejected by Kramer.
At present the Persians are a separate people, governed by
-
-kings, who are subject to other kings; to the kings of Macedon in
-
-former times, but now to those of Parthia.
-
-
-
-
SUMMARY.
-The sixteenth Book contains Assyria, in which are the great cities Babylon - -and Nisibis; Adiabene, Mesopotamia, all Syria; Phœnicia, Palestine; the - -whole of Arabia; all that part of India which touches upon Arabia; the - -territory of the Saracens, called by our author Scenitis; and the whole - -country bordering the Dead and Red Seas.
ASSYRIA is contiguous to Persia and Susiana. This
-
-name is given to Babylonia, and to a large tract of country
-
-around; this tract contains Aturia,
The name of Syrians seems to extend from Babylonia as - -far as the Bay of Issus, and, anciently, from this bay to the - -Euxine. -
Both tribes of the Cappadocians, those near the Taurus
-
-and those near the Pontus, are called to this time Leuco-Syrians (or
-
-White Syrians),
When the historians of the Syrian empire say that the
-
-Medes were overthrown by the Persians, and the Syrians by
-
-the Medes, they mean no other Syrians than those who built
-
-the royal palaces at Babylon and Nineveh; and Ninus, who
-
-built Nineveh in Aturia, was one of these Syrians. His wife,
-
-who succeeded her husband, and founded Babylon, was Semiramis. These sovereigns were masters of Asia. Many other
-
-works of Semiramis, besides those at Babylon, are extant in
-
-almost every part of this continent, as, for example, artificial
-
-mounds, which are called mounds of Semiramis, and walls
The empire they left continued with their successors to the
-
-time of [the contest between] Sardanapalus and Arbaces.
The city Nineveh was destroyed immediately upon the
-
-overthrow of the Syrians.
In Aturia is situated Gaugamela, a village where Darius
-
-was defeated and lost his kingdom. This place is remarkable
-
-for its name, which, when interpreted, signifies the Camel's
-
-House. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, gave it this name, and
-
-assigned (the revenues of) the place for the maintenance of a
-
-camel, which had undergone the greatest possible labour and
-
-fatigue in the journey through the deserts of Scythia, when
-
-carrying baggage and provision for the king. The Macedonians,
-
-observing that this was a mean village, but Arbela a
-
-considerable settlement (founded, as it is said, by Arbelus,
-
-son of Athmoneus), reported that the battle was fought and
-
-the victory obtained near Arbela, which account was transmitted to historians.
-
-
After Arbela and the mountain Nicatorium
Babylon itself also is situated in a plain. The wall is
-
-385
The ascent to the highest story is by stairs, and at their - -side are water engines, by means of which persons, appointed - -expressly for the purpose, are continually employed in raising - -water from the Euphrates into the garden. For the river, - -which is a stadium in breadth, flows through the middle of - -the city, and the garden is on the side of the river. The - -tomb also of Belus is there. At present it is in ruins, having - -been demolished, as it is said, by Xerxes. It was a quadrangular pyramid of baked brick, a stadium in height, and each of - -the sides a stadium in length. Alexander intended to repair - -it. It was a great undertaking, and required a long time for - -its completion (for ten thousand men were occupied two - -months in clearing away the mound of earth), so that he was - -not able to execute what he had attempted, before disease - -hurried him rapidly to his end. None of the persons who - -succeeded him attended to this undertaking; other works also - -were neglected, and the city was dilapidated, partly by the - -Persians, partly by time, and, through the indifference of the - -Macedonians to things of this kind, particularly after Seleucus - -Nicator had fortified Seleucia on the Tigris near Babylon, at - -the distance of about 300 stadia. -
Both this prince and all his successors directed their care to
-
-that city, and transferred to it the seat of empire. At present
-
-it is larger than Babylon; the other is in great part deserted,
-
-so that no one would hesitate to apply to it what one of the
-
-comic writers said of Megalopolitæ in Arcadia,
-
-
-
-On account of the scarcity of timber, the beams and pillars
-
-of the houses were made of palm wood. They wind ropes of
-
-twisted reed round the pillars, paint them over with colours,
-
-and draw designs upon them; they cover the doors with a
-
-coat of asphaltus. These are lofty, and all the houses are
-
-vaulted on account of the want of timber. For the country
-
-is bare, a great part of it is covered with shrubs, and produces
-
-
-
-The great city is a great desert.
They do not use tiles for their houses, because there are
-
-no great rains. The case is the same in Susiana and in
-
-Sitacene.
-
-
In Babylon a residence was set apart for the native
-
-philosophers called Chaldæans, who are chiefly devoted to the
-
-study of astronomy. Some, who are not approved of by the
-
-rest, profess to understand genethlialogy, or the casting of
-
-nativities. There is also a tribe of Chaldæans, who inhabit a
-
-district of Babylonia, in the neighbourhood of the Arabians,
-
-and of the sea called the Persian Sea.
Borsippa is a city sacred to Diana and Apollo. Here is
-
-a large linen manufactory. Bats of much larger size than
-
-those in other parts abound in it. They are caught and salted for food.
-
-
The country of the Babylonians is surrounded on the
-
-east by the Susans, Elymæi, and Parætaceni; on the south by
-
-the Persian Gulf, and the Chaldæans as far as the Arabian
-
-Meseni; on the west by the Arabian Scenitæ as far as Adiabene and Gordyæa; on the north by the Armenians and
-
-Medes as far as the Zagrus, and the nations about that river.
-
-
The country is intersected by many rivers, the largest
-
-of which are the Euphrates and the Tigris: next to the
-
-Indian rivers, the rivers in the southern parts of Asia are
-
-said to hold the second place. The Tigris is navigable upwards from
-
-its mouth to Opis,
It is not, perhaps, possible to prevent inundations of
-
-this kind altogether, but it is the duty of good princes to afford all possible assistance. The assistance required is to
-
-prevent excessive overflow by the construction of dams, and
-
-to obviate the filling of rivers, produced by the accumulation
-
-of mud, by cleansing the canals, and removing stoppages at
-
-their mouths. The cleansing of the canals is easily performed,
-
-but the construction of dams requires the labour of numerous
-
-workmen. For the earth being soft and yielding, does not
-
-support the superincumbent mass, which sinks, and is itself
-
-carried away, and thus a difficulty arises in making dams at
-
-the mouth. Expedition is necessary in closing the canals to
-
-prevent all the water flowing out. When the canals dry up
-
-in the summer time, they cause the river to dry up also;
-
-and if the river is low (before the canals are closed), it cannot supply the canals in time with water, of which the country, burnt up and scorched, requires a very large quan-
-
-
-
-
Aristobulus relates that Alexander himself, when he - -was sailing up the river, and directing the course of the boat, - -inspected the canals, and ordered them to be cleared by his - -multitude of followers; he likewise stopped up some of the - -mouths, and opened others. He observed that one of these - -canals, which took a direction more immediately to the marshes, - -and to the lakes in front of Arabia, had a mouth very difficult - -to be dealt with, and which could not be easily closed on account of the soft and yielding nature of the soil; he (therefore) opened a new mouth at the distance of 30 stadia, selecting a place with a rocky bottom, and to this the current was - -diverted. But in doing this he was taking precautions that - -Arabia should not become entirely inaccessible in consequence - -of the lakes and marshes, as it was already almost an island - -from the quantity of water (which surrounded it). For he - -contemplated making himself master of this country; and he - -had already provided a fleet and places of rendezvous; and - -had built vessels in Phœnicia and at Cyprus, some of which - -were in separate pieces, others were in parts, fastened together - -by bolts. These, after being conveyed to Thapsacus in seven - -distances of a day's march, were then to be transported down - -the river to Babylon. He constructed other boats in Babylonia, from cypress trees in the groves and parks, for there is - -a scarcity of timber in Babylonia. Among the Cossæi, and - -some other tribes, the supply of timber is not great, -
The pretext for the war, says Aristobulus, was that the - -Arabians were the only people who did not send their ambassadors to - -Alexander; but the true reason was his ambition to be lord of all. -
When he was informed that they worshipped two deities
-
-only, Jupiter and Bacchus, who supply what is most requisite
-
-for the subsistence of mankind, he supposed that, after his
-
-conquests, they would worship him as a third, if he permitted
-
-
-
-
Eratosthenes, when he is speaking of the lakes near
-
-Arabia, says, that the water, when it cannot find an outlet,
-
-opens passages underground, and is conveyed through these
-
-as far as the Cœle-Syrians,Joppa in Cœle-Syria;
and Polybius, v. 80, § 2, of Rhinocolura, the first of the cities in Cœle-Syria;
and Josephus, Ant. Jud. xiii. 13, § 2, of Scythopolis of Cœle-Syria.
Rhinocolura in Cœle-Syria and Mt. Casius,
the Casius near Egypt. Our author properly observes that the length and nature of the course contradicts this hypothesis: but, misled by the names Cœle-Syria and Casius, he forgets that the Casius of Egypt and the district bordering upon Egypt, improperly called Cœle-Syria, are here in question; he transfers the first name to Cœle-Syria of Libanus, and the second to Mt. Casius near Seleucia and Antioch, and adds that, according to the notion of Eratosthenes, the waters of the Euphrates would have to traverse Libanus, Antilibanus, and the Casius (of Syria), whilst Eratosthenes has not, and could not, say any such thing. The hypothesis of Eratosthenes could not, indeed, be maintained, but Strabo renders it absurd. The error of our author is the more remarkable, as the name of the city Rhinocolura ought necessarily to have suggested to him the sense in which the words Casius and Cœle Syria should be understood.
Such, then, are the accounts of Eratosthenes and Aristobulus.
-
-
But Polycleitus says, that the Euphrates does not overflow its banks, because its course is through large plains; that
-
-of the mountains (from which it is supplied), some are distant
-
-2000, and the Cossæan mountains scarcely 1000 stadia, that
-
-they are not very high, nor covered with snow to a great
-
-depth, and therefore do not occasion the snow to melt in great
-
-masses, for the most elevated mountains are in the northern
-
-parts above Ecbatana; towards the south they are divided,
-
-spread out, and are much lower; the Tigris also receives the
-
-greater part of the water [which comes down from them],
-
-and thus overflows its banks.
The last assertion is evidently absurd, because the Tigris - -descends into the same plains (as the Euphrates); and the - -above-mentioned mountains are not of the same height, the - -northern being more elevated, the southern extending in - -breadth, but are of a lower altitude. The quantity of snow is - -not, however, to be estimated by altitude only, but by aspect. - -The same mountain has more snow on the northern than on - -the southern side, and the snow continues longer on the former - -than on the latter. As the Tigris therefore receives from the - -most southern parts of Armenia, which are near Babylon, the - -water of the melted snow, of which there is no great quantity, - -since it comes from the southern side, it should overflow in a - -less degree than the Euphrates, which receives the water - -from both parts (northern and southern); and not from a - -single mountain only, but from many, as I have mentioned in - -the description of Armenia. To this we must add the length - -of the river, the large tract of country which it traverses in - -the Greater and in the Lesser Armenia, the large space it - -takes in its course in passing out of the Lesser Armenia and - -Cappadocia, after issuing out of the Taurus in its way to - -Thapsacus (forming the boundary between Syria below and - -Mesopotamia), and the large remaining portion of country as - -far as Babylon and to its mouth, a course in all of 36,000 - -stadia. -
This, then, on the subject of the canals (of Babylonia).
-
-
-
-
Babylonia produces barley in larger quantity than any
-
-other
It is said that there is a Persian song in which are reckoned up 360 useful properties of the palm. -
They employ for the most part the oil of sesamum, a plant
-
-which is rare in other places.
-
-
Asphaltus is found in great abundance in Babylonia. - -Eratosthenes describes it as follows. -
The liquid asphaltus, which is called naphtha, is found in
-
-Susiana; the dry kind, which can be made solid, in Babylonia. There is a spring of it near the Euphrates. When
-
-this river overflows at the time of the melting of the snow,
-
-the spring also of asphaltus is filled, and overflows into the
-
-river, where large clods are consolidated, fit for buildings
-
-constructed of baked bricks. Others say that the liquid kind
-
-also is found in Babylonia. With respect to the solid kind, I
-
-have described its great utility in the construction of buildings. They say that boats (of reeds) are woven,
Poseidonius says that there are springs of naphtha in Babylonia, some of which produce white, others black, naphtha; the
-
-first of these, I mean the white naphtha, which attracts flame,
-
-
-
-
In former times the capital of Assyria was Babylon; it
-
-is now called Seleuceia upon the Tigris. Near it is a large
-
-village called Ctesiphon. This the Parthian kings usually
-
-made their winter residence, with a view to spare the Seleucians the burden of furnishing quarters for the Scythian soldiery. In consequence of the power of Parthia, Ctesiphon
The kings usually passed the winter there, on account of
-
-the salubrity of the air, and the summer at Ecbatana and in
-
-Hyrcania,the royal seat of the Parthians,
and which shared with Ecbatana the honour of being a residence of the Parthian kings. The name Hyrcania has here a wide meaning; the proper name would have been Parthia.
As we call the country Babylonia, so we call the people
-
-Babylonians, not from the name of the city, but of the country; the case is not precisely the same, however, as regards
-
-even natives of Seleuceia, as, for instance, Diogenes, the stoic
-
-philosopher [who had the appellation of the Babylonian, and
-
-not the Seleucian].
At the distance of 500 stadia from Seleuceia is Artemita, a considerable city, situated nearly directly to the east,
-
-which is the position also of Sitacene.
Persis, which is a large country, encompasses Carmania on
-
-the [west]
The Cossæi, like the neighbouring mountaineers, are - -for the most part archers, and are always out on foraging - -parties. For as they occupy a country of small extent, and - -barren, they are compelled by necessity to live at the expense - -of others. They are also necessarily powerful, for they are - -all fighting men. When the Elymæi were at war with the - -Babylonians and Susians, they supplied the Elymæi with - -thirteen thousand auxiliaries. -
The Parætaceni attend to the cultivation of the ground - -more than the Cossæi, but even these people do not abstain - -from robbery. -
The Elymæi occupy a country larger in extent, and more
-
-varied, than that of the Parætaceni. The fertile part of it is
-
-inhabited by husbandmen. The mountainous tract is a nursery
-
-for soldiers, the greatest part of whom are archers. As it is
-
-of considerable extent, it can furnish a great military force;
-
-their king, who possesses great power, refuses to be subject,
-
-like others, to the king of Parthia. The country was similarly
-
-independent in the time of the Persians, and afterwards
There are three convenient entrances into this country; - -one from Media and the places about the Zagrus, through - -Massabatice; a second from Susis, through the district Gabiane. Both Gabiane and Massabatice are provinces of Elymæa. A third passage is that from Persis. Corbiane also is - -a province of Elymaïs. -
Sagapeni and Silaceni, small principalities, border upon - -Elymaïs. -
Such, then, is the number and the character of the nations - -situated above Babylonia towards the east. -
We have said that Media and Armenia lie to the north,
-
-and Adiabene and Mesopotamia to the west of Babylonia.
-
-
The greatest part of Adiabene consists of plains, and,
-
-although it is a portion of Babylon, has its own prince. In
-
-some places it is contiguous to Armenia.
The Parthians subdued the Medes and Babylonians, but
-
-never at any time conquered the Armenians. They made
-
-frequent inroads into their country, but the people were not
-
-subdued, and Tigranes, as I have mentioned in the description
-
-of Armenia,
Such is the nature of Adiabene. The Adiabeni are also
-
-called Saccopodes.
We shall describe Mesopotamia and the nations towards
-
-
-
-
Their other customs are like those of the Persians, but - -this is peculiar to themselves: three discreet persons, chiefs - -of each tribe, are appointed, who present publicly young - -women who are marriageable, and give notice by the crier, - -beginning with those most in estimation, of a sale of them to - -men intending to become husbands. In this manner marriages are contracted. -
As often as the parties have sexual intercourse with one
-
-another, they rise, each apart from the other, to burn perfumes.
-
-In the morning they wash, before touching any household
-
-vessel. For as ablution is customary after touching a dead
-
-body, so is it practised after sexual intercourse.
There are three tribunals, one consisting of persons who
-
-are past military service, another of nobles, and a third of old
-
-men, besides another appointed by the king. It is the business of the
-
-latterof the first,
and for of another,
of the second.
The sick are brought out of their houses into the highways,
-
-and inquiry is made of passengers whether any of them can
-
-give information of a remedy for the disease. There is no
-
-one so ill-disposed as not to accost the sick person, and ac-
-
-
-
-
Their dress is a tunic reaching to the feet, an upper garment of - -wool, [and] a white cloak. The hair is long. They - -wear a shoe resembling a buskin. They wear also a seal, - -and carry a staff not plain, but with a figure upon the top of it, - -as an apple, a rose, a lily, or something of the kind. They - -anoint themselves with oil of sesamum. They bewail the - -dead, like the Egyptians and many other nations. They bury - -the body in honey, first besmearing it with wax. -
There are three communities which have no corn. They
-
-live in the marshes, and subsist on fish. Their mode of life
-
-is like that of the inhabitants of Gedrosia.
Mesopotamia has its name from an accidental circumstance. We
-
-have said that it is situated between the Euphrates
-
-and the Tigris, that the Tigris washes its eastern side only,
-
-and the Euphrates its western and southern sides. To the
-
-north is the Taurus, which separates Armenia from Mesopotamia. The
-
-greatest distance by which they are separated
-
-from each other is that towards the mountains. This distance
-
-may be the same which Eratosthenes mentions, and is reckoned from
-
-Thapsacus,
The Tigris flows through the middle of the lake called
-
-Thopitis
The contracted shape of Mesopotamia extends far in
-
-length, and somewhat resembles a ship. The Euphrates
-
-forms the larger part of its boundary. The distance from
-
-Thapsacus to Babylon, according to Eratosthenes, is 4800
-
-
-
-
The country lying at the foot of the mountains is very
-
-fertile. The people, called by the Macedonians Mygdones,
-
-occupy the parts towards the Euphrates, and both Zeugmata,
-
-that is, the Zeugma in Commagene, and the ancient Zeugma
-
-at Thapsacus. In their territory is Nisibis,
Near the Tigris are the places belonging to the
-
-Gordyæi,Gagates lapis;
a name derived, according to Dioscorides, from a river Gagas in Lycia.
Gordys, the son of Triptolemus, is related to have
-
-colonized Gordyene. The Eretrians
The parts of Mesopotamia inclining to the south, and
-
-
-
-
Between the Tigris and the Euphrates flows a river,
-
-called Basileios (or the Royal river), and about Anthemusia
-
-another called the Aborrhas.vis-á-vis,
opposite to,
might be given to it.—
The Scenitæ exact a moderate tribute from merchants, but - -[otherwise] do not molest them: the merchants, therefore, - -avoid the country on the banks of the river, and risk a journey through the desert, leaving the river on the right hand at - -a distance of nearly three days' march. For the chiefs of the - -tribes living on both banks of the river, who occupy not indeed a fertile territory, yet one less sterile than the rest (of - -the country), are settled in the midst of their own peculiar - -domains, and each exacts a tribute of no moderate amount for - -himself. And it is difficult among so large a body of people, - -and of such daring habits, to establish any common standard - -of tribute advantageous to the merchant. -
Scene is distant from Seleuceia 18 schœni.
-
-
The Euphrates and its eastern banks are the boundaries of the Parthian empire. The Romans and the chiefs of
-
-the Arabian tribes occupy the parts on this side the Euphrates
-
-as far as Babylonia. Some of the chiefs attach themselves in
-
-preference to the Parthians, others to the Romans, to whom
-
-they adjoin. The Scenitæ nomades, who live near the river,
-
-are less friendly to the Romans than those tribes who are
-
-situated at a distance near Arabia Felix. The Parthians
-
-were once solicitous of conciliating the friendship of the Romans,
-
-but having repulsed Crassus,the son of Orodes,
are omitted after Pacorus
above, and his
in the translation would then refer to Orodes.
The surviving sons, who live at Rome, are entertained as - -princes at the public expense. The other kings (his successors) - -have continued to send ambassadors (to Rome), and to hold - -conferences (with the Roman prefects). - - -
SYRIA is bounded on the north by Cilicia and the mountain Amanus; from the sea to the bridge on the Euphrates
-
-(that is, from the Issic Bay to the Zeugma in Commagene) is
-
-a distance of
Beginning from Cilicia and Mount Amanus, we set down
-
-as parts of Syria, Commagene, and the Seleucis of Syria, as it
-
-is called, then Cœle-Syria, lastly, on the coast, Phœnicia, and
-
-in the interior, Judæa. Some writers divide the whole of
-
-Syria into Cœlo-Syrians, Syrians, and Phœnicians, and say that
-
-there are intermixed with these four other nations, Jews,
-
-Idumæans, Gazæans, and Azotii, some of whom are husbandmen, as
-
-the Syrians and Cœlo-Syrians, and others merchants,
-
-as the Phœnicians.
-
-
-
-
This is the general description [of Syria].Syria between the rivers;
that to the west was called by the general name Cœle-Syria, and although Phœnicia and Palestine were sometimes separated from it, yet it often comprehended the whole country as far as Egypt. Strabo below, c. ii. § 21, refers to this ancient division, when he says that the name Cœle-Syria extends to the whole country as far as Egypt and Arabia, although in its peculiar acceptation it applied only to the valley between Libanus and Antilibanus.
In describing it in detail, we say that Commagene is rather
-
-a small district. It contains a strong city, Samosata, in which
-
-was the seat of the kings. At present it is a (Roman) province. A very fertile but small territory lies around it. Here
-
-is now the Zeugma, or bridge, of the Euphrates, and near it
-
-is situated Seleuceia, a fortress of Mesopotamia, assigned by
-
-Pompey to the Commageneans. Here Tigranes confined in
-
-prison for some time and put to death Selene, surnamed Cleopatra, after she was dispossessed of Syria.
Seleucis is the best of the above-mentioned portions of
-
-Syria. It is called and is a Tetrapolis, and derives its name
-
-from the four distinguished cities which it contains; for there
-
-are more than four cities, but the four largest are Antioch
-
-Epidaphne,
In conformity with its character of Tetrapolis, Seleucis,
-
-according to Poseidonius, was divided into four satrapies;
-
-Cœle-Syria into the same number, but [Commagene, like]
-
-Mesopotamia, consisted of one.Commagene, like Mesopotamia, consisted of one satrapy.
Groskurd's emendation of the text is followed, although not approved of, by Kramer.
Antioch also is a Tetrapolis, consisting (as the name im-
-
-
-
-
[Seleucus] Nicator founded the first of these portions,
-
-transferring thither settlers from Antigonia, which a short
-
-time before Antigonus, son of Philip, had built near it. The
-
-second was built by the general body of settlers; the third by
-
-Seleucus, the son of Callinicus; the fourth by Antiochus, the
-
-son of Epiphanes.
-
-
Antioch is the metropolis of Syria. A palace was constructed there for the princes of the country. It is not much - -inferior in riches and magnitude to Seleuceia on the Tigris - -and Alexandreia in Egypt. -
[Seleucus] Nicator settled here the descendants of Triptolemus, whom we have mentioned a little before.
Daphne,
The river Orontes flows near the city. Its source is in - -Cœle-Syria. Having taken its course under-ground, it - -reäppears, traverses the territory of Apameia to Antioch, - -approaching the latter city, and then descends to the sea at - -Seleuceia. - -The name of the river was formerly Typhon, but was changed - -to Orontes, from the name of the person who constructed the - -bridge over it. -
According to the fable, it was somewhere here that Typhon
-
-was struck with lightning, and here also was the scene of the
-
-fable of the Arimi, whom we have before mentioned.
On the west the sea, into which the Orontes discharges itself, is - -situated below Antioch in Seleuceia, which is distant from the mouth - -of the river 40, and from Antioch 120 - -stadia. The ascent by the river to Antioch is performed in - -one day. -
To the east of Antioch are the Euphrates, Bambyce,
Then follows the district of Cyrrhestica,
Pagræ,
Above these places is a hill called Trapezon from its form,
After these places, near the sea, are Seleuceia
Seleuceia formerly had the name of Hydatopotami (rivers - -of water). It is a considerable fortress, and may defy all - -attacks; wherefore Pompey, having excluded from it Tigranes, - -declared it a free city. -
To the south of Antioch is Apameia, situated in the interior, - -and to the south of Seleuceia, the mountains Casius and Anti-Casius. -
Still further on from Seleuceia are the mouths of the Orontes,
-
-then the Nymphæum, a kind of sacred cave, next
-
-Casium, then follows Poseidium
Then follows Laodiceia, situated on the sea; it is a very - -well-built city, with a good harbour; the territory, besides its - -fertility in other respects, abounds with wine, of which the - -greatest part is exported to Alexandreia. The whole mountain overhanging the city is planted almost to its summit with - -vines. The summit of the mountain is at a great distance - -from Laodiceia, sloping gently and by degrees upwards from - -the city; but it rises perpendicularly over Apameia. -
Laodiceia suffered severely when Dolabella took refuge
-
-there. Being besieged by Cassius, he defended it until his
-
-death, but he involved in his own ruin the destruction of many
-
-parts of the city.
In the district of Apameia is a city well fortified in
-
-almost every part. For it consists of a well-fortified hill,
-
-situated in a hollow plain, and almost surrounded by the
-
-Orontes, which, passing by a large lake in the neighbourhood,
-
-flows through wide-spread marshes and meadows of vast extent, affording pasture for cattle and horses.
It was formerly called Pella by the first Macedonians, because - -most of the soldiers of the Macedonian army had settled - -there; for Pella, the native place of Philip and Alexander, was - -held to be the metropolis of the Macedonians. Here also the - -soldiers were mustered, and the breed of horses kept up. - -There were in the royal stud more than thirty thousand brood - -mares and three hundred stallions. Here were employed - -colt-breakers, instructors in the method of fighting in heavy - -armour, and all who were paid to teach the arts of war. -
The power Trypho, surnamed Diodotus, acquired is a proof
-
-of the influence of this place; for when he aimed at the empire
-
-of Syria, he made Apameia the centre of his operations. He
-
-was born at Casiana, a strong fortress in the Apameian district, and
-
-educated in Apameia; he was a favourite of the
-
-king and the persons about the court. When he attempted to
-
-effect a revolution in the state, he obtained his supplies from
-
-Apameia and from the neighbouring cities, Larisa,Arabian dynast.
Falconer therefore inferred that here we ought to read
The tract called Parapotamia, belonging to the Arab
-
-chiefs, and Chalcidica, extending from the Massyas, border
-
-upon the district of Apameia on the east; and nearly all the
-
-country further to the south of Apameia belongs to the Scenitæ, who resemble the Nomades of Mesopotamia. In proportion as the nations approach the Syrians they become more
-
-civilized, while the Arabians and Scenitæ are less so. Their
-
-
-
-
Such is the nature of the interior parts of the district - -of Seleuceia. -
The remainder of the navigation along the coast from Laodiceia is such as I shall now describe. -
Near Laodiceia are the small cities, Poseidium, Heracleium,
-
-and Gabala. Then follows the maritime tract
Aradus is in front of a rocky coast without harbours,
-
-and situated nearly between its arsenal
The Aradii were anciently governed by their own - -kings in the same manner as all the other Phœnician cities. - -Afterwards the Persians, Macedonians, and now the Romans - -have changed the government to its present state. -
The Aradii, together with the other Phœnicians, consented
-
-to become allies of the Syrian kings; but upon the dissension
-
-of the two brothers, Callinicus Seleucus and Antiochus Hierax,
-
-as he was called, they espoused the party of Callinicus; they
-
-entered into a treaty, by which they were allowed to receive
-
-persons who quitted the king's dominions, and took refuge
-
-among them, and were not obliged to deliver them up against
-
-their will. They were not, however, to suffer them to embark
-
-and quit the island without the king's permission. From this
-
-they derived great advantages; for those who took refuge
-
-there were not ordinary people, but persons who had held
-
-the highest trusts, and apprehended the worst consequences
-
-(when they fled). They regarded those who received them
-
-with hospitality as their benefactors; they acknowledged
-
-their preservers, and remembered with gratitude the kindness
-
-which they had received, particularly after their return to
-
-their own country. It was thus that the Aradii acquired
-
-possession of a large part of the opposite continent, most of
-
-which they possess even at present, and were otherwise suc-
-
-
-
-
After Orthosia and the river Eleutherus is Tripolis,
-
-which has its designation from the fact of its consisting of
-
-three cities, Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus. Contiguous to Tripolis
-
-is Theoprosopon,
There are two mountains, which form Cœle-Syria, as
-
-it is called, lying nearly parallel to each other; the commencement of the ascent of both these mountains, Libanus
-
-and Antilibanus, is a little way from the sea; Libanus rises
-
-above the sea near Tripolis and Theoprosopon, and Antilibanus, above the sea near Sidon. They terminate somewhere
-
-near the Arabian mountains, which are above the district of
-
-Damascus and the Trachones as they are there called, where
-
-they form fruitful hills. A hollow plain lies between them, the
-
-breadth of which towards the sea is 200 stadia, and the
-
-length from the sea to the interior is about twice that number
-
-of stadia. Rivers flow through it, the largest of which is the
-
-Jordan, which water a country fertile and productive of all
-
-things. It contains also a lake, which produces the aromatic
-
-rush and reed. In it are also marshes. The name of the lake is
-
-Gennesaritis. It produces also balsamum.it produces also,
refer to the lake, our author would contradict himself; for below, § 41, he says that Jericho alone produces it. They must therefore be referred to a hollow plain
above; and the fact that they do so arises from the remarkable error of Strabo, in placing Judæa in the valley formed by Libanus and Antilibanus. From the manner in which he expresses himself, it is evident that he supposed the Jordan to flow, and the Lake Gennesaret to be situated, between these two mountains. As to the Lycus (the Nahr el Kelb), Strabo, if he had visited the country, would never have said that the Arabians transported upon it their merchandise. It is evident that he has confused the geography of all these districts, by transferring Judæa, with its lakes and rivers, to Cœle-Syria Proper; and here probably we may find the result of his first error in confounding Cœle-Syria Pro per with Cœle-Syria understood in a wider meaning. See above, c. i § 12.
Among the rivers is the Chrysorrhoas, which commences
-
-
-
-
The Lycus
Of the plains, the first reckoning from the sea is called
-
-Macras and Macra-pedium. Here Poseidonius says there
-
-was seen a serpent lying dead, which was nearly a plethrum
-
-in length, and of such a bulk and thickness that men on horseback standing on each side of its body could not see one another; the jaws when opened could take in a man on horseback, and the scales of the skin were larger than a shield.
-
-
Next to the plain of Macras is that of Massyas, which
-
-also contains some mountainous parts, among which is Chalcis, the acropolis, as it were, of the Massyas. The commencement of this plain is at Laodiceia,
Byblus, the royal seat of Cinyrus, is sacred to Adonis.
-
-Pompey delivered this place from the tyranny of Cinyrus, by
-
-striking off his head. It is situated upon an eminence at a
-
-little distance from the sea.
-
-
After Byblus is the river Adonis,
Above the Massyas is the Royal Valley, as it is called, - -and the territory of Damascus, so highly extolled. Damascus - -is a considerable city, and in the time of the Persian empire - -was nearly the most distinguished place in that country. -
Above Damascus are the two (hills) called Trachones; then,
-
-towards the parts occupied by Arabians and Ituræans promiscuously, are mountains of difficult access, in which were
-
-caves extending to a great depth. One of these caves was
-
-capable of containing four thousand robbers, when the territory of Damascus was subject to incursions from various
-
-quarters. The Barbarians used to rob the merchants most
-
-generally on the side of Arabia Felix,
The whole country
Having described Cœle-Syria properly so called, we
-
-pass on to Phœnicia, of which we have already described
Next to Berytus is Sidon, at the distance of 400 stadia.
-
-Between these places is the river Tamyras,
Next to Sidon is Tyre,
Tyre is wholly an island, built nearly in the same
-
-manner as Aradus. It is joined to the continent by a mound,
-
-which Alexander raised, when he was besieging it. It has
-
-two harbours, one close, the other open, which is called the
-
-Egyptian harbour. The houses here, it is said, consist of
-
-many stories, of more even than at Rome; on the occurrence,
-
-therefore, of an earthquake, the city was nearly demolished.
Such then are the Tyrians.
-
-
The Sidonians are said by historians to excel in various
-
-kinds of art, as the words of Homer also imply.
If we are to believe Poseidonius, the ancient opinion about
-
-atoms originated with Mochus, a native of Sidon, who lived
-
-before the Trojan times. Let us, however, dismiss subjects
-
-relating to antiquity. In my time there were distinguished
-
-philosophers, natives of Sidon, as Boethus, with whom I
-
-studied the philosophy of Aristotle,
Tyre is distant from Sidon not more than 200 stadia. Between the two is situated a small town, called Ornithopolis,
-
-(the city of birds); next a river
Then follows Ptolemaïs, a large city, formerly called
-
-Ace.
A phenomenon
A similar phenomenon took place at Mount Casium in
-
-Egypt. The ground, to a considerable distance, after a violent
-
-and single shock fell in parts, at once exchanging places; the
-
-elevated parts opposed the access of the sea, and parts which
-
-had subsided admitted it. Another shock occurred, and the
-
-place recovered its ancient position, except that there was an
-
-alteration (in the surface of the ground) in some places, and
-
-none in others. Perhaps such occurrences are connected with
-
-periodical returns the nature of which is unknown to us.
-
-This is said to be the case with the rise of the waters of the
-
-Nile, which exhibits a variety in its effects, but observes (in
-
-general) a certain order, which we do not comprehend.
-
-
Next to Ace is the Tower of Strato, with a station for
-
-
-
-
Then Joppa,
Thence to Casium,
In the interval is Gadaris,
Next and near Ascalon is the harbour of the Gazæi. The
-
-city is situated inland at the distance of seven stadia. It was
-
-once famous, but was razed by Alexander, and remains uninhabited. There is said to be a passage thence across, of
Next to Gaza is Raphia,
The whole country from Gaza is barren and sandy,
-
-and still more so is that district next to it, which contains the
-
-lake Sirbonis,
The Casium is a sandy hill without water, and forms a
-
-promontory: the body of Pompey the Great is buried there,
-
-and on it is a temple of Jupiter Casius.
Such is the nature of Phœnicia. Artemidorus says, that
-
-from Orthosia to Pelusium is 3650 stadia, including the winding of
-
-the bays, and from Melænæ or Melania in Cilicia to
-
-Celenderis,
The western extremities of Judæa towards Casius are
-
-occupied by Idumæans, and by the lake [Sirbonis]. The
-
-Idumæans are Nabatæans. When driven from their country
An Egyptian priest named Moses, who possessed
-
-a portion of the country called the Lower [Egypt] * *
-
-* *, being dissatisfied with the established institutions
-
-there, left it and came to Judæa with a large body of people
-
-who worshipped the Divinity. He declared and taught that
-
-the Egyptians and Africans entertained erroneous sentiments,
-
-
-
-Judæi mente solâ, unumque numen intelligent, summum illud et eternum, neque mutabile, neque interiturum.
Tacitus, Hist. v. c. 5.
By such doctrine Moses
Instead of arms, he taught that their defence was in their - -sacred things and the Divinity, for whom he was desirous of - -finding a settled place, promising to the people to deliver such - -a kind of worship and religion as should not burthen those - -who adopted it with great expense, nor molest them with [so-called] - -divine possessions, nor other absurd practices. -
Moses thus obtained their good opinion, and established no
-
-ordinary kind of government. All the nations around willingly united
-
-themselves to him, allured by his discourses and
-
-promises.
-
-
-
-
His successors continued for some time to observe the
-
-same conduct, doing justly, and worshipping God with sincerity.
-
-Afterwards superstitious persons were appointed to the priesthood, and then tyrants. From superstition arose abstinence
-
-from flesh, from the eating of which it is now the custom to
-
-refrain, circumcision, excision,
Respect, however, was paid to the Acropolis; it was not
-
-abhorred as the seat of tyranny, but honoured and venerated
-
-as a temple.
-
-
This is according to nature, and common both to Greeks
-
-and barbarians. For, as members of a civil community, they
-
-live according to a common law; otherwise it would be impossible for the mass to execute any one thing in concert (in
-
-which consists a civil state), or to live in a social state at all.
-
-Law is twofold, divine and human. The ancients regarded
-
-and respected divine, in preference to human, law; in those
-
-times, therefore, the number of persons was very great who
-
-consulted oracles, and, being desirous of obtaining the advice
-
-of Jupiter, hurried to Dodona,
-
-
-
-The parent went to Delphi,
-
-
-
-while the child itself
-
-
-
-And Minos among the Cretans,
-
-
-
-every nine years, as Plato says, ascended to the cave of
-
-Jupiter, received ordinances from him, and conveyed them to
-
-men. Lycurgus, his imitator, acted in a similar manner;
-
-for he was often accustomed, as it seemed, to leave his own
-
-country to inquire of the Pythian goddess what ordinances
-
-he was to promulgate to the Lacedæmonians.
-
-
-
-
What truth there may be in these things I cannot say;
-
-they have at least been regarded and believed as true by
-
-mankind. Hence prophets received so much honour as to be
-
-thought worthy even of thrones, because they were supposed
-
-to communicate ordinances and precepts from the gods, both
-
-during their lifetime and after their death; as for example
-
-Teiresias,
-
-
Such was Moses and his successors; their beginning was
-
-good, but they degenerated.
-
-
When Judæa openly became subject to a tyrannical
-
-government, the first person who exchanged the title of
-
-priest for that of king was Alexander.
Jericho is a plain encompassed by a mountainous district, which slopes towards it somewhat in the manner of
-
-a theatre. Here is the Phœnicon (or palm plantation), which
-
-contains various other trees of the cultivated kind, and producing excellent fruit; but its chief production is the palm
-
-tree. It is 100 stadia in length; the whole is watered with
-
-streams, and filled with dwellings. Here also is a palace
-
-and the garden of the balsamum.
The Lake Sirbonis
Such are the phenomena. But Posidonius says, that the
-
-people being addicted to magic, and practising incantations,
-
-(by these means) consolidate the asphaltus, pouring upon it
-
-urine and other fetid fluids, and then cut it into pieces.
-
-(Incantations cannot be the cause), but perhaps urine may have
-
-some peculiar power (in effecting the consolidation) in the
-
-
-
-
It is natural for these phenomena to take place in the middle
-
-of the lake, because the source of the fire is in the centre, and
-
-the greater part of the asphaltus comes from thence. The
-
-bubbling up, however, of the asphaltus is irregular, because the
-
-motion of fire, like that of many other vapours, has no order
-
-perceptible to observers. There are also phenomena of
-
-this kind at Apollonia in Epirus.
-
-
Many other proofs are produced to show that this
-
-country is full of fire. Near Moasadathe fire which fell down on the five cities.
But Eratosthenes asserts, on the contrary, that the country
-
-was once a lake, and that the greater part of it was uncovered
-
-by the water discharging itself through a breach, as was the
-
-case in Thessaly.
In the Gadaris, also, there is a lake of noxious water.
-
-If beasts drink it, they lose their hair, hoofs, and horns. At
-
-the place called Taricheæ,The salting station,
on the lake of Gennesareth.
Pompey curtailed the territory which had been forcibly
-
-appropriated by the Jews, and assigned to Hyrcanus the priesthood. Some time afterwards, Herod, of the same family, and
-
-a native of the country, Strabo does not appear to have been acquainted with the history of the two brothers after their return to Judæa; for otherwise he would not have omitted to mention the exile of Antipas. This tetrarch, it is known, went to Rome A. D.
ABOVE Judæa and Cœle-Syria, as far as Babylonia and
-
-the river tract, along the banks of the Euphrates towards the
-
-south, lies the whole of Arabia, except the Scenitæ in Mesopotamia.
-
-We have already spoken of Mesopotamia, and of
-
-the nations that inhabit it.
The parts on the other (the eastern) side of the Euphrates,
-
-towards its mouth, are occupied by Babylonians and the nation of the
-
-Chaldæans. We have spoken of these people also.
Of the rest of the country which follows after Mesopotamia, and
-
-extends as far as Cœle-Syria, the part approaching the river, as
-
-well as [a part of] Mesopotamia,
The Persian Gulf has the name also of the Sea of Persia.
-
-Eratosthenes speaks of it in this manner: "They say that the
-
-mouth is so narrow, that from Harmozi,Asaborum promontorium
of Ptolemy.
"He says that Androsthenes, who had navigated the gulf
-
-with a fleet, relates, that in sailing from Teredon with the
-
-continent on the right hand, an island Icaros
"Having coasted the shore of Arabia to the distance of
-
-2400 stadia, there lies, in a deep gulf, a city of the name of
-
-Gerrha,
"On sailing further, there are other islands, Tyre
"Nearchus and Orthagoras relate, that an island Ogyris
-
-lies to the south, in the open sea, at the distance of 2000
-
-stadia
Along the whole coast of the Red Sea, in the deep
-
-part of the water grow trees resembling the laurel and the
-
-olive. When the tide ebbs, the whole trees are visible above
-
-the water, and at the full tide they are sometimes entirely
-
-covered. This is the more singular because the coast inland
-
-has no trees.
-
This is the description given by Eratosthenes of the Persian
-
-Sea, which forms, as we have said, the eastern side of Arabia
-
-Felix.
-
-
Nearchus says, that they were met by Mithropastes, in
-
-company with Mazenes, who was governor of one of the
-
-islands, called Doracta (Oaracta?)
Nearchus also mentions an island, met with at the recommencement of the voyage along the coast of Persia, where
-
-are found pearls in large quantities and of great value; in
-
-other islands there are transparent and brilliant pebbles; in
-
-the islands in front of the Euphrates there are trees which
-
-send forth the odour of frankincense, and from their roots,
-
-when bruised, a (perfumed) juice flows out; the crabs and
-
-sea hedgehogs are of vast size, which is common in all the
-
-exterior seas, some being larger than Macedonian hats;
ARABIA commences on the side of Babylonia with
-
-Mæcene.
I return to the opinions of Eratosthenes, which he next - -delivers respecting Arabia. He is speaking of the northern - -and desert part, lying between Arabia Felix, Cœle-Syria, - -and Judæa, to the recess of the Arabian Gulf. -
From Heroopolis, situated in that recess of the Arabian
-
-Gulf which is on the side of the Nile, to Babylon, towards
-
-Petra of the Nabatæi, are 5600 stadia. The whole tract lies
-
-in the direction of the summer solstice (i. e. east and west), and
-
-passes through the adjacent Arabian tribes, namely Nabatæi,
-
-Chaulotæi, and Agræi. Above these people is Arabia
-
-Felix, stretching out 12,000 stadia towards the south to the
-
-Atlantic Sea.
The first people, next after the Syrians and Jews, who occupy this
-
-country are husbandmen. These people are succeeded by a barren and
-
-sandy tract, producing a few palms, the
-
-acanthus,
Four of the most populous nations inhabit the extremity of
-
-the above-mentioned country; namely, the Minæi the part
-
-towards the Red Sea, whose largest city is Carna or Carnana.Mariana oppidum,
says Pliny, vi. 32, significat dominos omnium.
The capital was called Saba, now Sabbea; and the country in which it is situated is called Sabieh.
All these cities are governed by one monarch, and are
-
-flourishing. They are adorned with beautiful temples and
-
-palaces. Their houses, in the mode of binding the timbers
-
-together, are like those in Egypt. The four countries comprise a
-
-greater territory than the Delta of Egypt.
The son does not succeed the father in the throne, but the
-
-son who is born in a family of the nobles first after the accession
-
-of the king. As soon as any one is invested with the
-
-government, the pregnant wives of the nobles are registered,
-
-and guardians are appointed to watch which of them is first
-
-delivered of a son. The custom is to adopt and educate the
-
-
-
-
Cattabania produces frankincense, and Chatramotitis
-
-myrrh; these and other aromatics are the medium of exchange with the
-
-merchants. Merchants arrive in seventy
-
-days at Minæa from Ælana.
The part of the Arabian Gulf along the side of Arabia,
-
-if we reckon from the recess of the Ælanitic bay, is, according
-
-to the accounts of Alexander and Anaxicrates, 14,000 stadia
-
-in extent; but this computation is too great. The part opposite to
-
-Troglodytica, which is on the right hand of those
-
-who are sailing from Heroopolisneck,
so called from its position on a headland of the same name, was a town situated on the African shore of the straits of Babel-Mandeb, at their narrowest part.
The straits at Deire are contracted to the width of 60 stadia;
-
-not indeed that these are now called the Straits, for ships proceed
-
-to a further distance, and find a passage of about 200
-
-
-
-
Artemidorus
In sailing from Heroopolis along Troglodytica, a city is met
-
-with called Philotera,
After the bay is the island Ophiodes,
Next after this island follow many tribes of Ichthyophagi - -and of Nomades; then succeeds the harbour of the goddess - -Soteira (the Preserver), which had its name from the circumstance of - -the escape and preservation of some masters [of - -vessels] from great dangers by sea. -
After this the coast and the gulf seem to undergo a great
-
-change: for the voyage along the coast is no longer among
-
-rocks, and approaches almost close to Arabia; the sea is so
-
-shallow as to be scarcely of the depth of two orguiæ,
Next are two mountains,
In the intervening space, a branch of the river Astaborasthe island of soldiers.
As the island of Strato is named only in this extract from Artemidorus, we might be tempted to correct the text of Strabo by the text of Pliny. But as it is not certain that the two authors speak of one and the same island, it is more prudent to make no change.
Near Meroë is the confluence of the Astaboras,
On the banks of these rivers live the Rhizophagi (or - -root-eaters) and Heleii (or marsh-men). They have their - -name from digging roots in the adjacent marsh, bruising them - -with stones, and forming them into cakes, which they dry in - -the sun for food. These countries are the haunts of lions. - -The wild beasts are driven out of these places, at the time - -of the rising of the dog-star, by large gnats. -
Near these people live the Spermophagi (or seed-eaters),
-
-who, when seeds of plants fail, subsist upon seeds of trees,the fruit falling from the trees.
The Periplus adds another tribe, the Hylophagi, wood-eaters,
who subsisted on the tender branches of certain trees. Strabo refers to them, b. xvii. c. ii. § 2, but without giving their name. The pods of the Lotus Zizyphus are eatable, and may here be meant.
Next to Elæa are the watch-towers of Demetrius, and the - -altars of Conon. In the interior Indian reeds grow in abundance. The country there is called the country of Coracius. -
Far in the interior was a place called Endera, inhabited by
-
-a naked tribe,
Next to the altars of Conon is the port of Melinus, and
-
-above it is a fortress called that of Coraus and the chase of
-
-Coraus, also another fortress and more hunting-grounds. Then
-
-follows the harbour of Antiphilus, and above this a tribe, the
-
-Creophagi, deprived of the prepuce, and the women are
-
-excised after the Jewish custom.
Further still towards the south are the Cynamolgi,
Next to the harbour of Antiphilus is a port called the
-
-Grove of the Colobi (or the Mutilated), the city Berenice
Above is the city Darada, and a hunting-ground for
-
-elephants, called At the Well.
The district is inhabited by
-
-the Elephantophagi (or Elephant-eaters), who are occupied in
-
-hunting them. When they descry from the trees a herd of
-
-elephants directing their course through the forest, they do
-
-not [then] attack, but they approach by stealth and hamstring
-
-the hindmost stragglers from the herd. Some kill them with
-
-bows and arrows, the latter being dipped in the gall of serpents. The
-
-shooting with the bow is performed by three
-
-men, two, advancing in front, hold the bow, and one draws
-
-the string. Others remark the trees against which the elephant is
-
-accustomed to rest, and, approaching on the opposite
-
-side, cut the trunk of the tree low down. When the animal
-
-comes and leans against it, the tree and the elephant fall
-
-down together. The elephant is unable to rise, because its
-
-legs are formed of one piece of bone which is inflexible; the
-
-hunters leap down from the trees, kill it, and cut it in pieces.
-
-The Nomades call the hunters Acatharti, or impure.
-
-
Above this nation is situated a small tribe the
-
-Struthophagi
Bordering on this people is a nation blacker in complexion
-
-than the others,
Above these people is situated a desert tract with extensive pastures. It was abandoned in consequence of the multitudes of scorpions and tarantulas, called tetragnathi (or fourjawed), which formerly abounded to so great a degree as to
-
-occasion a complete desertion of the place long since by its
-
-inhabitants.
-
-
Next to the harbour of Eumenes, as far as Deire and
-
-the straits opposite the six islands,
Many hunting-grounds for elephants, and obscure cities - -and islands, lie in front of the coast. -
The greater part are Nomades; husbandmen are few in - -number. In the country occupied by some of these nations - -styrax grows in large quantity. The Icthyophagi, on the - -ebbing of the tide, collect fish, which they cast upon - -the rocks and dry in the sun. When they have well broiled - -them, the bones are piled in heaps, and the flesh trodden with - -the feet is made into cakes, which are again exposed to the - -sun and used as food. In bad weather, when fish cannot be - -procured, the bones of which they have made heaps are pounded, made into cakes and eaten, but they suck the fresh bones. - -Some also live upon shell-fish, when they are fattened, which - -is done by throwing them into holes and standing pools of - -the sea, where they are supplied with small fish, and used as - -food when other fish are scarce. They have various kinds of - -places for preserving and feeding fish, from whence they - -derive their supply. -
Some of the inhabitants of that part of the coast which is
-
-without water go inland every five days, accompanied by all
-
-
-
-
The Chelonophagi (or Turtle-eaters) live under the - -cover of shells (of turtles), which are large enough to be used - -as boats. Some make of the sea-weed, which is thrown up - -in large quantities, lofty and hill-like heaps, which are hollowed out, and underneath which they live. They cast out the - -dead, which are carried away by the tide, as food for fish. -
There are three islands which follow in succession, the - -island of Tortoises, the island of Seals, and the island of Hawks. - -Along the whole coast there are plantations of palm trees, - -olive trees, and laurels, not only within, but in a great part - -also without the straits. -
There is also an island [called the island] of Philip, opposite - -to it inland is situated the hunting-ground for elephants, called - -the chase of Pythangelus; then follows Arsinoë, a city with a - -harbour; after these places is Deire, and beyond them is a - -hunting-ground for elephants. -
From Deire, the next country is that which bears aromatic
-
-plants. The first produces myrrh, and belongs to the Icthyophagi and the Creophagi. It bears also the persea, peach or
-
-Egyptian almond,
On this coast there are two very large lakes extending as
-
-far as the promontory Pytholaus.
Next is the mountain Elephas,
Along the coast there are both pillars and altars of
-
-Pytholaus, Lichas, Pythangelus, Leon, and Charimortus, that
-
-is, along the known coast from Deire as far as Notu-ceras;
-
-but the distance is not determined. The country abounds
-
-with elephants and lions called myrmeces (ants).
It produces also leopards of great strength and courage,
-
-and the rhinoceros. The rhinoceros is little inferior to the
-
-elephant; not, according to Artemidorus, in length to the
-
-crest,from the head to the tail.
a span less.
Camel-leopards are bred in these parts, but they do not
-
-in any respect resemble leopards, for their variegated skin is
-
-more like the streaked and spotted skin of fallow deer. The
-
-
-
-
This country, continues Artemidorus, produces also sphinxes,on Custom,
is like fable, and is
-
-to be disregarded.
-
Artemidorus mentions serpents also of thirty cubits in
-
-length, which can master elephants and bulls: in this he
-
-does not exaggerate.
The mode of life among the Troglodytæ is nomadic. - -Each tribe is governed by tyrants. Their wives and children - -are common, except those of the tyrants. The offence of - -corrupting the wife of a tyrant is punished with the fine of a - -sheep. -
The women carefully paint themselves with antimony.
-
-They wear about their necks shells, as a protection against
-
-fascination by witchcraft. In their quarrels, which are for
-
-pastures, they first push away each other with their hands,
-
-they then use stones, or, if wounds are inflicted, arrows and
-
-daggers. The women put an end to these disputes, by going
-
-into the midst of the combatants and using prayers and en-
-
-treaties.
-
-
-
-
Their food consists of flesh and bones pounded together, - -wrapped up in skins and then baked, or prepared after many - -other methods by the cooks, who are called Acatharti, or - -impure. In this way they eat not only the flesh, but the - -bones and skins also. -
They use (as an ointment for the body ?) a mixture of
-
-blood and milk ; the drink of the people in general is an infusion of the paliurus (buckthorn);
Their winter sets in when the Etesian winds begin to - -blow (for they have rain), and the remaining season is - -summer. -
They go naked, or wear skins only, and carry clubs.
-
-They deprive themselves of the prepuce,
They travel by night; the male cattle have bells fastened
-
-to them, in order to drive away wild beasts with the sound.
-
-They use torches also and arrows in repelling them. They
-
-watch during the night, on account of their flocks, and sing
-
-some peculiar song around their fires.
-
-
Having given this account of the Troglodytæ and of
-
-the neighbouring Ethiopians, Artemidorus returns to the
-
-Arabians. Beginning from Poseidium, he first describes
-
-those who border upon the Arabian Gulf, and are opposite to
-
-the Troglodytæ. He says that Poseidium is situated within the
-
-bay of [Heroopolis],Ælanitic bay,
which is an error of the author or of the copyist.
Next is the island of Phocæ (Seals),Saspirene insula
of Ptolemy.
Next is another tract of sea-coast, formerly called the coast
-
-of the Maranitæ,
Next is the ÆlaniticLight vessels.
Diodorus Sic.
Next is a plain, well wooded and well supplied with water; - -it abounds with cattle of all kinds, and, among other animals, - -mules, wild camels, harts, and hinds; lions also, leopards, - -and wolves are frequently to be found. In front lies an - -island called Dia. Then follows a bay of about 500 stadia - -in extent, closed in by mountains, the entrance into which - -is of difficult access. About it live people who are hunters - -of wild animals. -
Next are three desert islands, abounding with olive trees, - -not like those in our own country, but an indigenous kind, - -which we call Ethiopic olives, the tears (or gum) of which - -have a medicinal virtue. -
Then follows a stony beach, which is succeeded by a rugged coast,
Next is a bay in which are some scattered islands,Iambia
of Ptolemy, which now, from the accumulation of soil, is more
-
-than a day's journey into the interior of the country. It is in a fertile
-
-territory. The Arabs call it Iambo el Nakel, or Iambo of Palm Trees, to
-
-distinguish it from the new Iambo situated on an arid soil on the seacoast. Al Charm, in Arabic, signifies a fissure or opening in the mountains. It seems as if the Greeks had formed the name Charmothas from
-
-this word, mistaking the epithet given to the narrow entrance of the
-
-harbour of Iambo for the name of the town itself.
Then follows a rugged coast, and after that are some
-
-bays and a country belonging to Nomades, who live by
-
-their camels. They fight from their backs; they travel upon
-
-them, and subsist on their milk and flesh. A river flows
-
-
-
-
I do not mention the greater part
Near these people is a nation more civilized, who inhabit a
-
-district with a more temperate climate ; for it is well watered,
-
-and has frequent showers.produces everything,
following the fragments of Agatharchides and Diodorus Sic. b.
-
-iii. 44.for ten times the quantity of silver,
according
-
-to Bochart, and approved by Kramer.
The country of the Sabæi, Milton appears to have been acquainted with the following passage
-
-from Diodorus Siculus, b. iii. 46, descriptive of Sabæa : It is impossible
-
-to enumerate the peculiarities and nature of all these trees and plants, on
-
-account of the surpassing variety and body of perfume which fall upon
-
-and excite the senses, in a manner divine and beyond description. The mariner, as he sails even at a distance along the coast, has his share of
-
-enjoyment; for when the breezes of spring blow from off the land, the
-
-fragrance of the trees and shrubs is carried down to the shore; nor is it
-
-of the kind with which we are acquainted, proceeding from old and
-
-stored aromatics, but fresh and in full perfection from new-blown flowers,
-
-striking the inmost sense.
On account of the abundance which the soil produces, the - -people are lazy and indolent in their mode of life. The - -lower class of people live on roots, and sleep on the trees. -
The people who live near each other receive, in continued - -succession, the loads [of perfumes] and deliver them to others, - -who convey them as far as Syria and Mesopotamia. When - -the carriers become drowsy by the odour of the aromatics, - -the drowsiness is removed by the fumes of asphaltus and of - -goat's beard. -
Mariaba,
The people cultivate the ground, or follow the trade of - -dealing in aromatics, both the indigenous sort and those - -brought from Ethiopia; in order to procure them, they sail - -through the straits in vessels covered with skins. There is - -such an abundance of these aromatics, that cinnamon, cassia, - -and other spices are used by them instead of sticks and firewood. -
In the country of the Sabæans is found the larimnum, a - -most fragrant perfume. -
By the trade [in these aromatics] both the Sabæans and
-
-the Gerrhæi have become the richest of all the tribes, and
-
-possess a great quantity of wrought articles in gold and silver,
-
-
-
-
-
-
This is the account of Artemidorus.
Some of these say, that the sea is red from the colour - -arising from reflection either from the sun, which is vertical, - -or from the mountains, which are red by being scorched with - -intense heat; for the colour, it is supposed, may be produced by - -both these causes. Ctesias of Cnidus speaks of a spring - -which discharges into the sea a red and ochrous water. Agatharchides, his fellow-citizen, relates, on the authority of a - -person of the name of Boxus, of Persian descent, that when a - -troop of horses was driven by a lioness in heat as far as the - -sea, and had passed over to an island, a Persian of the name - -of Erythras constructed a raft, and was the first person who - -crossed the sea to it; perceiving the island to be well adapted - -for inhabitants, he drove the herd back to Persia, and sent - -out colonists both to this and the other islands and to the coast. - -He [thus] gave his own name to the sea. But according to - -others, it was Erythras the son of Perseus who was the king - -of this country. -
According to some writers, from the straits in the Arabian
-
-Gulf to the extremity of the cinnamon country is a distance
-
-of 5000 stadia,
It is said also that the emerald and the beryl are found
-
-in the gold mines. According to Poseidonius, an odoriferous
-
-salt is found in Arabia.
-
-
-
-
The Nabatæans and Sabæans, situated above Syria, are - -the first people who occupy Arabia Felix. They were frequently in the habit of overrunning this country before the - -Romans became masters of it, but at present both they and - -the Syrians are subject to the Romans. -
The capital of the Nabatæans is called Petra. It is situated on a spot which is surrounded and fortified by a smooth - -and level rock (petra), which externally is abrupt and - -precipitous, but within there are abundant springs of water - -both for domestic purposes and for watering gardens. Beyond the enclosure the country is for the most part a desert, - -particularly towards Judæa. Through this is the shortest - -road to Jericho, a journey of three or four days, and five days - -to the Phœnicon (or palm plantation). It is always governed - -by a king of the royal race. The king has a minister who is - -one of the Companions, and is called Brother. It has excellent laws for the administration of public affairs. -
Athenodorus, a philosopher, and my friend, who had been
-
-at Petra, used to relate with surprise, that he found many
-
-Romans and also many other strangers residing there. He
-
-observed the strangers frequently engaged in litigation, both
-
-with one another and with the natives; but the natives had
-
-never any dispute amongst themselves, and lived together in
-
-perfect harmony.
-
-
The late expeditionThe interest attaching to this expedition, which promises so much for
-
-the elucidation of the classical geography of Arabia, has hitherto served
-
-only still further to perplex it.
The author of the article Marsyabæ in
-
-
Upon these inducements Gallus set out on the expedition. But he was deceived by Syllæus, the [king's] minister - -of the Nabatæans, who had promised to be his guide on the - -march, and to assist him in the execution of his design. Syllæus was however treacherous throughout; for he neither - -guided them by a safe course by sea along the coast, nor by a - -safe road for the army, as he promised, but exposed both the - -fleet and the army to danger, by directing them where there - -was no road, or the road was impracticable, where they were - -obliged to make long circuits, or to pass through tracts of - -country destitute of everything ; he led the fleet along a - -rocky coast without harbours, or to places abounding with - -rocks concealed under water, or with shallows. In places of - -this description particularly, the flowing and ebbing of the - -tide did them the most harm. -
The first mistake consisted in building long vessels [of war]
-
-at a time when there was no war, nor any likely to occur by
-
-sea. For the Arabians, being mostly engaged in traffic and
-
-commerce, are not a very warlike people even on land, much
-
-less so at sea. Gallus, notwithstanding, built not less than
-
-eighty biremes and triremes and galleys (phaseli) at Cleopatris,
Another cause of the failure of the expedition was the - -fact of king Obodas not paying much attention to public - -affairs, and especially to those relative to war (as is the custom with all Arabian kings), but placed everything in the - -power of Syllæus the minister. His whole conduct in command of the army was perfidious, and his object was, as I - -suppose, to examine as a spy the state of the country, and to - -destroy, in concert with the Romans, certain cities and tribes; - -and when the Romans should be consumed by famine, fatigue, - -and disease, and by all the evils which he had treacherously - -contrived, to declare himself master of the whole country. -
Gallus however arrived at Leuce-Come, with the army - -labouring under stomacacce and scelotyrbe, diseases of the - -country, the former affecting the mouth, the other the legs, - -with a kind of paralysis, caused by the water and the plants - -[which the soldiers had used in their food]. He was therefore compelled to pass the summer and the winter there, for - -the recovery of the sick. -
Merchandise is conveyed from Leuce-Come to Petra, thence
-
-to Rhinocolura in Phœnicia, near Egypt, and thence to other
-
-nations. But at present the greater part is transported by
-
-the Nile to Alexandreia. It is brought down from Arabia
-
-and India to Myus Hormus, it is then conveyed on camels to
-
-Coptus
The next country to which he came belonged to Nomades, and was in great part a complete desert. It was called
-
-Ararene. The king of the country was Sabos. Gallus
-
-spent fifty days in passing through this territory, for want of
-
-roads, and came to a city of the Negrani, and to a fertile
-
-country peacefully disposed. The king had fled, and the city
-
-was taken at the first onset. After a march of six days from
-
-thence, he came to the river. Here the barbarians attacked
-
-the Romans, and lost about ten thousand men; the Romans
-
-lost only two men. For the barbarians were entirely inexperienced in war, and used their weapons unskilfully, which
-
-were bows, spears, swords, and slings; but the greater part
-
-of them wielded a double-edged axe. Immediately afterwards he took the city called Asca, which had been abandoned
-
-by the king. He thence came to a city Athrula, and took it
-
-without resistance; having placed a garrison there, and collected provisions for the march, consisting of corn and dates,
-
-he proceeded to a city Marsiaba, belonging to the nation of
-
-the Rhammanitæ, who were subjects of Ilasarus. He assaulted and besieged it for six days, but raised the siege in consequence of a scarcity of water. He was two days' march from
-
-the aromatic region, as he was informed by his prisoners.
-
-He occupied in his marches a period of six months, in consequence of the treachery of his guides. This he discovered
-
-when he was returning; and although he was late in discovering the design against him, he had time to take another road
-
-back; for he arrived in nine days at Negrana, where the battle
-
-was fought, and thence in eleven days he came to the Seven
-
-Wells,
as the place is called from the fact of their existing
-
-there. Thence he marched through a desert country, and
-
-came to Chaalla a village, and then to another called Malothas, situated on a river. His road then lay through a desert
-
-country, which had only a few watering-places, as far as EgraMire corrupta est hæc ultima libri pars.
Syllæus, the author of these disasters, was punished for his
-
-treachery at Rome. He affected friendship, but he was convicted of other offences, besides perfidy in this instance, and
-
-was beheaded.
-
-
The aromatic country, as I have before said,
According to another partition of the country, the whole of - -Arabia Felix is divided into five kingdoms (or portions), one - -of which comprises the fighting men, who fight for all the - -rest; another contains the husbandmen, by whom the rest - -are supplied with food; another includes those who work at - -mechanical trades. One division comprises the myrrh region; - -another the frankincense region, although the same tracts - -produce cassia, cinnamon, and nard. Trades are not changed - -from one family to another, but each workman continues to - -exercise that of his father. -
The greater part of their wine is made from the palm. -
A man's brothers are held in more respect than his children.
-
-The descendants of the royal family succeed as kings, and are
-
-invested with other governments, according to primogeniture.
-
-Property is common among all the relations. The eldest is
-
-the chief. There is one wife among them all. He who enters
-
-
-
-
A daughter of one of the kings was of extraordinary
-
-beauty, and had fifteen brothers, who were all in love with
-
-her, and were her unceasing and successive visitors; she,
-
-being at last weary of their importunity, is said to have employed the following device. She procured staves to be made
-
-similar to those of her brothers; when one left the house,
-
-she placed before the door a staff similar to the first, and a
-
-little time afterwards another, and so on in succession, but
-
-making her calculation so that the person who intended to
-
-visit her might not have one similar to that at her door. On
-
-an occasion when the brothers were all of them together at the
-
-market-place, one left it, and came to the door of the house;
-
-seeing the staff there, and conjecturing some one to be in her
-
-apartment, and having left all the other brothers at the marketplace, he suspected the person to be an adulterer ; running
-
-therefore in haste to his father, he brought him with him to
-
-the house, but it was proved that he had falsely accused his
-
-sister.
-
-
The Nabatæans are prudent, and fond of accumulating - -property. The community fine a person who has diminished - -his substance, and confer honours on him who has increased - -it. They have few slaves, and are served for the most part by - -their relations, or by one another, or each person is his own - -servant; and this custom extends even to their kings. They - -eat their meals in companies consisting of thirteen persons. - -Each party is attended by two musicians. But the king - -gives many entertainments in great buildings. No one - -drinks more than eleven [appointed] cupfuls, from separate - -cups, each of gold. -
The king courts popular favour so much, that he is not
-
-only his own servant, but sometimes he himself ministers to
-
-others. He frequently renders an account [of his administration] before the people, and sometimes an inquiry is made
-
-into his mode of life.
-
-
-
-
Some merchandise is altogether imported into the country, - -others are not altogether imports, especially as some articles - -are native products, as gold and silver, and many of the aromatics; but brass and iron, purple garments, styrax, saffron, - -and costus (or white cinnamon), pieces of sculpture, paintings, - -statues, are not to be procured in the country. -
They look upon the bodies of the dead as no better than
-
-dung, according to the words of Heracleitus, dead bodies
-
-more fit to be cast out than dung;
wherefore they bury even
-
-their kings beside dung-heaps. They worship the sun, and
-
-construct the altar on the top of a house, pouring out libations and burning frankincense upon it every day.
-
-
When the poet says,
-
-
-
-it is doubtful, what people he means by Sidonians, whether
-
-those who lived near the Persian Gulf, a colony from which
-
-nation are the Sidonians in our quarter (in the same manner
-
-as historians relate, that some Tyrian islanders are found
-
-there, and Aradii, from whom the Aradii in our country derive their origin), or whether the poet means actually the Sidonians themselves.
-I went to the country of the Ethiopians, Sidonians, and Erembi,
But there is more doubt about the Erembi, whether we are
-
-to suppose that he means the Troglodytæ, according to the
-
-opinion of those who, by a forced etymology, derive the word
-
-Erembi from entering into the earth,
-
-or whether he means the Arabians. Zeno the philosopher of
-
-our sect alters the reading in this manner,
-
-
-
-
-
-And Sidoni, and Arabes;
-
-as if the poet gave the name Arambi to the present Arabians,
-
-from their being so called by others in his time. He says also,
-
-that the situation of these three nations close to one another
-
-indicates a descent from some common stock, and that on this
-
-account they are called by names having a resemblance to one
-
-another, as Armenii, Aramæi, Arambi. For as we may suppose one nation to have been divided into three (according to
-
-the differences of latitude [in which they lived], which successively became more marked [in proceeding from one to the
-
-other]), so in like manner we may suppose that several names
-
-were adopted in place of one. The proposed change of reading to Eremni is not probable, for that name is more applicable to the Ethiopians. The poet mentions also the Arimi,
-
-whom Poseidonius says are meant here, and not a place in
-
-Syria or Cilicia, or any other country, but Syria itself. For
-
-the Aramæi lived there. Perhaps these are the people whom
-
-the Greeks called Arimæi or Arimi. But the alterations of
-
-names, especially of barbarous nations, are frequent, Thus
-
-Darius was called Darieces; Parysatis, Pharziris; Athara,
-
-Atargata, whom Ctesias again calls Derceto.And Sidonii, and Arambi,
Alexander might be adduced to bear witness to the wealth
-
-of the Arabians, for he intended, it is said, after his return
-
-from India, to make Arabia the seat of empire. All his
-
-enterprises terminated with his death, which happened suddenly; but certainly one of his projects was to try whether
-
-the Arabians would receive him voluntarily, or resist him by
-
-force of arms; for having found that they did not send ambassadors to him, either before or after his expedition to India,
-
-he was beginning to make preparations for war, as we have
-
-said in a former part of this work.
-
-
-
-
SUMMARY.
-The Seventeenth Book contains the whole of Egypt and Africa.
WHEN we were describing Arabia, we included in the
-
-description the gulfs which compress and make it a peninsula,
-
-namely the Gulfs of Arabia and of Persis. We described at
-
-the same time some parts of Egypt, and those of Ethiopia,
-
-inhabited by the Troglodytæ, and by the people situated next
-
-to them, extending to the confines of the Cinnamon country.
We are now to describe the remaining parts contiguous to - -these nations, and situated about the Nile. We shall then - -give an account of Africa, which remains to complete this - -treatise on Geography. -
Procopius, a learned writer, estimates a day's march at 210 stadia; and
-
-the employment of this value, in the whole course of his history, proves
-
-that it was generally adopted. Now, if we multiply 60 by 210, we shall
-
-have 12,600 stadia, and dividing 12,900 by 60, we have 215 stadia, or
-
-nearly the amount of a day's march according to Procopius. I am therefore of opinion that Eratosthenes did nothing more than multiply 210 or
-
-215 by the number of 60 days, furnished by Timosthenes ; and as the excessive length of 12,900 stadia could not agree with the 5000 stadia, which
-
-he had calculated in a straight line for the same interval, he imagined this
-
-great difference arose from the excessive winding course of the Nile;
-
-consequently he supposed the Nile to change frequently the direction of
-
-its course.
- This opinion had its influence in the construction of Ptolemy's map,
-
-which presents to us nearly all the inflexions which Eratosthenes imagined; in calculating the intervals of positions assigned by Ptolemy along
-
-the river, we find a total of According to this hypothesis, the distance in Strabo will be thus divided:
-
-Setting out from Meroë, the Nile runs,
-
-
-
-
-which nearly corresponds with the account of Timosthenes. The number of days corresponds tolerably well with the distance given by the explorers sent by Nero for the discovery of Meroë: they reported the distance to be 873 miles. If we divide this number by 60, we shall have for
-
-the day's mean march 14ċ55 Roman miles, or 11ċ64 geographical miles,
-
-which is in fact the day's mean march, according to Major Rennell.
In carefully measuring, upon a large map of Egypt in 47 sheets, the - -course of the Nile through all its windings, and with the compass opened - -to 1000 metres, I find— - -
We observe, moreover, as I have already often observed, that the use
-
-of the stadium of 500 to the degree is anterior to the Alexandrine school;
-
-for at the time of Eratosthenes the stadium of 700 was more particularly
-
-made use of in Egypt.
Two rivers empty themselves into it, which issue out of
-
-some lakes towards the east, and encircle Meroë, a consider-
-
-
-
-
The lower parts of the country on each side Meroë, along
-
-the Nile towards the Red Sea, are occupied by Megabari and
-
-Blemmyes, who are subject to the Ethiopians, and border
-
-upon the Egyptians; about the sea are Troglodytæ. The
-
-Troglodytæ, in the latitude of Meroë, are distant ten or twelve
-
-days' journey from the Nile. On the left of the course of the
-
-Nile live Nubæ in Libya, a populous nation. They begin
-
-
-
-
The extent of Egypt along the sea, from the Pelusiac to the
-
-Canobic mouth, is
Such is the account of Eratosthenes.
-
-
We must, however, enter into a further detail of particulars. And first, we must speak of the parts about Egypt, - -proceeding from those that are better known to those which - -follow next in order. -
The Nile produces some common effects in this and the - -contiguous tract of country, namely, that of the Ethiopians - -above it, in watering them at the time of its rise, and leaving - -those parts only habitable which have been covered by the - -inundation; it intersects the higher lands, and all the tract - -elevated above its current on both sides, which however are - -uninhabited and a desert, from an absolute want of water. - -But the Nile does not traverse the whole of Ethiopia, nor - -alone, nor in a straight line, nor a country which is well inhabited. But Egypt it traverses both alone and entirely, - -and in a straight line, from the lesser cataract above Syene - -and Elephantina, (which are the boundaries of Egypt and - -Ethiopia,) to the mouths by which it discharges itself into the - -sea. The Ethiopians at present lead for the most part a - -wandering life, and are destitute of the means of subsistence, - -on account of the barrenness of the soil, the disadvantages of - -climate, and their great distance from us. -
Now the contrary is the case with the Egyptians in all - -these respects. For they have lived from the first under a - -regular form of government, they were a people of civilized - -manners, and were settled in a well-known country; their - -institutions have been recorded and mentioned in terms of - -praise, for they seemed to have availed themselves of the - -fertility of their country in the best possible manner by the - -partition of it (and by the classification of persons) which they - -adopted, and by their general care. -
When they had appointed a king, they divided the people
-
-into three classes, into soldiers, husbandmen, and priests. The
-
-latter had the care of everything relating to sacred things (of
-
-the gods), the others of what related to man; some had the
-
-
-
-
The priests devoted themselves to the study of philosophy - -and astronomy, and were companions of the kings. -
The country was at first divided into nomes. The extent and number of the nomes cannot be ascertained. They
-
-probably varied with the political state of Egypt. See præfectura oppidorum
by the Romans. Each had its
-
-civil governor, the Nomarch, who collected the crown revenues, and presided in the local capital and chief court of justice. Each nome too had
-
-its separate priesthood, its temple, chief and inferior towns, its magistrates, registration and peculiar creed, ceremonies and customs; and each
-
-was apparently independent of every other nome. At certain seasons,
-
-delegates from the various cantons met in the palace of the Labyrinth, for
-
-consultation on public affairs (b. xvii. c. i. § 37). According to Diodorus,
-
-the nomes date from Sesostris. But they did not originate from that
-
-monarch, but emanated probably from the distinctions of animal worship;
-
-and the extent of the local worship probably determined the boundary of
-
-the nome. Thus in the nome of Thebais, where the ram-headed deity
-
-was worshipped, the sheep was sacred, the goat was eaten and sacrificed:
-
-in that of Mendes, where the goat was worshipped, the sheep was a
-
-victim and an article of food. Again, in the nome of Ombos, divine honours were paid to the crocodile: in that of Tentyra, it was hunted and
-
-abominated: and between Ombos and Tentyra there existed an internecine feud.
-
-
-
-
An exact and minute division of the country was required
-
-by the frequent confusion of boundaries occasioned at the
-
-time of the rise of the Nile, which takes away, adds, and
-
-alters the various shapes of the bounds, and obliterates other
-
-marks by which the property of one person is distinguished
-
-
-
-
As the whole population of the country, so the separate - -population in each nome, was divided into three classes ; the - -territory also was divided into three equal portions. -
The attention and care bestowed upon the Nile is so great - -as to cause industry to triumph over nature. The ground - -by nature, and still more by being supplied with water, produces a great abundance of fruits. By nature also a greater - -rise of the river irrigates a larger tract of land; but industry has completely succeeded in rectifying the deficiency of nature, so that in seasons when the rise of the river - -has been less than usual, as large a portion of the country - -is irrigated by means of canals and embankments, as in - -seasons when the rise of the river has been greater. -
Before the times of Petronius there was the greatest plenty,
-
-and the rise of the river was the greatest when it rose to the
-
-height of fourteen cubits; but when it rose to eight only, a famine
-
-ensued. During the government of Petronius, however, when
-
-the Nile rose twelve cubits only, there was a most abundant
-
-crop; and once when it mounted to eight only, no famine followed. Such then is the nature of this provision for the
-
-physical state of the country. We shall now proceed to the
-
-next particulars.
-
-
The Nile, when it leaves the boundaries of Ethiopia,
-
-flows in a straight line towards the north, to the tract called
-
-the Delta, then cloven at the head,
(according to the expression of Plato,) makes this point the vertex, as it were, of a
-
-triangle, the sides of which are formed by the streams, which
-
-separate on each side, and extend to the sea, one on the right
-
-hand to Pelusium, the other on the left to Canobus and the
-
-neighbouring Heracleium, as it is called ; the base is the coast
-
-lying between Pelusium and the Heracleium.
-
An island was therefore formed by the sea and by both
-
-streams of the river, which is called Delta from the resemblance of its shape to the letter (
These then are two mouths of the Nile, one of which is
-
-called the Pelusiac, the other the Canobic and Heracleiotic
-
-mouth. Between these are five other outlets, some of which
-
-are considerable, but the greater part are of inferior importance. For many others branch off from the principal streams,
-
-and are distributed over the whole of the island of the Delta,
-
-and form many streams and islands; so that the whole Delta
-
-is accessible to boats, one canal succeeding another, and navigated with so much ease, that some persons make use of
-
-raftsearthen-ware ferry boats.
The
-
-translation is not literal, but a paraphrase.
-
-
-
-Juv xv. 12i.
The whole island is about 3000 stadia in circumference, - -and is called, as also the lower country, with the land on the - -opposite sides of the streams, the Delta. -
But at the time of the rising of the Nile, the whole country - -is covered, and resembles a sea, except the inhabited spots, - -which are situated upon natural hills or mounds ; and considerable cities and villages appear like islands in the distant - -prospect. -
The water, after having continued on the ground more than - -forty days in summer, then subsides by degrees, in the same - -manner as it rose. In sixty days the plain is entirely exposed - -to view, and dries up. The sooner the land is dry, so much - -the sooner the ploughing and sowing are accomplished, and - -it dries earlier in those parts where the heat is greater. -
The country above the Delta is irrigated in the same manner, except that the river flows in a straight line to the distance
-
-of about 4000 stadia in one channel, unless where some island
-
-intervenes, the most considerable of which comprises the
-
-Heracleiotic Nome; or, where it is diverted by a canal into
-
-a large lake, or a tract of country which it is capable of
-
-irrigating, as the lake Mœris and the Arsinoïte Nome, or
-
-where the canals discharge themselves into the Mareotis.
-
-
-
-
In short, Egypt, from the mountains of Ethiopia to the
-
-vertex of the Delta, is merely a river tract on each side of the
-
-Nile, and rarely if anywhere comprehends in one continued
-
-line a habitable territory of 300 stadia in breadth. It resembles, except the frequent diversions of its course, a bandage
-
-rolled out.lengthened out.
Alii alia proposuerunt,
-
-infelicia omnia.
The mountains on each side (of the Nile), which descend
-
-from the parts about Syene to the Egyptian Sea,
The ancients understood more by conjecture than otherwise, but persons in later times learnt by experience as eyewitnesses, that the Nile owes its rise to summer rains, which fall in
-
-great abundance in Upper Ethiopia, particularly in the most distant mountains. On the rains ceasing, the fulness of the river
-
-gradually subsides. This was particularly observed by those
-
-who navigated the Arabian Gulf on their way to the Cinnamon
-
-country, and by those who were sent out to hunt elephants, or
-
-for such other purposes as induced the Ptolemies, kings of
-
-Egypt, to despatch persons in that direction. These sovereigns
-
-had directed their attention to objects of this kind, particularly Ptolemy surnamed Philadelphus, who was a lover of
-
-science, and on account of bodily infirmities always in search
-
-of some new diversion and amusement. But the ancient
-
-kings paid little attention to such inquiries, although both
-
-they and the priests, with whom they passed the greater part
-
-of their lives, professed to be devoted to the study of philosophy. Their ignorance therefore is more surprising, both
-
-on this account and because Sesostris had traversed the whole
-
-of Ethiopia as far as the Cinnamon country, of which expedition monuments exist even to the present day, such as pillars
-
-and inscriptions. Cambyses also, when he was in possession of
-
-Egypt, had advanced with the Egyptians as far even as
-
-
-
-heaven-descended:
-
-
-
-But I quit this subject, since it has been discussed by many
-
-writers, among whom it will be sufficient to specify two, who
-
-have (each) composed in our times a treatise on the Nile,
-
-Eudorus and Aristo the Peripatetic philosopher. [They differ
-
-little from each other] except in the order and disposition of
-
-the works, for the phraseology and execution is the same in both
-
-writers. (I can speak with some confidence in this matter), for
-
-when at a loss (for manuscripts) for the purpose of comparison
-
-and copy, I collated both authors.back to Egypt's heaven-descended stream.
The ancients gave the name of Egypt to that country only - -which was inhabited and watered by the Nile, and the extent - -they assigned to it was from the neighbourhood of Syene to - -the sea. But later writers, to the present time, have included - -on the eastern side almost all the tract between the Arabian - -Gulf and the Nile (the Æthiopians however do not make - -much use of the Red Sea); on the western side, the tract extending to the Auases and the parts of the sea-coast from the - -Canobic mouth of the Nile to Catabathmus, and the kingdom - -of Cyrenæa. For the kings who succeeded the race of the - -Ptolemies had acquired so much power, that they became - -masters of Cyrenæa, and even joined Cyprus to Egypt. The - -Romans, who succeeded to their dominions, separated Egypt, - -and confined it within the old limits. -
The Egyptians give the name of Auases (Oases) to certain - -inhabited tracts, which are surrounded by extensive deserts, - -and appear like islands in the sea. They are frequently met - -with in Libya, and there are three contiguous to Egypt, and - -dependent upon it. -
This is the account which we have to give of Egypt in
-
-general and summarily. I shall now describe the separate
-
-parts of the country and their advantages.
-
-
As Alexandreia and its neighbourhood occupy the - -greatest and principal portion of the description, I shall begin - -with it. -
In sailing towards the west, the sea-coast from Pelusium
-
-to the Canobic mouth of the Nile is about
Pharos is a small oblong island, and lies quite close to the - -continent, forming towards it a harbour with a double entrance. - -For the coast abounds with bays, and has two promontories - -projecting into the sea. The island is situated between these, - -and shuts in the bay, lying lengthways in front of it. -
Of the extremities of the Pharos, the eastern is nearest to
-
-the continent and to the promontory in that direction, called
-
-Lochias, which is the cause of the entrance to the port being
-
-narrow. Besides the narrowness of the passage, there are
-
-rocks, some under water, others rising above it, which at all
-
-times increase the violence of the waves rolling in upon them
-
-
-
-Sostratus of Cnidus, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods preservers,
are rejected by Kramer as being introduced from the margin.
The western mouth does not afford an easy entrance, but - -it does not require the same degree of caution as the other. - -It forms also another port, which has the name of Eunostus, or - -Happy Return: it lies in front of the artificial and close - -harbour. That which has its entrance at the above-mentioned tower of Pharos is the great harbour. These (two) - -lie contiguous in the recess called Heptastadium, and are - -separated from it by a mound. This mound forms a bridge - -from the continent to the island, and extends along its western - -side, leaving two passages only through it to the harbour of - -Eunostus, which are bridged over. But this work served - -not only as a bridge, but as an aqueduct also, when the island - -was inhabited. Divus Cæsar devastated the island, in his - -war against the people of Alexandreia, when they espoused - -the party of the kings. A few sailors live near the tower. -
The great harbour, in addition to its being well enclosed - -by the mound and by nature, is of sufficient depth near the - -shore to allow the largest vessel to anchor near the stairs. It - -is also divided into several ports. -
The former kings of Egypt, satisfied with what they possessed, and not desirous of foreign commerce, entertained a
-
-dislike to all mariners, especially the Greeks (who, on account
-
-of the poverty of their own country, ravaged and coveted the
-
-property of other nations), and stationed a guard here, who
-
-had orders to keep off all persons who approached. To the
-
-guard was assigned as a place of residence the spot called
-
-Rhacotis, which is now a part of the city of Alexandreia,
-
-situated above the arsenal. At that time, however, it was a
-
-village. The country about the village was given up to herds-
-
-
-
-
When Alexander arrived, and perceived the advantages of
-
-the situation, he determined to build the city on the (natural)
-
-harbour. The prosperity of the place, which ensued, was intimated, it is said, by a presage which occurred while the
-
-plan of the city was tracing. The architects were engaged in
-
-marking out the line of the wall with chalk, and had consumed
-
-it all, when the king arrived; upon which the dispensers of
-
-flour supplied the workmen with a part of the flour, which
-
-was provided for their own use; and this substance was used
-
-in tracing the greater part of the divisions of the streets.
-
-This, they said, was a good omen for the city.
-
-
The advantages of the city are of various kinds. The - -site is washed by two seas; on the north, by what is called the - -Egyptian Sea, and on the south, by the sea of the lake Mareia, - -which is also called Mareotis. This lake is filled by many - -canals from the Nile, both by those above and those at the - -sides, through which a greater quantity of merchandise is - -imported than by those communicating with the sea. Hence - -the harbour on the lake is richer than the maritime harbour. - -The exports by sea from Alexandreia exceed the imports. - -This any person may ascertain, either at Alexandreia or - -Dicæarchia, by watching the arrival and departure of the - -merchant vessels, and observing how much heavier or lighter - -their cargoes are when they depart or when they return. -
In addition to the wealth derived from merchandise landed
-
-at the harbours on each side, on the sea and on the lake, its
-
-fine air is worthy of remark: this results from the city being
-
-on two sides surrounded by water, and from the favourable
-
-effects of the rise of the Nile. For other cities, situated near
-
-lakes, have, during the heats of summer, a heavy and suffocating atmosphere, and lakes at their margins become swampy
-
-by the evaporation occasioned by the sun's heat. When a
-
-large quantity of moisture is exhaled from swamps, a noxious
-
-vapour rises, and is the cause of pestilential disorders. But
-
-at Alexandreia, at the beginning of summer, the Nile, being
-
-full, fills the lake also, and leaves no marshy matter which is
-
-likely to occasion malignant exhalations. At the same period,
-
-the Etesian winds blow from the north, over a large expanse
-
-of sea, and the Alexandrines in consequence pass their summer very pleasantly.
-
-
-
-
The shape of the site of the city is that of a chlamys or
-
-military cloak. The sides, which determine the length, are
-
-surrounded by water, and are about thirty stadia in extent;
-
-but the isthmuses, which determine the breadth of the sides,
-
-are each of seven or eight stadia, bounded on one side by the
-
-sea, and on the other by the lake. The whole city is intersected by roads for the passage of horsemen and chariots.
-
-Two of these are very broad, exceeding a plethrum in breadth,
-
-and cut one another at right angles. It contains also very
-
-beautiful public grounds and royal palaces, which occupy a
-
-fourth or even a third part of its whole extent. For as each
-
-of the kings was desirous of adding some embellishment to
-
-the places dedicated to the public use, so, besides the buildings already existing, each of them erected a building at his
-
-own expense; hence the expression of the poet may be here
-
-applied,
-
-
-
-All the buildings are connected with one another and with
-
-the harbour, and those also which are beyond it.
-one after the other springs.
The Museum is a part of the palaces. It has a public - -walk and a place furnished with seats, and a large hall, in - -which the men of learning, who belong to the Museum, take - -their common meal. This community possesses also property - -in common; and a priest, formerly appointed by the kings, - -but at present by Cæsar, presides over the Museum. -
A part belonging to the palaces consists of that called
-
-Sema, an enclosure, which contained the tombs of the kings
-
-and that of Alexander (the Great). For Ptolemy the son of
-
-Lagus took away the body of Alexander from Perdiccas, as
-
-he was conveying it down from Babylon; for Perdiccas had
-
-turned out of his road towards Egypt, incited by ambition
-
-and a desire of making himself master of the country. When
-
-Ptolemy had attacked [and made him prisoner], he intended
-
-to [spare his life and] confine him in a desert island, but
-
-he met with a miserable end at the hand of his own soldiers,
-
-who rushed upon and despatched him by transfixing him with
-
-the long Macedonian spears. The kings who were with him,
-
-Aridæus, and the children of Alexander, and Roxana his
-
-wife, departed to Macedonia. Ptolemy carried away the body
-
-
-
-
In the great harbour at the entrance, on the right hand, - -are the island and the Pharos tower; on the left are the reef - -of rocks and the promontory Lochias, with a palace upon it: - -at the entrance, on the left hand, are the inner palaces, which - -are continuous with those on the Lochias, and contain numerous painted apartments and groves. Below lies the artificial - -and close harbour, appropriated to the use of the kings; and - -Antirrhodus a small island, facing the artificial harbour, - -with a palace on it, and a small port. It was called Antirrhodus, a rival as it were of Rhodes. -
Above this is the theatre, then the Poseidium, a kind of - -elbow projecting from the Emporium, as it is called, with a - -temple of Neptune upon it. To this Antony added a mound, - -projecting still further into the middle of the harbour, and - -built at the extremity a royal mansion, which he called - -Timonium. This was his last act, when, deserted by his - -partisans, he retired to Alexandreia after his defeat at Actium, and intended, being forsaken by so many friends, to lead - -the [solitary] life of Timon for the rest of his days. -
Next are the Cæsarium, the Emporium, and the Apostaseis, or magazines: these are followed by docks, extending
-
-to the Heptastadium. This is the description of the great
-
-harbour.
-
-
Next after the Heptastadium is the harbour of Eunostus, and above this the artificial harbour, called Cibotus (or - -the Ark), which also has docks. At the bottom of this harbour is a navigable canal, extending to the lake Mareotis. - -Beyond the canal there still remains a small part of the city. - -Then follows the suburb Necropolis, in which are numerous - -gardens, burial-places, and buildings for carrying on the process of embalming the dead. -
On this side the canal is the Sarapium and other ancient
-
-sacred places, which are now abandoned on account of the
-
-erection of the temples at Nicopolis; for [there are situated]
-
-an amphitheatre and a stadium, and there are celebrated
-
-
-
-
In short, the city of Alexandreia abounds with public and - -sacred buildings. The most beautiful of the former is the - -Gymnasium, with porticos exceeding a stadium in extent. In - -the middle of it are the court of justice and groves. Here - -also is a Paneium, an artificial mound of the shape of a fir-cone, resembling a pile of rock, to the top of which there is - -an ascent by a spiral path. From the summit may be seen - -the whole city lying all around and beneath it. -
The wide street extends in length along the Gymnasium
-
-from the Necropolis to the Canobic gate. Next is the Hippodromos (or race-course), as it is called, and other buildings
Alexander was succeeded by Ptolemy the son of Lagus,
-
-the son of Lagus by Philadelphus, Philadelphus by Euergetes;
-
-next succeeded Philopator the lover
As a husband for the daughter established on the throne,
-
-the Alexandrines invited one Cybiosactes from Syria, who
-
-pretended to be descended from the Syrian kings. The queen
-
-after a few days, unable to endure his coarseness and vulgarity, rid herself of him by causing him to be strangled. She
-
-afterwards married Archelaus, who also pretended to be the
-
-son of Mithridates Eupator, but he was really the son of that
-
-Archelaus
At this time Pompey the Great entertained Auletes as - -his guest on his arrival at Rome, and recommended him to - -the senate, negotiated his return, and contrived the execution of most of the deputies, in number a hundred, who had - -undertaken to appear against him: at their head was Dion - -the academic philosopher. -
Ptolemy (Auletes) on being restored by Gabinius, put to
-
-death both Archelaus and his daughter;
The Alexandrines declared as sovereigns the eldest son
-
-and Cleopatra. But the adherents of the son excited a se-
-
-
-
-
It was about this time that Pompey the Great, in his flight
-
-from Palæ-pharsalus,
After the death of Cæsar and the battle at Pharsalia, Antony passed over into Asia; he raised Cleopatra to the highest
-
-dignity, made her his wife, and had children by her. He
-
-was present with her at the battle of Actium, and accompanied her in her flight. Augustus Cæsar pursued them, put
-
-an end to their power, and rescued Egypt from misgovernment and revelry.
-
-
At present Egypt is a (Roman) province, pays considerable tribute, and is well governed by prudent persons, who - -are sent there in succession. The governor thus sent out has - -the rank of king. Subordinate to him is the administrator of - -justice, who is the supreme judge in many causes. There is - -another officer, who is called Idiologus, whose business it is to - -inquire into property for which there is no claimant, and - -which of right falls to Cæsar. These are accompanied by - -Cæsar's freedmen and stewards, who are intrusted with affairs - -of more or less importance. -
Three legions are stationed in Egypt, one in the city, the - -rest in the country. Besides these there are also nine Roman - -cohorts, three quartered in the city, three on the borders of - -Ethiopia in Syene, as a guard to that tract, and three in other - -parts of the country. There are also three bodies of cavalry - -distributed in convenient posts. -
Of the native magistrates in the cities, the first is the expounder of the law, who is dressed in scarlet; he receives the
-
-customary honours of the country, and has the care of providing what is necessary for the city. The second is the writer of
-
-records, the third is the chief judge. The fourth is the commander of the night guard. These magistrates existed in the
-
-time of the kings, but in consequence of the bad administration
-
-of affairs by the latter, the prosperity of the city was ruined by
-
-
-
-not understanding or ill-adapted for the duties of citizens,
suggested by Kramer.
-
-The way to Egypt is long and vexatious.
Such then, if not worse, was the condition of the city - -under the last kings. The Romans, as far as they were able, - -corrected, as I have said, many abuses, and established an - -orderly government, by appointing vice-governors, nomarchs, - -and ethnarchs, whose business it was to superintend affairs - -of minor importance. -
The greatest advantage which the city possesses arises from - -its being the only place in all Egypt well situated by nature - -for communication with the sea by its excellent harbour, and - -with the land by the river, by means of which everything is - -easily transported and collected together into this city, which - -is the greatest mart in the habitable world. -
These may be said to be the superior excellencies of the
-
-city. Cicero, in one of his orations,
Next to it is Cyrenæa, and the neighboring barbarians,
-
-the Marmaridæ.
-
-
From the CatabathmusAlexander, after passing
Wines which have been very carefully prepared with sea-water never cause head-aches.
Next is the harbour Derrhis,Hellanicus says that the vine was first discovered in Plinthine, a
-
-city of Egypt,
and that for those who, on account of their poverty, could
-
-not get wine, there was introduced a custom of drinking beer made of
-
-barley.
The lake Mareia, which extends as far as this place, is more
-
-than 150 stadia in breadth, and in length less than 300 stadia.
-
-It contains eight islands. The whole country about it is well
-
-inhabited. Good wine also is produced here, and in such
-
-quantity that the Mareotic wine is racked in order that it may
-
-be kept to be old.The Mareotic wine is erroneously stated by Athenæus (p. 55. Bohn's
-
-Classical Library) to have obtained its name from a fountain called
-
-Marea. The fountain and town derived their name from Maro, who was
-
-one of the companions of Bacchus.
The wine is praised by Horace,
-
-Odes I.xxxvii. 14:
-
-
-
-Virgil, Geor. ii. 91, calls a vine by this name:
-
-Sunt Thasiæ vites, sunt et Mareotides albæ.
The byblusThere is also the ciborium. Hegesander the Delphian says that
-
-Euphorion the poet, when supping with Prytanis, his host, exhibited to
-
-him some ciboria, which appeared to be made in a most exquisite and costly manner. Didymus says that it is a kind of drinking-cup, and perhaps it may be the same as that which is called scyphium, which derives
-
-its name from being contracted to a narrow space at the bottom, like the
-
-Egyptian ciboria.
The byblus does not grow here in great abundance, for it is
-
-not cultivated. But it abounds in the lower parts of the
-
-Delta. There is one sort inferior to the other.
On passing through the Canobic gate of the city, on
-
-the right hand is the canal leading to Canobus, close to the
-
-lake. They sail by this canal to Schedia, to the great river,
-
-and to Canobus, but the first place at which they arrive is
-
-Eleusis. This is a settlement near Alexandreia and Nicopolis, and situated on the Canobic canal. It has houses of
-
-entertainment which command beautiful views, and hither
-
-
-
-
At a little distance from Eleusis, on the right hand, is the - -canal leading towards Schedia. Schedia is distant four schoeni - -from Alexandreia. It is a suburb of the city, and has a station for the vessels with cabins, which convey the governors - -when they visit the upper parts of the country. Here is - -collected the duty on merchandise, as it is transported up - -or down the river. For this purpose a bridge of boats is laid - -across the river, and from this kind of bridge the place has - -the name of Schedia. -
Next after the canal leading to Schedia, the navigation - -thence to Canobus is parallel to the sea-coast, extending from - -Pharos to the Canobic mouth. For between the sea and the - -canal, is a narrow band of ground, on which is situated the - -smaller Taposeiris, which lies next after Nicopolis, and Zephyrium a promontory, on which is a small temple dedicated to - -Venus Arsinoë. -
Anciently, it is said, a city called Thonis stood there, which
-
-bears the name of the king, who entertained as his guests
-
-Menelaus and Helen. The poet thus speaks of the drugs
-
-which were given to Helen,
-
-
-
-the potent drugs, which Polydamna, the wife of Thon, gave to Helen.
Canobus is a city, distant by land from Alexandreia
-
-120 stadia. It has its name from Canobus, the pilot of Menelaus, who died there. It contains the temple of Sarapis,
-
-held in great veneration, and celebrated for the cure of diseases; persons even of the highest rank confide in them, and
-
-sleep there themselves on their own account, or others for
-
-them. Some persons record the cures, and others the veracity of the oracles which are delivered there. But remarkable above everything else is the multitude of persons who
-
-resort to the public festivals, and come from Alexandreia by
-
-the canal. For day and night there are crowds of men and
-
-women in boats, singing and dancing, without restraint, and
-
-with the utmost licentiousness. Others, at Canobus itself,
-
-keep hostelries situated on the banks of the canal, which are
-
-well adapted for such kind of diversion and revelry.
-
-
Next to Canobus is Heracleium, in which is a temple
-
-
-
-
On the right of the Canobic canal is the Menelaïte Nome, - -so called from the brother of the first Ptolemy, but certainly - -not from the hero (Menelaus), as some writers assert, among - -whom is Artemidorus. -
Next to the Canobic mouth is the Bolbitine, then the Sebennytic, and the Phatnitic, which is the third in magnitude compared with the first two, which form the boundaries of the - -Delta. For it branches off into the interior, not far from the - -vertex of the Delta. The Mendesian is very near the Phatnitic mouth; next is the Tanitic, and lastly the Pelusiac mouth. - -There are others, which are of little consequence, between - -these, since they are as it were false mouths. -
The mouths have entrances which are not capable of admitting large vessels, but lighters only, on account of the shallows and marshes. The Canobic mart is principally used as - -a mart for merchandise, the harbours at Alexandreia being - -closed, as I have said before. -
After the Bolbitine mouth there runs out to a great distance
-
-a low and sandy promontory. It is called Agnu-ceras (or
-
-Willow Point). Then follows the watch-tower of Perseus,
Next after the fortress of the Milesians, in proceeding towards the Sebennytic mouth, are lakes, one of which is called
-
-Butice, from the city Butus; then the city Sebennytice and
-
-Sais, the capital of the lower country; here Minerva is worshipped. In the temple there of this goddess, is the tomb of
-
-Psammitichus. Near Butus is Hermopolis, situated in an
-
-island, and at Butus is an oracle of Latona.
-
-
-
-
In the interior above the Sebennytic and Phatnitic
-
-mouths is Xoïs, both an island and a city in the Sebennytic
-
-Nome. There are also Hermopolis, Lycopolis, and Mendes,
-
-where Pan
Near Mendes are Diospolis, and the lakes about it, and
-
-Leontopolis; then further on, the city Busiris,
Eratosthenes says, That to repel strangers is a practice
-
-common to all barbarians, but that this charge against the
-
-Egyptians is derived from fabulous stories related of (one)
-
-Busiris and his people in the Busirite Nome, as some persons in later times were disposed to charge the inhabitants of
-
-this place with inhospitality, although in truth there was
-
-neither king nor tyrant of the name of Busiris: that besides
-
-there was a common saying,
-
-
-
-'The way to Egypt is long and vexatious,'
-
-which originated in the want of harbours, and in the
-
-state of the harbour at Pharos, which was not of free access, but watched and guarded by herdsmen, who were robbers, and attacked those who attempted to sail into it. The
-
-Carthaginians drown [he says] any strangers who sail past, on
-
-their voyage to Sardinia or to the Pillars. Hence much of
-
-what is related of the parts towards the west is discredited.
-
-The Persians also were treacherous guides, and conducted the
-
-ambassadors along circuitous and difficult ways.
Contiguous to the Busirite Nome are the Athribite Nome
-
-and the city Athribis; next the Prosopite Nome, in which
-
-latter is Aphroditopolis (the city of Venus). Above the
-
-Mendesian and the Tanitic mouths are a large lake, and the
-
-Mendesian and Leontopolite Nomes, and a city of Aphrodite
-
-(or Venus) and the Pharbetite Nome. Then follows the
-
-Tanitic, which some call the Saitic mouth, and the Tanite
-
-Nome,
Between the Tanitic and the Pelusiac mouths are lakes
-
-
-
-
The country between the Nile and the Arabian Gulf is
-
-Arabia, and at its extremity is situated Pelusium. But the
-
-whole is desert, and not passable by an army. The isthmus
-
-between Pelusium and the recess of the Arabian Gulf near
-
-Heroopolis is 1000 stadia; but, according to Poseidonius, less
-
-than
In sailing up the river from Schedia to Memphis,
Above Momemphis are two nitre mines, which furnish
-
-nitre in large quantities, and the Nitriote Nome. Here Sarapis is worshipped, and they are the only people in Egypt
-
-who sacrifice a sheep. In this nome and near this place is a
-
-city called Menelaus. On the left hand in the Delta, upon
-
-the river, is Naucratis. At the distance of two schœni from
-
-the river is Saïs, Saïs was one of the sacred cities of Egypt: its principal deities were
-
-Neith, who gave oracles there, and Isis. The mysteries of the latter were
-
-celebrated with unusual pomp on the evening of the Feast of Lamps.
-
-Herodotus (ii. 59) terms this festival the third of the great feasts in the
-
-Egyptian calendar. It was held by night; and every one intending to be
-
-present at the sacrifices was required to light a number of lamps in the
-
-open air around his house. At what season of the year the feast of burning lamps was celebrated, Herodotus knew, but deemed it wrong to tell
-
-(ii. 62); it was, however, probably at either the vernal or autumnal
-
-equinox, since it apparently had reference to one of the capital revolutions in the solar course. An inscription, in the temple of Neith, declared her to be the Mother of the Sun. It ran thus, I am the things
-
-that have been, and that are, and that will be; no one has uncovered my
-
-skirts; the fruit which I brought forth became the Sun.
It is probable.
-
-accordingly, that the kindling of the lamps referred to Neith, as the author
-
-of light. On the same night, apparently, were performed what the Egyptians designated as the Mysteries of Isis.
Sais was one of the supposed places of interment of Osiris, for that is evidently the deity whom
-
-Herodotus will not name (ii. 171), when he says that there is a burial-
-
-place of
This is the description of the country from Alexandreia to the vertex of the Delta. -
Artemidorus says, that the navigation up the river is 28 - -schœni, which amount to 840 stadia, reckoning the schœnus - -at 30 stadia. When we ourselves sailed up the river, schoeni - -of different measures were used at different places in giving - -the distances, so that sometimes the received schœnus was a - -measure of 40 stadia and even more. That the measure of - -the schœnus was unsettled among the Egyptians, Artemidorus himself shows in a subsequent place. In reckoning the - -distance from Memphis to Thebais, he says that each schœnus - -consists of 120 stadia, and from the Thebaïs to Syene of 60 - -stadia. In sailing up from Pelusium to the same vertex of - -the Delta, is a distance, he says, of 25 schœni, or 750 stadia, - -and he employs the same measure. -
On setting out from Pelusium, the first canal met with is
-
-that which fills the lakes, near the marshes,
as they are
-
-called. There are two of these lakes, situated upon the left
-
-hand of the great stream above Pelusium in Arabia. He mentions other lakes also, and canals in the same parts beyond
-
-the Delta.
-
The Sethroïte Nome extends along one of the two lakes.
-
-He reckons this as one of the ten nomes in the Delta. There
-
-are two other canals, which discharge themselves into the
-
-same lakes.
-
-
There is another canal also, which empties itself into
-
-the Red Sea, or Arabian Gulf, near the city Arsinoë, which
-
-some call Cleopatris.
The canal was first cut by Sesostris before the Trojan
-
-times, but according to other writers, by the son of The immediate communication therefore between the sea and the canal
-
-was cut off by a lock; and as there must have been two, there would be a
-
-flux and reflux of water between them on the passage of vessels. This
-
-probably suggested to our author the word Euripus, and is to be understood as applying to that portion of the canal included between the locks.
-
-By the word Euripus is generally understood the channel between Negropont and the mainland, which is subject to an ebb and flow of the sea.
-
-The storing up of water, and the distribution of it for the purposes of irrigation, was no doubt well known to the Egyptians. Diodorus, b. i. 19,
-
-ascribes to Osiris the invention. "Osiris confined the Nile by embankments on both sides, so that at the period of its rising it might not inconveniently spread over the country, but that, by gates (closed the Euripus.
Diodorus
-
-Siculus, i. 33, thus speaks of this same work. Darius the Persian left
-
-the canal unfinished, as he was informed by some persons, that by cutting
-
-through the isthmus he would be the cause of inundating Egypt; for
-
-they pointed out to him that the Red Sea was higher than the level of
-
-Egypt. The second Ptolemy afterwards completed the canal, and in the
-
-most convenient part constructed an artfully contrived barrier, (
-
-
We have spoken of the surfaces of bodies of water in
-
-the first part of this work.
Near Arsinoë are situated in the recess of the Arabian
-
-Gulf towards Egypt, Heroopolis and Cleopatris; harbours,
-
-
-
-
There also are the city Bubastus
The plan of the temples is as follows. -
At the entrance into the temenus is a paved floor, in
-
-breadth about a plethrum, or even less; its length is three
-
-or four times as great, and in some instances even more. This
-
-part is called Dromos, and is mentioned by Callimachus,
-
-
-
-Throughout the whole length on each side are placed stone
-
-sphinxes, at the distance of 20 cubits or a little more from
-
-each other, so that there is one row of sphinxes on the right
-
-hand, and another on the left. Next after the sphinxes is a
-
-large propylon, then on proceeding further, another propylon,
-
-and then another. Neither the number of the propyla nor of
-
-the sphinxes is determined by any rule. They are different
-
-in different temples, as well as the length and breadth of the
-
-Dromi.
-
-
-
-this is the Dromos, sacred to Anubis.
Next to the propyla is the naos, which has a large and
-
-considerable pronaos; the sanctuary in proportion; there is no
-
-statue, at least not in human shape, but a representation of
-
-some of the brute animals. On each side of the pronaos project what are called the wings. These are two walls of equal
-
-height with the naos. At first the distance between them is
-
-a little more than the breadth of the foundation of the naos.
There is also a building with a great number of pillars, as
-
-at Memphis, in the barbaric style; for, except the magnitude
-
-and number and rows of pillars, there is nothing pleasing nor
-
-easily described,
At Heliopolis we saw large buildings in which the - -priests lived. For it is said that anciently this was the - -principal residence of the priests, who studied philosophy and - -astronomy. But there are no longer either such a body of - -persons or such pursuits. No one was pointed out to us on - -the spot, as presiding over these studies, but only persons who - -performed sacred rites, and who explained to strangers [the - -peculiarities of] the temples. -
A person of the name of Chæremon accompanied the governor, Ælius Gallus, in his journey from Alexandreia into
-
-Egypt, and pretended to some knowledge of this kind, but he
-
-was generally ridiculed for his boasting and ignorance. The
-
-houses of the priests, and the residences of Plato and of Eudoxus, were shown to us. Eudoxus came here with Plato, and,
-
-according to some writers, lived thirteen years in the society of
-
-the priests. For the latter were distinguished for their knowledge of the heavenly bodies, but were mysterious and uncommunicative, yet after a time were prevailed upon by courtesy
-
-to acquaint them with some of the principles of their science,
-
-but the barbarians concealed the greater part of them. They
-
-had, however, communicated the knowledge of the additional
-
-
-
-
After Heliopolis is the Nile above the Delta.
The
-
-country on the right hand, as you go up the Nile, is called
-
-Libya, as well as that near Alexandreia and the lake Mareotis;
-
-the country on the left hand is called Arabia. The territory
-
-belonging to Heliopolis is in Arabia, but the city Cercesura is
-
-in Libya, and situated opposite to the observatory of Eudoxus.
-
-For there is shown an observing station in front of Heliopolis,
-
-as there is in front of Cnidus, where Eudoxus marked certain
-
-motions of the heavenly bodies. This is the Letopolite Nome.
-
In sailing up the river we meet with Babylon, a strong - -fortress, built by some Babylonians who had taken refuge - -there, and had obtained permission from the kings to establish - -a settlement in that place. At present it is an encampment - -for one of the three legions which garrison Egypt. There is - -a mountainous ridge, which extends from the encampment as - -far as the Nile. At this ridge are wheels and screws, by - -which water is raised from the river, and one hundred and - -fifty prisoners are [thus] employed. -
The pyramids on the other side [of the river] at Memphis
-
-may be clearly discerned from this place, for they are not far
-
-off.
-
-
Memphis itself also, the residence of the kings of Egypt,
-
-is near, being only three schœni distant from the Delta. It
-
-contains temples, among which is that of Apis, who is the
-
-same as Osiris. Here the ox Apis is kept in a sort of sanctuary, and is held, as I have said, to be a god. The forehead
-
-and some other small parts of its body are white; the other
-
-parts are black. By these marks the fitness of the successor
-
-
-
-
The temple of Apis is near the Hephæsteium (or temple
-
-of Vulcan); the HephæsteiumSesoosis (Sesostris) raised two obelisks of hard stone, 120 cubits in
-
-height, on which were inscribed the greatness of his power, the amount of
-
-his revenue, and the number of the nations which he had conquered. At
-
-Memphis, in the temple of Vulcan, he erected monolithe images of himself
-
-and his wife, 30 cubits in height, and images of his sons, 20 cubits in
-
-height,
in memory of his escape from fire when his brother Armais attempted to burn him with his wife and children. Diod. Sic. i. 57.
At Memphis also there is a temple of Venus, who is accounted a Grecian deity. But some say that it is a temple dedicated to Selene, or the moon.
There is also a temple of Sarapis, situated in a very sandy - -spot, where the sand is accumulated in masses by the wind. - -Some of the sphinxes which we saw were buried in this - -sand up to the head, and one half only of others was visible. - -Hence we may conceive the danger, should any one, in his - -way to the temple, be surprised by a [sand] storm. -
The city is large and populous; it ranks next to Alexandreia, - -and, like that place, is inhabited by mixed races of people. - -There are lakes in front of the city and of the palaces, which - -at present are in ruins and deserted. They are situated upon - -an eminence, and extend as far as the lower part of the - -city. -
Close to this place are a grove and a lake.
-
-
At the distance of 40 stadia from Memphis is a brow
-
-
-
- The base and height being given, we find for the solid contents—
-
-
-
-
So that if a wall of (three metres) about 9 1/4 feet in height, and a foot - -ii thickness, were built with the materials of these pyramids, we should - -have a wall— - -
The stones, therefore, of the three pyramids would form such a wall
-
-2910 miles in length, or one sufficient to reach from Alexandreia to the
-
-coast of Guinea.
the sides are rather greater than the height;but all that he says respecting the pyramids is vague and inexact.
moderately,in which it is - -also used in b. xi. c. ii. § 18.
The kings who succeeded to the possession of the country, (- -The moveable stone has been taken away, and the aperture is at most at - -about one-twelfth the whole height of the pyramid from its base.me/sws e)/pratton ) were moderately successful.
On the death of this king, he was succeeded by his brother Chephren, - -who reigned 56 years. According to some writers, it was not a brother, but - -a son, named Chabryis, who was his successor. But all agree that the successor, whoever he was, desired to imitate his predecessor's conception, - -and built the second pyramid, which resembled the first in its artificial - -construction, but was inferior to it in size, the sides of the base being - -a stadium each in length. -
On the greater pyramid is an inscription which states the amount expended on herbs and radishes for the workmen, and it informs us that
-
-
The lesser pyramid bears no inscription, and it has an ascent formed - -in it through an opening in one of the sides. But although the kings - -built these pyramids for their own tombs, yet it has so happened that - -none of them have ever been buried in them. For the population, in - -consequence of the misery to which these works exposed them, and of - -the cruelty and tyranny of the kings, were incensed against them as the - -causes of their sufferings; and moreover threatened to tear their bodies in - -pieces, and to cast them out with insult from their place of burial. Every - -king therefore, on the approach of death, enjoined his relations to bury - -his body secretly in a place undistinguished by marks. -
These were succeeded by king Mycerinus, (whom some call Mecherinus,) son of the king who built the first pyramid. He designed to build - -a third, but died before he accomplished it. Each side of the base of this - -pyramid was three plethra in length, and fifteen tiers of the building - -were raised of black stone like the Thebaic stone, but the rest was filled - -up with a stone resembling that of the other pyramids. This work is inferior to the two former in size, but far surpasses them in artificial construction and in the expensiveness of the stone. On its northern side the - -name of Mycerinus is inscribed, as the person who caused it to be built. - -He is said to have held in abhorrence the cruelty of his predecessors, and - -to have been ambitious of leading a just life, and beneficial to his subjects. - -He performed many actions by which he called forth the affection of his - -people towards him; and among others he expended a great sum of - -money in public causes, rewarding the judges who delivered upright - -judgments, which was not commonly the case. -
There are three other pyramids, the sides of which are two plethra in - -length; in workmanship they entirely resemble the others, except in - -magnitude. These pyramids, it is said, were built by the three before-mentioned kings in honour of their own wives. These works by universal consent are the most remarkable in Egypt, not only in their ponderous construction, but also in the art displayed. We ought, we are - -told, to admire more the architects than the kings, who supplied the means, - -for the architects brought their designs to completion by force of mind - -and the influence of an honourable ambition, but the kings by the power - -of that wealth which was their portion, or by injuries inflicted on others. - -There is no agreement whatever, either between the natives of the country or between authors, respecting the pyramids; for some assert that the - -kings before mentioned built them, others that they were not the builders, but that Armæus built the first and largest; Amasis, the second; - -and Inaro, the third: but this last is said by some to be the burial-place - -of Rhodopis, a courtesan, whose lovers were certain governors of nomes, - -who from affection towards her undertook this great work, and completed - -it at their common charge. Diodorus Siculus, b. . 63, 64.
One extraordinary thing which I saw at the pyramids
-
-must not be omitted. Heaps of stones from the quarries lie
-
-in front of the pyramids. Among these are found pieces
-
-which in shape and size resemble lentils.testacea fossilia kakiensia.
Diodorus, as quoted above, says that there are no vestiges of
-
-fragments.tufstein.
It is said that the captives from Babylon revolted from the king
-
-(Sesostris), being unable to endure the sufferings to which they were exposed in the public works. They seized upon a strong place on the
-
-banks of the river, and maintained for some time a contest with the Egyptians, destroying the neighbouring district. At last, having obtained
-
-security from molestation, they made a regular settlement of the place, and
-
-called it Babylon, after their native city. Under similar circumstances, it is said, a place received the name of Troy which still exists on the
-
-banks of the Nile. For Menelaus, on his return from Troy with captives,
-
-came to Egypt. The Trojan captives revolted, took up a position, and
-
-carried on a war, until having obtained safety for themselves by treaty,
-
-they founded a city bearing the name of their native place.
I am aware
-
-that Ctesias gives a different account of these cities, and says that some of
-
-the soldiers who accompanied Semiramis in her invasion of Egypt
-
-founded these cities, and gave to them the names of their native cities.
-
-Diod. Sic. i. 56.
Next to Memphis is the city Acanthus, situated also in
-
-Libya, and the temple of Osiris, and the grove of the Thebaïc acantha, from which gum is procured. Next is the Aphroditopolite Nome, and the city in Arabia of the same name,
-
-where is kept a white cow, considered sacred. Then follows
-
-the Heracleote Nome, in a large island, near which is the
-
-canal on the right hand, which leads into Libya, in the direction of the Arsinoïte Nome; so that the canal has two entrances,
-
-a part of the island on one side being interposed between
-
-them.
We have treated these subjects at length in the First - -Book of the Geography. At present we shall make a few - -remarks on the operations of nature and of Providence conjointly.—On the operations of nature, that all things converge - -to a point, namely, the centre of the whole, and assume a - -spherical shape around it. The earth is the densest body, and - -nearer the centre than all others: the less dense and next to - -it is water; but both land and water are spheres, the first - -solid, the second hollow, containing the earth within it.—On - -the operations of Providence, that it has exercised a will, is - -disposed to variety, and is the artificer of innumerable works. - -In the first rank, as greatly surpassing all the rest, is the - -generation of animals, of which the most excellent are gods - -and men, for whose sake the rest were formed. To the gods - -Providence assigned heaven; and the earth to men, the extreme parts of the world; for the extreme parts of the sphere - -are the centre and the circumference. But since water encompasses the earth, and man is not an aquatic, but a land-animal, living in the air, and requiring much light, Providence formed many eminences and cavities in the earth, so - -that these cavities should receive the whole or a great part of - -the water which covers the land beneath it; and that the eminences should rise and conceal the water beneath them, except - -so much as was necessary for the use of the human race, the - -animals and plants about it. -
But as all things are in constant motion, and undergo great
-
-changes, (for it is not possible that things of such a nature, so
-
-numerous and vast, could be otherwise regulated in the world,)
-
-we must not suppose the earth or the water always to continue in this state, so as to retain perpetually the same bulk,
-
-without increase or diminution, or that each preserves the
-
-same fixed place, particularly as the reciprocal change of one
-
-into the other is most consonant to nature from their proximity; but that much of the land is changed into water, and
-
-a great portion of water becomes land, just as we observe great
-
-differences in the earth itself. For one kind of earth crumbles
-
-easily, another is solid and rocky, and contains iron; and so
-
-of others. There is also a variety in the quality of water;
-
-for some waters are saline, others sweet and potable, others
-
-
-
-
The lake Mœris, by its magnitude and depth, is able to - -sustain the superabundance of water which flows into it at - -the time of the rise of the river, without overflowing the inhabited and cultivated parts of the country. On the decrease - -of the water of the river, it distributes the excess by the same - -canal at each of the mouths; and both the lake and the canal - -preserve a remainder, which is used for irrigation. These - -are the natural and independent properties of the lake, but in - -addition, on both mouths of the canal are placed locks, by - -which the engineers store up and distribute the water which - -enters or issues from the canal. -
We have here also the Labyrinth, a work equal to the
-
-Pyramids, and adjoining to it the tomb of the king who constructed the Labyrinth.
At the end of this building, which occupies more than a
-
-stadium, is the tomb, which is a quadrangular pyramid, each
-
-side of which is about four plethra in length, and of equal
-
-height. The name of the person buried there is Imandes.
Sailing along to the distance of 100 stadia, we come to
-
-the city Arsinoë, formerly called Crocodilopolis; for the inhabitants of this nome worship the crocodile. The animal is
-
-accounted sacred, and kept apart by himself in a lake; it is
-
-tame, and gentle to the priests, and is called Suchus. It is
-
-fed with bread, flesh, and wine, which strangers who come
-
-to see it always present. Our host, a distinguished person,
-
-who was our guide in examining what was curious, accompanied us to the lake, and brought from the supper table a
-
-small cake, dressed meat, and a small vessel containing a
-
-mixture of honey and milk. We found the animal lying on
-
-the edge of the lake. The priests went up to it; some of
-
-them opened its mouth, another put the cake into it, then the
-
-meat, and afterwards poured down the honey and milk. The
-
-animal then leaped into the lake, and crossed to the other side.
-
-When another stranger arrived with his offering, the priests
-
-took it, and running round the lake, caught the crocodile, and
-
-gave him what was brought, in the same manner as before.
-
-
Next after the Arsinoïte and Heracleotic Nomes, is
-
-the city of Hercules, in which the ichneumon is worshipped,
-
-in opposition to the Arsinoïtes, who worship crocodiles;
-
-
-
-
They lie in wait for the crocodiles, when the latter are
-
-basking in the sun with their mouths open; they then drop
-
-into their jaws, and eating through their intestines and belly,
-
-issue out of the dead body.
-
-
Next follows the Cynopolite Nome and Cynopolis, - -where they worship the dog Anubis, and pay certain honours to dogs; a subsistence is there provided for them, as - -sacred animals. -
On the other side of the river is the city Oxyrynchus,
Then follows the Hermopolite Castle, a place where is
-
-collected the toll on merchandise brought down from the
-
-Thebaïs. At this place begins the reckoning by schœni of
-
-sixty stadia each, which is continued to Syene and Elephantina. Next is the Thebaïc Keep, and a canal leading to Tanis.
-
-Then follow Lycopolis, Aphroditopolis, and Panopolis, an old
-
-settlement belonging to masons and weavers of linen.
-
-
Then follows Ptolemaïs,
There is a canal which leads to this place from the great
-
-river. About the canal is a grove of Egyptian acanthus,
-
-dedicated to Apollo. Abydos seems once to have been a large
-
-city, second to Thebes. At present it is a small town. But
-
-if, as they say, Memnon is called Ismandes by the Egyptians,
-
-the Labyrinth might be a Memnonium, and the work of the
-
-same person who constructed those at Abydos and at Thebes;
-
-for in those places, it is said, are some Memnonia. In the
-
-latitude of Abydos is the first Auasis (Oasis) of the three
-
-which are said to be in Africa. It is distant from Abydos a
-
-journey of seven days through a desert. It is an inhabited
-
-place, well supplied with good water and wine, and sufficiently provided with other articles. The second is that near
-
-the lake Mœris. The third is that at the oracle of Ammon:
-
-these are considerable settlements.
-
-
Having before spoken at length of the temple of Ammon,
-
-we wish to add this only, that in ancient times divination in general and oracles were held in greater esteem than at present.
-
-Now they are greatly neglected ; for the Romans are satisfied
-
-with the oracles of the Sibyl, and with Tyrrhenian divination
-
-by the entrails of animals, the flight of birds, and portentous
-
-appearances. Hence the oracle of Ammon, which was
-
-formerly held in great esteem, is now nearly deserted. This
-
-
-
-
-
-the prophet imitating Jupiter. This, however, the man told
-
-the king, in express terms, that he was the son of Jupiter.
-
-Callisthenes adds, (after the exaggerating style of tragedy,)
-
-that when Apollo had deserted the oracle among the Branchidæ, on the temple being plundered by the Branchidæ (who
-
-espoused the party of the Persians in the time of Xerxes,) and
-
-the spring had failed, it then re-appeared (on the arrival of
-
-Alexander); that the ambassadors also of the Milesians carried back to Memphis numerous answers of the oracle respecting the descent of Alexander from Jupiter, and the future victory which he should obtain at Arbela, the death of Darius,
-
-and the political changes at Lacedæmon. He says also that
-
-the Erythræan Athenais, who resembled the ancient Erythræan Sibyl, had declared the high descent of Alexander.
-
-Such are the accounts of historians.
-
-the son of Saturn nodded with his sable brows,
At Abydos Osiris is worshipped; but in the temple of
-
-Osiris no singer, nor player on the pipe, nor on the cithara,
-
-is permitted to perform at the commencement of the ceremonies celebrated in honour of the god, as is usual in rites
-
-celebrated in honour of the other gods. Next to Abydos is
-
-
-
-
Then follows the isthmus, extending to the Red Sea
-
-near Berenice,stations for the service of travellers
-
-on foot and on camels.
Veneris Portus
of Pliny. It was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. Harbour of the Mouse,
but more probably it means the Harbour
-
-of the Mussel,
(
Formerly, the camel-merchants travelled in the night, directing their course by observing the stars, and, like mariners, - -carried with them a supply of water. But now watering-places are provided: water is also obtained by digging to a - -great depth, and rain-water is found, although rain rarely - -falls, which is also collected in reservoirs. It is a journey of - -six or seven days. -
On this isthmus are mines, in which the emeralds and
-
-other precious stones are found by the Arabians, who dig
-
-deep subterraneous passages.
-
-
Next to the city of Apollo is Thebes, now called Diospolis,
-
-
-
-according to Homer, who mentions also its wealth;
-
-with her hundred gates, through each of which issue two hundred men,
-
-with horses and chariots,
-not all the wealth the palaces of Egyptian Thebes contain.
Other writers use the same language, and consider Thebes
-
-as the metropolis of Egypt. Vestiges of its magnitude still
-
-exist, which extend 80 stadia in length. There are a great
-
-number of temples, many of which Cambyses mutilated. The
-
-spot is at present occupied by villages. One part of it, in
-
-which is the city, lies in Arabia; another is in the country
-
-on the other side of the river, where is the Memnonium.
-
-Here are two colossal figures near one another, each consisting
-
-of a single stone. One is entire; the upper parts of the
-
-other, from the chair, are fallen down, the effect, it is said,
-
-of an earthquake. It is believed, that once a day a noise as of
-
-a slight blow issues from the part of the statue which remains
-
-
-
-
Above the Memnonium are tombs of kings in caves, and
-
-hewn out of the stone, about forty in number; they are executed with singular skill, and are worthy of notice. Among
-
-the tombstombs,
in the text, Kramer is of opinion that we
-
-should read
The priests there are said to be, for the most part, astronomers and philosophers. The former compute the days, not by
-
-the moon, but by the sun, introducing into the twelve months
-
-of thirty days each five days every year. But in order to
-
-complete the whole year, because there is (annually) an excess
-
-of a part of a day, they form a period from out of whole days
-
-and whole years, the supernumerary portions of which in that
-
-period, when collected together, amount to a day. On the one hand, it is certain that Strabo, who visited Egypt a short
-
-time after the conquest of the country by the Romans, would not have
-
-omitted to attribute to them the institution of this year, if it really belonged to them. So far from doing so, he says (above, § 29) distinctly,
-
-that this method of intercalation was known and practised by the priests
-
-of Heliopolis and Thebes. Diodorus Siculus, who visited Egypt just at
-
-the time of the first arrival of the Romans, gives the same account as
-
-Strabo. Can we therefore believe that the Egyptians before this period
-
-were ignorant of the bissextile intercalation?
- On the other hand; it is not less certain that this method of intercalation was only introduced into civil use at Alexandria from the time of
-
-Julius Cæsar: before this period, the incomplete year of 365 days was
-
-adopted throughout the whole of Egypt, as is attested by a host of authorities, and confirmed by the date of the Rosetta stone, which only applies
-
-to this method of reckoning. Hence we see (I.) that Julius Cæsar
-
-really obtained the idea of a fixed year of 365 1/4 days from the Egyptians,
-
-where it was employed for scientific or religious purposes only, whilst the
-
-incomplete year was the vulgar and common year; (II.) that he made
-
-this fixed year the common year, both among the Romans and Alexandrines, who were a people most readily disposed to adopt foreign innovations. It is, however, probable that the rest of Egypt preserved the ancient use of the incomplete year.
Next after Thebes is the city Hermonthis, in which - -both Apollo and Jupiter are worshipped. They also keep an - -ox there (for worship). -
Next is the city of Crocodiles, the inhabitants of which worship this animal; then Aphroditopolis (the city of Venus),
Syene is a city situated on the borders of Ethiopia
-
-and Egypt. Elephantina is an island in the Nile, at the distance of half a stadium in front of Syene; in this island is a
-
-city with a temple of Cnuphis, and a nilometer like that at
-
-Memphis. The nilometer is a well upon the banks of the Nile,
-
-constructed of close-fitting stones, on which are marked the
-
-greatest, least, and mean risings of the Nile; for the water
-
-in the well and in the river rises and subsides simultaneously.
-
-Upon the wall of the well are lines, which indicate the complete rise of the river, and other degrees of its rising. Those
-
-
-
-signs.
-
-Coraÿ proposes measures.
The expression in the text is
-
-obscure, and the translation is a conjecture of the meaning.
At Syene there is a well which indicates the summer
-
-solstice, because these places lie under the tropical circle, At the time of Eratosthenes, the obliquity of the ecliptic was 23° 45′ 17″.
-
-Syene was therefore 20′ 6″ from being exactly under the tropic; for 24°
-
-5′ 23″ (latitude of Syene)—23° 45′ 17″ = 20′ 6″. This would be the distance of the centre of the sun from the zenith of Syene; whence it follows
-
-that the northern limb of the sun was about 5′ from it.
- In the time of Strabo, the obliquity was only 23° 42′ 22″; the difference between the zenith of Syene and the northern limb of the sun was
-
-about 8′.
- Lastly, about 140 of the vulgar era, the obliquity was reduced to
-
-23° 41′ 7″. Syene was then 24′ 16″ from the tropic, and its zenith was
-
-about 10′ from the northern limb of the sun; when the shadows of gnomons of any tolerable size must have been perceptible, and Syene could
-
-not have been any longer considered as lying under the tropic.
- As regards the well which served to ascertain the instant of the solstice,
-
-Pliny and Arrian both mention it. The formation of it no doubt belonged to a very remote period. In the time of Strabo, the rays of the sun
-
-could not have reached entirely to the bottom, but the shadow was so
-
-small that it was not sufficient to shake the ancient opinion. In fact,
-
-the angle being about 8′, and supposing the depth to have been 50 feet,
-
-the northern side would have projected a shadow of about 18 lines; the
-
-rest would have remained in fill light, and the reflexion would have
-
-caused the whole circumference of the well to appear illuminated.
-
-
Here are stationed three Roman cohorts as a guard.
-
-
A little above Elephantine is the lesser cataract, where - -the boatmen exhibit a sort of spectacle to the governors. -
The cataract is in the middle of the river, and is formed by a - -ridge of rock, the upper part [or commencement] of which is - -level, and thus capable of receiving the river, but terminating - -in a precipice, where the water dashes down. On each side - -towards the land there is a stream, up which is the chief ascent - -for vessels. The boatmen sail up by this stream, and, dropping down to the cataract, are impelled with the boat to the - -precipice, the crew and the boats escaping unhurt. -
A little above the cataract is Philæ, a common settlement, like Elephantina, of Ethiopians and Egyptians, and
-
-equal in size, containing Egyptian temples, where a bird,
-
-which they call hierax, (the hawk,) is worshipped; but it
-
-did not appear to me to resemble in the least the hawks of
-
-our country nor of Egypt, for it was larger, and very different in the marks of its plumage. They said that the bird was
-
-Ethiopian, and is brought from Ethiopia when its predecessor
-
-dies, or before its death. The one shown to us when we were
-
-there was sick and nearly dead.
-
-
We came from Syene to Philæ in a waggon, through a
-
-very flat country, a distance of about 100 stadia.
Throughout the whole of Egypt, the palm tree is of a
-
-bad species, and produces no good edible fruit in the places
-
-about the Delta and Alexandreia; yet the best kind is found
-
-in the Thebais. It is a subject of surprise how countries in
-
-the same latitude as Judæa, and bordering upon the Delta and
-
-Alexandreia, should be so different; for Judæa, in addition to
-
-other kinds of date-palms, produces the caryotic, which is not
-
-inferior to the Babylonian. There are, however, two kinds
-
-of dates in the Thebaïs and in Judæa, the caryotic and
-
-another. The Thebaic is firmer, but the flavour is more
-
-agreeable. There is an island remarkable for producing the
-
-best dates, and it also furnishes the largest revenue to the governors. It was appropriated to the kings, and no private
-
-person had any share in the produce; at present it belongs to
-
-the governors.
-
-
Herodotus
Egypt was from the first disposed to peace, from having resources within itself, and because it was difficult of access to strangers. It was also protected on the north by a
-
-harbourless coast and the Egyptian Sea; on the east and
-
-west by the desert mountains of Libya and Arabia, as I have
-
-said before.
At present the whole country is in the same pacific state, - -a proof of which is, that the upper country is sufficiently - -guarded by three cohorts, and these not complete. Whenever - -the Ethiopians have ventured to attack them, it has been at - -the risk of danger to their own country. The rest of the - -forces in Egypt are neither very numerous, nor did the Romans ever once employ them collected into one army. For - -neither are the Egyptians themselves of a warlike disposition, - -nor the surrounding nations, although their numbers are very - -large. -
Cornelius Gallus, the first governor of the country appointed by (Augustus) Cæsar, attacked the city Heroopolis, which
-
-had revolted,
We have before
The Ethiopians, emboldened in consequence of a part
-
-of the forces in Egypt being drawn off by Ælius Gallus, who
-
-was engaged in war with the Arabs, invaded the Thebais,
-
-and attacked the garrison, consisting of three cohorts, near
-
-Syene; surprised and took Syene, Elephantina, and Philæ,
-
-by a sudden inroad; enslaved the inhabitants, and threw down
-
-the statues of Cæsar. But Petronius, marching with less than
-
-10,000 infantry and 800 horse against an army of 30,000 men,
-
-first compelled them to retreat to Pselchis, an Ethiopian city.
-
-He then sent deputies to demand restitution of what they had
-
-taken, and the reasons which had induced them to begin the
-
-
-
-
From Pselchis Petronius went to Premnis, Among the ruins which probably cover the site of the ancient Napata
-
-are two lions of red granite, one bearing the name of Amuneph Ill., the
-
-other Amuntuonch. They were brought to England by Lord Prudhoe,
-
-and now stand at the entrance of the Gallery of Antiquities in the British
-
-Museum. See Smith's Diet., art.
In the mean time Candace
IN the preceding part
In general, then, the extreme parts of the habitable world
-
-adjacent to the intemperate region, which is not habitable by
-
-reason either of heat or cold, must necessarily be defective
-
-and inferior, in respect to physical advantages, to the temper-
-
-
-
-the inhabitants also are
-
-small.
They live on millet and barley, from which also a drink
-
-is prepared. They have no oil, but use butter and fat instead.
Their largest royal seat is the city of Meroë, of the same
-
-name as the island. The shape of the island is said to be
-
-that of a shield. Its size is perhaps exaggerated. Its length
-
-is about 3000, and its breadth 1000 stadia. It is very mountainous, and contains great forests. The inhabitants are
-
-nomades, who are partly hunters and partly husbandmen.
-
-There are also mines of copper, iron, gold, and various kinds
-
-of precious stones. It is surrounded on the side of Libya by
-
-great hills of sand, and on that of Arabia by continuous precipices. In the higher parts on the south, it is bounded by
-
-the confluentis within the compass of.
Above Meroë is Psebo,
The Ethiopians use bows of wood four cubits long, and - -hardened in the fire. The women also are armed, most of - -whom wear in the upper lip a copper ring. They wear sheepskins, without wool; for the sheep have hair like goats. Some - -go naked, or wear small skins or girdles of well-woven hair - -round the loins. -
They regard as God one being who is immortal, the cause - -of all things; another who is mortal, a being without a name, - -whose nature is not clearly understood. -
In general they consider as gods benefactors and royal persons, some of whom are their kings, the common saviours and - -guardians of all; others are private persons, esteemed as gods - -by those who have individually received benefits from them. -
Of those who inhabit the torrid region, some are even supposed not to acknowledge any god, and are said to abhor even - -the sun, and to apply opprobrious names to him, when they - -behold him rising, because he scorches and tortures them - -with his heat; these people take refuge in the marshes. -
The inhabitants of Meroë worship Hercules, Pan, and Isis,
-
-besides some other barbaric deity.
Some tribes throw the dead into the river; others keep
-
-them in the house, enclosed in hyalus (oriental alabaster ?).
-
-
-
-
Kings are appointed from among persons distinguished for - -their personal beauty, or by their breeding of cattle, or for - -their courage, or their riches. -
In Meroë the priests anciently held the highest rank, and - -sometimes sent orders even to the king, by a messenger, to put - -an end to himself, when they appointed another king in his - -place. At last one of their kings abolished this custom, by - -going with an armed body to the temple where the golden - -shrine is, and slaughtering all the priests. -
The following custom exists among the Ethiopians. If a
-
-king is mutilated in any part of the body, those who are
-
-most attached to his person, as attendants, mutilate themselves
-
-in the same manner, and even die with him. Hence the
-
-king is guarded with the utmost care. This will suffice on
-
-the subject of Ethiopia.
-
-
To what has been said concerning Egypt, we must add
-
-these peculiar products; for instance, the Egyptian bean, as it is
-
-called, from which is obtained the ciborium,
There are in the Nile fish in great quantity and of different kinds, having a peculiar and indigenous character. The
-
-best known are the oxyrynchus,
The animals peculiar to the country are the ichneumon
-
-and the Egyptian asp, having some properties which those
-
-in other places do not possess. There are two kinds, one a
-
-span in length, whose bite is more suddenly mortal than that
-
-of the other; the second is nearly an orguia
Among the birds, are the ibis and the Egyptian hawk,
-
-which, like the cat, is more tame than those elsewhere. The
-
-nycticorax is here peculiar in its character; for with us it is
-
-as large as an eagle, and its cry is harsh; but in Egypt it is
-
-the size of a jay, and has a different note. The tamest animal, however, is the ibis; it resembles a stork in shape and
-
-size. There are two kinds, which differ in colour; one is
-
-like a stork, the other is entirely black. Every street in
-
-Alexandreia is full of them. In some respects they are useful; in others troublesome. They are useful, because they
-
-pick up all sorts of small animals and the offal thrown out
-
-of the butchers' and cooks' shops. They are troublesome,
-
-because they devour everything, are dirty, and with difficulty
-
-prevented from polluting in every way what is clean and
-
-what is not given to them.
-
-
Herodotus
The coccina are Egyptian textures made of some plant,cuci
-
-(b. xiii. 9): At e diverse, cuci in magno honore, palmæ similis, quando
-
-et ejus foliis utuntur ad textilia.
Barley beet is a preparation peculiar to the Egyptians. - -It is common among many tribes, but the mode of preparing - -it differs in each. -
This, however, of all their usages is most to be admired,
-
-that they bring up all children that are born. They circumcise the males, and spay the females, as is the custom also
-
-among the Jews, who are of Egyptian origin, as I said when
-
-I was treating of them.
According to Aristobulus, no fishes ascend the Nile from - -the sea, except the cestreus, the thrissa, and dolphins, on account of the crocodiles; the dolphin, because it can get the - -better of the crocodile; the cestreus, because it is accompanied - -by the chœri along the bank, in consequence of some physical - -affinity subsisting between them. The crocodiles abstain - -from doing any hurt to the chœri, because they are of a - -round shape, and have spines on their heads, which are dangerous to them.. The cestreus runs up the river in spring, - -when in spawn; and descends a little before the setting - -of the pleiad, in great numbers, when about to cast it, at which - -time they are taken in shoals, by falling into inclosures (made - -for catching them). Such also, we may conjecture, is the - -reason why the thrissa is found there. -
So much then on the subject of Egypt. - - -
WE shall next describe Africa, which is the remaining - -portion of the whole description of the earth. -
We have before said much respecting it; but at present I
-
-shall further describe what suits my purpose, and add what
-
-has not been previously mentioned.
The writers who have divided the habitable world according to continents, divide it unequally. But a threefold division denotes a division into three equal parts. Africa, - -however, wants so much of being a third part of the habitable world, that, even if it were united to Europe, it would - -not be equal to Asia; perhaps it is even less than Europe; - -in resources it is very much inferior, for a great part of the - -inland and maritime country is desert. It is spotted over - -with small habitable parts, which are scattered about, and - -mostly belonging to nomade tribes. Besides the desert state of - -the country, its being a nursery of wild beasts is a hindrance - -to settlement in parts which could be inhabited. It comprises also a large part of the torrid zone. -
All the sea-coast in our quarter, situated between the Nile - -and the Pillars, particularly that which belonged to the Carthaginians, is fertile and inhabited. And even in this tract, - -some spots destitute of water intervene, as those about the - -Syrtes, the Marmaridæ, and the Catabathmus. -
The shape of Africa is that of a right-angled triangle, if we - -imagine its figure to be drawn on a plane surface. Its base - -is the coast opposite to us, extending from Egypt and the - -Nile to Mauretania and the Pillars; at right angles to this - -is a side formed by the Nile to Ethiopia, which side we continue to the ocean; the hypothenuse of the right angle is the - -whole tract of sea-coast lying between Ethiopia and Mauretania. -
As the part situated at the vertex of the above-mentioned
-
-figure, and lying almost entirely under the torrid zone, is inaccessible, we speak of it from conjecture, and therefore cannot say what is the greatest breadth of the country. In a
-
-former
Here dwell a people called by the Greeks Maurusii, and by
-
-the Romans and the natives Mauri, a populous and flourishing
-
-African nation, situated opposite to Spain, on the other side
-
-of the strait, at the Pillars of Hercules, which we have frequently mentioned before. On proceeding beyond the strait at
-
-the Pillars, with Africa on the left hand, we come to a mountain which the Greeks call Atlas, and the barbarians Dyris.
-
-Thence projects into the sea a point formed by the foot of the
-
-mountain towards the west of Mauretania, and called the Coteis.
Historians, beginning with the voyage of Ophelas (Apellas ?),
It is said, that the Sinus Emporicus (or merchants' bay)
-
-has a cave which admits the sea at high tide to the distance
-
-even of seven stadia, and in front of this bay a low and level
-
-tract with an altar of Hercules upon it, which, they say, is
-
-not covered by the tide. This I, of course, consider to be one
-
-of the fictitious stories. Like this is the tale, that on other
-
-bays in the succeeding coast there were ancient settlements
-
-of Tyrians, now abandoned, which consisted of not less than
-
-three hundred cities, and were destroyed by the PharusiiThe
-
-men of Pheres (the common version reads Persia) and Lud and Phut
-
-were in thine armies.
These Pheres thus joined with Phut, or Mauretanians, and the Ludim, who were nomads of Africa (the Septuagint
-
-and the Vulgate understand the Lydians), may be reasonably supposed
-
-to belong to the same region. Without the vowel points, the name will
-
-represent the powerful and warlike tribe whom the Greeks call Pharusii.
-
-
Writers in general are agreed that Mauretania is a fertile country, except a small part which is desert, and is supplied with water by rivers and lakes. It has forests of trees
-
-of vast size, and the soil produces everything. It is this
-
-country which furnishes the Romans with tables, formed of
-
-one piece of wood, of the largest dimensions, and most beautifully variegated. The rivers are said to contain crocodiles
-
-and other kinds of animals similar to those in the Nile. Some
-
-suppose that even the sources of the Nile are near the extremities of Mauretania. In a certain river leeches are bred
-
-seven cubits in length, with gills, pierced through with holes,
-
-through which they respire. This country is also said to
-
-
-
-
Above Mauretania, on the exterior sea (the Atlantic), is
-
-the country of the western Ethiopians, as they are called, which,
-
-for the most part, is badly inhabited. Iphicrates
On sailing into the interior sea, from Lynx, there are ZelisNear the river is a large promontory, and a neighbouring
-
-settlement called Metagonium.
Kramer's proposed correction is followed.
Although the Mauretanians inhabit a country, the greatest part of which is very fertile, yet the people in general continue even to this time to live like nomades. They bestow
-
-care to improve their looks by plaiting their hair, trimming
-
-their beards, by wearing golden ornaments, cleaning their
-
-teeth, and paring their nails; and you would rarely see them
-
-
-
-
They fight for the most part on horseback, with a javelin; and
-
-ride on the bare back of the horse, with bridles made of rushes.
-
-They have also swords. The foot-soldiers present against the
-
-enemy, as shields, the skins of elephants. They wear the
-
-skins of lions, panthers, and bears, and sleep in them. These
-
-tribes, and the Masæsylii next to them, and for the most part
-
-the Africans in general, wear the same dress and arms, and
-
-resemble one another in other respects; they ride horses which
-
-are small, but spirited and tractable, so as to be guided by a
-
-switch. They have collarsof cotton.
They have a small shield of leather, and small lances with - -broad heads. Their tunics are loose, with wide borders; their - -cloak is a skin, as I have said before, which serves also as a - -breastplate. -
The Pharusii and Nigretes, who live above these people, near
-
-the western Ethiopians, use bows and arrows, like the Ethiopians. They have chariots also, armed with scythes. The
-
-Pharusii rarely have any intercourse with the Mauretanians
-
-in passing through the desert country, as they carry skins filled
-
-with water, fastened under the bellies of their horses. Sometimes, indeed, they come to Cirta,
Artemidorus censures Eratosthenes for saying that there
-
-is a city called Lixus, and not Lynx, near the extremities of
-
-Mauretania; that there are a very great number of Phoenician
-
-cities destroyed,there existed in the Bay
-
-Emporicus very many Phœnician cities.
Gabinius, the Roman historian, indulges in relating marvellous stories of Mauretania. He speaks of a sepulchre of
-
-Antæus at Lynx, and a skeleton of sixty feet in length,
-
-which Sertorius exposed, and afterwards covered it with
-
-earth.
Next to Mauretania is the country of the Masesylii, beginning from the river Molocath, and ending at the promontory which is called Tretum,
Upon the sea-coast are many cities and rivers, and a country which is very fertile. It will be sufficient to mention the
-
-most renowned. The city of Siga.
Deep in the interior of the country are mountainous and
-
-desert tracts scattered here and there, some of which are inhabited and occupied by Gætuli extending to the Syrtes. But
-
-the parts near the sea are fertile plains, in which are numerous
-
-cities, rivers, and lakes.
-
-
Poseidonius says, but I do not know whether truly, - -that Africa is traversed by few, and those small rivers; yet he - -speaks of the same rivers, namely those between Lynx and - -Carthage, which Artemidorus describes as numerous and - -large. This may be asserted with more truth of the interior - -of the country, and he himself assigns the reason of it, - -namely, that in the northern parts of Africa (and the same - -is said of Ethiopia) there is no rain; in consequence therefore of the drought, pestilence frequently ensues, the lakes - -are filled with mud only, and locusts appear in clouds. -
Poseidonius besides asserts that the eastern parts are moist,
-
-because the sun quickly changes its place after rising; and that
-
-the western parts are dry, because the sun there turns in his
-
-course. Now, drought and moisture depend upon the abundance or scarcity of water, and on the presence or absence of
-
-the sun's rays. But Poseidonius means to speak of the
-
-effects produced by the sun, which all writers determine by
-
-the latitude, north or south; but east and west, as applied to
-
-the residence of men, differ in different places, according to
-
-
-
-
Somewhere there, also, are copper mines; and a spring
-
-of asphaltus; scorpions of enormous size,of seven joints
-
-in the tail; the correction of Letronne, which Kramer supports, is adopted. Groskurd however retains the text, and reads of enormous size, and sometimes
-
-of seven joints.
On this coast was a city called Iol,
The country on the side of Mauretania produced a greater
-
-revenue and was more powerful, whilst that near Carthage and
-
-of the Masylies was more flourishing and better furnished with
-
-buildings, although it suffered first in the Carthaginian wars,
-
-and subsequently during the war with Jugurtha, who successfully besieged Adarbal in Ityca (Utica),Douar,
-
-which has a holy tomb called Boushatter, and with this view many
-
-writers have agreed. Adherbal, however, was besieged and captured in
-
-Cirta (Constantine), B. C.
After Tretum follows the territory of the Masylies,
-
-and that of the Carthaginians which borders upon it. In the
-
-interior is Cirta, the royal residence of Masanasses and his
-
-successors. It is a very strong place and well provided with
-
-everything, which it principally owes to Micipsa, who established a colony of Greeks in it, and raised it to such importance,
-
-that it was capable of sending out 10,000 cavalry and twice
-
-as many infantry. Here, besides Cirta, are the two cities
-
-Hippo,
Carthage is situated upon a peninsula, comprising a
-
-circuit of 360 stadia, with a wall, of which sixty stadia in
-
-length are upon the neck of the peninsula, and reach from
-
-sea to sea. Here the Carthaginians kept their elephants, it
-
-being a wide open place. In the middle of the city was the
-
-acropolis, which they called Byrsa, a hill of tolerable height
-
-with dwellings round it. On the summit was the temple of
-
-Esculapius, which was destroyed when the wife of Asdrubas
-
-burnt herself to death there, on the capture of the city.
-
-Below the Acropolis were the harbours and the Cothon, a
-
-circular island, surrounded by a canal communicating with the
-
-sea (Euripus), and on every side of it (upon the canal) were
-
-situated sheds for vessels.
-
-
-
-
Carthage was founded by Dido, who brought her
-
-people from Tyre. Both this colony and the settlements in
-
-Spain and beyond the Pillars proved so successful to the
-
-Phoenicians, that even to the present day they occupy the
-
-best parts on the continent of Europe and the neighbouring
-
-islands. They obtained possession of the whole of Africa,
-
-with the exception of such parts as could only be held by
-
-nomade tribes. From the power they acquired they raised a
-
-city to rival Rome, and waged three great wars against her.
-
-Their power became most conspicuous in the last war, in which
-
-they were vanquished by Scipio Æmilianus, and their city
-
-was totally destroyed. For at the commencement of this war,
-
-they possessed 300 cities in Africa, and the population of
-
-Carthage amounted to 700,000 inhabitants. After being besieged and compelled to surrender, they delivered up 200,000
-
-complete suits of armour and 3000
Carthage, though so great, was yet taken and levelled to - -the ground. -
The Romans made a province of that part of the country
-
-which had been subject to Carthage, and appointed ruler of the
-
-rest Masanasses and his descendants, beginning with Micipsa.
-
-For the Romans paid particular attention to Masanasses on
-
-account of his great abilities and friendship for them. For
-
-
-
-
About the middle of the gulf of Carthage is the island
-
-Corsura. Ægimurus is the small island Zembra, near Cape Bon; near it is also
-
-another small low rocky island. From the shape and appearance of the
-
-former, more especially in some positions, we may attribute the name
-
-Aræ (altars), given to them, as in Pliny: Ægimuree Aræ, scopuli
-
-verius quam insulæ;
and they are the Aræ
of Virgil, Æn. i. 108.
Close, in the neighbourhood (of these islands), is the
-
-Little Syrtis, which is also called the Syrtis Lotophagitis (or
-
-the lotus-eating Syrtis). The circuit of this gulf is lotus-zizyphus
or the carob
-
-now common in the islands of the Mediterranean and on the continent.land of the lotus-eaters
After the Syrtis, follows the lake Zuchis, 400 stadia
-
-(in circuit?), with a narrow entrance, where is situated a city
-
-of the same name, containing factories for purple dyeing and
-
-for salting of all kinds; then follows another lake much
-
-smaller; after this the city Abrotonon
Above the sea-coast from Carthage to Cephalæ (on the
-
-one hand) and to the territory of the Masæsyli (on the other)
-
-lies the territory of the Libo-Phœnicians, extending (into the
-
-interior) to the mountainous country of the Gætuli, which
-
-belongs to Africa Proper. Above the Gætuli is the country
-
-of the Garamantes, lying parallel to the former, and from
-
-whence are brought the Carthaginian pebbles (carbuncles). The
-
-Garamantes are said to be distant from the Ethiopians, who
-
-live on the borders of the ocean, nine or ten days' journey,
-
-and from the temple of Ammon fifteen days. Between the
-
-Gætuli and the coast of our sea (the Mediterranean) there
-
-are many plains and many mountains, great lakes and rivers,
-
-some of which sink into the earth and disappear. The inhabitants are simple in their mode of life and in their dress;
-
-they marry numerous wives, and have a numerous offspring;
-
-in other respects they resemble the nomade Arabians. The
-
-
-
-
The breeding of horses is most carefully attended to by
-
-the kings (of the country); so much so, that the number of
-
-colts is yearly calculated at 100,000. Sheep are fed with
-
-milk and flesh, particularly near Ethiopia. These are the
-
-customs of the interior.
-
-
The circuit of the Great Syrtis is about 3930 stadia,
On a promontory called Pseudopenias is situated Berenice,
-
-near a lake Tritonis, in which is to be observed a small island
-
-with a temple of Venus upon it. There also is a lake of the
-
-Hesperides, into which flows a river (called) Lathon. On
-
-this side of Berenice is a small promontory called Boreion
Cyrene was founded by the inhabitants of Thera,
-
-The harbour of Cyrene is situated opposite to Criu-Metopon,Calliste once its name, but Thera in later times, the mother of my home,
-
-famed for its steeds.
Bordering upon Cyrenaica is the district which produces
-
-silphium, and the juice called Cyrenaic, which the silphium
-
-discharges from incisions made in it. The plant was once
-
-
-
-
Remarkable persons of Cyrene were Aristippus,
The rest of the sea-coast of Cyrene from Apollonia to Catabathmus is 2200 stadia in length; it does not throughout afford
-
-facilities for coasting along it; for harbours, anchorage, habitations, and watering-places are few. The places most in repute along the coast are the Naustathmus,
The country deep in the interior, and above the Syrtis
-
-and Cyrenæa, a very sterile and dry tract, is in the possession
-
-of Libyans. First are the Nasamones, then Psylli, and some
-
-Gætuli, then Garamantes; somewhat more towards the east (than
-
-the Nasamones) are the Marmaridæ, who are situated for the
-
-most part on the boundaries of Cyrenæa, and extend to the
-
-temple of Ammon. It is asserted, that persons directing their
-
-course from the recess of the Great Syrtis, (namely,) from about
-
-the neighbourhood of Automala,
Above these parts is the district which produces silphium,
-
-then follows the uninhabited tract, and the country of the
-
-Garamantes. The district which produces silphium is narrow,
-
-long, and dry, extending in an easterly direction about 1000
-
-stadia, but in breadth 300 stadia, or rather more, at least as
-
-far as has been ascertained. For we may conjecture that all
-
-countries which lie on the same parallel (of latitude) have the
-
-same climate, and produce the same plants; but since many
-
-deserts intervene, we cannot know every place. In like manner, we have no information respecting the country beyond
-
-(the temple of) Ammon, nor of the oases, as far as Ethiopia,
-
-nor can we state distinctly what are the boundaries of Ethiopia, nor of Africa, nor even of the country close upon Egypt,
-
-still less of the parts bordering on the ocean.
-
-
Such, then, is the disposition of the parts of the world
-
-which we inhabit.We call that (part
-
-of the temperate zone) the habitable earth (
The latitudes of Athens and Washington do not differ by
-
-one degree.
It has been already stated
Of the three continents, they possess nearly the whole of - -Europe, with the exception only of the parts beyond the - -Danube, (to the north,) and the tracts on the verge of the - -ocean, comprehended between the Rhine and the Tanaïs (Don). -
Of Africa, the whole sea-coast on the Mediterranean is in - -their power; the rest of that country is uninhabited, or the inhabitants only lead a miserable and nomade life. -
Of Asia likewise, the whole sea-coast in our direction (on
-
-the west) is subject to them, unless indeed any account is to
-
-be taken of the Achei, Zygi, and Heniochi,
Of all these countries some are governed by (native) kings,
-
-but the rest are under the immediate authority of Rome, under
-
-the title of provinces, to which are sent governors and collectors of tribute; there are also some free cities, which from
-
-the first sought the friendship of Rome, or obtained their
-
-freedom as a mark of honour. Subject to her also are some
-
-princes, chiefs of tribes, and priests, who (are permitted) to live
-
-in conformity with their national laws.
-
-
The division into provinces has varied at different
-
-periods, but at present it is that established by Augustus
-
-Cæsar; for after the sovereign power had been conferred upon
-
-him by his country for life, and he had become the arbiter of
-
-peace and war, he divided the whole empire into two parts,
-
-one of which he reserved to himself, the other he assigned to
-
-the (Roman) people. The former consisted of such parts as
-
-required military defence, and were barbarian, or bordered
-
-upon nations not as yet subdued, or were barren and uncultivated, which though ill provided with everything else, were
-
-yet well furnished with strongholds. and might thus dispose
-
-
-
-provinces of Cæsar
and provinces of the People.
-
To the former provinces Cæsar appoints governors and - -administrators, and divides the (various) countries sometimes - -in one way, sometimes in another, directing his political conduct according to circumstances. -
But the people appoint commanders and consuls to their - -own provinces, which are also subject to divers divisions - -when expediency requires it. -
(Augustus Cæsar) in his first organization of (the Empire)
-
-created two consular governments, namely, (1.) the whole of
-
-Africa in possession of the Romans, excepting that part
-
-which was under the authority, first of Juba, but now of his
-
-son Ptolemy; and (2.) Asia within the Halys and Taurus, except
-
-the Galatians and the nations under Amyntas, Bithynia, and
-
-the Propontis. He appointed also ten consular governments
-
-in Europe and in the adjacent islands. Iberia Ulterior
-
-(Further Spain) about the river Bætis
Cæsar possesses other provinces, to the government of which
-
-he appoints men of consular rank, commanders of armies, or
-
-knights;
AARASSUS, t. of Pisidia, ii. 324. -
Aba, daughter of Zenophanes, iii. - -56. -
—, Abæ, t. of Phocis, ii. 122, 151. -
Abaïtæ, ii. 402. -
Abaïtis, district of Phrygia, ii. 333. -
Abantes (Eubœans), ii. 151. -
Abantis (Eubœa), ii. 151. -
Abaris, i. 463. -
Abas, great-grandson of Erectheus, ii. 151. -
—, ii. 133. -
Abdēra, t. of Thrace, i. 515; ii. 272, 298 ; iii. 17. -
—, t. of Spain (
Abderus, i. 515. -
Abeacus, ii. 239. -
Abella, t. of Campania (
Abii, i. 453, 454, 458, 461, 465, 479; ii. 302. -
Abilyx, Abyle (
Abisarus, iii. 90. -
Abōniteichos, t. of Paphlagonia, (
Aborace, ii. 223. -
Aborrhas, r. of Mesopotamia, iii. 158. -
Abrettene, district of Mysia, ii. 330, 332. -
Abrettenus, Jupiter, ii. 330. -
Abrotonon (
Absyrtides (
Abus mtn in Armenia, ii. 268, 273. -
Abydeni, ii. 353. -
Abydon.
Abydos, t. of Mysia, i. 164, 189, 508; ii. 338—354, 366, 374; iii 5, 66. -
—–, strait of, i. 517. -
—–, t. of Egypt, iii. 258, 259. -
Acacesium, i. 459. -
Academy, philosophers of the, iii 294. -
Acalandrus, r. i. 427. -
Acamas, Athenian, iii. 71. -
—–, prom. of Cyprus (
Acanthian gulf, i. 511. -
Acanthus, t. of Egypt, iii. 253. -
—–, t. of Macedonia, i. 51—513. -
Acara, i. 322. -
Acarnan, ii. 174, 178. -
Acarnania, i. 493, 499, 501; ii. 3, - -5, 14, 25, 58, 129, 150, 161—163, - -167, 171—174. -
Acarnanians, Acarnanes, i. 410, 494, - -498; ii. 2, 6, 75, 114, 128, 130, - -131, 158—162, 169, 172—175, - -178; iii. 297. -
Acatharti, iii. 197. -
Acathartic gulf, Acathartus, iii. 193. -
Ace, city of Phœnicia.
Acerræ, i. 367, 370. -
Acesines, r. of India (
Achæan league, ii. 59, 70. -
—– cities, ii. 73.
-
-
-
-
Achææ, rocks, ii. 21. -
Achæi, Achæans, i. 55, 96, 195, 328, - -395, 399; ii. 3, 5, 7, 13, 27, 42, - -49, 50, 51, 53, 66—68, 70, 71, - -73, 118, 132, 160, 181, 182, 195, - -219, 224—226, 329, 366. -
—–, Phthiōtæ, ii. 224. -
—–, in Bosporus, ii. 224. -
—–, in Pontus, ii. 113. -
—–, robbers, iii. 296. -
—–, harbour, in the Troad, ii. - -358, 363. -
—–, in Æolis, ii. 397. -
—–, in Cyprus, iii. 69. -
Achæium, t. of the Troad, ii. 360, - -371—373. -
Achæmenidæ, iii. 130. -
Achæus, son of Xuthus, ii. 67. -
—–, father of Antiochis, ii. 400. -
Achaia, Achæa, i. 506; ii. 6, 8, 43, - -68, 72, 77, 132, 160; iii. 297. -
—– t. of the Cimmerian Bosporus, ii. 224. -
—– t. of Aria, ii. 252. -
Achaïcarus, iii. 180. -
Acharaca, t. of Lydia, ii. 335; iii. - -25, 26. -
Achardeus, r. of the Caucasus, ii. - -239. -
Achelōus, r. of Acarnania (
—–, r. of Achæa, ii. 14, 158. -
—–, r. of Thessaly, ii. 136, - -158. -
Acheron, r. of Triphylia, ii. 17. -
—–, of Italy, i. 382. -
—–, of Epirus, i. 497. -
Acherræ, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 367. -
—–, t. of Campania, i. 367, - -370. -
Acherusian Lake, marsh in Campania (
Achilleium, in the Troad, ii. 366, - -372. -
—–, in the Cimmerian Bosporus, i. 477; ii. 222. -
Achilles, i. 71, 73, 470, 472, 500; - -ii. 22, 35—37, 115, 126, 181, - -132—138, 140, 157, 168, 342, - -343, 345, 358, 359, 363, 366, - -377, 383, 384, 394; iii. 58. -
Achilles, course of, peninsula, i. - -472, 473. -
—–, rampart of, in Mysia, ii. - -386. -
—–, temple of, ii. 222, 359. -
Achivi, rampart of the, i. 154. -
Acholla, t. of the Carthaginians
-
-(
Acidon, r. of Triphylia, ii. 22, 26. -
Acila, prom. of Arabia (
Acilisene, distr. of Armenia, ii. - -260, 268, 269, 272, 274, 305. -
Aciris, r. of Leucania (
Acisene, ii. 269. -
Acmon, ii. 191. -
Aconites, people of Sardinia, i. 334. - -Acontia (Acuteia ?), t. of Spain, i. - -228. -
Acontium, mtn of Bœotia, i. 113. -
Acqui.
Acra (
Acræa, Venus, iii. 69. -
Acrææ, t. of Laconia, ii. 15, 41. -
Acræphiæ, Acræphium, t. of Bœotia, - -ii. 107, 109, 110. -
Acragas, city of Sicily (
Acrathos (
Acrisius, ii. 118, 211. -
Acritas, prom. of Messenia, i. 36. -
Acrocorinthus, ii. 38, 60, 61, 62, 70. -
Acrolissus.
Acropolis, ii. 86. -
Acrothōï, t. on Mount Athos, i. 512, - -513. -
Acta, Lepre, iii. 3. -
Actæon, ii. 87. -
Acte, ii. 77, 79, 174. -
Acte, Actice.
Actē.
Actia, Actian games, i. 499. -
Actian war, i. 36; ii. 330. -
Actis, ii. 375. -
Actium, prom. of Acarnania (
—–, t. of Acarnania, ii. 73 115,
-
-159, 161, .71.
-
-
-
-
Actium, battle of, ii. 208; iii. 230, - -233. -
Acusilaus, Argive, ii. 189. -
Acyphas, or Pindus, ii. 128. -
—–, in the Œtæan district, - -ii. 136. -
Ada, dr of Hecatomnus, iii. 35, - -36. -
—–, dr of Pixodarus, iii. 35. -
Adada, c. of Pisidia, ii. 324. -
Adæ, town of Æolis, iii. 397. -
Adarbal, Adherbal, iii. 284. -
Adeimantus, ii. 350. -
Adiabene, ii. 272; iii. 142, 146, - -154. -
Adiatorix, son of Domnecleus, ii. - -288. -
—– f. of Dyteutus, ii. 308. -
Admetus, i. 72; ii. 155. -
Adobogion, ii. 401. -
Adonis, iii. 170. -
—–, river of Phœnicia (
Ador, ii. 270. -
Adramyttene, district of Mysia, ii. - -370, 400. -
Adramytteni, ii. 383, 384. -
Adramyttium, t. of Mysia (
—–, gulf of, ii. 342, 374, - -386, 400. -
Adrapsa, iii. 126. -
Adrasteia, district of Mysia, ii. 317, - -332, 337, 348. -
—–, t. of Mysia, ii. 345—348. -
—–, mtn near Cyzicus, ii. - -331. -
—– (Nemesis), ii. 348. -
Adrastus, ii. 59, 97. -
—–, ii. 174, 346, 348. -
Adria, city and naval station of
-
-Picenum (
Adrias, r. i. 487. -
Adriatic (
Adrion, mtn of Dalmatia.
Adrumes (
Adula, Adulas, mtn, i. 287, 304, - -317. -
Æa, city, i. 31, 32, 72—74. -
—–, ftn, i. 509, 510. -
Æacidæ, i. 496; ii. 83. -
Æacus, ii. 57. -
Ææa, i. 6, 32, 73. -
Æaneium, ii. 126. -
Æanes, ii. 126. -
Æanis, ii. 126. -
Æas, r. of Illyria.
—–, son of Telamon.
Æclus, i. 493; ii. 152, 154. -
Ædepsus, t. of Eubœa (
Ædui, i. 278, 286—288. -
Æeta, i. 72, 73. -
Æetes, i. 72—74. -
Æga, prom. of Æolis, ii. 388. -
—-, city of Achaia, ii. 71—73. -
Ægæ, t. of Mysia, ii. 397. -
—–, t. of Eubœa, ii. 72, 98. -
Ægææ, Ægæ, t. of Cilicia (
—–, t. of Laconia, ii. 42. -
Ægæan Sea (
Ægæi, ii. 71. -
Ægaleum, mtn of Messenia, ii. - -35. -
Ægeira, t. of Achæa, ii. 71, 73. -
Ægeirus, t. in Lesbos, ii. 391. -
Ægesta, t. of Sicily, i. 379, 411, - -415; ii. 378. -
Ægestani, i. 401, 411. -
Ægestes, Trojan, i. 378, 411. -
Ægeus, ii. 81. -
Ægialeia Ægialus, ii. 3, 23, 67, 68,
-
-72, 288.
-
-
-
-
Ægiali (Sicyon), ii. 66. -
Ægialians, ii. 53, 67, 68. -
Ægialus, Ægialeia, in Paphlagonia, ii. 288, 291. -
Ægieis, Ægienses, ii. 73, 157. -
Ægilieis, in Attica, ii. 89. -
Ægilips, ii. 161, 163. -
Ægimius, ii. 128. -
Ægimurus (
Ægina, t. of Argolis, ii. 57, 58. -
——, island, i. 84, 187; ii. 47, 49, 54, 57, 58, 82, 136. -
——, city, ii. 55, 58. -
Æginetæ, ii. 57, 58, 83. -
Æginium, t. of Thessaly, i. 501. -
Ægirussa, ii. 84. -
Ægisthus, i. 25. -
Ægium, city of Achæa (
Ægletes Apollo.
Ægospotami, t. and r., i. 438, 518. -
Ægua, t. of Spain, i. 213. -
Ægys, city and district of Laconia, ii. 42, 153. -
Ælana, Aila (
Ælanitic Bay, iii. 176, 191, 204, 254. -
Ælius Gallus, i. 178; iii. 209–212, 246, 262, 267. -
—— (Catus), i. 466. -
Æmilian road, i. 323. -
Æmilianus, Q. Fabius Maximus, i. 277, 285. -
——, Scipio, iii. 51, 286. -
Æmilius, Paulus, i. 495. -
Ænarium.
Ænea, t. of the Troad, ii. 372. -
——, t. of Macedonia, i. 509, 510.
Æneas, i. 76, 225, 339, 346, 347; ii. 317, 344, 353, 356, 357, 360, 377, 378, 383. -
Ænesippeia, isl., iii. 235. -
Ænesisphyra, prom. of Egypt, iii. 235. -
Æniana (Ænia), ii. 242. -
Æniānes, people of Thessaly, i. 96; ii. 128, 147, 158, 241, 273. -
Æniates, name of the Paphlagonians, ii. 302. -
Ænius, r. of the Troad, ii. 371. -
Ænobarbus (Cnæus), i. 277. -
——(Domitius), i. 285; iii. 24. -
Ænus, mtn of Cephallenia (
——, city of Thrace, i. 490, 516 519. -
Æolia, i. 17, 64, 187, 195, 224; ii. 153; iii. 140. -
Æolian nation, ii. 3. -
—— colony, ii. 94. -
Æolians, i. 96, 328; ii. 2, 3, 154, 366, 374, 382–386; iii. 34. -
Æolic dialect, ii. 2, 3. -
——expedition, ii. 93. -
——migration, iii. 2. -
Æolis, ii. 339–341, 346, 366, 384, 398. -
Æolus, king, i. 31, 35, 36, 39, 194, 403, 417, 419; ii. 142. -
——, Islands of (
——, Play of Euripides, ii. 32. -
Æpasian plain, region of Triphylia, ii. 22. -
Æpeia, town of Messenia, ii. 35, 37. -
Æpeia Methone, ii. 37. -
Æpy, town of Triphylia, ii. 23, 24. -
Æpytus, son of Neleus, iii. 2. -
Æqui, i. 339, 343, 344, 353. -
Æquum-Faliscum, i. 335. -
Aëria, t. of the Cavari (
Æsar, r. of Etruria, i. 330. -
Æsarus, r. near Crotona (
Æschines, Athenian, ii. 188. -
——, Milesian, iii. 5. -
Æschylus, i. 52, 68, 329, 386, 458, 462; ii. 13, 73, 82, 154, 187, 337, 390; iii. 130. -
Æsculapius.
Æsēpus, r. of Mysia,
Æsernia, city of the Samnites (
Æsis, r. of Umbria (
Æsyetes, tomb of, ii. 361, 364. -
Æthalia, island (
Æthaloeïs, r. of Scepsia, ii. 190. -
Æthices, people of Epirus and Thessaly, i. 499, 501; ii. 131, 137, 144. -
Æthicia, i. 501. -
Æthiopia.
Ætna, Mount, i. 31, 35, 84, 368, 369, 386, 403, 404, 406, 411, 413–415, 418. -
Ætnæans, i. 405. -
Ætolia, i. 493, 499, 501, 505 ; ii. 6, 10, 33, 72, 75, 114, 129, 136, 150, 155, 156, 159, 160, 171, 172, 174. -
Ætna, town of Sicily, i. 405, 414. -
Ætōli, Ætolians, i. 381; ii. 2, 6, 12, 30, 33, 121, 122, 127–131, 146, 158–161, 169, 172, 175, 176,
Ætolian mountains, ii. 115, 131. -
—— promontories, i. 93. -
—— polity, i. 494. -
Ætolicus, Demetrius, ii. 160. -
Ætōlus, ii. 33, 122, 176, 177. -
Æxoneis, vill. of Attica, ii. 89. -
Æxonici, ii. 89. -
Afranius, legate of Pompey, i. 242. -
African coast, i. 76. -
——sea, ii. 193, 194, 199, 212. -
Agamedes, ii. 119. -
Agamemnon, i. 17, 63, 499; ii. 22, 35, 36, 53, 56, 57, 59, 83, 115, 174, 186, 340, 356, 368, 374; iii. 10, 15,
Agapenor, iii. 70. -
Agatha, a city of Gaul (
Agatharchides, iii. 34, 208. -
Agathocleia, iii. 231. -
Agathocles, tyrant of Sicily, i. 383 427; iii. 288. - - -
Agathocles, father of Lysimachus, ii. 399. -
——, son of Lysimachus, ii. 400. -
Agathyrnum, i. 401. -
Agdistis, the goddess Rhea, ii. 184. -
——, temple of, ii. 320. -
Agesilaus, i. 427. -
Agidæ, ii. 44. -
Agis, ii. 43, 44. -
Agnu-Ceras, promontory of Egypt iii. 239. -
Agoracritus, ii. 87. -
Agra, village of Attica, ii. 91. -
Agradates, iii. 132. -
Agræa, district of Ætolia, ii. 10. -
Agræi, a people of Ætolia, ii. 158 160, 179. -
——, people of Arabia, iii. 189. -
Agræus, ii. 77. -
Agri, ii. 223. -
Agriades, ii. 8. -
Agriānes, a people of Thrace, i 488, 514, 515. -
Agrigentini, i. 401. -
Agrigentum.
Agrii, a people of Ethiopia, iii. 196. -
Agrippa, i. 289, 310, 350, 364; ii 36, 350; iii. 170. -
Agrius, ii. 175, 179. -
Agylla, t. of Etruria, i. 328; 335. -
Agyllæi, i. 328. -
Aias,
Aigan, ii. 388. -
Aila.
Ajax, son of Teucer, iii. 55, 56. -
——, temple of, ii. 357, 359. -
——, son of Telamon, ii. 83, 84 102. -
——, the Locrian, ii. 126, 367.
-
-
-
-
Alabanda, t. of Caria (
Alæan Minerva, ii. 75. -
Alæis Æxōnici, vill. of Attica, ii. 89. -
Alæsa, t. of Sicily (
Alalcŏmĕnæ, t. of Bœotia, i. 501; ii. 107, 110. -
——, t. of Asteria, ii. 168. -
Alalcomenium, temple of Minerva, ii. 106, 110. -
Alazia, t. of Mysia, ii. 299. -
Alazōnes, ii. 298, 299. -
Alazonia, Alazonium, t. of the Troad, ii. 300, 371. -
Alazonius, r. of Albania, ii. 230, 231, 234. -
Alba (
Alban wine, i. 347. -
Albania (
Albanians, i. 178, 195, 341, 344, 440; ii. 217, 232–235, 248, 260, 267–272, 307. -
Albanus, Mount (
Albia, Alpionia, i. 300. -
Albienses, i. 302. -
Albii, i. 482. -
Albingaunum (
Albiœci, i. 302. -
Albis, r. (
Albium Intemelium (
Albius, Mount, i. 300, 483. -
Albūla, cold waters, i. 354. - - -
Alcæus, poet of Mitylene, i. 58; ii. 108, 109, 366, 375, 391, 393; iii. 40. -
Alcestis, i. 72. -
Alchædamnus, iii. 166. -
Alcimedon, ii. 42. -
Alcimus, ii. 42. -
Alcmæōn, i. 499; ii. 122, 174. -
Alcmæonis, the poem, ii. 162. -
Alcman, i. 68, 458; ii. 13, 153, 172, 203, 337. -
Alcmene, ii. 30. -
Alcyonis Sea, ii. 6, 82, 92. -
Alea Athena, ii. 75. -
Alece, r. of the Bruttii.
Aleian plain, ii. 304; iii. 60, 61. -
Aleisium, Aleisius, t. and hill of, in ii. 12, 14. -
Aleisius, r. in Elis, ii. 14. -
Alesia, i. 285. -
Alesiæum, t. of Elis, ii. 14. -
Alesius, tumulus of, ii. 27. -
Alētes, ii. 77. -
Alētia, t. of Calabria, i. 430. -
Aletrium, t. of Latium (
Alěus, ii. 389. -
Alexander, son of Priam, i. 65, 90. -
——, poet of Ætolia, ii. 318; iii. 23, 67. -
——Lychnus, the orator, iii. 14. -
——Philalethes, ii. 336. -
——, son of Antiochus, iii. 401. -
——Balas, iii. 161. -
——, king of Judæa, iii. 180. -
——of the Molossi, i. 382, 427. -
——the Great, son of Philip, i. 22, 77, 104, 108, 109, 122, 137, 257, 463, 464, 512, 513; ii. 237, 238, 241, 243, 253,
Alexandria, city of Egypt, i. 13, 38, 91, 98, 118, 130, 131, 140, 153, 171, 172, 189, 190, 197, 200–202, 318; ii. 213, 235, 249, 252, 274, 276; iii. 33, 34, 53, 57, 59, 162, 164, 211, 213–273, 275, 294. -
——, in the Troad, i. 202; ii. 355, 361, 364, 373, 377, 385.
——, city of Syria, iii. 59. -
——, mtn of Mysia, ii. 376. -
Alexandrian merchants, i. 178. -
Alexandrini, ii. 190, 373. -
Alexandrium (near Teos), iii. 17. -
—— (in Judæa), iii. 181. -
Alexarchus, i. 513. -
Algidum, city (
Algidus, Mount, i. 355. -
Alinda, t. of Caria, iii. 36. -
Alliphæ (
Allitrochades, i. 109. -
Allobroges, i. 277, 289, 302. -
Allotriges, i. 233. -
Alobe, Alope, Alybe, ii. 300. -
Alope, t. of the Opuntian Locrians, i. 95; ii. 126, 128, 132, 135. -
——, t. of the Locri Ozolæ, ii. 128. -
——, t. of Phthiotis, ii. 128, 135. -
Alōpecia, ii. 221. -
Alopeconnesii, i. 516. -
Alopeconnesus, t. of Thrace, i. 517. -
Alōrium, t. of Triphylia, ii. 24. -
Alōrus, t. of Bottiæa, i. 508, 509. -
Alpheius, r. of Elis (
Alpōnus, t. near Thermopylæ, i. 95. -
Alps, i. 110, 193, 264–269, 276–280, 286, 287, 291, 296, 300–315, 317, 319, 322–324, 337, 357, 439, 444, 448, 450, 481–483. - - -
Alps, Pennine, i. 305, 309, 310. -
Alsium, t. of Etruria, i. 335. -
Altes, ii. 314; iii. 395. -
Althæa, ii. 179. -
Althæmenes, Argive, ii. 201, 203; iii. 30. -
Altinum, city of Cisalp. Gaul (
Alus, ii. 132. -
Alyattes, ii. 118, 405; iii. 66, 141. -
Alybe, Alope, or Alobe, ii. 298, 299, 372. -
Alybes, ii. 297, 298, 299. -
Alyzeus, ii. 162. -
Alyzia, t. of Acarnania (
Amadocus, i. 516. -
Amaltheia, i. 226; ii. 170. -
Amanides Gates, iii. 60, 164. -
Amanus, ii. 259, 278, 279; iii. 60, 63, 143, 160, 163. -
Amardi, ii. 241, 245, 248, 263. -
Amarynces, king, ii. 12. -
Amarynthia Diana, ii. 155. -
Amarynthium, the, ii. 156. -
Amarynthus, t. of Eubœa, ii. 155. -
Amaseia, city of Pontus (
Amasenses, ii. 312. -
Amasias, r. of Germany (
Amasis, ii. 311. -
Amastris, city of Paphlagonia, (
Amastris, wife of Dionysius, tyrant of Heracleia, ii. 291. -
Amathus, r. of Elis, ii. 7, 11, 26, 38. -
——, t. of Cyprus (
——, t. of Laconia, ii. 41. -
Amathusii, ii. 13. -
Amazones, plain of the, i. 82, 190. -
Amazonides, ii. 298. -
Amazons, ii. 300, 301, 328,
Ambarvia, i. 341. -
Ambiani, i. 289, 309.
-
-
-
-
Amblada, t. of Pis dia, ii. 324. -
—— wine, ii. 324. -
Ambracia, t. of Thesprotia (
Ambracian Gulf, Ambracian Sea, (
Ambrōnes, i. 274. -
Ambryseis, ii. 123. -
Ambrysus, t. of Phocis (
Aměnanus, r. of Sicily (
Ameria, t. of Umbria (
——, t. of Pontus, ii. 306. -
Amisēne, ii. 290, 294, 296. -
Amiseni, ii. 290, 294, 296, 310, 311. -
Amisus (
Amiternum, city of the Sabines, i. 338, 359. -
Ammon Balithon, prom., iii. 288. -
——, seat of oracle, i. 504; iii. 226, 253, 258, 283. -
——, temple of, i. 78, 79, 87, 88; iii. 253, 258, 289, 294, 295. -
Ammonia, iii. 235. -
Amnias, r. of Paphlagonia (
Amnisus, port of Cnossus, ii. 196. -
Amorgos, isl. (
Amorium, t. of Phrygia (
Ampelus, prom. of Samos, ii. 212; iii. 8. -
Amphaxītis, distr. of Macedonia, i. 506, 509. -
Amphiale, prom. of Attica, ii. 84. -
Amphiaræum, ii. 90. -
Amphiaraus, ii. 90, 96, 97, 174; iii. 15. -
Amphictyons, ii. 116–120, 128, 130. -
Amphictyonic body, ii. 55, 109, 118. -
Amphidolia. Amphidolis, t. of Elis, ii. 14, 23. - - -
Amphigeneia, t. of Triphylia, ii. 23, 24. -
Amphilochi, t. of Spain, i. 236. -
Amphilochians, i. 410, 493, 499; ii. 131, 158, 174. -
Amphilochic Argos.
Amphilochus, i. 236, 410, 499; ii. 174, 175; iii. 15, 50, 59, 60. -
Amphimalla, t. of Crete, ii. 194. -
Amphinomus, i. 405, 502. -
Amphion, ii. 36, 107. -
Amphipolis (
Amphiscii, i. 146. -
Amphissa (
Amphissenses, ii. 116. -
Amphistratus, ii. 224. -
Amphitryōn, ii. 166, 170, 173. -
Amphius, ii. 346. -
Amphrysus, r. of Thessaly, ii. 135, 138. -
Ampsani.
Amulius, i. 340. -
Amyclæ, city of Laconia, i. 424; ii. 40–42. -
Amycteres, iii. 108. -
Amydōn, t. of Macedonia, i. 508–510. -
Amymōne, mother of Nauplius, ii. 48. -
——, fountain at Lerna, ii. 52. -
Amynander, ii. 128. -
Amyntas, father of Philip, i. 472, 492, 500, 509, 510; ii. 39, 111. -
——, successor of king Deiotarus, ii. 320–325, 333; iii. 297. -
Amyntor, ii. 142, 143. -
Amyrus, ii. 147; iii. 22. -
Amythaonidæ, ii. 52. -
Amyzōn, t. of Caria, iii. 37. -
Anabūra, t. of Pisidia, ii. 324. -
Anacharsis, i. 463, 465; iii. 86. -
Anacreon, i. 226; iii. 2, 9, 17, 40. -
Anactorium, t. of Acarnania, ii. 159, 161. -
Anacyndaraxes, iii. 55. -
Anadatus, ii. 246. -
Anæa, Anaïtis, iii. 137, 144.
Anagnia, t. of the Hernici (
Anagurasii, vill. of Attica, ii. 89. -
Anaïtis, ii. 246. -
——, temple of, ii. 274, 275, 309. -
Anaphe, isl. (
Anaphlystii, ii. 89. -
Anaphlystus, vill. of Attica, ii. 89. -
Anapias, i. 406. -
Anariacæ, ii. 240–242, 248. -
Anariace, ii. 241. -
Anas (
Anaurus, r. of Magnesia, ii. 139. -
Anaxagoras, iii. 20. -
Anaxarchus, ii. 356. -
Anaxenor, iii. 23. -
Anaxicrates, iii. 191. -
Anaxilas, the tyrant of Rhegium, i. 384, 385. -
Anaximander, the Milesian, i. 1, 12; iii. 5. -
Anaximenes of Lampsacus, disciple of Anaximander, ii. 350; iii. 5, 20. -
Ancæus, iii. 2. -
Anchiale, a town of Pontus, i. 490. -
——, t. of Cilicia, iii. 55, 56. -
Anchialus, ii. 166. -
Anchises, i. 339; ii. 344, 353, 378. -
Anchoë, ii. 100. -
Ancon, Ancona, i. 315, 337, 357, 435, 483. -
Ancus Martius, i. 326, 345, 348. -
Ancyra, t. of Galatia (
——, t. of Phrygia (
——, t. of Gaul, i. 279. -
Andania, t. of Arcadia, ii. 11, 24, 37, 156. -
Andeira, city of Mysia, ii. 381, 386, 387. -
Andeirene, ii. 387. -
Andetrium, t. of Dalmatia, i. 484. -
Andirus, r. of the Troad, ii. 370. -
Andizetii, i. 483. -
Andræmōn, iii. 2. -
Andriace, t. of Thrace, i. 490. -
Andriclus, mtn of Cilicia (
Andrii, i. 511. -
Androclus, iii. 2, 11. -
Andromache, ii. 343, 356, 363, 394 -
Andromeda, i. 68; iii. 175. -
Andron, ii. 81, 167, 195. -
Andronicus, iii. 33. -
Andropompus, iii. 2. -
Andros, isl. (
Androsthenes, iii. 186. -
Anemurium, prom. of Cilicia (
Anemoreia, Anemoleia, t. of Phocis, ii. 123. -
Anias, r. of Arcadia, ii. 76. -
Anigriades, ii. 19, 20. -
Anigrus, r. of Triphylia, ii. 20, 21. -
Anio, r. of Latium (
Anniceric sect, iii. 293. -
Anniceris, iii. 293. -
Annius, ii. 17. -
Ansander, i. 479. -
Antæus, iii. 281. -
Antalcidas, i. 438. -
Antandria, ii. 375, 384. -
Antandrians, ii. 386. -
Antandros (
——, t. of the Troad (
Antemnæ, t. of Latium, i. 341. -
Antenor, i. 76, 225, 236, 316; ii. 289, 377. -
Antenoridæ, ii. 360, 377. -
Anthedon, c. of Bœotia, i. 25; ii. 92, 98, 102, 103, 106. -
Antheia, ii. 35, 37. -
Anthemis, ii. 168. -
Anthemus, iii. 8. -
Anthemusia, iii. 158. -
Anthes, ii. 56; iii. 35. -
Anticasius, mtn of Syria, iii. 164. -
Anticeites, r. of the Mæotæ, ii. 221, 222. -
Anti-Cinolis, t. of Paphlagonia, ii. 291.
-
-
-
-
Anticlides, i. 329. -
Anticragus, iii. 46. -
Anticyra, t. of Phocis (
——, t. of Locris, ii. 137. -
——, t. on the Maliac bay, ii. 116, 137. -
Antigonia, t. of Bithynia, ii. 318. -
——, t. of the Troad, ii. 355, 361. -
——, t. of Syria, iii. 162. -
Antigonus, son of Philip, ii. 318, 355, 361; iii. 20, 55, 162. -
——, king of Macedonia, ii. 70. -
——, of Apelles, iii. 36. -
Antilibanus, mtn of Syria, iii. 149, 169, 171. -
Antilochus, ii. 359. -
Antimachus, ii. 18, 42, 74, 104, 348. -
Antimenidas, ii. 391. -
Antimnestus, i. 385. -
Antioch, i. 416; ii. 307, 409; iii. 21, 24, 43, 118, 159, 161–164. -
——, city of Mygdonia, iii. 157. -
Antiocheia, city of Caria, ii. 409; iii. 21, 24, 43. -
——, city of Phrygia (
——, city of Margiana, ii. 252. -
Antiochis, dr of Achæus, and mother of Attalus, ii. 400. -
Antiochus, the Syracusan, i. 360, 379, 385, 394, 398, 399, 424. -
——the Great, i. 439; ii. 269, 273, 285, 355, 400; iii. 46, 153, 176. -
——Sōter, ii. 252, 333, 400. -
——, son of Demetrius, iii. 51. -
——, son of Epiphanes, iii. 162. -
——Ierax, iii. 198. -
——, philosopher of Ascalon, iii. 175. -
Antiope, ii. 97. -
Antipater, of Macedon, i. 513; ii. 56, 136, 318. -
Antipater, son of Sisis, ii. 304. - - -
Antipater, Derbētes, the robber, ii 278, 322; iii. 64. -
——of Tarsus, the Stoic, iii 58. -
——of Tyre, iii. 173. -
Antiphanes, the Bergæan, i. 74, 152, 154. -
Antiphellus, t. of Lycia, iii. 47. -
Antiphilus, harbour of, iii. 196. -
Antiphræ, iii. 235, 236. -
Antiphus, ii. 149, 403; iii. 31. -
Antipolis, t. of Gaul (
Antirrhium, prom. of Ætolia (
——cape, ii. 6. -
Antirrhodus, isl. iii. 230. -
Antissa, t. of Lesbos, i. 93; ii. 393. -
Antitaurus (
Antium, t. of the Volsci (
Antonius, Marcus, ii. 166. -
——, Caius, ii. 166. -
Antony, i. 213, 499; ii. 36, 263, 271, 274, 285, 294, 330, 334, 357, 358; iii. 23, 52, 56, 58, 72, 159, 184, 230, 231, 233, 281. -
Antrōn, t. of Thessaly, ii. 24, 135, 138, 139. -
——, Ass of, ii. 139. -
Anubis, iii. 245, 257. -
Aones, i. 493; ii. 88, 93. -
Aonian plain, ii. 108. -
Aornum, castle of India, iii. 6. -
Aornus, bay of Campania, i. 39. -
Aorsi, ii. 219, 239. -
Aōus, r. of Illyria, i. 486.
Apæsus, t. of the Troad.
Apama, wife of Seleucus Nicator, ii. 334; iii. 161. -
——, wife of Prusias, ii. 315. -
Apameia, city of Syria (
Apameia, city of Phrygia (
——, city of Media, ii. 250, 264. -
——, city of Bithynia, ii. 315. -
Apameis, ii. 316. -
Aparni,
Apasiacæ, ii. 248. -
Apaturum, ii. 223. -
Apellas.
Apelles, philosopher, i. 23. -
——, painter, iii. 14. -
——, Antigonus of, iii. 36. -
Apellicon, ii. 379, 380; iii. 17. -
Apennine Mount, the, i. 308. -
Apennines, i. 193, 300, 314–316, 322, 324–326, 331, 336–338, 344, 347, 357, 388, 431, 432, 437. -
Aphamiōtæ, iii. 76. -
Aphetæ, t. of Thessaly, ii. 139, 143. -
Aphidna, Aphidnæ, vill. of Attica, ii. 39, 86, 88. -
Aphneii, ii. 317, 346. -
Aphnēïs, wife of Pixodarus, iii. 35. -
Aphnitis, lake of, same as Dascylïtis, in Mysia (
Aphrodisias, city of Phrygia (
Aphrodisium, city of Cyprus, iii. 69. -
——, temple of Venus, i. 271, 272. -
Aphrodite (Venus), i. 346; ii. 62, 136, 155, 376. -
——Acrocorinthus, temple of, at, ii. 62. -
Acræa, iii. 69. -
——Anadyomene, painting of -
Apelles, iii. 36. -
Apatura, ii. 223. -
——Arsinoe, iii. 238. -
——, Cyprian, iii. 69. -
——Castnietis, ii. 141. -
——Colias, ii. 89. -
——, Paphian, iii. 70. -
——, Pyrenæan, temple of, i. 267, 272. -
——, temple of, at Comana, ii. 309. -
——, at Corinth, ii. 61, 309 - - -
Aphrodite, temple of, in Elis, ii. 16. -
——, at Erycina, i. 412. -
——, at Lavinium, i. 345. -
——, at Memphis, iii. 248. -
——, in Tritonis, iii 291. -
——, at Pyrrha, ii. 376. -
Aphrodites Hormus, iii. 193. -
Aphroditopolis, iii. 240, 253, 258, 263. -
Aphytis, t. of Pallene, i. 511. -
Apia, plain of, in Mysia, ii. 390. -
Apia, Apian land (
Apidanus, r. of Thessaly (
Apidones, ii. 52. -
Apiola, t. of the Volsci, i. 344. -
Apis, vill. of Marmara, iii. 235. -
——, god of the Egyptians, iii. 241, 245, 247, 248. -
Apobathra, near Sestos, ii. 352. -
Apœcus, iii. 2. -
Apollo, i. 385, 491, 499, 504; ii. 55, 64, 89, 95, 109, 115, 119–121, 155, 162, 190, 208, 334; iii. 70, 146, 179, 186, 258, 259, 261, 263. -
—— Actius, i. 498, 499; ii. 158, 161, 384. -
—— Ægletes, ii. 206. -
——, Cataonian, ii. 280. -
—— Cillæus, ii. 384, 385, 393. -
—— Clarius, iii. 15. -
——, Delphian, temple of the, i. 268. -
— Didymeus, iii. 4. -
—— Erythibius, ii. 386. -
—— Gryneus, ii. 393. -
—— Hecatus, ii. 393. -
—— Laphrius, ii. 171. -
—— Larisæus, ii. 396. -
—— Leucatas, ii. 162. -
—— Marmarinus, ii. 153. -
—— Musegetes, ii. 183. -
——, Phyllæan, ii. 138. -
—— Pornopion, ii. 386. -
——, Pythian, ii. 115. -
—— Selinuntius, ii. 152. -
—— Smintheus, ii. 210, 372–374, 384, 385, 393. -
—— Teneates, temple of, ii. 63. -
—— Thymbræus, ii. 363.
-
-
-
-
Apollo, Tilphösian, ii. 107. -
—— Ulius, iii. 5. -
——, Colossus of, i. 490. -
——, temples of, i. 73, 490; iii. 19, 20, 162. -
——, temple of, at Actium, i. 498. -
——, at Adrasteia, ii. 348. -
——, at Amyclæ, ii. 40. -
——, in Argolis and Bœotia, ii. 47. -
——, at Anapha, ii. 206. -
——, at Calydon, ii. 171. -
——, at Ceos, ii. 210. -
——, at Chalcia, ii. 213. -
——, in Chios, iii. 20. -
——, at Chrysa, ii. 374, 384–386. -
——, at Cyprus, iii. 69. -
——, at Delos, ii. 207. -
——, at Delphi, i. 417. -
——, at Grynium, ii. 397. -
——, at Orobiæ, ii. 152. -
——, at Rhodes, ii. 386. -
——, between Smyrna and Clazomene, iii. 20. -
Apollocrates, i. 389. -
Apollodorean sect, ii. 402. -
Apollodorus, the grammarian, i. 378, 457, 460, 466, 502; ii. 10, 11, 48, 50, 98, 300; iii. 61, 63–67, 73. -
—— of Artemita, the historian, i. 49, 68, 71, 78, 96, 178; ii. 250, 252, 253, 264. -
——, orator, ii. 402. -
Apollonia, t. of Mœsia, i. 490. -
——, city of Macedonia, i. 509, 512, 513, 518. -
——, city of Epirus (
——, city of Lydia, ii. 402. -
——, city of Cyrenæa, iii. 292, 294. -
——, city of Syria, iii. 165. -
——, city of Mysia, ii. 331. -
Apollonias, arsenal of Cyrene, iii. 292. -
——, city of Phrygia (
Apolloniatæ, i. 486, 490; iii. 135. -
Apolloniatis, district of Babylon, ii. 264; iii. 135, 142. -
——, lake of Mysia (
Apollōnides, i. 475; ii. 262, 269. -
Apollōnis, wife of Attalus, ii. 400, 402. -
——, city of Lydia, ii. 402; iii. 21. -
Apollonium, prom. in the bay of Carthage, iii. 285. -
Apollonius of Erythræ, iii. 18. -
—— Cronos, iii. 37, 294. -
——, physician, iii. 69. -
——, grammarian, iii. 41. -
——, Stoic, iii. 26. -
—— Malacus, iii. 33, 40, 41. -
—— the Cyrenæan.
—— Alabanda, iii. 34, 40, 41. -
—— of Rhodes, iii. 34. -
—— of Tyre, iii. 173. -
Apollonnesoi, Hecatonnesoi, ii. 393. -
Apollonopolis, city of Egypt, iii. 261, 263. -
Appaïtæ, ii. 296. -
Appia Via, i. 346, 347, 351, 352, 355, 370, 431, 432. -
Apsus, r. of Illyria, i. 486. -
Apsynthis, district of Thrace, i. 519. -
Apsyrtides (islands), i. 484. -
Apsyrtus, i. 484. -
Aptera, t. of Crete, ii. 200. -
Apuli, i. 360, 432, 436. -
Apulia.
Aquæ-Statiellæ, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Aquileia, i. 186, 307, 309, 310, 319, 321, 324, 435, 448, 482. -
Aquinum, t. of Latium (
Aquitani, i. 264, 265, 282, 283, 284. -
Aquitania, Aquitaine, i. 242, 247, 282–285, 296, 310. -
Arabia, i. 63, 197, 458; iii. 86, 88, 89, 132, 148, 149, 171, 176, 185, 186, 189–217, 241, 243, 247, 252, 261, 266. -
—— Felix, i. 41, 63, 129, 130
-
-
-
-
Arabia Nabatæa, iii. 241. -
Arabian Gulf, the (
Arabians, i. 63, 66, 67, 196, 458; ii. 154, et passim. -
——, Skenitæ, iii. 146, 158, 159. -
——, Troglodyte, i. 2, 67. -
Arabs, tribes of, i. 440. -
Arabus, daughter of, i. 67. -
Araby the Blest, iii. 76. -
Arachōsia, distr. of Ariana, ii. 252. -
Arachōti, ii. 249. -
——, people of Ariana, ii. 248; iii. 122, 124, 126. -
Aracynthus, a mtn of Ætolia (
Aradii, iii. 167, 168, 170, 215. -
Aradus, isl. in the Persian Gulf, (
——, city of Phœnicia, iii. 167, 169, 172. -
Aræthyrea, distr. of Argolis, ii. 59, 66. -
Aragus, r. (
Arambi, iii. 216.
Aramæi, Arammæans, i. 66; ii. 404; iii. 216. -
Arar, r. of Gaul (
Ararene, distr. of Arabia, iii. 212. -
Arathus, r. of Epirus, i. 498, 501. -
Aratus, poet, i. 4, 156; ii. 42, 73, 199, 207, 209; iii. 55. -
——, leader of the Achæi, ii. 66, 70. -
Arausio, t. of the Cavari (
Araxēnæ, distr. of Armenia, i. 113; ii. 242. -
Araxenian plain, ii. 268, 270. -
Araxēnus, ii. 268. -
Araxes, r. of Armenia (
Araxes, r. of Scythia, ii. 247. -
——, r. of Persis (
Araxus, prom. of Elis (
Arbaces, iii. 143. -
Arbēla, t. of Assyria (
Arbēlus, iii. 144. -
Arbies, iii. 120. -
Arbis, r. of Gedrosia (
Arcadia, i. 94, 343, 416; ii. 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 22, 28, 32, 33, 37, 52, 74–77, 142, 153, 156, 327, 339; iii. 145. -
Arcadian mountains, ii. 40. -
—— cities, ii. 71. -
Arcadians, Arcades, i. 328, 329, 432; ii. 3, 8, 22, 24, 31, 39, 76. -
Arcadicus, ii. 16. -
Arcesilaus, i. 23; ii. 387. -
Arceuthus, r. of Syria, iii. 164. -
Archæanax, ii. 365. -
Archan, ii. 388. -
Archedēmus, the Stoic, iii. 58. -
Archelaus, king, ii. 277, 278, 282, 284, 285, 305–308; iii. 54, 232. -
——, priest, ii. 308; iii. 232. -
——, father of priest, ii. 308; iii. 232. -
——, son of Penthilus, ii. 340. -
——, physician, iii. 20. -
——, play of Euripides, i. 329. -
Archemachus, ii. 178. -
Archias, Corinthian, founder of Syracuse, i. 394, 406, 407; ii. 63. -
——, general of Antipater, ii. 55. -
Archidamus, i. 427. -
Archilochus, ii. 50, 169, 210, 298; iii. 23. -
Archimedes, i. 85, 87. -
Archytas, i. 427. -
Arconnesus, iii. 16, 35. -
Arctic Circle, i. 4, 5, 144, 200. -
—— constellation, i. 5. -
Arcton, mtn, ii. 331. -
Arcturus, i. 201; iii. 82, 83. -
Ardania, prom. of Marmara, i. 64.
-
-
-
-
Ardanis, Ardanixis (
Ardea, city of the Rutuli, i. 339, 346, 371. -
Ardia, distr. of Dalmatia, i. 481. -
Ardiæi, i. 483–485, 487, 488, 489, 505. -
Ardium, mtn of Dalmatia, i. 484. -
Arduenna (
Arēcomisci.
Arēgon, ii. 16. -
Areion, ii. 97. -
Areius, iii. 53. -
Arelate, t. of Gaul (
Arēne, t. of Triphylia, ii. 20–23, 27, 38. -
Areopagite code, i. 390. -
Arēs.
Aretas, iii. 212. -
Arēte, iii. 212, 293. -
Arethusa, castle of Syria, iii. 166, 167. -
——, ftn of Chalcis, ii. 157. -
——, ftn of the Island of Ortygia, i. 408, 409. -
——, city of Macedonia, i. 514. -
Argæus, mtn of Cappadocia (
Arganthōnius, king of Tartessus, i. 226. -
——, mtn of Bithynia, ii. 315. -
Argeadæ, i. 506, 508. -
Argeia.
Argennum, prom. of Ionia, iii. 18. -
Argestes (N.W. wind), i. 45; ii. 80. -
Argia, Argolis, Argeia, i. 187, 416; ii. 6, 51, 66. -
Argian territory, ii. 52, 58. -
Argillæ (under-ground passages), i. 363. -
Argilus, t. of Macedonia, i. 512. -
Arginussæ, islands, ii. 388, 391. -
Argissa, Argūra, t. of Pelasgiotis, ii. 143, 144. - - -
Argive territory, ii. 51–55, 76, 158. -
Argives, i. 55, 102; ii. 8, 39, 47, 48, 49, 51–55, 58–60, 66, 97, 174, 175. -
Argo, the ship, i. 72, 73, 332; ii. 139, 315. -
Argolic Bay (
Argolica, ii. 58, 75. -
Argolis (
Argonautic expedition, i. 31. -
Argonautics, iii. 34. -
Argonauts, i. 71–73, 332; ii. 21, 111, 139, 148, 331. -
Argos, i. 35, 329, 410, 486; ii. 12, 42, 43, 48–56, 58–60, 71, 76, 77, 97, 110, 124, 133, 203; iii. 41, 60. -
——, Pelasgic, i. 328; ii. 50, 52, 132, 133. -
——, Inachian, ii. 74. -
——, Achæan, ii. 43, 49, 50. -
——, castle of Cappadocia, ii. 281. -
——, Amphilochian, city of Acarnania (
——, Hippium, i. 320, 433; ii. 49. -
——, Jasum, ii. 49, 50. 52. -
——, Orestic, city of Epirus or Macedonia, i. 500. -
——, distr. of Peloponnesus, ii. 50–55. -
Argoüs, harbour of Æthalia, i. 332. -
Argūra.
Argyria, city of the Troad, ii. 300, 371. -
Argyrippa.
Argyrippeni, port of, i. 433. -
Argyrusci, i. 344. -
Aria, distr. of Persia, i. 112–114; ii. 246, 251, 252; iii. 124, 125. -
Ariamazas, rock of, ii. 254. -
Ariana, i. 121, 125, 127–129; ii. 218, 252, 253, 263; iii. 78, 88 119–129. -
Ariani, i. 66, 104, 196; iii. 125. -
Ariarathes, ii. 277, 283, 401. -
Aricia, t. of Latium (
Aridæus, iii. 229. -
Arii (
Arima, mtns of Cilicia, ii. 405. -
Arimæi.
Arimaspi, i. 32; ii. 240. -
Arimaspian poems, ii. 349. -
Arimi, ii. 304, 403–405; iii. 163, 216. -
Ariminum, t. of Umbria (
Ariminus, r. of Umbria, i. 323. -
Arimus, ii. 406. -
Ariobarzanes, ii. 285. -
Arion, ii. 393. -
Arisba, t. of the Troad, ii. 344, 350, 351; iii. 5. -
Arisbus, in Thrace, ii. 351. -
Aristarcha, i. 268, 269. -
Aristarchus, i. 48, 49, 51, 57, 156; ii. 380; iii. 26. -
Aristeas, of Proconnesus, i. 32; ii. 349; iii. 10. -
Aristeides, painter, ii. 64. -
Aristera, or left coast of Pontus, ii. 286. -
Aristio, ii. 89. -
Aristippus, Socratic philosopher, iii. 293. -
—— Metrodidactos, iii. 293. -
Aristo, Athenian, i. 23. -
——, of Ceos, ii. 210; iii. 225, 226. -
——, of Cos, iii. 36. -
——, of Rhegium, i. 390, 391. -
Aristobulus, ii. 243, 254; iii. 55, 83–86, 95, 102, 111, 112, 133, 148, 150, 187, 274. -
——, king of Judæa, iii. 180. -
Aristocles, iii. 34. -
Aristocrates, ii. 39. -
Aristodemus, iii. 26, 27. -
Aristonicus, grammarian, i. 60. -
——, iii. 20, 21. -
Aristopatra, iii. 96. -
Aristotle, i. 44, 143, 144, 156, 229, 273, 459, 494, 512, 513; ii. 18, 55, 56, 64, 151, 154, 156, 363, 378–382, 392, 393; iii. 86, 98, 173, 225. - - -
Aristoxenus, i. 25. -
Aristus, of Salamis, iii. 69, 134. -
Arius, r. of Aria, ii. 252, 254. -
Ariusia, in Chios, iii. 19. -
Arměne, t. of Paphlagonia (
Arměnia, i. 72, 76, 78, 95, 113, 115, 120, 122, 123, 126, 127, 177, 195; ii. 217, 218, 226, 227, 230–235, 238, 245, 259, 260–272, 276, 284–286, 304–306, 309, 310; iii. 108, 109, 147, 150, 154, 156, 157. -
——, Greater, ii. 260, 262, 305; iii. 150. -
——, the Lesser, ii. 260, 267, 269, 286, 294, 296, 304, 305, 310; iii. 63, 150. -
——, gates of, i. 123, 124. -
——, mountains, i. 96, 115, 120, 122, 126, 127; ii. 226, 241. -
Armenians, i. 66, 196, 440; ii. 216, 230, 239, 260, 263–277, 294, 296, 304, 309; iii. 216. -
Armenium, t. of Thessaly, ii. 235, 272. -
Armenius, i. 446. -
Armenus, ii. 235, 272. -
Arnæi, inhabitants of Thessaly, ii. 93. -
Arnæus, ii. 300. -
Arnarium, ii. 70. -
Arné, city of Thessaly, i. 92; ii. 107, 110, 138, 143. -
Arnus, r. of Etruria (
Arǒma, t. of Lydia, iii. 26. -
Arotrebæ.
Arotria.
Arpi, t. of the Daunii.
Arpina, ii. 32. -
Arrechi, ii. 223. -
Arrētium, city of Etruria (
Arrhabæus, i. 500. -
Arsacæ, iii. 97, 160. -
Arsaces, a Scythian, ii. 248, 251.
-
-
-
-
Arsaces, son of Pharnaces, ii. 311. -
Arsacia, city of Media, same as Rhaga, ii. 264. -
Arsēne, lake of Armenia (
Arses, iii. 141. -
Arsinoë, t. of Cilicia (
——, two towns of Cyprus, iii. 69, 70, 72. -
——, t. of Ethiopia, iii. 193, 199. -
——, t. of Cyrene, iii. 291. -
——, t. of Egypt, iii. 243, 244. -
——, formerly
——, t. of Œtolia (
——, same as Ephesus, iii. 12. -
——, same as Patara, iii. 47. -
——, prom. of Cyprus, iii. 70. -
Arsinoite nome, iii. 223, 253, 256. -
Arsinoites, iii. 256. -
Arsīnus.
Arsites, satrap of Phrygia, iii. 188. -
Artabazus, ii. 334. -
Artabri, Arotrebæ, people of Lusitania, i. 181, 206, 221, 230, 262. -
——, port of the, i. 230. -
Artacaëna, city of Aria, ii. 252. -
Artace, mtn, ii. 332. -
——, island, ii. 332; iii. 5. -
——, t. there situated, ii. 340; iii. 5. -
Artacēne, iii. 144. -
Artagēræ, castle of Armenia, ii. 270. -
Artamita, Apollodorus of, ii. 252. -
Artanes, ii. 273. -
Artavasdes, ii. 263, 270, 271, 274. -
Artaxata, city of Armenia, ii. 269, 270. -
Artaxerxes, i. 78; iii. 34. -
Artaxias, ii. 269, 270, 273. -
Artaxiasata,
Artemidorus, of Ephesus, i. 207, 208, 223, 235, 236, 239, 246, 251, 255, 258, 274, 277, 295, 332, 364, 393, 402, 435, 518; ii. 5, 48, 77; iii. 12, 15, 34, 43–45, 53, 59, 62, 118, 192, 201–203, 208, 239, 243, 276, 281, 282. -
Artemidorus, of Cnidus, iii. 34. -
——, of Tarsus, iii. 59. -
Artemis.
Artemisia, iii. 35. -
Artemisium, Dianium, t. of Iberia, i. 239. -
——, prom. of Caria, with temple of Diana, iii. 28. -
——, or Grove of Diana, i. 355, 356. -
——, at Ephesus, ii. 73. -
Artemita, t. of Assyria (
——, one of the Echinades, i. 93. -
Artimachus, ii. 348. -
Artis, iii. 2. -
Aruaci, i. 243. -
Arupenum, t. of the Iapodes (
Arverni (
Arxata, city of Armenia, ii. 270. -
Asander, i. 479; ii. 224, 401. -
Asbystæ, i. 198. -
Asca, t. of Arabia, iii. 212. -
Ascæus, ii. 307. -
Ascalon, city of Judæa (
Ascalonitæ, iii. 175. -
Ascania, region of Phrygia, ii. 300, 316–318; iii. 66, 67. -
——, region of Mysia or Bithynia, ii. 316–318; iii. 66, 67. -
——, vill. of Mysia, iii. 67. -
Ascanius, lake of Bithynia (
——, son of Æneas, i. 339, 340; ii. 377, 378. -
——, leader of the Phrygians and Mysians, ii. 316, 317. -
Asclēpiadæ, in Thessaly, ii. 136, 142. -
Asclepiades, of Prusa, ii. 318. -
——, the Myrlean, i. 235, 249.
-
-
-
-
Asclepieium, iii. 36. -
Asclepius, i. 114; ii. 9, 56, 141; iii. 22. -
——, temple of, at Carthage, iii. 285. -
——, Celæni, in the Troad, ii. 371. -
——, in the Island of Cos, iii. 36. -
——, of Epidaurus, ii. 56, 321. -
——, of Gerenia, ii. 36. -
——, of Olenus, ii. 71. -
——, of Tricca, ii. 36, 56, 141. -
——, grove of, between Berytus and Sidon, iii. 171. -
Ascra, t. of Bœotia, ii. 104, 105, 110, 122, 398. -
Asculum Picēnum (
Asdrubal, i. 238. -
——, wife of, iii. 285. -
Asea, a village of Arcadia, ii. 15. -
Asia, i. 22, 50, 55, 56, 88, 103, 105, 156, 161, 162, 179, 183, 187, 188, 190, 191, 194, 197, 213, 431, 437, 439–441, 453, 465, 466, 477, 478, 490, 510, 517, 518; ii. 2, 32, 60, 62, 68, 93, 145, 154, 209; iii. 38, 39, 98,
——, Upper, ii. 244. -
——, Eastern, ii. 244. -
——, a Roman province, ii. 401. -
——, within the Taurus, ii. 333. -
Asiatic coast, ii. 491. -
Asii, ii. 245. -
Asinæan Gulf.
Asinæus, ii. 36. -
Asine, city of Messenia, ii. 35–37, 54, 55. -
——, city of Laconia, ii. 41. -
——, city of Argolis (
——, Hermionic, ii. 36. -
Asinius, i. 287. -
Asioneis, Esioneis, ii. 405. -
Asisium, i. 338. -
Asius, son of Dymas, ii. 351. -
——, poet, i. 399. -
——, Hyrtacides, the Trojan, ii. 344, 345, 350, 351. -
——, meadow of, iii. 26. - - -
Asius, temple to, iii. 26. -
Asōpia, vill. of Sicyonia, ii. 103. -
Asōpian district, ii. 66. -
—— Thebes, ii. 74. -
Asōpus, r. of Sicyon, i. 410; ii. 66, 103. -
——, r. of Bœotia, ii. 103, 104, 108. -
——, r. of Phthiotis, ii. 67, 129. -
——, r. of the isl. of Paros, ii. 66. -
——, city of Laconia, ii. 41. -
Aspaneus, near Ida, ii. 376. -
Aspasiacæ,
Aspendus, t. of Pamphylia (
Asphalius (name of Neptune), i. 90. -
Aspiōnus, satrapy of, ii. 253. -
Aspis, t. by the Greater Syrtis, iii. 290. -
——, t. of the Carthaginians, i. 421; iii. 288. -
——, island, iii. 16. -
Asplēdon, city of Bœotia, ii. 113. -
Aspordēnum, ii. 393. -
Asporēne, Aspordēne, ii. 393. -
Aspurgiani, a nation of Mœotis, ii. 223, 305. -
Assacanus, land of, in India, iii. 82, 90. -
Assus, t. of Mysia (
——, people of, ii. 375, 381, 382. -
Assyria, iii. 34, 142–160. -
Assyrians, i. 66. -
Asta, city of Iberia, i. 211, 213, 215. -
Astaboras, r. of Ethiopia (
Astacēni, iii. 90. -
Astacus, t. of Bithynia, ii. 171. -
——, t. of Acarnania, ii. 171. -
——, Gulf of (
Astæ, people of Thrace, i. 516 -
Astapus, r. of Ethiopia (
Astasobas, r. of Ethiopia, iii. 195, 219, 270. -
Astëeis, iii. 4.
-
-
-
-
Asteria, Asteris, isl. (
Asterium, ii. 142, 143. -
Asteropæus, i. 514. -
Asti, people of Thrace, i. 490, 492. -
Asturian mountains, i. 250. -
Asturians, i. 229, 233, 241, 243, 250. -
Asty, ii. 85, 87, 91. -
Astyages, ii. 264; iii. 134. -
Astygis, t. of Spain (
Astyochea, ii. 9. -
Astypalæa, prom. of Attica, ii. 89. -
——, prom. of Caria, iii. 37. -
——, old city of the Coans, iii. 36. -
——, one of the Sporades (
Astypalæans, inhabitants of Rhætium, ii. 368. -
Astyra, t. of Mysia, ii. 376, 386, 387. -
——, t. of the Troad, ii. 353; iii. 66. -
Atabyris, mtn of Rhodes (
Atagis (
Atalanta, isl. near Attica, ii. 85, 125. -
—— opposite Eubea (
Atargata, iii. 216. -
Atargatis, iii. 158. -
Atarneitæ, ii. 383. -
Atarneus, city of Mysia (
——, city of the Troad, ii. 387. -
Atax, r. of Gaul, i. 272, 282. -
Ateas, king of the Bospori, i. 472. -
Ategua, t. of Spain, i. 213. -
Atella, t. of Campania, i. 370. -
Ateporix, ii. 310. -
Aternum, t. of the Vestini (
Aternus, r. of Italy, i. 359. -
Atēsinus, r. of Rhætia, i. 308. -
Athamanes, nation of Epirus, i. 493, 499; ii. 128, 130, 131, 137, 144, 158, 160; iii. 30. - - -
Athamania, ii. 138, 147. -
Athamantis, iii. 2. -
Athamas, ii. 135; iii. 2. -
Athara, iii. 216. -
Athenæ Diades, ii. 153. -
——, city of, ii. 55, 87. -
Athenæum, i. 93, 368. -
——, promontory of Campania (
Athenæus, the Peripatetic, iii. 53. -
Athenais, son of Attalus, ii. 400. -
——, iii. 18, 259. -
Athene.
Athenian legation, i. 75. -
—— colony, i. 513. -
Athenians, i. 102, 155, 329, 365, 392, 396, 404, 478, 517; ii. 2, 35, 36, 39, 57–59, 67, 68, 79, 80–83, 85–90, 95, 108, 111, 121, 136, 140, 152–154, 374,
Athenocles, ii. 294. -
Athenodorus, Cananites, iii. 58, 59, 209. -
——, Cordylion, iii. 58. -
——, the Natural Philosopher, i. 8, 86, 259. -
Athens, i. 23, 24, 101, 102, 105 -107, 123, 126, 127, 131, 133, 173, 271, 329, 335; ii. 39, 68, 80–83, 95, 108, 121, 124, 125, 164, 166, 170,
——, captured by Sylla, ii. 380. -
——, town of Bœotia, ii. 101. -
Athmoneus, iii. 144. -
Athos, Athon (
Athribis, town of Egypt, iii. 240. -
Athribitæ, iii. 257. -
Athribite nome, iii. 240. -
Athrulla, town of Arabia, iii. 212. -
Athymbradus, iii. 26. -
Athymbrus, iii. 26. -
Athyras, r. of Thrace, i. 518. -
Atintānes, i. 499. -
Atlantic Ocean, Exterior Sea, i. 7, 8, 39, 46, 51, 62, 78, 81, 82, 87. 101, 102, 170, 184, 192, 194,
-
-
-
-
Atlantides, daughters of Atlas, ii. 19. -
Atlantis, island of, i. 154. -
Atlas, father of Calypso, i. 39. -
——, mtn of Mauritania, iii. 276. -
Atmŏni, tribe of the Bastarnæ, i. 470. -
Atrax, city of Pelasgiotis, ii. 142, 146. -
Atrebates, people of Gaul, i. 289, 290. -
Atreus, i. 25, 35; ii. 53. -
Atria, city of Cisalpine Gaul (
Atropatene, Atropatia, or Atropatian Media, ii. 238, 263, 267, 270. -
Atropateni, Atropatii, ii. 264, 274. -
Atropates, satrap of Media, ii. 262. -
Attaleia, city of Pamphylia (
Attalic kings, kings of Pergamus, ii. 320. -
Attalici, ii. 315. -
Attalus, first king of Pergamus, i. 440; ii. 390, 400. -
—— Philadelphus, ii. 400; iii. 13, 49. -
—— Philometor, ii. 401; iii. 21. -
——, brother of Philetærus, ii. 400. -
Attasii, tribe of the Massagetæ, ii. 248. -
Attea, t. of the Troad, ii. 376. -
Atthis, daughter of Cranaus, ii. 87. -
——, Attica, i. 40, 43, 105, 187; ii. 2, 3, 87. Silver mines of, i. 221. -
Attic dialect, ii. 2. -
—— miners, i. 221. -
Attica, i. 493, 506, 507; ii. 57, 62, 67, 78–81, 84, 86–91, 95–97, 99,
Aturia, part of Assyria, iii. 142–141. - - -
Atys, father of Tyrrhenus, i. 326, 329. -
Auases or Oases, in Libya, i. 197; iii. 226, 258. -
Aude.
Aufidus, r. of Apulia (
Auge, daughter of Aleus, ii. 389. -
Augeas, king of the Epeii, ii. 10, 13, 27, 30, 31, 170. -
Augeiæ, city of Laconia, ii. 42. -
——, city of Locris, ii. 42. -
Augila (
Augusta, city of the Salassi, (
Emerita, t. of the Turduli in Spain (
Aulis, city of Bœotia (
Aulon, valley in Messenia, ii. 24. -
——, royal, valley of Syria, iii. 171. -
Aulōnia.
Auscii, people of Aquitania, i. 284. -
Ausonian Sea, i. 185, 193, 346, 497. -
Ausonians, people of Campania, i. 346, 360, 381. -
Autariatæ, nation of Illyria, i. 481, 485, 488, 489, 505. -
Autěsion, father of Thera, ii. 21. -
Autochthones, i. 339; ii. 2, 75. -
Autolycus, founder of Sinope, ii. 143, 293. -
Autŏmala, t. of Cyrene, i. 186; iii. 290, 294. -
Automedon, ii. 42. -
Auxumon, t. of Picenum (
Avenio, t. of the Cavari (
Aventine mount, i. 270, 384. -
Avernus, Lake (
Axine.
Axius, r. of Macedonia (
Azamora, t. of Cataonia, ii. 280. -
Azānes, a people of Arcadia, ii. 7, 75. -
Azani, Azanitis, t. and district of - -Phrygia, ii. 332. -
Azara, Zara, t. of Armenia, ii. 268. -
——, t. of Elymais, iii. 153. -
Azaritia, ii. 315. -
Azenieis, vill. of Attica, ii. 89. -
Azorus, t. of Pelagonia, i. 501. -
Azōtii, iii. 106. -
Azōtus, city of Judæa, iii. 175. -
Babanomum, t. of Ponlus, ii. 312. -
Babas, iii. 130. -
Babylon, i. 13, 120, 123–126, 129, 131, 132, 134, 135, 137, 165; ii, 233, 262, 267, 271; iii. 9, 130, 132, 134, 135, 140, 143–158, 186, 189, 229. -
——, t. of Egypt (
Babylonia, i. 201; ii. 239, 260, 267, 271; iii. 83, 130, 135, 142, 146, 148, 150, 151, 158, 159, 185, 187, 189. -
Babylonians, i. 155, 196, 463; ii. 391. -
Babyrsa, fortress of Armenia, ii. 270. -
Babys, father of Pherecydes, ii. 211. -
Bacchæ, ii. 180, 183. -
——, tragedy of Euripides, i. 40; ii. 186; iii. 75. -
Bacchantes, i. 295. -
Bacchiadæ, i. 500; ii. 60. -
Bacchides, ii. 292. -
Bacchus, i. 41, 76, 257, 459; ii. 40, 64, 183–187, 238, 347; iii. 16, 74–76, 108. -
——, Bromius, ii. 185. -
—— Pyrigenes, ii. 406. -
——, temple of, ii. 40. -
Bacchylides, ii. 210, 390. -
Bactra (
Bactria, Bactriana, i. 22, 41, 106, 107, 112–117, 141, 178, 179; ii. - -188, 245, 246, 248, 251–255; iii. 73, 83, 89, 124–127. -
Bactrian gates, iii. 76. -
Bactrians, Bactrii, i. 112, 195; ii. 248, 253, 273, 296. -
Badas, r. of Syria, iii. 130. -
Bænis, r. of Lusitania.
Bætera, city of Gaul (
Bætica, i. 240, 243, 250. -
Bætis, r. of Spain (
——, city of Spain, i. 213. -
Bætorix, father of Deudorix, i. 446. -
Bæturia, district of Spain, i. 214. -
Bætylus, Œtylus, t. of Laconia, ii. 36. -
Bagadania, distr. of Cappadocia, i. 113; ii. 284. -
Bagas, name of the Paphlagonians, ii. 302. -
Bagōus, a eunuch, iii. 141. -
Bagradas, r. of Africa (
Baiæ, t. of Campania, i. 336, 362, 364, 366, 369. -
Baïus, companion of Ulysses, i. 39, 364. -
Balanæa, t. of Syria, iii. 167. -
Balari, people of Sardinia, i. 334. -
Balbura, t. of Lycia (
Balbus, the Gaditanian, i. 253, 254. -
Baleares, Balearic islands, i. 251, 252; iii. 32. -
Balearicus, Metellus, i. 252. -
Balithōn.
Bambyce, t. of Syria, iii. 158, 163. -
Bamōnītis, part of Pontus, ii. 302. -
Bandobēne, distr. of India, iii. 89. -
Barathra, Berethra, ii. 76; iii. 241. -
Barbarian laws, i. 240. -
Barbarians, i. 17, 18, 77, 104, 114. -
Barbarium, Cape, prom. of Lusitania (
Barca, city of Cyrene, same as Ptolemais, iii. 291, 292. -
Barcas, Hamilcar, father of Hannibal, i. 226, 238. -
Bards, Celtic poets, i. 294. -
Bardyli, Bardyali, Bardyētæ, Bardyītæ, people of Spain, i. 233, 243. -
Bargasa, t. of Caria, iii. 34. -
Bargosa, city of India, iii. 119. -
Bargus, r. of Illyria, i. 488. -
Bargylia, t. of Caria, ii. 383; iii. 37. -
Baris (Zaris), temple of, ii. 273. -
Baris, city, i. 429. -
Barium (
Barnichius, r. of Elis.
Barnus, city of Macedonia, i. 495. -
Basgædariza, fortress of Armenia, ii. 304. -
Basileius, r. of Mesopotamia, iii. 158. -
Basilii, i. 470. -
Basoropeda, district of Armenia, ii. 269. -
Bassus, Cecilius, iii. 166. -
Bastarnæ, i. 141, 177, 194, 443, 451–453, 468–471. -
Bastetani, Bastuli, i. 210, 212, 234, 243, 245. -
Bastetania, i. 232, 235. -
Bata, t. of Pontus (
Bathynias, i. 518. -
Bathys Limen (Deep Harbour), in Aulis, ii. 95. -
Batiæ, city of the Cassopæi, i. 497. -
Batieia, ii. 328, 361, 399. -
Batōn, leader of the Pannonii, 483. - - -
Batōn, historian, ii. 293. -
Battus, founder of Cyrene, iii. 292. -
Bear, the (constellation), i. 4, 5. -
——, Greater, i. 21, 117–120. -
——, Lesser, i. 117–120, 200. -
Bebryces, a people of Thrace, i. 453; ii. 287, 304, 346; iii. 63. -
Beitylus, ii. 36.
Belbina, an island, ii. 57, 89. -
Belgæ, i. 264, 266, 286, 290–293. -
Bělio, r. of Lusitania (
Bellerophon, ii. 62, 328, 409; iii. 48. -
Bellovaci, a people of Gaul (
Bělō (
Belus, i. 67. -
——, tomb of, iii. 145; temple of, 153. -
Bembina, city of Argolis, ii. 60. -
Bēnacus, lake of Italy, i. 311. -
Bendidæan rites, ii. 186, 188. -
Beneventum, t. of Samnium (
Berecyntes, people of Phrygia, ii. 184, 337; iii. 66, 67. -
Berecyntia, distr. of Phrygia, ii. 337. -
Berecyntian pipes, ii. 187. -
Berenice, dr. of Salome, iii. 184. -
——, t. of Cyrene, (
——, t. in the Troglodytic, iii 197, 260. -
——, t. of Egypt (
Berenice, Hair of (constellation), i. 4. -
Berga, i. 514. -
Bergæan, the.
Bērisades, king of the Odrysæ, i. 516. -
Bermium, Bermius, mtn of Macedonia (
Berœa, t. of Macedonia (
——, t. of Syria, iii. 163. -
Bērones, people of Spain, i. 238, 243. -
Bertiscus, mtn of Macedonia, i. 505. -
Bērytus (
Bēsæeis, Bēsæenses, ii. 127. -
Besbicus, isl. (
Bēssa, in Locris, ii. 127. -
Bessi, nation of Thrace, i. 489, 516. -
Bēssus, ii. 248, 255. -
Betarmones, ii. 190. -
Betteres, t. of Spain, i. 240. -
Bias, iii. 7. -
Biasas, name of the Paphlagonians, ii. 302. -
Bibracte, fortress of the Ædui, i. 286. -
Bilbilis, t. of the Celtiberians, (
Billarus, sphere of, ii. 293. -
Bion, philosopher, i. 23, 24; ii. 210. -
——, astronomer, i. 45. -
Bīsa, ftn of Elis.
Bisalti, Bisaltæ, people of Macedonia, i. 506, 514. -
Biscay, people of.
Bistones, race of Thrace, i. 515. -
Bistonis, lake of Thrace (
Bisurgis.
Bithynia, ii. 289, 293 313–318, - - - -329, 356, 402; iii. 297. -
Bithynians, i. 195, 453; ii. 277, 286, 287, 289, 290, 314, 316, 319, 320, 330; iii. 63. -
——, of Thrace, ii. 287. -
Bithynium (
Bituitus, son of Luerius, i. 285. -
Bituriges Cubi, i. 283, 284. -
—— Vivisci, people of Gaul, i. 283. -
Bizōne, t. of Mœsia, i. 84, 490. -
Bizya, t. of Thrace, i. 516. -
Black Forest, the.
Black Sea, i. 6,
Blaēnē, distr. of Paphlagona, ii. 313. -
Blascōn, isl., i. 271. -
Blaudus, t. of Phrygia (
Bleminātis, in Laconia, ii. 15. -
Blemmyes, a people of Ethiopia, iii. 219, 266. -
Blera, t. of Etruria (
Blēsino, t. of Corsica, i. 333. -
Blessed, Isles of the (
Blucium (Luceium?), fortress of the Tolistobogii, ii. 320. -
Boagrius, r. of Locris (
Bōcalia (?), Bōcarus, r. of Salamis, ii. 83. -
Bocchus, king of Mauritania, iii. 280. -
Bœa, t. of Laconia, ii. 41. -
Bœbē, t. of Magnesia, ii. 139, 142, 272. -
Bœbēis or Bœbias, lake of Thessaly, ii. 131, 139, 142, 146–148, 235; iii. 22. -
Bœi, people of Gaul, i. 291–485. -
Bœōnōa, t. of Elis, ii. 9. -
Bœoti, t. of Laconia, ii. 2. -
—— (Athenians), ii. 81. -
Bœotia, i. 6,
Bœotian coast, ii. 98.
-
-
-
-
Bœotians, i. 102, 493; ii. 98, 101, 102, 105, 134, 175,
Bœōtus, son of Melanippe, i. 399. -
Bœrebistas, king of the Getæ.
Boēthus, Sidonian, iii. 173. -
——, of Tarsus, iii. 58. -
Bœum, city of the Dorians, i. 505; ii. 128, 195. -
Bogodiatarus (? Deïotarus), ii. 320. -
Bogus, king of Mauritania, i. 151, 153, 154; ii. 36; iii. 278, 280. -
Boïanum, city of the Samnites (
Boii, i. 291, 306, 307, 317, 321, 322, 448, 450, 454, 466, 482, 485. -
Bolbe, lake of Macedonia, i. 514. -
Bolbitine mouth of the Nile, iii. 239. -
Bōmianes, a nation of Ætolia, ii. 160. -
Bonōnes, son of Phraates, iii. 160. -
Bonōnia, city of Italy (
Boos-Aule, cave of Eubœa, ii. 152. -
Boosura, city of Cyprus (
Boreas, Borras, i. 42, 44, 97. -
Boreion, prom. of Cyrene (
Borrhama, iii. 170. -
Borsippa, t. of Babylonia, iii. 146. -
Borsippeni, Chaldæans, iii. 146. -
Borus, ii. 110. -
Borysthenes (
Bosporani, Asian, ii. 223. -
——, European, ii. 223. -
——, Bosporiani, Bosporians, ii. 223, 224; iii. 180. -
Bosporii, i. 476. - - -
Bosporus, Cimmerian (
——, Thracian, i. 138, 189 ii. 318. -
——, Mysian, ii. 318. -
Botrys, fortress of Syria, iii. 170. -
Bottiæa, distr. of Macedonia, i. 430, 508, 509. -
Bottiæi, people of Macedonia, i. 425, 506, 508. -
Bottōn, i. 506. -
Boxos, Boxes, iii. 208. -
Brachmānes, philosophers of India, iii. 109–111, 114, 117. -
Branchidæ, priests of Apollo, ii. 254; iii. 4, 259. -
——, their city in Sogdiana, ii. 254. -
Branchus, ii. 120; iii. 4. -
Braurōn, t. of Attica, ii. 52, 88, 89. -
Breasts, the (
Brěnæ, people of Thrace, i. 516. -
Brennus, i. 280. -
Brentěsium, t. of lapygia (
Brescia, i. 317. -
Brettii, i. 315–441. -
Breuci, people of Hungary, i. 483. -
Breuni, nation of Illyria, i. 306. -
Brigantii, a people of the Vindelici, i. 307. -
Brigantium (
Briges, people of Thrace, i. 453, 510. -
Brilessus, mtn of Attica, ii. 90. -
Briseïs, ii. 313, 384. -
Britain, i. 99, 100, 111, 116, 117, 141, 157, 172–175, 181, 193, 263, 264, 281, 283, 288–290, 295–298. -
Britannic Islands, British Islands
-
-
-
-
British Channel, i. 192. -
Britomartis, ii. 199, 200. -
Britons, i. 116, 177, 298, 299. -
Briula, iii. 26. -
Brixia, t. of the Insubri, i. 317. -
Brothers, Seven, monuments of the, iii. 278. -
Bructeri, a people of Germany, i. 444, 445, 447. -
Brundusians, i. 430. -
Bruttii, i. 315, 339, 374, 377–383, 391, 431. -
Brutus, the Gallician, i. 228, 230, 233. -
——, Decimus, vanquished at Philippi, i. 305, 515. -
Bryanium, t. of Macedonia, i. 501. -
Bryges, Brygi, Phryges, ii. 298. -
Brygi, people of Epirus, i. 500, 501. -
Bubastite nome, iii. 245. -
Bubastus, t. of Egypt, iii. 245. -
Bubōn, t. of Lycia (
Buca, t. of the Frentani, i. 359, 436. -
Bucephālia, city of India, iii. 91. -
Bucephalus, the horse of Alexander, iii. 91, 92. -
Buchetium, city of the Cassopæi, i. 497. -
Bucolopolis, t. of Judæa, iii. 175. -
Budŏrus, r. of Eubœa, ii. 153. -
——, mtn of Salamis, ii. 153. -
Bujæmum, i. 444. -
Bulliones, people of Illyria, i. 500. -
Buprasian district, ii. 18. -
Buprasii, Buprasians, ii. 12, 13, 27. -
Buprasium, ii. 12, 14, 23, 28, 74. -
——, t. of Elis, ii. 12, 13, 27, 32, 162. -
Būra, city of Achæa (
Burdegala (
Busiris, king of the Egyptians, iii. 240. -
——, city of Egypt, iii. 240. -
Busirite nome, iii. 240. - - -
Būthrōtum, t. of Epirus (
Butice-limné, lake of Egypt, iii. 239. -
Būtrium, t. of the Umbri (
Būtus, t. of Egypt, iii. 239. -
Byblos (
Bylliace, district of Illyria, i. 486. -
Byrchanis, island (
Byrebistas, Bœrebistas, king of the Getæ, i. 457, 466, 467; iii. 180. -
Byrsa, acropolis of Carthage, iii. 285, 286. -
Byzacii, people of Libya, i. 198 -
Byzantines, ii. 292, 332. -
——, Horn of the, i. 491. -
Byzantium (
——, Strait of, i. 80, 110, 189; ii. 314, 318. -
——, temple of, i. 491. -
Byzēres, a nation of Pontus, ii. 297. - - -
CABÆUM, prom. of the Ostimii (
Cabaleis, same as Solymi, ii. 409. -
Cabalis, c. and distr. of Phrygia and Lycia, ii. 408, 409. -
Caballa, t. of Armenia, ii. 271. -
Caballiō, t. of Gaul (
Cabeira, t. of Pontus, ii. 190, 306. -
Cabeirides, ii. 190. -
Caberus, mtn of Berecyntia, ii. 189. -
Cabesus, ii. 367. -
Cabiorides, ii. 190. -
Cabiri, i. 516; ii. 180, 189, 190. -
Cabyllīnum, t. of Gaul (
Cadēna, t. of Cappadocia, ii. 281. -
Cadi, t. of Phrygia (
Cadmē, same as Priene, iii. 7. -
Cadmeia, citadel of Thebes, ii. 108, 109.
-
-
-
-
Cadmeian victory, i. 224. -
—— territory, i. 493; ii. 93. -
Cadmus, founder of Cadmeia, i. 493, 500; ii. 93, 154. -
——, Melesian, i. 281; iii. 66. -
——, r. of Phrygia, ii. 334. -
——, mtn of Phrygia, ii. 334. -
Cadurci, a people of Gaul (
Cadusii, a people of Asia, ii. 240–242, 245, 248, 249, 263, 264. -
Cæcias, name of a wind (N.E.), i. 45. -
Cæcilius Bassus, iii. 165. -
Cæcubum, distr. of Latium, i. 345, 347. -
Cælius, Mount, i. 348. -
Cænepolis, ii. 36. -
Cæni, people of Thrace, ii. 401. -
Cænys, prom. of Italy, i. 385, 400. -
Cæpio, Q. S., a Roman general, i. 280. -
——, tower of, i. 211. -
Cæratus, same as Cnossus, ii. 190. -
Cærea, c. of Etruria, i. 328. -
Cæretana, hot-springs, i. 328. -
Cæretani, i. 327, 335. -
Cæsar, i. 213, 241, 242, 270, 271, 285, 290, 305; ii. 44, 270, 274, 278, 297. -
—— Augusta, c. of the Celtiberi (
——, Augustus, i. 234, 265, 275, 286, 298, 304, 306, 308, 349–351, 369, 388, 404, 408, 411, 439, 441, 444, 446, 449, 467, 483, 484; ii. 294, 309, 334, 356–358, 392, 402; iii. 36, 53, 54, 58, 59, 74, 118, 159, 184, 209, 231, 233, 281, 296, 297. -
——, Julius or divus, i. 265, 285, 288, 297, 298, 317, 350, 439, 457, 497–499; ii. 65, 294, 308; iii. 20, 24, 227, 284, 287. -
Cæsarea, c. of Numidia, iii. 284. -
Cæsarium, temple of Alexandria, iii. 230. -
Cæsēna, c. of Italy, i. 322. -
Caiata, gulf of (
——, promontory of, i. 347 - - -
Caicus, r. of Mysia (
——, plain of, ii. 332, 388–390, 401; iii. 82. -
Caieta, nurse of Æneas, i. 347. -
Cainochorion, fortress of Pontus, ii. 306. -
Calabri, i. 422, 423. -
Calabria, i. 430. -
Calachene, distr. of Assyria, ii. 235, 272; iii. 142. -
Calaguris, t. of Spain (
Calamis, i. 490. -
Calanus, iii. 74, 112, 113, 115, 116. -
Calasarna, t. of Lucania, i. 379. -
Calatia, c. of Campania (
Calauria, island (
Calbis, r. of Caria (
Calchas the prophet, iii. 15, 50, 59, 60. -
——, shrine of, i. 434; ii. 324. -
Calche, the, ii. 271. -
Cale-Peuce, ii. 371. -
Calenian wine, i. 361. -
Calēs, c. of Campania (
Caleti, people of Gaul, i. 281, 289. -
Callaïci, people of Spain, i. 222–251. -
Callanian plain, ii. 407. -
Callas, r. of Eubœa, ii. 152. -
Callateria (
Callatis, t. of Mœsia (
Calliarus, t. of Locris, ii. 127. -
Callias, ii. 393. -
Callicolōnē, ii. 362. -
Callidromus, part of Œta, ii. 129. -
Callimachus, i. 70–72, 321, 459; ii. 21, 29, 87, 141, 199, 206; iii. 9, 35, 245, 292. -
Callinicus, iii. 162, 168.
Callīnus, ii. 373, 405; iii. 3, 22, 23, 50.
-
-
-
-
Calliŏpe, ii. 189. -
Callipidæ, nation of Scythia, ii. 298. -
Callipolis, t. of Sicily, i. 412. -
——, t. of the Thracian Chersonesus (
——, t. of Macedonia, i. 514. -
Callisthenes, ii. 39, 254, 288, 356, 383, 405; iii. 5, 49, 66, 225, 245, 261,
Callydium, fortress of Mysia, ii. 330. -
Calpas, r. of Bithynia, ii. 288. -
Calpé, t. of Spain, i. 81, 210, 212. -
——, rock of Spain (
Calybe, t. of the Asti, i. 492. -
Calycadnus, r. of Cilicia (
Calydna, same as Tenedos, ii. 214, 372. -
Calydnæ, islands, ii. 212–214, 372. -
Calydōn, c. of Ætolia, ii. 127, 155, 159, 160, 171, 172, 175, 179. -
Calymna, Calymnæ, isl (
Calynda, c. of Caria, iii. 28. -
Calypso, island of, i. 459. -
Camarina, c. of Sicily (
Cambysene, distr. of Armenia, ii. 232, 234, 269. -
Cambyses, ii. 190; iii. 141, 224, 245, 261. -
Cameirus, t. of Rhodes (
Camertes, t. of Umbria, i. 338. -
Camici, t. of Sicily, i. 413, 425. -
Camillus, son of Vulcan, ii. 189. -
Camisa, fortress of Pontus, ii. 310. -
Camisene, distr. of Cappadocia, ii. 293, 310. -
Campani, Campanians, i. 352, 357, 361. 366, 369, 371, 373; 377, 387, 404. - - -
Campania, i. 326, 344, 346, 360, 361, 369–371, 373, 379, 429, 431, 432. -
Campodunum, t. of the Vindelici, i. 307. -
Campsiani, people of Germany, i. 445. -
Campus Martius, i. 350, 371. -
Camuni, people of the Rhæti, i. 306. -
Canæ, c. of Æolia, ii. 153, 388. -
——, mtns (
Canastræum, prom. of Macedonia (
Canastrum, prom. of Pallene (
Candace, queen of Ethiopia, iii. 268, 269. -
Candavia, mtns of Illyria, i. 495, 500. -
Canēthus, hill of Eubœa, ii. 154. -
Canidius, ii. 231. -
Cannæ, t. of Apulia, i. 436. -
Canopic mouth of the Nile, i. 101; iii. 237, 238.
—— gate of Alexandria, iii. 231, 237. -
—— canal, iii. 231, 237, 239. -
Canōpus, constellation, i. 4, 180. -
——, c. of Egypt (
Cantabria, i. 236, 247. -
Cantabrian mtns, i. 250. -
Cantabrians, i. 230, 233, 234, 239, 241, 243, 246–248, 250, 439. -
——, Conish, the, i. 243. -
Cantharius, prom. of Samos, iii. 10. -
Cantharōlěthron, i. 511. -
Cantium.
Canusitæ, emporium of the, i. 433. -
Canusium, t. of Apulia (
Capedunum, t. of the Scordisci, i. 488. -
Caphareus, prom. of Eubœa, ii. 48. -
Caphyeis, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.
-
-
-
-
Capitol, the, i. 298, 342, 348, 351, 424, 490; iii. 8. -
Capitūlum, t. of Latium, i. 353. -
Capnobatæ, i. 454, 455. -
Cappadocia, i. 113, 195, 262, 279; ii. 216, 218, 246, 259–261, 265, 273, 276–286, 301, 307, 310, 314, 319–322; iii. 35, 44, 54, 63–65, 137, 150, 232. -
——, the Great, ii. 278, 293, 294, 307, 321. -
——, Upper, ii. 259. -
——, on Pontus, ii. 278. -
Cappadocians, i. 440; ii. 273–286, 290, 301, 320, 322. -
Capreæ, Capriæ, Capria, isl. (
Capria, 1. of Paphlagonia, iii. 49. -
Caprus, port of
——, island, i. 512, 513. -
——, r. of Phrygia, ii. 334. -
——, r. of Assyria (
Capsa, t. of Numidia (
Capua, (
Capyæ, t. of Arcadia, ii. 378. -
Capys, ii. 378. -
Caracoma, i. 516. -
Caralis, t. of Sardinia (
Carambis, prom. of Paphlagonia (
Carana, t. of Pontus, ii. 310. -
Caranītis, ii. 310. -
Carcathiocerta, t. of Armenia (
Carcinites Gulf, i. 471, 473, 474, 478. -
Carcoras, r. of Noricus, i. 482. -
Cardaces, iii. 138. -
Cardamylæ, t. of Messenia (
Cardia, t. of the Thracian Chersonesus, i. 517. - - -
Cardūchi, people of Asia, iii. 157. -
Carēnitis, distr. of Armenia, ii. 269. -
Carēsēnē, distr. of the Troad, ii. 371. -
Carēsus, t. of the Troad, ii. 304, 371. -
——, r. of the Troad, ii. 357, 371. -
Caria, i. 8, 102, 103, 133, 140, 172, 187, 190, 195, 202, 493; ii. 56, 68, 259, 298, 313, 329, 333, 334, 383, 407, 409; iii. 1, 2, 6, 27–44, 59. -
——, coast, iii. 34. -
Carians, i. 96, 103, 493, 494; ii. 50, 56, 88, 277, 327–329, 383; iii. 2, 35, 38–43, 63. -
Cariatæ, ii. 254. -
Carmalas, r. of Cataonia, ii. 280–283. -
Carmania (
Carmanians, iii. 120. -
Carmēl, mtn of Judæa, iii. 175. -
Carmentis, mother of Evander, i. 343. -
Carmō, t. of Spain (
Carmylessus, t. of Lycia, iii. 46. -
Carna, Carnana, c. of Arabia, iii. 190. -
Carneades, iii. 293. -
Carneates, mtn of Sicyonia, ii. 66. -
Carni, i. 307–309, 321, 448, 482, 483. -
Carnus, t. of Syria (
Carnutes (
Carpasia, t. of Cyprus, iii. 69. -
Carpasian islands, iii. 69. -
Carpathian Sea, i. 187; ii. 212; iii. 68. -
Carpathus, ii. 212, 213. -
Carpetani, i. 209, 212, 228, 229, 243. -
Carpetania, distr. of Spain, i. 214. -
Carrhæ, c. of Mesopotamia, iii. 157. -
Carseoli, t. of Latium (
Carsūli, t. of Umbria, i. 337.
-
-
-
-
Carta, t. of Hyrcania, ii. 242. -
Cartalia, t. of Spain, i. 239. -
Carteïa, c. of Spain, i. 210, 213, 218, 226. -
Cartera, Comé, vill. of Thrace, i. 515. -
Carthæ, ii. 210. -
Carthage, in Africa, i. 101, 140, 180, 184, 197, 198, 201, 403, 411, 439; ii. 331; iii. 51, 282, 284–291. -
Carthagena, in Spain, i. 222, 234, 238, 239, 245, 251, 262, 334; iii. 279. -
Carthaginian Bay, iii. 285, 287. -
—— wars, iii. 284. -
Carthaginians, i. 104, 226, 238, 334, 377, 403, 404, 408, 424, 438, 439; ii. 71, 73; iii. 240, 275, 285. -
Carura, t. of Phrygia, ii. 334, 336, 409; iii. 43. -
Caryanda, t. and isl. of Caria, ii. 318, 340; iii. 37. -
Caryandians, iii. 37. -
Carystian marble, ii. 140, 153. -
Carystus (
——, in Laconia, ii. 153. -
Casiana, fortress of Syria, iii. 165. -
Casii, ii. 213, 214. -
Casilīnum, t. of Campania (
Casīnum, t. of Latium, i. 352. -
Casium, mtn of Egypt (
——, mtn of Syria (
Caspian Sea, i. 54, 102, 109, 115, 122, 123, 132, 135–138, 183, 194, 451, 471; ii. 216–218, 226, 227, 230, 232, 235, 239, 240–246, 249, 255, 256, 260, 267, 270, 272. -
Caspian Gates (
—— tribes, ii. 234. - - -
Caspiana, distr. of Albania, ii. 234, 269. -
Caspii, ii. 226, 248, 253, 258. -
Caspius, mtn. of the Caucasus, i. 137–139; ii. 226. -
Cassander, king of Macedonia, i. 509–511; ii. 88, 89. -
Cassandra, i. 398, 511; ii. 367 -
Cassandria, i. 511. -
Cassiŏpē, port of Epirus (
Cassiopeia, constellation, i. 202. -
Cassiterides (
Cassius, i. 515; iii. 164. -
Cassōpæi. people of Epirus, i. 493, 496–498. -
Castabala, t. of Cilicia, ii. 278, 281. -
Castalian fountain, ii. 116. -
Castellum, port of Firmum Picenum (
Casthanæa, t. of Magnesia, ii. 148. -
Castor, father of Deiotarus, ii. 314. -
——, son of Saocondarus, ii. 321. -
Castor and Pollux.
Castrum, Castrum Novum, t. of Picenum (
Castulōn, Castlōn (
Casus, ii. 212–214. -
Casystes, iii. 17. -
Catabathmus, mtn and t. of Egypt,
Catacecaumene, distr. of Mysia, or Lydia, ii. 332, 335, 336, 403, 404, 406; iii. 8, 43. -
Catacecaumene, wine of, ii. 406; iii. 8. -
Catana, c. of Sicily (
Catanæa, i. 405, 411. -
Catanæi, Catanæans, i. 405, 406, 412.
-
-
-
-
Cataones, Cataonians, people inhabiting the Taurus, ii. 269, 276, 277; iii. 64. -
Cataonia, part of Cappadocia, i. 82, 202; ii. 259, 276–279, 280; iii. 59, 65. -
Cataractes, r. of Pamphylia, iii. 49. -
Cataracts, of Teverone, i. 353. -
——, of the Euphrates, iii. 147. -
——, of the Nile, iii. 217, 265. -
Catennenses, ntn of Pisidia, ii. 324. -
Cathæa (? Cathay), distr. of India, iii. 92. -
Cathæi, iii. 93. -
Cathylci, people of Germany.
Cato, Marcus, ii. 250; iii. 58, 72, 291. -
Catocas.
Catopterius, near Parnassus, ii. 123. -
Catoriges, an Alpine nation, i. 303. -
Cattabaneis, people of Arabia, iii. 190. -
Cattabania, iii. 191. -
Caucasian mtns, i. 106, 115–117, 130, 131, 162, 177, 195, 273; ii. 219, 220, 230–232, 235, 258, 269; iii. 79. -
—— tribes, ii. 227. -
Caucasus, ii. 224–226, 229–235, 238, 239, 245, 267; iii. 77, 78, 80, 107, 125. -
Cauci, a people of Germany, i. 445. -
Caucon, r. i. 14, 15; ii. 74. -
——, monument of a, ii. 18. -
Caucōnes, in Elis, i. 493, 494; ii. 8, 14, 15, 18, 19, 28, 31, 74, 286–288, 290, 327, 383, 394. -
Cauconia, ancient name of Elis, ii. 18. -
Cauconiatæ, Cauconītæ, in Paphlagonia, ii. 18, 286–288; iii. 63, 65. -
Cauconis, Cauconitis, ii. 14, 74. -
Caudium, t. of the Samnites (
Caulci, people of Germany, i. 445. -
Caulōnia, t. of the Bruttii, i. 392.
Caunians, iii. 28. -
Caunus, t. of Caria (
Cavari, people of Gaul, i. 276–278. -
Caÿster, r. of Ionia, ii. 145, 396, 397, 402–407; iii. 10, 14, 26. -
——, plain of, ii. 397; iii. 82. -
——, Larisæans in the. ii. 397. -
Caÿstrius, iii. 26. -
Ceans, ii. 210. -
Cěbrēn, Cebrēnē, t. of the Troad, ii. 373, 375, 376. -
Cěbrēni, in the Troad, ii. 361, 375. -
——, in Thrace, ii. 351. -
Cěbrēnia, a part of the Troad, ii. 360, 362. -
Cěbriŏnes, ii. 360. -
Cecrŏpia, citadel of Athens, ii. 88. -
Cěcrops, i. 493; ii. 87, 88, 101. -
Ceii, inhabitants of Ceus, ii. 253. -
Cěladōn, r. of Elis, ii. 15, 22. -
Celænæ, hill of the Troad, ii. 333, 390. -
——, t. of Phrygia, ii. 333, 335, 407. -
Celæno, one of the Danaids, ii. 335. -
Celænus, son of Neptune, ii. 335. -
Celenderis, t. of Cilicia (
Cělia, t. of Apulia (
Celmis, one of the Dactyls, ii. 191. -
Cēlōssa, mtn of Sicyonia, ii. 66. -
Celsa, t. of Spain (
Celtica.
Cemmenus, mtn (
Cēnæum, prom. of Eubœa (
Cenchreæ, port of the Corinthians, (
——, t. of Argolis, ii. 58. -
Cencrius, r. near Ephesus, iii. 11. -
Cenomani, people of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 321.
-
-
-
-
Centauri, Centaurs, ii. 20. -
Centoripa, t. of Sicily (
Centrones, Alpine ntn, i. 303, 305, 309. -
Ceōs, island (
Cephalæ, prom. (
Cephallēnes, Cephallenians, ii. 83, 161, 162, 166, 167, 173. -
Cephallenia (
Cephalœdium, t. of Sicily (
Cephalōn, ii. 350. -
Cephalus, son of Deïonius, ii. 162, 166, 170, 173. -
Cēphēnes, i. 67. -
Cephisia, t. of Attica, ii. 88. -
Cēphissis, lake of Bœotia, ii. 102, 107. -
Cēphissus, r. of Phocis and Bœotia (
——, r. of Attica, ii. 91, 124. -
——, r. of Salamis, ii. 124. -
——, r. of Sicyonia, Scyrus, Argolis, ii. 124. -
——, ftn of Apollonia, ii. 124. -
Cephisus, r. ii. 351. -
Cēpi, t. of the Cimmerian Bosporus, ii. 223. -
Ceramietæ, iii. 40. -
Ceramus, t. of Caria, iii 34. -
Cerasus, t. of Pontus, ii. 296. -
Cerata, mtns of Attica, ii. 84. -
Ceraunia, part of the Caucasus, ii. 232, 235. -
Ceraunian mtns, on the coast of Albania, i. 31, 159, 429, 432, 435, 486, 487, 489, 497, 500; ii. 78, 79. -
Cerberus, ii. 40. -
Cerbesii, people of Phrygia, ii. 337. -
Cercaphus, father of Ormenus, ii. 142; iii. 32. -
Cercesura, t. of Egypt, iii. 247. -
Cercetæ, people of Asia, ii. 219, 225. -
Cerceteus, mtn of Icaria, ii. 212. -
Cercinna, isl. and town (
Cercinnītis, island, iii. 288. -
Cercītæ, people of Pontus, ii. 296. -
Cercyra.
Cereate, t. of Latium (
Ceres.
——, Eleusinian, temple of the, ii. 84; iii. 2. -
——, temples of, i. 411; ii. 17, 138, 139. -
——, grove of, ii. 17. -
Cēreus, r. of Eubœa, ii. 137. -
Cērilli, t. of the Bruttii (
Cērinthus, t. of Eubœa, ii. 152, 153. -
Cerne, island.
Cersobleptes, king of the Odrysæ, i. 516. -
Ceryneia, t. of Achæa, ii. 73. -
Cestrus, r. of Pamphylia (
Cētæi, ii. 389, 395; iii. 63, 65. -
Cēteium, r. of Mysia, ii. 389. -
Chaa, c. of Triphylia, ii. 22. -
Chaalla, c. of Arabia, iii. 212. -
Chaarene, distr. of Ariana, iii 126. -
Chabaca, c. of Pontus, ii. 296. -
Chabrias, iii. 241. -
——, rampart of, vill. in the Delta of Egypt, iii. 177. -
Chabum, c. of the Tauric Chersonesus, i. 479. -
Chæanœtæ, Chamæeunæ, Chamæcœtæ, people of the Caucasus, ii. 239. -
Chærēmōn, iii. 246. -
Chærōneia, c. of Bœotia (
Chalcēdōn, c. of Bithynia, i. 491; ii. 286, 289, 314, 315, 318, 380. -
——, temple at, i. 491; ii. 289, 315. -
Chalcedonian shore, i. 491. -
Chalcēdonians, i. 491, 492.
-
-
-
-
Chalcētŏres, Chalcētōr, c. of Caria, iii. 6, 37. -
Chalcia, Chalcis, mtn of Ætolia (
——, one of the Sporades (
Chalcideis, in Eubœa, iii. 17. -
Chalcidenses, Chalcidians, in Eubœa, i. 361, 365, 369, 385, 404, 506; ii. 154, 157, 158. -
——, in Ionia, iii. 17. -
——, in Thrace, i. 506. -
Chalcidic cities, i. 513. -
Chalcidica, distr. of Syria, iii 166. -
Chalcis, iii. 33. -
——, c. of Eubœa, i. 65, 86, 90 ii. 96, 151–156, 160, 162, 178, 188. -
——, or Hypochalcis, c. of Ætolia, ii. 127, 155, 160, 172. -
——, c. of Triphylia, ii. 16, 25, 26. -
——, c. of Syria (
——, r. of Triphylia, ii. 16. -
——, or Chalcia, mtn of Ætolia (
Chaldæans, i. 35; iii. 185. -
Chaldæi, people of Pontus, ii. 296, 297, 300, 304, 305. -
Chalestra, c. of Macedonia, i. 508, 509, 510. -
Chalybē, c. of Pontus, ii. 297. -
Chalybes, people of Pontus, ii. 269, 297, 298, 300; iii. 63, 64. -
Chalybonian wine, iii. 140. -
Chalonītis, distr. of Assyria, ii. 271; iii. 142. -
Chamæcœtæ, ii. 239. -
Chamanēnē, prefecture of Cappadocia, ii. 278, 284, 285. -
Chanes, r. of Albania, ii. 230. -
Chaones, nation of Epirus, i. 496, 497. -
Charadra, c. of Messenia, ii. 36. -
Charadrūs, fortress of Cilicia (
Charax. t. of Corsica, i. 333. - - -
Charax, place near the Greater Syrtis, iii. 290. -
——, Chabriou.
——, Patrŏclou.
Charaxus, iii. 250. -
Chares, of Lindus, iii. 29. -
——, r. of Colchis, ii. 229. -
Charilaus, king of Sparta, ii. 204. -
Charimortus, altar of, on the coast of Egypt, iii. 201. -
Charmides, father of Phidias, ii. 29. -
Charmŏlěo, i. 247. -
Charmŏthas, c. and port of Arabia, iii. 205. -
Charon, of Lampsacus, ii. 340, 350. -
Charondas, ii. 284. -
Charonia, ii. 385.
Charonitis, ii. 271. -
Charonium, sacred cave, iii. 6, 25. -
Charybdis, in the frith of Sicily (
Chatramōtītæ, people of Arabia Felix, iii. 190. -
Chatramōtītis, iii. 191. -
Chatti, people of Germany, i. 415— 447. -
Chattuarii, people of Germany, 445–447. -
Chaubi, i. 445. -
Chaulotæi, people of Arabia, iii. 189. -
Chazēnē, distr. of Assyria, iii. 142. -
Cheiměrium, prom. of Epirus, i. 497. -
Cheirocrates (
Chelidoniæ, islands, near the coast of Pamphylia (
Chělōnatas, prom. of Elis (
Chělōnophagi, iii. 199. -
Cherronesus, t. of Spain (
Chersicrates, i. 407. -
Chersiphron, iii. 12.
-
-
-
-
Chersonesus, c. of the Tauric Chersonese, i. 474–480; ii. 288. -
——, same as Apamea in Syria, iii. 165. -
——, port of Lyctus in the isl. of Crete, ii. 199, 200; iii. 294. -
——, fortress of Egypt, iii. 236. -
——, prom. and port of Cyrenæa (
——, Thracian, by the Hellespont (
——, Tauric or Scythian, by the Palus Mæotis, i. 474–480 ii. 291; iii. 61. -
——, Greater, i. 471, 474, 475, 478. -
——, Smaller, i. 475. -
Chersonitæ, i. 475–480. -
Cherūsci, people of Germany, i. 445–447. -
Chian pottery, i. 487. -
Chiana, i. 349. -
Chians, ii. 396; iii. 19. -
Chieti.
Chiliocōmon, ii. 312. -
Chimæra, monster, iii. 46. -
——, valley of Lycia, iii. 46, 47. -
——, mtns of, in Albania.
Chimerium, promontory, i. 497. -
Chios, isl. (
——, wine of, iii. 36. -
Chlōris, mother of Nestor, ii. 20. -
Choaspes, r. of India (
——, r. of Persia (
Chœnicides, ii. 292. -
Chœrilus, poet, i. 465; iii. 55. -
Chōne, c. of Lucania, i. 378, 380. - - -
Chōnes, inhabitants of Lucania, i. 377, 378, 380. -
Chōnia, iii. 33. -
Chorasmii, people of the Sacæ or -
Massagetæ, ii. 248. -
Chordiraza, c. of the Mygdones in Mesopotamia (
Chorene, ii. 250. -
Chorzēne, distr. of Armenia (
Chrysa, c. of the Troad, ii. 373, 374, 384–386. -
——, Cilician, ii. 385. -
Chrysaoreon, Chrysaoric body, in Caria, iii. 39, 40. -
Chryseïs, ii. 343, 384, 385. -
Chryses, ii. 385. -
Chrysippus, Stoic, i. 463; ii. 382; iii. 55. -
Chrysopolis, vill. in Bithynia, ii. 315. -
Chrysorrhoas, r. of Syria, iii. 169. -
Chytrium, place near Clazomene, iii. 20. -
Cibotus, port of Alexandria, iii. 230. -
Cibyra, Great, city of Phrygia (
Cibyratæ, ii. 409, 410; iii. 50. -
——, the Little, in Pamphylia, iii. 50. -
Cibyrātis, Cibyratica, ii. 408, 410; iii. 27. -
Cicero, ii. 166; iii. 40, 234. -
Cichyrus, i. 497; ii. 10. -
Cicŏnes, people of Thrace, i. 508, 515, 519. -
Cicynēthus, isl. (
Cicysium, ii. 32. -
Cidēnas, iii. 146. -
Cierus, t. of Thessaly, ii. 138. -
Cilbianum, plain, in Lydia, ii. 407. -
Cilicia, i. 75, 76, 82, 96, 105, 107, 109, 110, 130, 189, 190; ii. 74, 115, 244, 259, 276, 278–281, 285, 404; iii. 28, 44, 50–64, 73, 160, 162, 177, 216.
-
-
-
-
Cilicia, Tracheia, ii. 276–278, 281, 285, 322; iii. 44, 45, 50, 54, 68. -
——, Lyrnessian, ii. 345. -
—— Pedias, iii. 50. -
——, sea of, i. 129; ii. 218, 281. -
Cilician Gates, ii. 281, 283; iii. 53, 61. -
Cilicians, i. 196; ii. 197, 216, 345, 322, 327, 329; iii. 1, 50–64. -
——, in the Troad, ii. 375, 383, 385, 389, 394, 395; iii. 49, 63. -
Cilla, t. of the Troad, ii. 384, 385. -
Cillæum, mtn of the Troad, ii. 384. -
——, mtn of Lesbos, ii. 384. -
Cillæan Apollo, ii. 384, 385. -
Cillanian plain, in Phrygia, ii. 407. -
Cillus, r. near Cilla, ii. 385. -
——, charioteer of Pelops, ii. 385. -
Cimarus, prom. of Crete, ii. 193, 195. -
Cimbri, nation of Germany, i. 154, 288, 292, 319, 445, 448–451. -
Cimiata, fortress of Paphlagonia, ii. 314. -
Cimiatēnē, distr. of Paphlagonia, ii. 314. -
Ciminius, lake, in Etruria (
Cimmerian Bosporus.
——, village, ii. 222. -
Cimmerians, Cimmerii, Kimmerii, i. 8, 31, 96, 223, 224, 363, 364, 476; ii. 221, 246, 301, 329, 405. -
——, Cimbri Cimmerii, i. 450. -
Cimmericum, city of the Cimmerian Bosporus, ii. 221. -
Cimmeris, i. 459. -
Cimmerium, hill in the Tauric Chersonesus, i. 476. -
Cimōlus, isl.
Cindya, vill. of Caria, iii. 37. -
Cindyas Artemis, iii. 37. -
Cineas, historian, i. 503. -
Cingulum, Mount, i. 337. -
Cinnamon country, i. 99, 111, 115, 144, 171, 179–181, 199, 200. -
Cirtōlis, t. of Paphlagonia (
Cinōlis, Anti, ii. 291. -
Cinyras, tyrant of Byblus, i. 63; iii. 170. -
Circæum, prom. of Latium (
Circe, i. 31, 69, 70, 73, 332, 346; ii. 85. -
Cirphis, t. of Phocis, ii. 114. -
——, mtn of Phocis, ii. 116. -
Cirra, t. of Phocis, ii. 114, 116. -
Cirrha, ii. 77. -
Cirta, c. of Numidia (
Cisamus, t. of Crete (
Cispadana, i. 316, 321, 322, 323. -
Cisseus, i. 509, 510. -
Cissia, mother of Memnon, iii. 130. -
Cissii, same as Susii, iii. 130. -
Cissus, father of Althæmenes, ii. 77, 203. -
Cissus, t. of Macedonia, i. 509, 510. -
Cisthēnē, t. of Mysia, ii. 376. -
——, isl. and t. near Lycia, iii. 47. -
Cithærōn, i. 40; ii. 62, 82, 97, 99, 103, 107, 108. -
Citium, c. of Cyprus, i. 24; ii. 382; iii. 69. -
Citrum, t. of Macedonia, i. 509. -
Cius, friend of Hercules, ii. 315. -
——, c. of Bithynia, ii. 314. -
Cizari, citadel of Phazemonitis, ii. 311. -
Clanis, r. in the Norican Alps, i. 308. -
——, r. of Latium, i. 347. -
Clarus, c. of Ionia, iii. 15, 50. -
Clastidium, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Claterna (
Clautinatii, people of the Vindelici, i. 307. -
Clazomenæ, c. of Ionia (
Clazomenians, i. 517; ii. 221; iii. 17.
-
-
-
-
Cleanactidæ, tyrants of Mitylene, ii. 391. -
Cleandria, t. of the Troad, ii. 371. -
Cleandridas, leader of the Thurii, i. 398. -
Cleanthes, Stoic, ii. 382. -
——, painter, ii. 16. -
Cleides, islands, iii. 68–70. -
Cleitor, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75. -
Cleobūlus, iii. 33. -
Cleomachus, iii. 23. -
Cleombrotus, founder of Heræa, ii. 8. -
Cleōn, ii. 330. -
Cleōnæ, t. on Mt Athos, i. 512, 513. -
——, city of Argolis, ii. 59, 60, 66. -
Cleōnæi, ii. 60. -
Cleonymus, i. 427; ii. 8. -
Cleopatra, daughter of Auletes, i. 440, 499; iii. 52–56, 71, 72, 231–234, 281. -
——, wife of Euergetes II., i. 149, 150. -
—— Selene, iii. 161. -
Cleopatris, t. of Egypt, iii. 210, 243, 244. -
Cleophanes, rhetorician, ii. 318. -
Cleuas, leader of the Æolians, ii. 340. -
Climax, mtn of Lycia, iii. 48. -
——, mtn of Cœle-Syria, iii. 170. -
Clitarchus, i. 332, 449; ii. 217, 237; iii. 117. -
Clusium (
Clyměnē, i. 52. -
Clypea, city of the Carthaginians.
Clytemnestra, i. 25. -
Cnemīdes, t. of the Locrians, ii. 126. -
Cnemis, mtn in Locris (
Cnidian wine, iii. 8. -
—— territory, ii. 213. -
Cnidii, Cnidians, i. 417, 484; iii. 30. -
Cnidus, city of Caria (
Cnōpia, Thebaïc, vill. of Bœotia, ii. 96. - - -
Cnōpus, son of Codrus, iii. 2. -
Cnossus, city of Crete (
Cnuphis, god of the Egyptians, iii. 263. -
Coa, same as Cos. -
Coans, iii. 31, 36. -
Cōbialus, vill. of Paphlagonia, ii. 291. -
Cōbus, of Trerus, i. 96. -
Cōcalus, i. 413, 425. -
Coccēius, i. 364. -
Coccēs.
Cŏdridæ, ii. 68. -
Cŏdrus, i 493; ii. 68, 82; iii. 2, 3, 30. -
Cœle-Syria, i. 201. -
—— Elis, ii. 7, 8. -
Cœlius, Roman historian, i. 343. -
Cœus, ii. 208. -
Cōgæōnus, mtn and r. of the Getæ, i. 457. -
Colapis, r. (
Colchis (
Colchians, i. 73, 321; ii. 188, 225, 229, 235, 238. -
Colchic Sea (
Colias, ii. 89. -
Collatia, i. 341. -
Colline (or Quirinal) Gate, at Rome, i. 339, 348, 412. -
Colobi, iii. 196, 198. -
Coloë, lake of Lydia, ii. 403, 405. -
Colōnæ, t. near Lampsacus, ii. 350. -
——, in the Troad, ii. 350, 373, 381. -
Colophōn, city of Ionia, iii. 2–4, 15, 16. -
Colophonii, iii. 16. -
Colossæ, t. of Phrygia (
Colosseni, ii. 334. -
Cŏlōtes, sculptor, ii. 9.
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-
-
-
Columna Rheginorum, i. 384, 400, 404. -
Colus, i. 480. -
Colyttus, vill. of Attica, i. 102, 103. -
Cŏmana, city of Cataonia, ii. 259, 279, 281, 306–310, 330. -
——, city of Pontus, ii. 279, 295, 308, 309; iii. 232. -
Comarus, port of Epirus (
Comisēnē, distr. of Parthia (?), ii. 250. -
——, distr. of Armenia, ii. 268. -
Commagene, distr. of Syria (
Commageni, ii. 267, 268. -
Como, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 287, 304, 306, 317. -
——, Lake of.
Concordia, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 319. -
Coniaci, people of Spain, i. 234. -
——, people of India, iii. 80, 81. -
Conisalus, ii. 347. -
Conisci.
Conistorgis, t. of Spain, i. 213. -
Cŏnōn, altars of, in the Troglodytic, iii. 196. -
Cōnōpa, city of Ætolia.
Constantinople, Strait of, i. 32, 86. -
Convěnæ, people of Gaul (
Cōpæ, t. of Bœotia, ii. 100, 106, 107. -
Cōpaïs, lake, i. 92; ii. 100–102, 107–109, 113, 124. -
Cophēs, r. of India (
Cophus-Limen (Deaf-Harbour), port of Pallene, i. 511. -
Cōpiæ,
Cŏpratas, r. of Susiana (
Coptus, city of Egypt (
Cŏra, t. of Latium (
Coracēsium, t. of Cilicia, iii. 50, 52, 53. -
Coracium, mtn of Ionia, iii. 16. -
Coracius, Country of, in Ethiopia, iii. 196. -
Cŏrălis, lake, in Lycaonia, ii. 322. -
Cŏralius, r. of Bœotia, ii. 108. -
Coralli, people of Thrace, i. 489. -
Corassiæ, or Corsiæ, islands,
Coraus, iii. 196. -
Cŏrax, mtn of Ætolia (
Coraxi, i. 217. -
Corbiane, province of the Elymæi, iii. 154. -
Corbilōn, t. of Gaul, i. 283. -
Corcoras, r., i. 482. -
Corcyra, Cercyra (
——, Black (
Corcyræan Sea, i. 505. -
Corcyræans, Corcyræi, Cercyræi, i 485, 486, 504. -
Corduba, c. of Bætica (
Corean Games, i. 149. -
Coressia, ii. 210. -
Coressus, mtn near Ephesus, iii. 11. -
Corfinium (
Corinth, i. 326; ii. 5, 21, 38, 53, 58–61, 63–66, 77, 129, 208, 209, 309, 347; iii. 287. -
——, isthmus of, i. 85, 256, 406, 497; ii. 49, 79, 80. -
——, Gulf of (
Corinthian territory, ii. 62–64, 66. -
Corinthians, i. 486, 511; ii. 49, 63, 64, 78, 82, 111. -
Coriscus, ii. 378. -
Cornelius Gallus, prefect of Egypt, iii. 267. -
Corœbus, ii. 30.
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-
-
-
Corocondamē, t. of the Cimmerian Bosporus (
Corocondamitis, lake, ii. 222. -
Corōne, city of Messenia, ii. 37. -
Corōneia, city of Bœotia, ii. 101, 107, 108, 111, 136. -
——, city of Thessaly, ii. 136. -
——, Messenian, ii. 108, 136. -
Corōnii, Coronenses, ii. 108. -
Coropassus, t. of Lycaonia, ii. 322; iii. 43. -
Corpīli, people of Thrace, i. 516. -
Corpilice, in the Hellespont, i. 519. -
Corsiæ, the Furni Islands, ii. 212; iii. 7. -
Corsūra, island (
Corus, r. of Iberia, same as Cyrus, ii. 230. -
Corybantes, i. 516; ii. 180, 184, 188, 191. -
Corybantium, ii. 190. -
Cŏrybissa, near Scepsis, ii. 190. -
Corybus, ii. 188. -
Cōrycæans, pirates of Ionia, iii. 18. -
Cōrycian cave, ii. 405; iii. 54. -
Corycium, ii. 115. -
Cōrycus, mtn and prom. of Ionia, iii. 17, 18. -
——, prom. of Crete (
——, prom. of Cilicia, iii. 54, 70. -
——, coast of Lycia, iii. 48. -
——, city of Lycia, iii. 49, 55. -
Corydalleis, ii. 85. -
Corydallus, mtn of Attica (
Coryphantis, t. of the Mitylenæans, ii. 376. -
Coryphasium, mtn and prom. of Messenia (
——, t. of Messenia, ii. 211. -
Cos, island (
——, city, ii. 56, 328; iii. 74, 94. -
Cŏssa, r. of Latium, i. 352. - - -
Coscinia, t. of Caria (
Coscinii, ii. 347. -
Cosentia (
Cossa, Cossæ, city of Etruria, i. 330, 334, 335. -
Cossæa, distr. of Asia, iii. 153. -
Cossæan mtns, iii. 150. -
Cossæi, ii. 261, 264; iii. 148, 153. -
Cossūra, island and town (
Cōteis, prom. of Mauritania (
Cōthōn, island and port of the Carthaginians, iii. 285, 286. -
Cŏthus, i. 493; ii. 152, 154. -
Cŏtiaeium, t. of Phrygia (
Cotinæ, t. of Bætica, i. 214. -
Cottius, country of, in the Alps, i. 268, 303, 323. -
Cŏtuantii, i. 307. -
Cotyliæ, waters at, i. 338. -
Cŏtylus, summit of Mt Ida, ii. 369. -
Cŏtys, prince of the Sapæi, ii. 305. -
——, king of the Odrysæ, i. 516. -
——, goddess of the Edoni, ii. 187, 189. -
Cotytia, rites of, ii. 186. -
Cragus, c. of Lycia, iii. 46. -
——, mtn. and prom. of Lycia, iii. 46. -
——, rocks of Cilicia, iii. 52. -
Crambūisa, t. of Lycia (
——, isl. of Cilicia, iii. 54. -
Cranaë, island, ii. 90. -
Cranaï, ii. 87. -
Cranaüs, king of the Athenians, ii. 87. -
Cranes, battles of the, i. 109. -
Cranii, t. of Cephallenia, ii. 166, 167. -
Crannōn, t. of Thessaly, i. 507; ii. 146, 147. -
Crannonii, i. 507; ii. 10, 147. -
Crapathus or Carpathus, ii. 212–214. -
Crassus, Publius, i. 263; iii. 21. -
——, triumvir, iii. 157, 159. -
Crater (
Craterus, iii. 96, 121, 127.
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-
-
-
Crates, the miner of Chalcis, ii. 101. -
——, of Mallos, i. 4, 6, 48, 49, 57, 60, 155, 156, 176, 237; ii. 143, 380; iii. 60. -
Crāthis, r. of Achæa, ii. 72. -
——, r. of Italy (
Cratippus, iii. 25. -
Crěmaste, t. of Thessaly, ii. 138. -
Cremna, t. of Pisidia, ii. 323. -
Crěmōna, t. of Italy, i. 322, 367. -
Crenides, t. of Macedonia, i. 512, 515. -
Creontiades, founder of Elea, i. 376. -
Creophagi, a nation of Ethiopia, iii. 196, 198, 199. -
Creōphylus, iii. 9, 10. -
Creopōlus, mtn of Argolis, ii. 58. -
Cresphontes, ii. 38, 77. -
Crestonia, t. of Thrace, i. 515. -
Cretan code, i. 390. -
—— sea, i. 187, 496; ii. 6, 49, 57, 193, 212. -
—— rites, ii. 185. -
Cretans, i. 425, 428, 430; ii. 58, 83, 287, 328; iii. 4. -
Crēte (
Creūsa, Creusia, t. of Bœotia, ii. 6, 92, 99, 104, 105. -
Crimissa, fortress of Lucania, i. 378. -
Crinacus, i. 493. -
Crinagoras, ii. 392. -
Crisa, city of Phocis (
Crisæans, ii. 116, 117, 120. -
Crissæan Sea, ii. 99. -
—— Gulf, i. 388, 496, 506; ii. 4, 6, 62, 79, 92, 99, 104–106, 114–116. -
Crissæan plain, ii. 116, 128. -
Critasirus, king of the Boii, i. 466, 482. -
Crithōte, prom. of Acarnania (
——, t. of the Thracian Chersonesus, i. 518; ii. 171. - - -
Criumetopon, prom. of Crete (
——, prom. of the Tauric Chersonesus (
Crobyzi, a Thracian race, i. 489. -
Crocian plain, in Thessaly, ii. 135, 138. -
Crocodeilopŏlis, t. of Egypt, iii. 256, 263. -
——, t. of Judæa, iii. 175. -
Crocyleia, ii. 58, 161, 163. -
Crœsus, ii. 118, 119, 277, 316, 354, 368, 403, 405; iii. 11, 66, 141. -
Crommyōn, t. of Megaris, ii. 63, 78, 80. -
Crommyonia, ii. 63, 81. -
Crommyonian sow, ii. 63. -
Crommyum Acra, prom. of Cyprus (
Crōmna, t. of Paphlagonia, ii. 288, 291. -
Crŏnium, temple of Saturn, i. 254. -
Crŏtōn, ii. 73. -
Crotona, i. 378, 388, 392–395, 407. -
Crotoniatæ, i. 391, 392, 395, 396, 407. -
Crotoniātis, i. 378, 392, 411. -
Crows, the Port of Two, i. 295. -
Crucis, distr. of Macedonia, i. 509. -
Cruni, t. of Mœsia, i. 490. -
——, ftn of Triphylia, ii. 16, 25, 26, 155. -
Ctěnus, port of the Tauric Chersonesus, i. 475, 480. -
Ctesias, Cnidian, i. 69; ii. 241; iii. 34, 80, 208, 216. -
Ctesiphōn, city of Assyria (
Ctiměnē, ii. 163. -
Ctistæ, i. 454. -
Cuarius, r. of Thessaly and Bœotia, ii. 108, 109, 138. -
Cubi.
Cucūlum, t. of Latium, i. 353. -
Cūlūpēnē, distr. of Pontus, ii. 310. -
Cumæ (
Cumæa, in Campania, i. 369, 415.
-
-
-
-
Cumæa, in Æolis, i. 369; ii. 350, 397; iii. 21. -
——, gulf of, i. 34. -
Cumsæi, Cumæans, i. 360, 361, 364, 365, 516; ii. 398; iii. 50. -
Cumē, city of Æolis, ii. 237, 298, 395–399, 404. -
Cūneus, prom. of Lusitania, i. 206. -
Cupid, statue of, ii. 105. -
Cupra, Tyrrhenian name of Juno, i. 357. -
Curalius, r. of Thessaly, ii. 142. -
Curbantes, i. 516. -
Cures, vill., i. 338. -
Curētes, i. 516; ii. 12, 202; iii. 11. -
Curētěs, people of Ætolia, i. 494; ii. 130, 160, 175–192. -
Curētis, Curētica, same as Pleurōnia, ii. 178. -
Curias, prom. of Cyprus (
Curium, t. of Cyprus (
——, mtn of Ætolia, ii. 160, 179. -
Curtii, people of Media, ii. 263. -
Cyanæan rocks, same as the Symplēgades, i. 32, 137, 138, 224, 490, 491, 518; ii. 292. -
Cyané, lake.
Cyaxares, king of the Medes, iii. 239. -
Cybēbe, same as Cyběle. -
Cyběia, mtn of Phrygia, ii. 321. -
Cyběle, or Cyběbe, name of Rhea, ii. 184–186, 321. -
Cybělia, t. of Ionia, iii. 18. -
Cybiosactes, king of the Egyptians, iii. 232. -
Cybistra, t. of Cataonia (
Cybrene, ii. 360. -
Cychreia, same as Salamis, ii. 82. -
Cychreus, ii. 83. -
Cychrides, serpent, ii. 83. -
Cyclades, islands, i. 90, 187; ii. 47, 192, 207–214; iii. 7. - - -
Cyclopæ, Cyclops, i. 31–33, 64; ii. 54, 354. -
Cyclopean mode of life, ii. 233. -
Cyclopeia, ii. 48. -
Cycnus, king of the Colonæ, ii. 64, 350, 373. -
Cydippe, wife of Cercaphus, iii. 32. -
Cydnus, r. of Cilicia (
Cydonia, city of Crete, ii. 58, 195, 198, 200. -
Cydonians, people of Crete, i. 328; ii. 195. -
Cydoniatæ, ii. 199, 200. -
Cydrēlus, son of Codrus, iii. 2. -
Cydriæ, t. of Epirus, i. 501. -
Cyinda, fortress of Cilicia, iii. 55. -
Cyllēnē, city of Elis, ii. 9, 13. -
——, mtn of Arcadia, ii. 75, 76. -
Cynætha, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75. -
Cynamolgi, people of Ethiopia, iii. 196. -
Cynia, lake, in Ætolia, ii. 171. -
Cynocephali, people of Ethiopia, i. 68, 458; iii. 200. -
——, in Thessaly, ii. 146. -
Cynōpolis, city of Egypt, iii. 240, 257. -
Cynopolite nome, iii. 257. -
Cynos-sema, ii. 357; iii. 34, 236. -
Cynthus, Cythnus, mtn of Delos, ii. 208. -
Cynthus (
Cynūria, distr. of Argolis, ii. 51, 58. -
Cynus, t. and prom. of Locris (
Cynyps, r. (
Cyparisseïs, r. of Messenia, ii. 24. -
——, r. of Triphylia, ii. 24. -
Cyparissenses, Cyparissii, ii. 18, 22, 36. -
Cyparissia, t. of Triphylia, ii. 22, 35. -
——, t. of Messenia, ii. 24, 35, 37. -
——, t. of Laconia, ii. 41. -
Cyparisson, iii. 144. -
Cyparissus, ii. 122. -
Cyphus, mtn. of Thessaly, ii. 147. -
——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 145, 147.
-
-
-
-
Cypria, same as Cyprus. -
Cyprian copper, i. 245. -
Cyprians, ii. 13. -
Cyprus, i. 8, 15, 41, 59, 61, 63, 65, 82, 189, 381; ii. 13, 92, 213, 280; iii. 31, 32, 51, 52, 67–72, 148, 226, 297. -
Cypsela, city of Thrace (
Cypselus, tyrant of Corinth, i. 498; ii. 29, 60, 61, 161. -
Cyra, city of Bactriana, ii. 254. -
Cyrbantes, same as Corybantes. -
Cyrlēnæa, ii. 21; iii. 226, 235, 260, 294, 295, 297. -
Cyrenæans, ii. 206. -
Cyrenaic, the, i. 89, 185, 186, 196–198. -
—— juice, iii. 292. -
—— philosophy, iii. 293. -
—— sect, iii. 293. -
Cyrenaica, ii. 41, 193–195; iii. 290, 292–294. -
Cyrene, i. 78, 88, 89, 201, 237; iii. 281, 290, 292–294. -
Cyrictica, i. 186, 484. -
Cyrinius (Quirinus), ii. 323. -
Cyrnus (
Cyrrhēstica, part of Syria, iii. 163. -
Cyrsilus, historian, ii. 272. -
Cyrus, king of the Persians, i. 96, 376; ii. 246, 247, 254, 264, 283, - -316, 405; iii. 74, 75, 122, 126, 133, 141. -
——, r. of Persia (
——, r. of Iberia and Albania (
Cytæan Œeta.
Cythēra, island and town (
Cytherius, r. of Pisatis, ii. 32. -
Cytherus, t. of Attica, ii. 88. -
Cythnus, island, ii. 208. -
Cytinium, t. of Locris, ii. 128, 195. -
Cytōrum, t. of Paphlagonia, ii. 288, 291 - - -
Cytōrus, t. of Pontus, ii. 296. -
——, son of Phrixus, ii. 291. -
Cyzicene, ii. 317, 338–341, 347. -
Cyziceni, i. 189; ii. 299, 331, 332, 340, 341, 347, 349; iii. 5. -
Cyzicus, island and city (
Daci, Dacians, Daæ, i. 309, 317, 467, 468, 481. -
Dactyli, Idæan, ii. 30, 180, 191. -
Dædala, t. of Caria, iii. 28, 45, 46. -
——, mtn of Lycia, iii. 45, 46. -
Dædalus, father of Iapyx, i. 425; ii. 197; iii. 10. -
Daēs, of Colonæ, ii. 384. -
Dahæ, ii. 241, 245, 257. -
Daisitiatæ, nation of Hungary, i. 483. -
Daliōn, r. of Triphylia, ii. 17. -
Dalmatæ, Dalmatians, i. 484, 487. -
Dalmatia, Dalmatice, i. 483, 484. -
Dalmatium, city of the Dalmatæ, i. 484. -
Damascus, city of Syria, iii. 169–171. -
Damasia, t. of the Licattii, i. 307. -
Damastes, historian, i. 74, 75; ii. 340; iii. 70, 71. -
Damastium, in Epirus, i. 500. -
Damasus the Athenian, iii. 2. -
—— Scombrus, iii. 25. -
Damnamenus, one of the Idæan Dactyli, ii. 191. -
Danaë, mother of Perseus, ii. 211. -
——, play of Æschylus, i. 329. -
Danai, i. 329; ii. 49, 52, 133, 329. -
Danaïdes, ii. 52, 335; iii. 33. -
Danala, fortress of the Galatæ, ii. 320. -
Danaus, i. 35, 329, 493; ii. 52, 53; iii. 51. -
Dandarii, ii. 223, 224. -
Danthēlētæ, people of Thrace, i. 489. -
Daorizi, a nation of Dalmatia, i. 484. -
Daphitas, the grammarian, iii. 22. -
Daphne, city of Syria (
Daphnus, t. of Phocis or Locris, (?) i. 95; ii. 114, 124–126. -
——, port of Ethiopia, iii. 200. -
Darada, city of, iii. 197. -
Darapsa, city of Bactriana, ii. 253. -
Dardani, Dardanii, Dardanians, i. 485, 489; ii. 77, 62, 353, 375; iii. 41. -
Dardania, distr. of the Troad, i. 481, 516; ii. 317, 353, 354, 360, 369, 371, 375. -
Dardaniatæ, Dardanii, a people of Illyria, i. 485, 505; ii. 3. -
Dardanica, a region of Illyria, i. 485. -
Dardanis, Dardanian prom. ii. 357. -
Dardanium, i. 347. -
Dardanus, t. of the Troad, ii. 347, 352, 357, 366. -
——, brother of Jasion, i. 516; ii. 19, 353, 354. -
Darieces, name of Darius, iii. 216. -
Darius, i. 148, 152, 462, 463, 465, 468, 469; ii. 347; iii. 60, 89, 133, 134, 141, 144, 188, 216, 244, 259. -
——, son of Hystaspes, iii. 5, 9, 163. -
——, father of Xerxes, ii. 352. -
——, conquered by Alexander, ii. 291. -
—— Longimanus, iii. 140. -
Dasarētii, a people of Illyria, i. 485, 489. -
Dascylītis, lake of Mysia (
Dascylium, t. of Mysia, ii. 331, 340. -
Dasmenda, fortress of Cappadocia, ii. 284. -
Dastarcum, a fortress of Cataonia, ii. 280. -
Dasteira, city of Armenia, ii. 305. - - -
Dateni, people of Macedonia, i. 513. -
Datis, ii. 90. -
Datum, city of Thrace, i. 512–514. -
Daulia, Daulis, city of Phocis, ii. 114, 122. -
Daulieis, i. 493; ii. 123. -
Daulius, king of Crissa, i. 399. -
Daunia,
Daunii, i. 320, 360, 422, 428, 431–433, 436. -
Davi, i. 467. -
Dazimonitis, distr. of Pontus (
Debæ, people of Arabia, iii. 206. -
Dēcæneus, Getæan bard, i. 457, 467; iii. 180. -
Deceleia, t. of Attica, ii. 88. -
Deciētæ, a people of the Ligurians, i. 301. -
Decimus Brutus, i. 305. -
Degmenus, ii. 33. -
Deïaneira, daughter of Œneus, ii. 64, 160, 170. -
Deïmachus, historian, i. 107–109, 112, 114, 117, 118, 120; iii. 80. -
Deïoneus, father of Cephalus, ii. 162, 166, 170. -
Deïŏtarus, prince of the Galatæ, ii 320, 321. -
——, king of Paphlagonia, ii. 314. -
Deïphontes, ii. 77. -
Deire, c. and prom. of Ethiopia, iii. 191, 193, 198, 199, 201. -
——, straits of, iii. 191. -
Deliaca, iii. 130. -
Delians, iii. 5. -
Delium, city of Bœotia (
——, temple of Apollo, in Argolis, ii. 47. -
Dellius, ii. 263. -
Delos, isl. (
——, city of, ii. 207–210. -
Delphi, a city of Phocis (
Delphi, inhabitants of ii. 116, 120–123; iii. 22. -
——, temple at, ii. 114–123. -
Delphinium, t. and port of Bœotia, ii. 95. -
Delta, of the Nile, i. 47, 103; iii. 95, 221–223, 239, 242, 245, 266. -
——, of India, iii. 95. -
——, vill. of Egypt, iii. 223. -
Demaratus, father of Lucumo, i. 326; ii. 61. -
Dēmēter.
Demetrias, city of Assyria, iii. 144. -
——, city of Thessaly, ii. 130, 139, 140, 142, 146, 148. -
Demetrium, temple of Ceres, ii. 64, 138. -
Demetrius, watch-towers of, iii. 196. -
——, of Callatis, i. 94. -
——, grandson of Poliorcětes, i. 85, 345; ii. 139. -
——, of Pharos, i. 484; ii. 38. -
——, of Phalaris, i. 221; ii. 88. -
——, Ætolian, ii. 160. -
—— Lacōn, iii. 37. -
——, son of Rathenus, ii. 296. -
——, son of Seleucus, ii. 401. -
——, of Skepsis, i. 71, 74, 90, 502, 513, 518; ii. 10, 11, 17, 56, 142, 143, 168, 189, 190, 298–300, 355, 360, 364, 375, 377, 380, 383, 404, 405; iii. 66. -
——, son of Euthydemus, ii. 253. -
Demi, ii. 90. -
Dēmocles, historian, i. 91. -
Dēmŏcŏōn, son of Priam, ii. 344. -
Dēmocritus, i. 95, 102, 103; iii. 98. -
Demosthenes, i. 182; ii. 55, 56, 123, 152, 188. -
Dēmus, i. 460; ii. 374. -
Derbe, t. of Lycaonia, ii. 278, 322; iii. 64. -
Derbices, people of Margiana, i. 249, 258. -
Dercěto.
Derdæ, iii. 101. -
Derhis, a port of Marmara (
Derrhis, prom. of Macedonia, i. 511, 512. -
Derthon (
Dertōssa, t. of Spain (
Deucalion, king of Thessaly, i. 494; ii. 67, 125, 134, 139, 140, 149. -
——, island, ii. 139. -
Deudorix, the Sicambrian, i. 446. -
Deuriŏpes, people of Macedonia, i. 501. -
Deuriŏpus, district of Macedonia, i. 500. -
Dexia, or the right of Pontus, ii. 286. -
Dïa, temple of, at Sicyon, ii. 66. -
——, isl. near Crete (
——, in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 205. -
Diacŏpēne, district of Pontus, ii. 312. -
Diades.
Diagesbes, people of Sardinia, i. 333. -
Diana (Artemis), i. 270, 385; ii. 16, 73, 208, 348; iii. 146, 153, 162. -
——, of Ephesus, i. 268, 269. -
——, of Ephesus, temple of (the Ephesium), i. 238–240, 268, 275; iii. 11. -
—— Brauronia, ii. 90. -
—— Perasia, ii. 281. -
—— Astyrene, ii. 376, 386. -
—— Munychia, iii. 10. -
—— Leucophryēne, iii. 22. -
——, Pergæan, iii. 49. -
——, Sarpedŏnian, iii. 61.
-
-
-
-
Diana, Coloēne, ii. 403. -
—— Taurica, temple of, i. 355. -
——, Lindian, temple of, iii. 33. -
—— Daphnia, ii. 16. -
—— Elaphia, ii. 16. -
—— Amarynthia, ii. 155. -
—— Tauropola, ii. 90, 279, 281; iii. 186. -
——, temple of, ii. 16; iii. 10. -
—— Cyrrhestis, iii. 163. -
—— Nemydia (? Nemeæa), temple of, ii. 14. -
——, Eleian, ii. 24. -
—— in Limnæ (in the marshes), ii. 39. -
——, Limnæan (in Sparta), ii. 39. -
——, grove of the Ætolian, i. 320. -
—— Alpheiŏnia, Alpheiusa, ii. 16. -
—— Artemisium, Dianium.
Dianium, t. of Spain (
Dicæa, t. of Thrace, i. 515. -
Dicæarchia, city of Campania (
Dicæarchus, the geographer, i. 1, 157–159, 256. -
Dicte, mtn of Crete (
——, place near Scepsis, in the Troad, ii. 189. -
Dictynna,
Dictynnæan prom., ii. 207. -
Dictys, ii. 211. -
Dido, queen, iii. 286. -
Didyma, city of the Branchidæ, ii 120. -
——, isl. near Sicily, i. 419, 421. -
——, city of Spain, i. 254.
Didymæan mountains, iii. 22. -
Didymi, ii. 254; iii. 22. -
Diēgylis, king of the Cæni, ii. 401. -
Dindymene, mother of the gods, ii. - -184, 186, 321, 331, 403; iii. 22. -
Dindymum, mtn near Pessinus, ii. 321. -
——, near Cyzicus, ii. 331. -
Diochares, gate of, at Athens, ii. 88. -
Diocles, ii. 46. -
Diodōrus, grammarian of Tarsus, iii. 59. -
——, leader of the Adramytteni, ii. 386. -
—— Zonas, the orator, ii. 405. -
——, junior, friend of Strabo, ii. 405. -
—— Cronus, the Dialectician, iii. 37, 294. -
Diodotus, the Sidonian, iii. 173. -
——, sculptor, ii. 87. -
—— Tryphōn, ii. 251; iii. 51, 165, 173. -
Diogenes, the Cynic, ii. 293; iii. 114. -
——, of Tarsus, iii. 59, 114. -
——, of Seleucia, the Babylonian Stoic, iii. 152. -
Diolcus, ii. 49, 63. -
Diomēdes, king of Argos, i. 26, 225, 320, 433, 434, 499, 515; ii. 122, 174. -
——, king of the Bistones, i. 515. -
——, plain of, i. 433. -
Diomede, islands of (
——, temple of, i. 319. -
Dion, the Syracusan, i. 380. -
——, the Academician, iii. 232. -
Dione, worshipped at Dodona, i. 503. -
Dionysides, tragic poet, iii. 59. -
Dionysius (the Elder), tyrant of Sicily, i. 316, 335, 357, 387, 392. -
—— (the Younger), i. 380, 387, 389. -
Dionysius, tyrant of Heraclæa, ii. 291. -
——, Bithynian, ii. 318. -
——, of Attica, ii. 402.
-
-
-
-
Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, the historian, iii. 35. -
——, the Thracian, iii. 34. -
——, the Syrian, iii. 163. -
Dionysocles, the orator, iii. 25. -
Dionysodorus, the mathematician, ii. 296. -
Dionysus.
Diophanes, the Mytilenæan, ii. 292. -
Diophantus, general of Mithridates, i. 471, 479. -
Dioscūri (
Dioscurias, city of Colchis (
Diospolis, city of Pontus, ii. 306. -
——, city of Egypt, iii. 240. -
——, same as Thebes, iii. 245, 261. -
——, Lesser (
Diotimus, son of Strombichus, i. 75. -
Diotrephes, the Sophist, of Antioch, ii. 409; iii. 38. -
Diphilus, comic poet, ii. 293. -
Dircæan Thebes, ii. 74. -
Dirce, ftn near Thebes, ii. 74, 103. -
——, near Phara, ii. 74. -
Ditiōnes, nation of Hungary, i. 483. -
Dium, t. of Macedonia, near Olympus, i. 507, 508, 512, 513. -
——, at Athone, i. 512, 513. -
——, t. of Eubœa, ii. 153. -
Dius, i. 399. -
——, father of Hesiod, ii. 104, 398. -
Dniester, r.
Dobera, mtn of Macedonia, i. 514. -
Docimia, t. of Phrygia, ii. 333. -
Dōdōna, city of Epirus, seat of an oracle, i. 441, 496, 501, 502, 504; ii. 42, 94, 145, 146; iii. 179. -
——, oak of, i. 504. -
Dodonæan Jove, i. 501. -
Dodone, ii. 145. -
Dcedalsus, ii. 315. - - -
Dolabella, Dolobella, iii. 20, 164 -
Dolicha.
Doliŏnes, people of Mysia, ii. 316, 330; iii. 63, 67. -
Doliŏnis, district of Mysia, ii. 332; iii. 67. -
Dolomēnē, district of Assyria, iii. 142. -
Dolopes, Dolopians, i. 43; ii. 133, 135, 137, 141, 144, 158. -
Dolopia, ii. 132, 133, 135, 141. -
Domanītis, district of Paphlagonia, ii. 313. -
Domitius, Domētius Ænobarbus, i. 285; iii. 24. -
Domnecleius, tetrarch of Galatia, ii. 288. -
Doracta or Oaracta, an island in the Persian Gulf, iii. 188. -
Doria Baltea, r.
Doria Riparia, r.
Dorian Tetrapolis, ii. 195. -
Dorians, i. 96, 328, 404, 407; ii. 2, 3, 43, 58, 67, 81, 82, 114, 115, 125, 128, 131, 147; iii. 30, 31, 40, 43. -
Doric dialect, ii. 2, 3. -
Doricha, courtesan, iii. 250. -
Dōris, at Parnassus, ii. 55, 136. -
Doris, or Histiæotis, in Thessaly, ii. 141, 195. -
Doriscus, t. of Thrace, i. 5, 6. -
Dorium, in Messenia, ii. 23, 24. -
Dōrus, son of Hellen, ii. 67, 340. -
Dorylæum, t. of Phrygia (
Dorylaüs, the tactician, great-great-grandfather of Strabo, ii. 198, 307. -
——, son of Philetærus, ii. 198, 307. -
Dosci, a Mæotic race, ii. 223. -
Dotium, c. and plain of Thessaly, i. 96; ii. 147. -
Drabēscus, t. of Macedonia, i. 512. -
Drabus, t. of Thrace, i. 517.
-
-
-
-
Drabus (
Dracanum, t. of Icaria, iii. 36. -
Draco, companion of Ulysses, tomb - -of, i. 376. -
——, Python, ii. 120. -
Drangæ, people of Ariana, iii. 122, - -124–126. -
Drangē, Drangianē, district of Ariana (
Drecanum, in the island of Cos, iii. - -10, 36. -
Drepanum, prom. of Achaia, ii. 6. -
——, of Icaria, iii. 8, 10. -
——, of Marmara, iii. 235. -
Drilon, r. of Dalmatia (
Drium, hill in Daunia, i. 434. -
——, c. of Macedonia, i. 509. -
Dromi, iii. 245. -
Dromichætes, king of the Getæ, i. - -464, 469. -
Dromos, iii. 245, 248. -
Druentia, i. 268. -
——, r. of Gaul (
Druids, Keltic priests, i. 294, 295. -
Drusus Germanicus, brother of Tiberius, i. 307, 444, 445. -
——, son of Tiberius, i. 441. -
Drymas, i. 493. -
Drymus, ii. 152. -
Drynemětum, in Galatia, ii. 320. -
Dryŏpes, people of Greece, i. 493; - -ii. 55, 136, 346. -
Dryopis, ii. 136. -
Dryops, ii. 55. -
Dubis, r. of Gaul (
Dulichium, island, ii. 5, 12, 162, - -163, 166–170. -
Dunax, mtn of Thrace, i. 311. -
Duras, r. in the Norican Alps, i. - -308. - - -
Durias, r. of Italy (
——, r. of Italy (
Duricortora, t. of Gaul, i. 290. -
Duris, the historian, i. 94. -
Durius, r. of Spain (
Dymæa, ii. 32. -
Dymæi, ii. 14, 74. -
Dymas, ii. 351. -
Dyme, city of Achæa, ii. 8, 12, 13– - -15, 18, 19, 67, 69, 71, 74, 145, - -158; iii. 46. -
Dyras, r. of Thessaly, ii. 129. -
Dyris, or Atlas, iii. 276. -
Dyrrachium, city of Illyria (
Dyspontium, city of Pisatis, ii. 32. -
Dyteutus, son of Adiatorix, ii. 308–310. -
Eastern Sea (
Ebrodunum, vill. of Gaul (
Ebura, t. of Spain, i. 211. -
Eburōnes, people of Gaul, i. 289, - -290. -
Ebusus, isl. and t. (
Ecbatana (
Echedōrus, r. of Macedonia (
Echeiæ, t. of Laconia, ii. 37. -
Echinades, islands (
Echīnus, t. of Phthiotis (
Ecrēgma (mouth of the lake Sirbonis), i. 102; iii. 176. -
Edessa, city of Macedonia (
342 - - -
Edessa, city of Syria, iii. 158.
Edōtani, people of Spain, i. 234, 235, 243.
Edōni, people of Thrace, i. 506, 514. -
Eētiōn, king of Thebes, ii. 313, 384, 394. -
Egelastæ, t. of Spain (
Egěria, ftn, i. 356. -
Egertius, founder of Chios, iii. 3. -
Egnatia, city and port of Apulia (
Egnatian Way, i. 495, 500, 506, 507, 509. -
Egra, city of Arabia, iii. 212. -
Egypt, i. 8, 15, 25, 46, 47, 49, 50, 52, 55–64, 67, 68, 79, 87, 88, - -90, 91, 103, 129, 130, 134, 136, - -143, 149, 150, 178, 183, 189, - -197, 198, 201, 262, 274, 458, 467, - -493; ii. 89, 92, 280; iii. 51, 67, - -74, 81–84, 88, 90, 95, 102, 103, - -190, 210, 211, 217–270, 272, 273, 275, 292–294. -
——, name of the Nile, i. 46, 56. -
——, Lower, i. 47, 103, 316; iii. 177. -
Egyptian screws, i. 221. -
—— exiles, island of the, i. 179. -
—— Sea, same as Mediterranean, i. 56, 91, 185, 189, - -458; iii. 68, 142, 160, 224, 228, 266. -
Egyptians, i. 41, 49, 63–65, 155, 197, 233, 440, 456, 463; ii. 304, 308. -
——, priests of the, i. 35, 96, 154, 180, 196. -
——, island of the, i. 99. -
Eidomene, t. of Macedonia.
Eileithyia, city of Egypt, iii. 263. -
Eilesium, ii. 196. -
Eïones, vill. of Argolis, ii. 54, 55, 58. - - -
Eisadici, ii. 239. -
Ela.
Elæa, t. of Mysia (
——, port on the Arabian Gulf, iii. 196. -
Elæussa, isl. and t. of Cilicia (
Elaitic Gulf, ii. 339, 376, 387, 388, 397, 400. -
Elaïtis, ii. 326, 389. -
Elara, mother of Tityus, ii. 123. -
Elarium, cave in Eubœa, ii. ]23. -
Elateia, t. of Phocis (
Elatria, t. of the Cassopæi, i. 497. -
Elea, Velia, city of Lucania, i. 375; ii. 145, 155. -
Eleātis, i. 376. -
Electrides, islands, i. 320. -
Eleēs, r. of Lucania (
Eleia, ii. 7–9, 12, 13, 25–27, 30, 31, 33, 45, 74, 347. -
Eleian territory, ii. 7, 35, 45, 67, 74. -
Eleians, ii. 3, 8, 9, 12–14, 26–28, 30, 31, 34, 39, 176, 177. -
——, philosophers of, ii. 83. -
Eleithyia, temple of, ii. 196. -
Eleon, ii. 106, 143. -
Elephantina, isl., iii. 220, 243, 258, 263–266. -
Elephantophagi, iii. 197. -
Elephas, mtn of Mauritania, iii. 279. -
Elephas, mtn of Ethiopia (
Eleus, city of Thrace, i. 517, 518.
-
-
-
-
Eleusiniac Gulf, ii. 63. -
Eleusis, city and village of Attica, ii. 81, 83, 84, 86, 88. -
——, t. of Bœotia, ii. 101. -
——, t. of Egypt, iii. 237, 238. -
Eleüssa, or Elisa, isl. near Attica, ii. 89. -
——, near Rhodes (
Eleutheræ, city of Bœotia, ii. 57, 108. -
Eleutherius, the Eleutherian, ii. 108. -
Eleutherus, r. of Syria, iii. 167, 169. -
Elian district, ii. 74. -
Elimia, i. 500. -
Elimiotæ, ii. 137. -
Elis, i. 502; ii. 5, 7, 8–10, 12–15, 17–19, 25, 27, 28, 31–33, - -45, 73, 77, 122, 126, 156, 162, 167, 169, 170, 176, 177. -
——, Cœlē,
Elisa, modern name of Eleüssa. -
Elisson, or Elissa, r., ii. 9. -
Elixus, ii. 210. -
Ellopia, ii. 152, 153. -
Ellopians, ii. 152, 153. -
Ellops, ii. 152. -
Elōne, t. of Thessaly, ii. 143, 145. -
Elpiæ, city of the Daunii, iii. 32. -
Elui, people of Gaul (
Elymæa, Elymaïs, district of Persis, ii. 264; iii. 153, 154. -
Elymæi, ii. 261, 264; iii. 135, 142, 146. -
Elymus, Trojan, ii. 378. -
Elysian Fields, in Spain, i. 3, 62, 225. -
Emathia, district of Macedonia, i. 41, 506. -
——, city of Macedonia, i. 506. -
Emathoeis, Emathois, same as Pylus, ii. 7, 11, 16. -
Emerita.
Emesēni, people of Syria, iii. 166. - - -
Emōdi mtns, ii. 245; iii. 91, 118. -
Emodus, iii. 78. -
Empodocles, philosopher, i. 414, 418; ii. 42. -
Emporicus, bay, on the Mauritanian shore, iii. 276, 277. -
Emporītæ, in Spain, i. 240. -
Emporium, t. of Spain (
——, of Alexandria, iii. 230. -
——, of Medma, i. 383. -
——, of the Segestani (
Enchelii, people of Epirus, i. 500. -
Enděra, city of Ethiopia, iii. 196. -
Endymiōn, father of Ætolus, ii. 176; iii. 6. -
Enea (
Eneta.
Eneti, people of Paphlagonia, i. 316.
Enicŏniæ, t. of Corsica, i. 333. -
Enienes, ii. 145. -
Enipeus, r. of Pisatis, ii. 32. -
——, r. of Thessaly (
Enispe, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75. -
Enna, t. of Sicily (
Ennea-Hodoi, t. of Macedonia, i. 513. -
Ennius, the poet, i. 429. -
Enŏpe, t. of Messenia, ii. 35, 37. -
Enops, ii. 394. -
Enotocoitæ, iii. 107. -
Enydra, t. of Syria (
Enyus (Bellona), temple of, ii. 279. -
Eordi, people of Macedonia, i. 495, 500. -
Epacria, t. of Attica, ii. 88. -
Epaminondas, ii. 75, 92, 111. -
Epaphus, ii. 152.
-
-
-
-
Epeius, i. 397; ii. 122. -
Ephesians, ii. 284; iii. 3, 10. -
Ephesium, the.
Ephesus, city of Ionia, i. 268; ii. 73, 237, 298, 299, 333, 396; iii. 1–4, 10, 11, 14, 15, 21, 22, 43. -
Ephialtes, traitor, i. 17. -
——, i. 29. -
Ephorus, i. 1, 51, 52, 207, 296, 328, 329, 363, 388, 390, 394, 399, 402, 403, 407, 425, 449, 464, 465, 469, - -499, 501; ii. 1, 3, 33, 38, 42, 44, - -55, 58, 77, 92, 93, 120, 127, 162, - -174, 176, 177, 196, 197, 200, - -201, 204, 291, 298, 299, 341, 366, 398, 399; iii. 4, 62–65. -
Ephyra, t. of Elis, i. 502; ii. 9, 10, 52. -
——, t. of Epirus, i. 497. -
——, t. of Thesprotia, i. 502; ii. 9, 10, 149. -
——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 9, 10. -
——, t. of Perrhæbia, ii. 10. -
——, vill. of Ætolia, ii. 9, 10.
Ephyri, i. 507; ii. 10, 147. -
——, Thesprotic, ii. 10. -
Epicarus.
Epicharmus, poet, ii. 42. -
Epicnemidii.
Epicteti, in Phrygia, ii. 314, 330, 402. -
Epictetus, Ætolia, ii. 159, 172. -
——, Phrygia, ii. 277, 289, 315, 316, 332. -
Epicurus, philosopher, ii. 350; iii. 9. -
Epidamnus, city of Illyria (
Epidanus (
Epidaphne (
Epidaurian territory, ii. 47, 75. -
Epidaurii, Epidaurians, ii. 58. -
Epidaurus, city of Argolis (
——, Limēra, t. of Laconia, ii. 48. -
Epigoni, expedition of the, i. 499; ii. 93, 109, 111, 174. -
Epii, people of Elis, ii. 7–10, 12, - -13, 15, 18, 25–28, 30, 33, 167, 176. -
Epimenides, of Crete, ii. 200. -
Epirōtæ, i. 493, 495, 498–500, 506; ii. 2, 128, 131, 137; iii. 297. -
Epirotic nations, i. 495, 496, 516; ii. 2, 3, 114, 131. -
Epirus, i. 186, 187, 194, 329, 429, 432, 481, 496, 497, 501, 506; ii. 161, 163, 164, 174, 183; iii. 297. -
Episarosis, a religious rite, ii. 82. -
Epistrophus, leader of the Halizoni, ii. 297–299, 343, 384, 394. -
Epitalium, t. of Triphylia, ii. 16, 23, 24. -
Epitimæus.
Epizephyrii, ii. 128. -
Epōmeus, Mount, i. 369. -
Eporědia (
Eræ, t. of Ionia (
Erana, t. of Messenia, ii. 22, 37. -
Erannoboas (
Erasīnus, Arsīnus, r. of Argolis, i. 416; ii. 52, 76. -
Erasistratus, physician of Ceos, ii. 210, 337. -
Erastus, the Scepsian, ii. 378. -
Eratosthenes, i. 1, 9, 12, 13, 22–26, 28, 29, 33–36, 38, 39, 42, - -43, 45, 61, 70, 74, 77, 80, 84–88, 97, 98, 100, 103–110, 114, - -117–120, 122–135, 138–142, - -144, 147, 457, 158, 161, 163, - -164, 171, 185, 189, 190, 199, 202, - -203, 239, 255, 256, 332, 457, - -460, 462, 487; ii. 70, 76, 195, - -240, 243, 244, 248, 261, 271 iii. 44, 70, 71, 75, 78, 79, 84, 124, - -130, 149–151, 156, 183, 186, - -188, 189, 192, 208, 220, 276, 281, 293. -
Eratyra, t. of Macedonia, i. 50. -
Erechtheus, ii. 67. -
Erembi, i. 2, 41, 46, 60, 66, 67, iii. 215. -
Eremni, iii. 216.
-
-
-
-
Eressus t. of Lesbos (
Eretria, city of Eubœa (
——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 136, 154. -
——, vill. of Attica (
Eretrici, a sect of philosophers, ii. 82, 156. -
Eretrieis, Eretrians, i. 368; ii. 152, 155. -
Eretrieus, founder of Eretria, ii. 155. -
Erētum, t. of the Sabines, i. 338, 339, 354. -
Erginus, king of the Orchomenii, ii. 112. -
Ericthonius, ii. 374. -
Ericūssa, Ericōdes, one of the Æolian islands, i. 419, 421. -
Eridanus, r. of Attica, i. 320; ii. 88. -
Erigōn, r. of Macedonia, i. 501, 506, 508, 509. -
——, r. of Thrace, i. 516. -
Erineum, ii. 39, 195. -
Erineus, t. of Doris, ii. 128, 361, 363. -
——, of Phthiotis, ii. 136. -
Erōs, a work of Praxiteles, ii. 105. -
Erymanthus, r. of Arcadia, ii. 15, 33. -
Erymnæ, t. of Magnesia, ii. 148. -
Eryschæi, people of Ætolia, ii. 172. -
Erythia, isl., i. 222, 223, 254, 406. -
Erythīni, Erythrīni rocks, ii. 288, 291. -
Erythræ, t. of Bœotia, ii. 97, 104, 106. -
——, of Ionia (
Erythræan Sea (
—— Gulf, i. 87. -
Erythræans, ii. 349, 350, 386; iii. 17, 18. -
Erythras, iii. 187, 208. -
Eryx, mtn of Sicily, i. 378, 412, 413, 378. -
——, t. of Sicily, i. 412; ii. 378. -
Esioneis, Asioneis, ii. 405. -
Esōpis, mtn (
Esquiline hill, i. 348. -
—— plain, i. 352. -
—— gate, i. 348, 352. -
Estiōnes, people of the Vindelici, i. 307. -
Eteocles, king of Orchomenus, ii. 112. -
Eteocrētans, people of Crete, ii. 195, 199. -
Eteōnus, t. of Bœotia, i. 457; ii. 103, 104. -
Ethiopia, Æthiopia, i. 2, 4, 13, 15, 32, 46–54, 60, 64, 67, 68, 96, - -97, 100, 111, 130, 142, 148, 153, - -177, 178, 197, 274, 458; ii. 257, - -304; iii. 81–86, 88, 190, 191, - -207, 210, 217, 220, 222, 224, 233, - -235, 250, 257, 263, 265, 269–275, 282, 290, 295. -
Ethiopian zone, i. 147. -
Ethiopians, i. 3, 16, 25, 41, 47–55, 60, 62–67, 143, 151, 155, 156, - -181, 196, 197, 458, 462; iii. 296. -
——, Western, i. 3, 153, 236. -
——, Egyptian, i. 54, 156. -
——, of Libya, i. 155. -
Etrusci.
Euæmōn, son of Ormenus, ii. 142. -
Euanthes, leads a colony to Locris, i. 388. -
Eubœa, isl. (
——, t. of Eubœa, ii. 32. -
——, t. of Sicily, i. 404, 412; ii. 158.
-
-
-
-
Eubœa, t. of Macedonia, ii. 158. -
—— in Lemnos, ii. 158. -
—— in Corcyra, ii. 158. -
——, a hill in Argolis, ii. 158. -
Eubœan Sea, ii. 92, 124. -
—— talent, i. 221. -
Eucarpia, t. of Phrygia, ii. 332. -
Euclides, ii. 82. -
Eucratidas, king of the Bactrians, ii. 251, 253; iii. 74. -
Eucratidia, city of the Bactrians, ii. 253. -
Eudeielus,
Eudēmus, Rhodian, iii. 33. -
Eudorus, iii. 225, 226. -
Eudoxus of Cyzicus, i. 1, 149–153, 156, 180, 517; ii. 61, 78, 79. -
——, mathematician, of Cnidus, ii. 110, 177, 193, 298, 340, iii. 34, 246, 247. -
Euergetæ, people of Ariana, iii. 126. -
Euergetes.
Euhēmerus, Messenian, i. 74, 154, 157, 158, 459. -
Eulæus, r. of Susiana, iii. 131, 140. -
Eumæus, ii. 364. -
Eumēdes, founder of Ptolemaïs, iii. 194. -
Eumēlus, son of Admētus, i. 72; ii. 139, 143, 146, 148. -
Eumeneia, city of Phrygia (
Eumenes, brother of Philetaerus, ii. 400. -
——, son of Eumenes, ii. 400. -
——, son of Attalus, ii. 281, 333, 400; iii. 46, 55. -
——, grove of, iii. 197. -
——, harbour of, iii. 198. -
Eumolpus, Thracian, i. 493; ii. 67, 187. -
Eunēos, son of Jason, i. 66, 71, 73. -
Eunomia, elegy of Tyrtæus, ii. 39. -
Eunomus, i. 390, 391. -
Eunostus, harbour of, near Alexandria, iii. 227, 230. -
Eunus, i. 412, 413. - - -
Euōnymus, one of the Lipari islands, i. 420. -
Eupalium, ii. 128, 159. -
Eupator.
Eupatŏria, t. of Pontus,
Eupatŏrium, t. of the Tauric Chersonnesus, i. 479. -
Euphŏriōn, poet, ii. 42, 318; iii. 67. -
Euphrantas, tower, iii. 290. -
Euphrates(
Euphrŏnius, poet, ii. 66. -
Eureïs, r. of Mysia, ii. 190. -
Euripides, tragic poet, i. 52, 274, 329; ii. 32, 45, 52, 60, 62, 185, 189, 389, 390; iii. 20, 53, 75. -
Euripus, ii. 92, 96. -
——, Chalcidian, i. 17, 57, 94; ii. 96, 130, 148, 151, 154. -
——, Pyrrhæan, ii. 391. -
Eurōmus, t. of Caria, iii. 6, 37. -
Europe, i. 22, 52, 78, 88, 103, 140, 157–164, 183, 188, 191–194,
-
-205, 206, 303, 442, 453, 464, 477, 480, 490, 505, 517; ii. 1, 4,
-
-
Europeans, ii. 240. -
Eurōpus, city of Media, ii. 264. -
——, same as Rhaga, ii. 284. -
——, city of Macedonia, i. 501. -
——, r. of Thessaly, i. 501, 507. -
Eurōtas, r. of Laconia (
Eurus (south-east wind), i. 45. -
Eurycleia, iii. 13. -
Eurycles, leader of the Lacedæmonians, ii. 41, 44. -
Eurycydeium, grove, in Elis, ii. 19. -
Eurydice, mother of Philip, i. 500. -
Eurylochus, ii. 83. -
——, Thessalian, ii. 116, 120. -
Eurymachus, ii. 173.
-
-
-
-
Eurymedōn, leader of the Athenians, ii. 35. -
——, r. of Pamphylia (
Eurypōn, son of Procles, ii. 44. -
Eurypōntidæ, ii. 44. -
Eurypylus, son of Euæmon, ii. 134, 136, 138, 142, 143. -
——, son of Telephus, ii. 343, 345, 389, 395. -
Eurysthenes, brother of Procles, ii. 42–44, 77. -
Eurysthěnidæ, ii. 44. -
Eurystheus, king of Mycenæ, ii. 59. -
Eurystheus's-head, ii. 59. -
Eurytānes, people of Ætolia, ii. 156, 160, 179. -
Eurytus, ii. 10, 11, 23, 24, 142; iii. 10. -
Eusebeia, ii. 281, 282.
Euthydēmus, king of the Bactrians, ii. 251, 253. -
——, orator, iii. 38, 39. -
Euthymus, i. 381. -
Eutresis, ii. 106. -
Euxine, i. 8, 31, 32, 68, 75, 76, 78 -81, 84, 86, 89, 95, 96, 102, 106,
-
-113, 139, 163, 177, 183, 188–190, 193–195, 202, 245, 440,
-
-442, 443, 451, 452, 467, 474, 476,
-
-481, 491, 492, 496, 506; ii. 216,
-
-218, 221, 226, 227, 231, 238, 240,
-
-243, 246, 270, 273, 276, 277, 282,
-
-286, 290, 295; iii. 1, 61, 63, 64, 142, 186.
Euxynthetus, ii. 199. -
Evander, i. 343. -
Evenus, r. of Ætolia (
—— r. of Mysia, ii. 387. -
Exitani, city of the, in Bætica, i. 235, 255. -
Exterior Sea.
Fabius, the historian, i. 339. -
—— Maximus, i. 424. -
Fabrateria (
Falerium (
Falernian wine, i. 347, 361. -
Falisci, i. 335. -
Faliscum, i. 335. -
Fanum Fortune (
Faustulus, i. 340. -
Faventia, c. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Ferentīnum, t. of Etruria, i. 335. -
——, t. of Latium (
Feronia, t. of Etruria, i. 336. -
Festi, i. 341. -
Fidēnæ, i. 335, 341. -
Fimbrias, ii. 356. -
Firmum Picenum (
Fiumesino. See Æsis. -
Flaminia Via, in Italy, i. 323, 336, 337. -
Flaminius, Caius, consul, i. 323. -
——, Titus, proprietor of Sicily, i. 421. -
Formiæ, t. of Latium (
Fortune, temple of, i. 354, 370. -
Fortunate Islands.
Foruli, i. 338. -
Forum Julium, t. of Gaul (
—— Vulcani (
—— Cornelium, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (
—— Flaminium, t. of Umbria, i. 337. -
—— Semprōnium, t. of Umbria (
Fregellæ, t. of Latium (
Fregēna, t. of Etruria (
Frentani, people of Italy, i. 358–360, 432, 436. -
Frozen Sea, i. 99. -
Frūsino, c. of Latium (
Fucinus, Lake, i. 356. -
Fugitives, t. of, i. 73. -
Fundi, t. of Latium, i. 347. -
Furies, the, i. 262. -
Gabæ, city of Persis, iii. 131. -
Gabala, city of Syria, iii. 167. -
Gabales, a people of Aquitania, i. 284. -
Gabianē, a province of Elymais, iii. 154. -
Gabii, t. of Latium (
Gabinius, historian, iii. 281. -
——, consul, ii. 308; iii. 232. -
Gabreta, forest of Germany, i. 448. -
Gadara, t. of Judæa, iii. 175. -
Gadaris (
Gades, Gadeira (
——, Gates of, i. 256, 258. -
Gadilōn (
Gadilonītis, ii. 294. -
Gaditanians, i. 212, 213, 255, 260. -
Gæsatæ, people of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 317, 322. -
Gætuli, people of Libya, i. 198; iii. 276, 282, 289, 294. -
Galabrii, people of Illyria, i. 485. -
Galactophagi, i. 453, 458, 461, 465, 479; ii. 304. -
Galatæ (
Cisalpine, i. 313. - - -
Galatæ, Scordisci, i. 482. -
——, Alabroges, iii. 184. -
Galatia, part of Phrygia, i. 195; ii. 310, 319–321. -
Galatians, ii. 282–284, 286, 290, 293, 294, 310, 319, 320, 329, 355; iii. 297. -
Galatic or Gallic race, i. 282, 283, 291, 443. -
—— or Celtic Gulf (
—— (
Galēpsus, t. of Macedonia, i. 512, 513, 515. -
Galilee, district of Judæa, iii. 177, 181. -
Gallesius, mtn of Ionia, iii. 15. -
Gallia Cispadana.
Gallicians, the, i. 228, 229, 233, 243, 246, 250; iii. 63, 65. -
Gallinarian Wood, in Campania (
Gallo-Græcia, i. 195. -
Gallus, r. of Phrygia, ii. 289.
Gamabrivi, people of Germany, i. 445. -
Gambarus, prince of Syria, iii. 167. -
Gandaris, district of India, iii. 92. -
Gandarītis, district of India, iii. 89. -
Ganges, r. of India, iii. 74, 79, 80, 90, 96, 97, 108, 117, 118. -
Gangitis, iii. 157. -
Gangra, ii. 314. -
Ganymede, ii. 347. -
Garamantes, a people of Libya, i. 198; iii. 289, 294, 295. -
Garescus, t. of Macedonia, i. 509, 514. -
Gargara, t. of the Troad, ii. 342, 375, 376, 382, 384. -
Garganum, mtn of Italy (
Gargareis, Gargarenses, inhabitants of the Gargari, ii. -
——, people of the Caucasus, ii. 235, 236. -
Gargaris, ii. 381. -
Gargarum, peak of Mount Ida, i. 64; ii. 342. -
Gargasus, son of Cypselus.
Gargettus, vill. of Attica, ii. 59. -
Garindæi, a people of Arabia, iii. 204. -
Garmānes, philosophers of India, iii. 109, 110. -
Garsaurītis, province of Cappadocia, ii. 278. -
Garsavira, vill. of Cappadocia (
Garuna (
Gasterocheires, ii. 54. -
Gasys, ii. 302. -
Gaudus, island (
Gaugamēla, village of Aturia (
Gaul, i. 192, 264–296, 439.
Gaul, Cisalpine, i. 287, 324, 357. -
——, Transalpine, i. 264. -
Gauls, the, i. 292–294. -
Gaza, city of Judæa, iii. 171, 176, 191. -
Gazaka, city of Media, ii. 263. -
Gazacene, district of Pontus, ii. 302. -
Gazæans, iii. 160. -
Gazaluītis, district of Pontus, ii. 302. -
Gazelonītis, ii. 311. -
Gaziūra, t. of Pontus (
Gedrosia, i. 196, 197; iii. 74, 121, 128, 156, 190. -
Gedrosia, Upper, i. 201. - - -
Gedrosii, Gedroseni, people of Ariana, iii. 124, 125. -
Geira,
Gěla, city of Sicily, i. 412. -
Gēlæ, ii. 235, 241, 245. -
Geloi, i. 411. -
Gelōn, tyrant of Syracuse, i. 149; ii. 158. -
Genabum (
Genauni, people of Illyria, i. 306. -
Genētes, prom. and river of Pontus (
Gennesarītis, lake and district of Judæa, iii. 169. -
Genoa, i. 300–302, 314, 322, 323. -
Georgi, i. 479; ii. 219. -
Gephyra, Gephyrismi, in Attica, ii. 91. -
Gephyræans, ii. 96.
Geræstus, t. and prom. of Eubœa (
Geranius, r. of Elis, ii. 11. -
Gerēna, Gerēnia, city of Messenia, i. 459; ii. 12, 28, 36, 37. -
Gerenius, epithet of Nestor, ii. 11, 36. -
Gerēnus, a place in Elis, ii. 11. -
Geres, a Bœotian, iii. 2. -
Gergitha, t. of the Troad, ii. 350, 390. -
——, vill. near the sources of the Caïcus, ii. 390. -
Gergitheis, t. of Cymæa, ii. 350. -
Gergithium, a place near Lampsacus, ii. 350. -
——, in Cymæa, ii. 350. -
Gergithius, Cephalon, the, ii. 350. -
Gergovia, city of the Arverni, i. 285. -
German tribes, i. 445. -
German war, i. 289. -
Germanicus, son of Tiberius, i. 441, 446. -
Germans, i. 18, 177, 287, 288, 292, 307, 439, 443, 451, 468, 470, 481. -
Germany, i. 22, 110, 141, 193, 292, 442, 443, 451, 452, 467, 471, 481.
-
-
-
-
Gerræi, iii. 191, 204, 207. -
Gerræidæ, port of the Teii, iii. 17. -
Gerrha, t. of Egypt, i. 79, 87; iii. 177. -
——, t. of Arabia, iii. 186, 187. -
Gerōn, r, of Elis, ii. 11. -
Gēryon, i. 33, 225, 254, 255, 313, 364. -
Gezatorix, prince of Paphlagonia, ii. 314. -
Getæ, i. 141, 177, 193, 445, 452–457, 461, 463, 464, 466–470, 481; iii. 180. -
——, desert of the, i. 468, 469. -
Gibraltar, Strait of, i. 62. -
——
Gigartus, a fortress of Syria, iii. 170. -
Gindarus, t. of Syria, iii. 163. -
Glaucias, tyrant, ii. 368. -
Glaucōpium, citadel of Athens, i. 460. -
Glaucus, the Anthedonian, ii. 98. -
—— Pontius, play of Æschylus, ii. 155. -
——, of Potniæ, ii. 103. -
——, r. of Colchis (
——, bay of Caria, iii. 28. -
Glechon, ii. 124. -
Glissas, t. of Bœotia, ii. 107, 108. -
Glycera, courtesan, ii. 105. -
Glycys-Limen, bay and port of Epirus, i. 497. -
Gōgarene, distr. of Armenia, ii. 268, 269. -
Gomphi, t. of Thessaly, ii. 141. -
Gonnus, t. of Thessaly, ii. 145. -
Gonoessa, ii. 59. -
Gorbeüs, t. of Phrygia, ii. 321. -
Gordium, t. of Phrygia (
Gordius, king of Phrygia, ii. 321. -
Gordus, place in the Troad, ii. 371. -
Gordyæa, Gordyene, a province of Armenia, i. 123; ii. 268; iii. 146, 156, 157, 162. -
Gordyæan mountains, i. 124; ii. 261. -
Gordyæi, people of Mesopotamia (
Gordyæus, prince of the Gordyæi, ii. 274. -
Gordys, son of Triptolemus, iii. 153, 162. -
Gorgipia, city of the Sindi, ii. 223, 224. -
Gorgons, Gorgo, i. 29, 33, 459; ii. 211. -
——, Gorgon's Head, the, ii. 62, 211. -
Gorgus, son of Cypselus, i. 498; ii. 161.
——, the miner, iii. 93. -
Gortyna, city of Crete (
Gortynii, ii. 197, 202. -
Gortynium, city of Macedonia, i 504. -
Gorys, t. of India, iii. 89. -
Gracchus, Tiberius, i. 244. -
Graces, temple of the, ii. 112. -
Græcia, Magna, i. 377. -
Græa, Graia, t. of Bœotia, ii. 58, 96, 106. -
Granicus, r. of Mysia (
Gras, son of Penthilus, ii. 340. -
Gravisci, t. of Etruria, i. 335. -
Grecian cities, i. 350. -
—— nations, i. 372; ii. 3. -
—— shore, the, i. 9. -
—— territories, i. 43. -
Grecians, i. 256, 282. -
Greece, i. 17, 24, 28, 40, 77, 90 94, 96, 103, 164, 188, 194, 311, 316, 328, 329, 345, 366, 431, 432,
-
-
-
-
Greek language, i. 149. -
—— tribes, ii. 2. -
—— cities, i. 393. -
—— states, i. 427. -
—— laws, i. 240. -
—— dialects, ii. 2. -
—— literature, i. 271. -
Greeks, i. 16, 49, 51, 54, 57, 67, 70, 73, 77, 102, 104, 191, 192, 194, 224, 232, 233, 237, 240, 249, 274, 296, 302, 317, 326, 328, 330, 345, 350, 360, 372, 377, 378, 392, 394–396, 403, 407, 408, 411, 422, 427, 439, 450, 453, 462, 463, 468, 478, 492, 496, 498, 505, 514; ii. 33, 43, 44, 50, 54, 55, 132, 134, 158, 169, 172, 174, 182–184; iii. 40–43, 110, 114. -
——, Italian, i. 376, 377, 433; ii. 68. -
Grium, mtn of Caria, iii. 6. -
Grūmentum, t. of Lucania, i. 379. -
Gryllus, ii. 95. -
Gryneus, name of Apollo, ii. 393. -
Grynium, city of Æolis, ii. 397. -
Guranii, a people of Armenia, ii. 273. -
Gutōnes, i. 444. -
Gyarus, island (
Gygæa, a lake of Lydia, afterwards Coloe, ii. 403. -
Gygas, prom. of the Troad, ii. 352. -
Gyges, king of the Lydians, ii. 119, 351; iii. 66. -
Gymnesian or Balearic islands (
Gymnetæ, iii. 117. -
Gymnosophists, Indian philosophers, iii. 180. -
Gynæcopolis, t. of Egypt, iii. 241. -
Gynæcopolite nome, iii. 241. -
Gyrtōn, Gyrtōne, city of Thessaly (
Gyrtōnii, Gyrtonians, i. 507; ii. 147. -
Gythium, t. of Laconia, ii. 15, 41. -
Hades, i. 31, 33, 223–225; ii. 17, 41, 51; iii. 110, 111. -
Hadylium, ii. 123, 124. -
Hæmon.
Hæmin, father of Thessalus, ii. 149. -
——, father of Oxylus, ii. 176. -
Hæmŏnia, ancient name of Thessaly, i. 73; ii. 149. -
Hæmus, mtn of Thrace (
Halæ, t. of Bœotia, ii. 98, 125. -
——, in Attica, ii. 98. -
——, Araphenides, ii. 90, 153. -
——, Æxoneis, ii. 89. -
Halesian plain, ii. 374. -
Halex, r. (
Haliacmon, r. in Macedonia (
Haliartia, ii. 107. -
Haliartus, city of Bœotia, i. 25, 457; ii. 101, 106–109. -
Halicarnassus, ii. 56, 374; iii. 5, 30, 34, 35. -
Halieis, ii. 54. -
Halimusii, ii. 89. -
Halisarna, iii. 36. -
Halius, ii. 135. -
Halizoni, Halizones, ii. 297, 299, 300, 371; iii. 63–66. -
Halonnesus, ii. 140, 393; iii. 18. -
Halys (
Halys, Phthiotic, ii. 135. -
Hamaxitus, ii. 145, 373–375, 385, 395. -
Hamaxœci, i. 191, 453, 461; ii. 219. -
Hannibal, i. 238, 239, 311, 321, 323, 336, 364, 370, 373, 374, 381,
382, 428, 436, 439. -
Harma, vill. of Bœotia, ii. 97, 99, 106. -
——, t. of Attica, ii. 96, 97. -
Harmatus, prom. of Æolia, ii. 397. -
Harmonia, i. 73, 500. -
Harmozi, prom. of Carmania, iii. 186. -
Harpagīa, t. of Mysia, ii. 347. -
Harpagus, general of Cyrus, i. 376. -
Harpalus, iii. 292. -
Harpies, the, i. 465. -
Harpina, t. of Pisatis, ii. 32. -
Hebe, Dia, ii. 66. -
Hěbrus, r. of Thrace (
Hecatæus, the Milesian, i. 1, 12, 13, 28, 410, 459, 486, 492; ii. 13, 299, 300, 302; iii. 5, 6. -
——, of Teïos or Abdera, iii. 17. -
Hecate, ii. 183, 189; iii. 39. -
Hecaterus, ii. 188. -
Hecatomnus, king of Caria, iii. 35, 38. -
Hecatompolis, ii. 40. -
Hecatompylos, city of the Parthians, ii. 249, 250. -
Hecatonnesi,
Hecatos, name of Apollo, ii. 393. -
Hector, i. 64; ii. 344, 356, 357, 360, 363, 365, 394, 395. -
Hecuba, ii. 168, 351. -
Hecuba's monument i. 517. -
Hēdylus, poet, iii. 69 -
Hēdyphōn, r. of Baby on, iii. 154. -
Hegesianax, historian, ii. 355. -
Hegesias, orator, ii. 86; iii. 23. -
Heilěsium, t. of Bœotia, ii. 100. -
Heilotæ.
Heleii, ii. 43; iii. 195. -
Helen, i. 65, 274; ii. 52, 86, 90, 360; iii. 238. -
—— Claimed, play of Sophocles, iii. 15. -
Helena (
Helēne, isl.
Heleōn, vill. of Tanagria, ii. 98–100, 143. -
Heliadæ, sons of the Sun, iii. 32. -
Heliades, drs of the Sun, i. 320. -
Helice, city of Achæa, i. 92; ii. 59, 69–73. -
——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 71. -
Helicon, mtn of B$eotia (
Helius, son of Perseus, ii. 41. -
Heliopolis, city of Syria, iii. 166. -
——, city of Egypt, iii. 241, 245–247. -
Heliopolītæ, iii. 21. -
Heliopolite nome, iii. 245. -
Hella, strait, i. 519. -
Hellanicus, historian of Lesbos, i. 69; ii. 44, 127, 167, 241, 298, 368, 382, 393. -
Hellas.
——, city of Phthiotis, ii. 133 134. -
——, Southern Thessaly, ii. 149. -
Hellen, son of Deucalion, ii. 67, 131, 149.
-
-Hellenes.
——, t. of Spain, i. 236. -
Hellespont (
——, mouth of, ii. 352 -
Hellespontia, ii. 277. -
Hellespontiac Phrygia.
Helli, inhabitants of Dodona, i. 502. -
Hellŏpia, district adjacent to Dodona, i. 502. -
——, same as Eubœa, ii. 152. -
——, t. of Eubœa, ii. 152. -
Helos, t. of Laconia, ii. 15, 23, 24, 41, 43, 100
-
-
-
-
Hělos, in Triphylia or Messenia, ii. 23, 24, 100. -
Helots, ii. 43, 44, 287; iii. 96. -
Helvetii (
Hēmeroscopium, city of Spain (
Hemicynes, i. 68, 458. -
Heneta, ii. 289, 302. -
Henēti, people of Italy (
Henetian horses, i. 316. -
Henetica, the Venetian territory, i. 483; ii. 378. -
Hēniochi, people of Asia, i. 195; ii. 219, 224, 225, 238; iii. 296. -
Hēniochia, ii. 224. -
Heorta, t. of the Scordisci, i. 488. -
Hephæsteium, iii. 248. -
Hēphæstus.
Heptacōmētæ, people of Pontus, ii. 296, 297. -
Heptaporus, r. of Mysia, ii. 304, 341, 347, 357, 371. -
Heptastadium, on the Hellespont, ii. 352. -
——, between Alexandria and Pharus, iii. 227, 230. -
Hēra.
Heraclæa, city of Magna Grecia, i. 397, 398, 427, 428. -
——, city of Elis, ii. 32. -
——, city of Media, ii. 250, 264. -
——, city of Pontus (
——, city of the Mytilenæans, in the Troad, ii. 376. -
——, city of Ionia, iii. 6. -
——, city of Caria, iii. 37. -
——, city of Syria, iii. 163, 164 -
——, city of Thessaly, i. 94; ii. 32, 77, 103, 129, 130, 136, 147. -
——, city of Spain,
Heraclæa, poem of Pisander, iii. 34, 78. -
Heraclæum (
Heracleia, i. 495, 514. -
Heracleidæ, i. 407; ii. 3, 30, 33, 35, 39, 42, 43, 45, 53, 56, 59, 68, 70, 77, 81, 82, 127, 128, 160, 340; iii. 31. -
Heracleides, of Pontus, philosopher, i. 149, 152; ii. 285, 374. -
——, physician, iii. 18. -
Heracleōn, father of Dionysius, iii. 163. -
Heracleotæ, in the Tauric Chersonnesus, i. 474, 490. -
——, in Egypt, iii. 257. -
Heracleōtic mouth, i. 130. -
—— nome, iii. 223, 253, 256. -
Heracleōtis, district of Ionia, iii. 15. -
Hēracles.
Heracleum, t. of Campania, i. 366. -
——, t. of Sicily, i. 401. -
——, t. on the Mæotis, ii. 222. -
——, t. of Syria, iii. 163, 167. -
——, t. of Cyrenæa, iii. 294. -
——, t. of Crete (
——, t. of Egypt, iii. 238, 256. -
——, prom. of Italy, i. 388. -
——, prom. of Pontus, ii. 296. -
Heraclitus, Ephesian philosopher, i. 5; iii. 14, 215. -
——, poet of Halicarnassus, iii. 35. -
Heræa, t. of Arcadia, ii. 8, 75. -
Heræum, temple of Juno at Mycenæ, ii. 48. -
—— at Samos, iii. 7. -
——, in the Lacinian promontory, i. 393. -
——, at Prosymnæ, ii. 54. -
——, Phaygis, ii. 12.
-
-
-
-
——Ipoctonus, ii. 386. -
——Cornŏpiōn, ii. 386. -
——, Macistian, ii. 22. -
——, work of Lysippus, i. 424; ii. 171. -
——, of Myron, iii. 8. -
——, picture of Aristides, ii. 64. -
——, labours of, i. 30, 40, 254; ii. 171; iii. 172. -
——, expedition of, i. 255, 256. -
——, children of, i. 333; ii. 59. -
——, descendants of, i. 326. -
——, companions of, ii. 315. -
——, Pillars of.
——, temple, i. 254, 256, 258, 261, 353; iii. 238. -
——, island, i. 255, 239. -
——, harbour and grove of, ii. 171. -
——, Colossus of, i. 424. -
——, altar, iii. 277. -
——,warm-baths, ii. 125, 129. -
——, city, iii. 256. -
——, port of, Herculis Portus (
Herculeum Promontorium, i. 388. -
Hercynia, forest of (
Herdōnia, t. of Apulia (
Hermæa, t. on the Carthaginian coast, iii. 288. -
——, prom. (
Hermagoras, rhetorician, ii. 397. -
Hermeia, images of Mercury, ii. 16. -
Hermeias, tyrant of the Atarnitæ, ii. 382, 387. -
Hermes, i. 67; iii. 119. -
Hermion, ii. 71. -
Hermione, city of Argolis (
Hermionenses, ii. 54. -
Hermionic Gulf (
—— promontory, ii. 207. -
Hermocreōn, architect, ii. 348. -
Hermodorus, Ephesian, iii. 14. -
Hermon, city of, ii. 55. -
Hermonassa, t. of Pontus (
——, on the lake Corocondametis, ii. 223. -
Hermōnax, vill. of (
Hermonduri, people of Germany, i. 445. -
Hermōnthis, city of Egypt, iii. 263. -
Hermopolis, in Egypt, iii. 239, 241, 257. -
Hermopolite castle, iii. 258. -
Hermus, r. of Lydia, (
——, plain of, ii. 402, 403; iii. 82. -
Hernici, people of Latium, i. 339, 343, 344, 353. -
Hero, tower of, ii. 352. -
Herod, king of Judæa, iii. 177, 184 -
Herodotus of Halicarnassus, i. 47, 56, 69, 97, 148, 152, 430, 462, 517; ii. 155, 190, 211, 273, 275, 277, 280, 290, 298, 328, 393, 403, 405; iii. 35, 82. -
Heroopolis, city of Egypt, near Suez, i. 130, 131; iii. 176, 189, 191, 193, 203, 291. -
Herophilian school of medicine, ii. 336. -
Herostratus, of Ephesus, iii. 12. -
Hērpa, Hērphæ, city of Cappadocia, ii. 281, 283; iii. 44. -
Hesiod, i. 35, 45, 67, 68, 93, 329, 458, 462, 465, 494, 501, 502; ii. 14, 42, 50, 70, 83, 104, 110, 188, 241, 348; iii. 22. -
Hesione, daughter of Laomedon, ii. 359.
-
-
-
-
Hesperides, city of Cyrenæa (
——, of Nympha, i. 226, 273, 459. -
Hesperii.
Hesperitæ, Libyans, iii. 22. -
Hestia, goddess.
Hestiæa, ii. 364. -
Hestiæōtis, Histiæōtis, part of Thessaly, ii. 132, 137, 141, 142, 145, 152, 153, 195. -
——, in Eubœa, ii. 141, 153. -
Hicěsius, physician, ii. 337. -
Hicetaōn, Trojan, ii. 344. -
Hidrieus, son of Hecatomnus, iii. 35. -
Hiera,
Sacra, Sacred Promontory, prom. of Lycia, iii. 48. -
Hieracōnnēsos, or island of Hawks, in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 199. -
Hieraconpōlis, city of Egypt, iii. 263. -
Hierapolis, city of Syria, iii. 158. -
——, city of Phrygia (
Hierapytna, t. of Crete, ii. 144, 188, 189, 194, 199. -
Hierapytnii, ii. 199. -
Hiericus, in Judæa.
Hiero, king of Syracuse, i. 368, 405. -
——, of Laodiceia, ii. 334. -
Hieroccpia, Hierocepis, city of Cyprus (
Hierocles, iii. 40. -
Hieron, temple of Jupiter Urius, ii. 293, 296. -
Hieron-Oros, in Thrace, i. 518. -
Hierōnymus, Rhodian, ii. 61, 193; iii. 33. -
Himera, city of Sicily, i. 412, 415. -
——, r. of Sicily, i. 401. -
Hipparchus, astronomer, i. 2, 8, 13, 23, 26, 41, 86–88, 98–100, 106–111, 114, 116–120, 122, 124–127, 131, 132, 135, 137–39, 141, 142, 160, 171, 173, 199, 200, 203; ii. 271. -
Hippemolgi, i. 453, 454, 457, 458, 460–462; ii. 304. -
Hippo Regius, city of the Carthaginians (
Hippo Zaritus, c. of Numidia (
Hippobatæ, or Knights, government of the, ii. 154. -
Hippoboton, ii. 49. -
Hippobotus, meadow in Armenia, ii. 265. -
Hippocles, founder of Cumæe, i. 361. -
Hippocŏōn, king of Sparta, ii. 173. -
Hippocorona, t. of the Troad, ii. 189. -
Hippocoronium, t. of Crete, ii. 189. -
Hippocrates, physician, iii. 36. -
Hippocrene, horse-fountain, ii. 62, 105. -
Hippoï, isl., iii. 17. -
Hipponax, poet, ii. 12; iii. 3, 7, 14. -
Hipponiates Sinus, i. 380, 392. -
Hippōnium, t. of the Bruttii, i. 379, 383. -
Hippothous, i. 329; ii. 395. -
Hippus, r. of Colchis (
Hira, ii. 35, 37. -
Hirpïni, people of Samnium, i. 373. -
Hispalis, t. of Spain (
Hispania.
Hispellum (
Hispiratis, ii. 271. -
Histi, anchorage on the coast of the island of Icaria, iii. 10. -
Histiæa, c. of Eubœa,
Histiæans, Histiæeis, ii. 141, 152, 153. -
Holmi, t. of Phrygia, iii. 43. -
——, t. of Cilicia, iii. 53. -
Holmiæ, promontory, ii. 63, 105. -
Homer, i. 1, 2, 5–9, 11, 16, 19, 25–27, 32,
——, native land of, ii. 399; iii 16, 19, 20. -
Homēreium, iii. 20.
-
-
-
-
Homēridæ, in the island of Chios, iii. 19. -
Hŏmŏlē, Hŏmŏlium, t. of Magnesia, ii. 147, 148. -
Hŏmŏnadeis, people of Pisidia, ii. 323, 324; iii. 50, 64. -
Hormiæ, i. 347. -
Hormina, Hyrmina, prom. of Elis, ii. 13. -
Hortēnsius, ii. 250. -
Hya, same as Hyampolis. -
Hyacinthine games, i. 424. -
Hyameitis (Hyameia?), distr. or t. of Laconia, ii. 38. -
Hyampea, ii. 123. -
Hyampolis, c. of Bæotia (
——, c. of Phocis, ii. 93, 123. -
Hyantes, i. 493; ii. 93, 123, 177. -
Hyarōtis, r. of India (
Hybla (the Lesser), c. of Sicily, afterwards named Megara, i. 404; ii. 73. -
—— (the Greater), c. of Sicily, i. 405. -
Hyblæan honey, i. 404. -
Hyblæi Megarenses, ii. 73. -
Hybreas, ii. 409; iii. 38, 39. -
Hybriānes, an Illyrian race, i. 489. -
Hyda, c. of Lydia, ii. 102, 403, 404. -
Hydara, fortress of Armenia, ii. 304. -
Hydarnes, ii. 273. -
Hydaspēs, r. of India (
Hydatopotami, iii. 164. -
Hydra, prom. of Æolis, ii. 397. -
——, lake of Ætolia, afterwards Lysimachia, ii. 172. -
Hydracæ, al. Oxydracæ, people of India, iii. 75.
Hydrēlus, iii. 26. -
Hydromanteis, iii. 180. -
Hydrūs, c. of Caiabria (
Hydrūssa, isl. near Attica, ii. 89 -
Hyěla, c. of Lucania, i. 375. -
Hyla, ii. 102. -
Hylæ, c. of Bœotia, ii. 102, 106. -
Hylas, companion of Hercules, ii 315, 316. -
Hylicus, lake in Bœotia (
Hyllus, son of Hercules, ii. 128. -
——, r. of Lydia, ii. 303, 403. -
Hylobii, iii. 110, 11. -
Hymettus, mtn of Attica, ii. 90, 93. -
Hypæpa, c. of Lydia, ii. 405. -
Hypæsia, distr. of Triphylia, ii. 21. -
Hypsæthrum, iii. 7. -
Hypana, c. of Triphylia, ii. 17. -
Hypanis, r. (
——, r. of Sarmatia (
——, r. of India (
——, same as Anticeites, ii. 222, 224. -
Hypasii, people of India, iii. 82, 90. -
Hypatus, mtn of Bœotia, ii. 108. -
Hypelæum, iii. 11. -
Hypelæus, ftn near Ephesus, iii. 3. -
Hyperboreans, i. 97, 452; ii. 240; iii. 108. -
Hypereia, ftn in Pharsalia, ii. 134. -
——, ftn in the city of the Pheræi, ii. 142, 143. -
Hyperēsia, c. of Achæa, ii. 59, 67. -
Hypernotii, i. 97. -
Hyphanteium, mtn near Orchomenus, ii. 124. -
Hyphochalcis, c. of Ætolia, ii. 160. -
Hypocrēmnus, vill. of Ionia, iii. 18, 20. -
Hypsicrates, i. 479; ii. 235. -
Hypsoeis, t. of Elis, ii. 24. -
Hyrcania (
Hyrcanian Sea, same as the Caspian, i. 106, 107, 113, 115, 142, 180, 183, 194, 195; ii. 218, 239, 244, 245, 256, 257, 262. -
—— plain, ii. 407. -
—— Gulf, ii. 247. -
Hyrcanians, i. 195; ii. 240, 245, 248–250. -
Hyrcanium, fortress of Judæa, iii. 181.
-
-
-
-
Hyrcanus, king of Judæa, iii. 180, 184. -
Hyria, c. of Iapygia, i. 430. -
——, c. of Bœotia, i. 16; ii. 58, 97, 103. -
Hyriæ, ii. 97. -
Hyrienses, ii. 97. -
Hyrieus, father of Orion, ii. 97. -
Hyrmina, Hormina, prom. of Elis, ii. 13. -
Hyrmine, c. of Elis, ii. 12, 13. -
Hyrtacus, ii. 344, 350. -
Hysiæ, c. of Bœotia, ii. 97. -
——, c. of Argolis, ii. 58. -
Hysiātæ, ii. 97. -
Hyspirātis, distr. of Armenia, ii. 271. -
Hystaspes, father of Darius, i. 468. -
Jaccetania, Jaccetani, in Spain, i. 242. -
lalmenus, leader of the Orchomenii, ii. 113. -
Ialysii, iii. 33. -
Ialysus, Iēlysus, city of Rhodes, iii. 33. -
——, painting of Protogenes, iii. 29, 31. -
lamblicus, prince of the Emiseni, iii. 166. -
Iamneia, t. of Judæa (
Iaones, ii. 134. -
lapodes, i. 300, 308, 482–484. -
lapyges, lapygians, i. 394, 425, 428. -
lapygia, i. 159, 164, 187, 314, 315, 388, 399, 400, 422, 428, 430, 435; ii. 98. -
Iapygian promontory (
Iapygum tria Promontoria (
Iapyx, son of Dædalus, i. 425, 430. -
Iardanes r. of Pisatis, ii. 15, 21. -
lardanua, tomb of, ii. 22. -
las.
Iasidæ, ii. 52. -
Iasion, brother of Dardanus, founder of Samothracia, i. 516. -
Jasōn, i. 8, 18, 31, 32, 71, 72–74, 76, 89, 224, 332, 333, 375; ii. 139, 224, 235, 266, 272, 273, 293. -
Jasonia, Jasonian Shrines, i. 72. -
——, monuments in Armenia, ii. 235, 266, 272. -
Jasonium, mtn of Media, ii. 266. -
——, prom. of Pontus (
Iasus, city and island of Caria, iii 37. -
Iaxartes, r. of Sogdiana (
Jazyges, i. 451, 470. -
Iberia.
—— Ulterior.
—— (
—— nations, i. 246. -
—— Sea, i. 185. -
Iberians, i. 7, 52, 101, 178, 180, 195, 206, 209, 210, 227, 237, 243–248, 256, 264, 269, 282, 292, 299, 407, 439, 440; ii. 260, 267, 269, 273, 229–235. -
——, Western, i. 95. -
Ibērus, r. of Spain (
Ibycus, poet, i. 92, 410. -
Icaria, Icarus, island (
Icarian Sea, i. 44, 187; ii. 212; iii. 10. -
Icarius, father of Penelope, ii, 162, 173. -
Icarus, son of Dædalus, iii. 10. -
——, island in the Persian Gulf (
Ichthyophagi, in Gedrosia, i. 145, 197, 201. -
—— in Carmania, iii. 12C, 127.
-
-
-
-
Ichthyophagi, on the Arabian Gulf, iii. 191, 194, 198–121, 127, 128. -
Ichnæ, t. of Thessaliotis, ii. 138. -
Ichthys, prom of Elis (
Icŏnii, people of Gaul, i. 276, 303. -
Icŏnium (
Ictimuli, vill. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Ictinus, architect, ii. 84, 86. -
Icus, isl. near Thessaly (
Ida, mtn in the Troad, i. 33, 64, 93, 494, 516; ii. 180, 184, 186, 189, 191, 317, 329, 332, 337, 341, 344, 346, 354, 361, 368, 369, 373–377, 384, 386, 390. -
——, mtn of Crete (
Idæan Dactyli, i. 516; ii. 30, 180, 191. -
—— Gulf, ii. 342, 374. -
—— Mother, name of Rhæa, i. 71; ii. 185. -
Idanthyrsus, Scythian, iii. 75. -
Ideonnus, land of, i. 303. -
Idessa, t. of Spain, ii. 229. -
Idomene, i. 514; ii. 77. -
Idomeneus, ii. 83, 110, 201, 305. -
——, Lampsacenian, ii. 305. -
Idrieis, people of Caria, iii. 63. -
Idubeda, mtns of Spain, i. 241, 243. -
Idumæans, people of Judæa, iii. 160, 177. -
Iēlysus.
Jericho, iii. 177, 181, 209. -
Ierna, (
Jerusalem, capital of Judæa, iii. 175, 177, 178, 180. -
Jews, iii. 142, 160, 175–185, 190, 210, 237, 274. -
Iglētes, i. 249. -
Iguvium, city of Umbria (
Ilasarus, iii. 212. -
Ilerda, t. of Spain (
Ilergetes, nation of Spain, i. 242. -
Ilethyia, i. 335. -
Iliad of Homer, ii. 364. -
Ilibirris, t. and r. of Gaul, i. 272. -
llieis, Ilienses, ii. 354–356, 359–362, 366–368. -
Iliocolōne, ii. 350. -
Ilipa, t. of Turditania (
Ilissus, r. of Attica, ii. 91. -
Ilium.
Illyria, i. 110, 159, 164, 186, 194, 308, 309, 317, 432, 435, 439, 443, 466, 481, 483, 487, 489, 495, 501; iii. 297. -
Illyrian nations, i. 482, 483, 489, 500; ii. 2. -
mountains, i. 492, 495, 499, 501. -
—— Sea (
—— coast, i. 483, 489. -
Illyrians, Illyrii, i. 306, 308, 319, 466, 468, 481, 482, 485, 488, 493, 506; ii. 2, 157. -
Ilus, founder of Ilium, ii. 354, 361. -
Imandes, iii. 256. -
Imaus, Imæan mtn, i. 195; ii. 245, 255, 256; iii. 78.
Imbrasius, i. 519. -
Imbrasus, r. of Samos, ii. 167; iii. 7. -
Imbros, island (
——, fortress of Caria, iii. 28. -
Inachus, c. of Argolis, i. 329. -
——, r. of Argolis (
Inachus, r. of Acarnania, i. 410, 486, 499, 501; ii. 51. -
Inachian Argos, ii. 74. -
India, i. 13, 63, 69, 100, 101, 105–108, 110–113, 115, 117–121, 124, 128, 129, 133, 149, 151, 152, 154, 156, 165, 175, 178–180, 196, 200, 201, 257, 332; ii. 216, 238–244, 248–256; iii. 44, 57, 73–120, 124, 126, 127, 133, 135, 190, 211, 213, 216, 283. -
—— mtns, i. 105; ii. 238. -
—— boundaries, i. 105–107. -
—— next the Caucasus, i. 202. -
Indian campaign of Alexander, i. 257. -
—— Ocean, i. 60, 68; iii. 73. -
—— markets, i. 111. -
—— pillars, i. 258. -
Indians, i. 16, 149, 152, 156, 194, 463; ii. 218; iii. 98, 101, 105, 106, 115, 117. -
——, land occupied by the, i. 7. -
Indica, ii. 218. -
Indicetæ, nation of Spain, i. 235, 240. -
Indies, i. 16, 178, 257. -
Indus, r. of India, i. 100, 121, 132, 133; ii. 250, 252; iii. 77, 79, 80, 84, 89, 90, 94–96, 102, 119, 120, 124, 125, 128. -
Ingauni, i. 300, 301. -
Innēsa, t. of Sicily, i. 405. -
Inōpus, r. of Delos, i. 410; ii. 208. -
Insūbri, i. 317, 322, 448. -
Intemělii, people of Liguria, i. 300, 301. -
Intemělium.
Interamna, t. of Umbria (
Interamnium, t. of Latium, i. 352. -
Intercatia, t. of the Celtiberi, i. 244. -
Interocrea, t. of the Sabines (
Io, mother of Epaphus, ii. 152; iii. 57, 162. -
Iōl, t. of the Masæsylii, iii. 284. -
Iolaenses, people of Sardinia, i. 333. -
lolaus, i. 333; ii. 59. -
Iolcius, same as Jason. -
Iolcus, c. of Magnesia (
Ioleia, iii. 10. -
Iōn, son of Xuthus, ii. 67, 87, 152. -
——, poet, i. 42, 94; iii. 19. -
——, tragedy of Euripides, ii. 32. -
——, river of Thessaly, i. 501. -
Ionæum, ii. 19. -
Iones, ii. 2, 5, 13, 53.
Ionia, in Asia, i. 9, 17, 91, 96, 172, 187, 190, 195, 224; ii. 42, 221, 339; iii. 1–9, 12–27, 43, 202. -
——, same as Attica, i. 257; ii. 67, 68, 81, 87. -
Ioniades, nymphs, ii. 32. -
Ionian colony, ii. 68. -
—— colonists, ii. 68. -
—— Gulf, Ionian Sea, i. 186, 388, 429, 486, 487, 495, 499, 500, 501, 507, 518. -
Ionians, i. 96, 102, 224, 256, 269, 397, 404, 458, 493; ii. 3, 43, 56, 67–71, 80–82, 181, 298, 303; iii. 34, 40, 41, 43. -
Ionius, i. 487. -
Joppa (
Ioras, mtn.
Jordan, r. of Judæa, iii. 169, 170. -
Ios (
Ioza.
Iphicrates, ii. 76; iii. 278. -
Iphidamas, son of Antenor, i. 509, 510. -
Iphigeneia, ii. 279. -
——, play of Euripides, ii. 60. -
Iphitus, ii. 34. -
—— Eurytides, ii. 46. -
Ipnus, t. of Magnesia, ii. 148. -
Ira, t. of Messenia, ii. 37. -
Iris, r. of Pontus (
Irra, daughter of Arrhabæus, i. 500. -
Isamus, r. of India, ii. 252. -
Isar, r. of Gaul, i. 276, 277, 288, 303. -
——, r. of Vindelicia, i. 308. -
Isaura, t. of Isauria, ii. 322; iii 46, 55.
-
-
-
-
Isauria Palæa, t. of Isauria, ii. 322. -
Isaurica, part of Lycaonia, ii. 322. -
Ischopolis, t. of Pontus, ii. 296. -
Isinda, t. of Pisidia, ii. 410. -
Isis, iii. 242, 260, 271. -
——, temple of, iii. 70. -
——, river, iii. 200. -
Ismandes.
Ismaris, lake of Thrace, i. 515. -
Ismarus, Ismara, t. of the Ciconi, i. 515. -
Ismēnus, r. by Thebes, ii. 103. -
Isocrates, ii. 398. -
Isodroma Mater, temple of, ii. 145. -
——
Issa, isl. of the Liburni (
——, same as Lesbos, i. 93. -
Isseans, i. 484. -
Issus, iii. 60, 62, 160, 164. -
——, Sea of, ii. 219; iii. 1. -
——, Gulf of (
Ister, r. (
——, sacred mouth of, i. 481, 489. -
——, town of Mœsia, i. 489, 490. -
Isthmian games, ii. 60, 63. -
Isthmus.
Istri, i. 321, 483. -
Istria, distr. of Italy, i. 89, 313, 321, 483. -
Isus, distr. of Bœotia, ii. 98, 99. - - -
Italian cities, i. 276. -
—— revolt, i. 371. -
—— headlands, i. 139 -
—— coast, i. 184, 487, -
Italians, Italiotse, i. 250, 302, 310, 313, 358, 379; ii. 118. -
Italica, c. of Spain, i. 213. -
——, c. of the Peligni, i. 358. -
Italy, i. 9, 31, 33–36, 54, 72, 84, 141, 163, 164, 184, 185, 193, 194, 216, 224, 236, 240, 241, 264, 266–268, 270, 275, 279, 287, 291, 293, 300, 303–307, 309, 310, 313–315, 321, 323–325, 329, 337, 339, 345, 361, 371, 377, 379, 380, 383, 399, 400–403, 405, 411, 413, 422, 427, 435–439, 441, 442, 448, 450, 481, 482, 483, 487; ii. 60, 62, 68, 116, 154, 209, 290, 300, 333, 378; iii. 45, 278,
Ithaca, isl. and t. (
Ithacans, i. 33; ii. 173. -
Ithōme, mtn and t. of Messenia, i. 426; ii. 35, 38, 141. -
——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 141. -
Itium, t. and port of Gaul, i. 297. -
Itōnus, c. of Thessaly (
Itumon, ii. 26. -
Iturii or Ituræans, a people of Syria, iii. 166, 170, 171. -
Ityca, c. of the Carthaginians, iii. 284, 285. -
Juba, king of Numidia, i. 440; iii. 280, 282–284, 297. -
Judæa, part of Syria, iii. 160, 171–185, 189, 209, 241, 266. -
Jugurtha, king of Numidia, iii 284. -
Julia, i. 213. -
—— Ioza, t. of Bætica, i. 210. -
Juliopolis, t. of Phrygia, ii. 330. -
Iulis, c. of Ceos, ii. 210. -
Julius.
Iulus, son of Æneas, ii. 356. -
Junc Plain, in Spain, i. 240. -
Juno (Hēra), i. 5, 41, 393; ii. 29, - -39, 341; iii. 11. -
——, Argive, temple of, i. 375; ii. - -110, 127. -
——, named Cupra, by the Tyr- - -rheni, i. 357. -
—— Pharygæa, ii. 127. -
——, island of, i. 253, 255. -
——, Argian, grove of, i. 320. -
——, oracle of Acræan, ii. 63. -
Jupiter, i. 4, 274, 340, 465, 494, 502, - -503; ii. 22, 25, 29, 30, 33, 39, - -45, 61, 73, 118, 170, 180, 183, - -184, 188, 189, 196, 204, 205, - -353; iii. 33, 55, 113, 116, 117, - -179, 259, 263. -
——, Olympian, ii. 3, 28. -
——, Dodonæan, i. 328, 329, 501. -
——, Pelasgic, i. 503. -
——, Larisian, ii. 145; iii. 24. -
—— Cenæus, ii. 155. -
—— Trophonius, ii. 111. -
—— Abrettenus, ii. 330. -
—— Sōsipolis, iii. 23. -
—— Ombrius, iii. 117. -
——, temple of, in Larisa, ii. 51. -
——, in Morimene, ii. - -281. -
——, statue of, at Tuvium, ii. - -320. -
——, Dictæan, ii. 195, 199. -
——, Olbe, temple at, iii. 55. -
——, Lycæan, ii. 75. -
—— Soter, ii. 85. -
—— Eleutherius, ii. 108. -
——, Ænēsian, ii. 167. -
——, Venasii, temple amongst - -the, ii. 281. -
—— Atabyrius, iii. 33. -
——, temple of, called Osogo, iii. - -38. -
—— Labrandænus, iii. 38. -
——, Carian, iii. 38. -
—— Stratius, iii. 38. -
—— Chrysaoreus, iii. 39. -
—— Casius, iii. 176. -
—— Olympus, oracle of, ii. 28. -
—— colossus of, i. 423; ii. 320. -
—— Astrapius, ii. 97. -
Jupiter, Dacian priesthood of, ii, - -280. -
——, work of Myron, iii. 8. -
Iura, Mount, i. 288, 310. -
Iurasius.
Ivrea.
Ixia, t. of Rhodes (
Ixiōn, king of the Lapithe, i. 507, -
Keltæ, Kelti.
Keltiberia, i. 222, 243—245. -
Keltiberians, i. 52, 214, 222, 228, - -229, 238, 242—244, 246, 250. -
Keltic nations, i. 247, 291, 442, - -443, 454, 481, 482. -
—— zone, i. 147. -
—— isthmus, i. 206. -
Keltica (
——, Transalpine, i. 264, 266, - -296, 300, 309, 325. -
——, Cisalpine, i. 303, 315, 336, - -337. -
——, Citerior, i 324. -
——, Gallia Cispadana, i. 325.
-
-
-
-
Keltici, people of Spain, i. 227, - -230. -
Kelto-ligyes (
Keltoscythians, i. 52; ii. 240. -
Kelts, i. 18, 52, 116, 208, 232, 238, - -241, 246, 264, 265, 277, 282, 296, - -297, 299, 308, 316, 317, 438,439, - -443, 449, 463, 466. -
——, Transalpine, i. 302, 316. -
Kemmenus, (
Kenæum (
Kent, i. 99, 288, 296. -
Kentrones.
Kerkina, isl. (
Kerne, isle of, i. 75. -
Kerretani, people of the Iberians, i. - -243. -
Khersobleptes, i. 516. -
Kimbrians.
Kimmerians.
Labanæ, baths in Italy, i. 354. -
Labicum, i. 341. -
Labiēnus, prefect of Asia, ii. 330; - -iii. 39. -
Labŏtas, r. of Syria, iii. 164. -
Labranda, c. of Caria, iii. 38. -
Labyrinth, in Crete, ii. 197. -
——, near Nauplia, ii. 48. -
——, in Egypt, iii. 221, 255, - -258. -
Lacaon, ii. 395. -
Lacænian land, ii. 45. -
Laccæa, i. 227. -
Lacedæmon, i. 398; ii. 18, 19, 21, - -45—47, 67, 68, 77, 130, 153, 164, - -173; iii. 26, 259. -
Lacedæmonian epistle, i. 58. -
—— code, i. 390. -
Lacedæmonians, i. 102, 155, 231,
-
-347, 372, 385, 424—427, 430,
-
-499; ii. 31, 34—36, 38. 39, 41,
-
-43, 46, 55, 58, 59, 71, 72, 75, 85,
-
-88, 90, 94, 111, 123, 129,
Lacēter, prom. in the island of Cos
-
-(
Lacinium, Cape, i. 393, 429. -
Lacmus, mtn of Ætolia, i. 410, - -486. -
Laconia, i. 399; ii. 15, 18, 24, 28, - -35—48, 53, 58, 153, 193, 200; - -iii. 292. -
Laconian Bay (
—— island,
Laconians, Lacones, i. 236, 504; - -ii. 43, 44, 47; iii. 69. -
—— Eleuthero, ii. 44. -
Ladē, isl. near Miletus, iii. 5. -
Ladon, r. of Arcadia (
Laërtes, i. 91; ii. 161, 166, 173; - -iii. 52. -
Læstrygonians, people of Sicily, i. - -31, 33, 64. -
Lagaria, fortress near Thurii (
Lagaritan wine, i. 397.
-
-
-
-
Lagětas, great - grandfather of - -Strabo, ii. 198. -
Lagina, t. of Caria, iii. 39, 43. -
Lagus, father of Ptolemy, i. 463. -
Lagusa, isl. near Crete (
Laïus, iii. 18. -
Lamia, phantom, i. 29. -
——, c. of Thessaly (
Lamian war, ii. 136. -
Lampeia, mtn of Arcadia, ii. 14. -
Lampeis, t. of Crete, ii. 194. -
Lampesis, Lamptreis, t. of Attica, - -ii. 89. -
Lampōnia, t. of the Troad, ii. 382. -
Lampsacēnē, ii. 350. -
Lampsacēni, ii. 347, 349. -
Lampsacus, city of Mysia (
Lamus, r. and t. of Cilicia, iii. 54, - -55. -
Landi, people of Germany, i. 447. -
Langobardi, nation of Germany, i. - -445. -
Lanuvium (
Laodicēa, city of Lycaonia, iii. 43. -
——, c. of Cœle-Syria (
——, c. of Syria (
——, c. of Media, ii. 264. -
——, c. of Phrygia (
Laodiceia, mother of Seleucus, iii. - -161. -
Laodiceians, ii. 334, 336. -
Laomedon, ii. 359. -
Laōthoë, ii. 395. -
Lapathus, t. of Cyprus (
Lapē, t. of Lesbos, ii. 127. -
Lapersæ, ii. 42. -
Lapithæ, people of Thessaly, i. 15, - -507; ii. 144—148. -
Lapithēs,
Laranda. t. of Lycaonia (
Larisa, daughter of Piasus, ii. 397. -
——, Cremaste, city of Pelasgiotis, - -i. 94; ii. 138, 144, 373, 374, 395 - -—397. -
——, city of Phthiotis, ii. 145. -
——, c. of Thessaly, ii. 77, 272. -
——, c. of Attica, ii. 145. -
——, c. of Crete, ii. 144. -
——, c. on the confines of Elis and - -Achæa, ii. 145. -
——, Phriconis in Asia, ii. 145. -
——, c. of Syria, ii. 145, 165. -
——, c. of Pontus, ii. 145. -
——, c. of the Troad, i. 329; ii. - -145, 374, 395. -
——, Ephěsia, ii. 145. -
——, Phricōnis, c. of Æolis, ii. - -145, 397. -
——, citadel of the Argives, ii. 51, - -144. -
Larisæan rocks, at Lesbos, ii. 145. -
Larisian plain, ii. 144. -
—— Jupiter, ii. 145. -
Larisus, r. of Achæa, ii. 74, 145. -
Larius (
Laroloni, i. 337. -
Lartolæētæ, people of Spain, i. 239. -
Larymna, t. of Bœotia, ii. 98, 100. -
——, Upper, t. of Locris, ii. - -100. -
Lās, t. of Laconia, ii. 42. -
Lasion sea-coast, ii. 9. -
Lathōn, Lēthæus, r. of Cyrenaica, - -iii. 21, 291. -
Latin towns, i. 278. -
—— coast, i. 344. -
—— cities, i. 356. -
Latina, Via, i. 351, 352, 353, 356, - -370. -
Latine.
Latini, Latins, i. 227, 325, 326, - -340, 343—346, 349, 438. -
Latinus, i. 339. -
Latium, i. 325, 338, 339, 344, 345, - -348, 351, 352, 360, 371, 378. -
Latmic Gulf, Ionia, iii. 6. -
Latmus, mtn of Caria, iii. 6.
-
-
-
-
Latmus, t. of Caria. iii. 6. -
Latomiæ, islands in the Arabian - -Gulf, iii. 194. -
Latona, ii. 208; iii. 11, 29. -
——, temple of, ii. 24, 207, - -239. -
Latopolis, city of Egypt, iii. 257, - -263. -
Latopolītæ, iii. 257, 263. -
Latus, iii. 263. -
Laurentum, t. of Latium, i. 339, - -346. -
Laüs, city of Lucania, i. 376, 377. -
——, r. of Lucania (
——, gulf of Lucania, i. 376. -
Laviansene, ii. 278, 285, 310. -
Lavicana, Via, i. 352. -
Lavicum, t. of Latium, i. 352. -
Lavinia, daughter of Latmus, i. - -339. -
Lavinium, city of Latium, i. 343, - -345, 398; ii. 378. -
Leap, the, ii. 162. -
Lebadeia, city of Bœotia, ii. 111, - -122. -
Lebedos, city of Ionia (
Lěbēn, t and port of Crete, ii. - -199. -
Lebenii, ii. 199. -
Lebinthus, island (
Lecanomanteis, iii. 180. -
Lechæum, port of Corinth (
Lectum, prom. of the Troad (
Lēda, wife of Tyndareus, and - -daughter of Thestius, ii. 173. -
Lěētani, people of Spain, i. 239. -
Legæ, or Leges (
Leimōn, iii. 26. -
Leimōne, same as Elēnē, ii. 145. -
Lēlantum, plain of, i. 90; ii. 154, - -178. -
Leleges, i. 493, 491; ii. 93, 327, - -328, 343, 374—376, 381, 383, - -394, 395; iii. 2, 4, 11, 40, 63, - -65. -
Lelegia, i. 493. -
Lēmenna, lake (
Lēmnos, island (
Lemovices, people of Gaul (
Leōcorium, ii. 86, 87. -
Leon, rocks on the Ethiopian shore, - -iii. 201. -
Leōnidas, i. 17; ii. 130, 181. -
Leōnides, stoic, iii. 33. -
Leonnatus, friend of Alexander, ii. - -136. -
Leonnorius, leader or the Galatæ, - -ii. 319. -
Leontes, ii. 350. -
Leontini, i. 31, 412, 414. -
Leontopolis, c. of Egypt, iii. 171, - -240. -
Leontopolïtae, iii. 240, 257. -
Leontopolite nome, in Egypt, iii. - -240. -
Leōsthenes, ii. 136. -
——,
Lepidum.
Lepidus, Marcus, i. 323. -
Lēpontii, Alpine race, i. 304, 306. -
Lepreātæ, ii. 18, 31, 45. -
Lepreātis, ii. 18. -
Leprcum, city of Triphylia, ii. 15, - -17, 19, 21, 22, 31. -
Leptis, city of Africa (
Leria.
Lerians, ii. 212. -
Lerna, r. of Argolis, ii. 48. -
——, lake of Argolis, ii. 48, 52. -
Lērō (
Lesbia.
Lesbians, ii. 365. -
Lesboclēs, ii. 392.
-
-
-
-
Lesbos, island (
Lēthæus, r. of Crete (
——, r. of Magnesia, ii. 303; - -iii. 21. -
——, r. of Thessaly, iii. 21. -
——, r. of the Cyrenaic.
Lēthē, r. of Lusitania, i. 229, 230.
-
-
Lethus, ii. 395. -
Lēto, temple of.
Letopolite nome, in Egypt, iii. - -247. -
Letoum, iii. 47. -
Leuca, t. of Calabria, i. 429. -
——, mtn of Crete (
——, Leuce, island of (
——, Leuce-Come, t. of the Na- - -batæi, iii. 211. -
——, Leuce-Acte,prom. ofEubœa, - -ii. 90. -
——, prom. of Libya, ii. 213; iii. - -235. -
——, in Thrace, i. 518. -
——, Capo di.
Leucadian Sea, i. 505. -
Leucadians, i. 494; ii. 162. -
Leucadius, brother of Penelope, ii. - -162. -
Leucæ, t. of Ionia (
Leucani, i. 315, 339, 373—380, - -392, 397, 427, 431. -
Leucania, i. 374—376, 380. -
Leucas, isl. and t. (
Leucaspis, iii. 236. -
Leucatas, prom. of Leucas, ii. 161, - -167, 173. -
Leuci, people of Gaul, i. 288. -
Leucimmē, prom. of Corcyra (
Leucippus, i. 399. -
Leuco, i. 463. -
Leucocomas, ii. 199. -
Leucolla, port of Cyprus, iii. 69. -
Leucōn, king of Bosporus, i. 476— - -478. -
Leuconotus (name of a wind), i. - -45; iii. 292. -
Leucopětra, prom. of Italy, i. 315, - -388. -
Leucophryēne, Artemis, iii. 22. -
Leucophrys, same as Tenedos, ii. - -373. -
Leucōsia, island, i. 185, 375, 387. -
Leucosyri, ii. 288. -
Leucothea, temple of, ii. 228. -
Leuctra (
——, battle of, ii. 68, 70. -
Leuctri, ii. 36. -
Leuctrum, t. of Laconia, ii. 36, - -38, 39. -
——, vill. of Achæa, ii. 73. -
Leuternian coast of Calabria, i. - -429. -
Leuternians, giants of Phlegra, i. - -429. -
Lexovii, i. 281, 290. -
Libanus, mtn, iii. 149, 169—171. -
Libēs, priest of the Chatti, i. 447. -
Libēthra, Leibēthrum, city of - -Pieria, i. 508; ii. 105, 187. -
Libēthriades, ii. 105, 187. -
Libophœnices, people of Libya, iii. - -289. -
Libs (S.W. wind), i. 45; ii. 303. -
Liburni, i. 407, 487. -
Liburnia, i. 484. -
Liburnian islands, i. 186, 484, 487. -
Libya, i. 2, 8, 15, 25, 41, 50, 51, 55, - -56, 60, 63, 64, 76, 78, 88, 103, - -148, 150, 154, 155, 159, 160— - -164, 174, 180—187, 191, 197, - -200, 206, 216-218, 226, 236, - -255, 334, 400, 416, 422,439,440, - -458, 459, 504; ii. 169, 303; iii. - -219, 226, 247, 253, 266, 270. -
Libyan Sea, i. 185. 403, 496; ii. 5, - -6, 35, 36; iii. 68. -
Libyans, i. 17, 256; iii. 271.
-
-
-
-
Libyans, Hesperītæ, iii. 22. -
Libyrnē,
Libyrnides.
Licattii, people of the Vindelici, i. - -307. -
Licha, iii. 199. -
Licnades Islands (
Lichas, companion of Hercules, ii. - -126, 155; iii. 201. -
Licymna, citadel of Tirynthes, ii. - -54. -
Licymnius, iii. 31. -
Licyrna, ii. 171. -
Liger, r. (
Liguria, (
Ligurian headlands, i. 139. -
Ligurisci, i. 454. -
Ligyes, Ligurians, i. 193, 267, 269, - -274, 275, 300—303, 322, 323, - -331, 462. -
——, Oxybian, i. 276, 301, 314. -
Ligystica.
——, coast, i. 184, 185. -
——, nations, i. 193, 194. -
——, Sea of, (
Lilæa, c. of Phocis, i. 25; ii. 101, - -123, 124, 128. -
Lilybæum, prom. of Sicily (
——, c. of Sicily (
Limæa, r. of Lusitania (
Limena, Limenera, ii. 48. -
Limenia, t. of Cyprus, iii. 70. -
Limnæ, t. of Messenia, i. 385; ii. - -39, 40. -
——, t. of the Thracian Cherso- - -nese, i. 517; iii. 5. -
——, suburb of Sparta, ii. 40. -
Limnæum, suburb of Sparta, ii. - -41. -
Limyra, t. of Lycia, iii. 47. -
Limyrus, r. of Lycia, iii. 47. -
Lincasii.
Lindii, Lindians, iii. 33. -
Lindus, c. of Rhodes (
Lingones, Lincasii, people of Gaul - -i. 278, 288, 310. -
Līnum, t. of Mysia, ii. 349. -
Linx, c. of Mauritania.
Liris, r. of Latium (
Lissus, t. of Dalmatia (
Liternum, t. of Campania (
Liternus, r. of Campania, i. 361. -
Lithrus, mtn of Pontus, ii. 306. -
Livia, piazza of, i. 351. -
Lixus, t. of Mauritania, iii. 279, - -281. -
—— r. of Mauritania (
Lochias, prom. of Egypt, iii. 226, - -230. -
Locri, people of Greece, i. 389— - -392, 494; ii. 85, 113—115, 124 - -—130, 134, 135, 159, 365. -
——, Epizephyrii, in Italy, i. 168, - -381, 383, 388; iii. 289. -
——, Epicnemidii, ii. 78, 113, - -114, 124, 125, 128, 132. -
——, Ozolœ or Hesperii, ii. 2, - -114—116, 125—128, 158. -
——, Opuntii, i. 389; ii. 114, 124 - -—126. -
Locria, ftn in Locris, i. 389. -
Locris, in Greece, ii. 6, 42, 114, - -124—132, 137, 151, 171, 340. -
——, in Italy, i. 186, 388, 390. -
Locrus, i. 494. -
Lopadūssa, island (
Lōryma, mtn and shore of Caria, - -iii. 34. -
Lōtophagi, i. 37, 236, 237; iii. - -281. -
Lōtophagitis, name of the Lesser - -Syrtis, iii. 288. -
Lucas, i. 494. -
Lucca, t. of the Ligyri, i. 323. -
Lucěria, t. of the Daunii (
Lucius Tarquinius Priscus.
—— Mummius, ii. 64, 65. -
Lūcotŏcia, city of the Parisii, i. - -290. -
Lucrine Lake and Gulf (
Lucullus, ii. 278, 292, 294, 107, - -320. -
——, Marcus, i. 490; ii. 65. -
Lūcūmo, son of Demaratus, i. - -326. -
Lūdias, r. and lake of Macedonia, - -i. 508, 509. -
Luerion, i. 302. -
Luerius, i. 285. -
Lugdūnum, t. of Aquitania (
——, c. of the Segosiani, i. 265, - -277, 284, 288, 289, 309, 310. -
Lūgeum, i. 482. -
Lūji, people of Germany, i. 444. -
Lūna, i. 323, 329, 330. -
Lūpiæ, t. of Calabria, i. 430. -
Lūpias, r. of Germany (
Lusitania, i. 181, 228—230, 250. -
Lusitanians, i. 209, 221, 228, 229, - -231, 245, 250. -
Lūsōnes, people of Spain, i. 243. -
Lux Dubia, i. 211. -
Lycabēttus, mtn of Attica, ii. 90, - -164. -
Lycæum, mtn of Arcadia (
Lycaōn, i. 329. -
——, son of Priam, i. 66; ii. 344, - -346. -
Lycaonia, i. 202; ii. 276, 281, 284, - -319, 321, 322, 332; iii. 44, 65. -
Lycaonians, i. 195; ii. 277, 304, - -322; iii. 64. -
Lycastus, ii. 200. -
Lyceum, at Athens, ii. 87, 88, - -90. -
Lychnidus, t. of Epirus (
Lycia, i. 8, 32, 38, 189, 195, 201;
-
-ii. 54, 259, 313, 317, 328, 329,
-
-409; iii. 27, 28, 44—48, 54, 59,
-
-68, 73,
——, in the Troad, ii. 317, 328, - -329. -
Lycii, Lycians, ii. 277, 304, 327— - -329, 344, 346, 353, 360, 362, 405, - -410; iii. 1, 41, 49, 63. -
——, in the Troad, ii. 162, 327, - -344, 346, 360, 362. -
——, Carian, ii. 327, 329. -
Lycomēdes, priest of the Comani, - -ii. 308. -
——, king of Scyrus, ii. - -140. -
——, son of Pharnaces, ii. - -311. -
Lycopolis, c. of Egypt, iii. 240,257, - -258. -
Lycopolītæ, iii. 257. -
Lycōreia, t. of Phocis, ii. 116. -
Lycormas, ii. 160. -
Lyctii, ii. 194. -
Lyctus, c. of Crete (
Lycurgus, Lacedemonian, ii. 43, 44, - -203, 204; iii. 179. -
——, king of the Edoni, ii. - -187; iii. 76. -
——, orator, ii. 368. -
Lycus, ii. 334. -
——, son of Pandiones, ii. 81; iii. - -49. -
——, r. of Assyria (
——, r. of Syria (
——, r. of Phrygia, ii. 334. -
——, r. of Armenia and Pontus, - -ii. 270, 295, 306. -
Lydia, i. 91, 96, 326; ii. 68, 102,
-
-
-
-
Lydian temples, ii. 185. -
—— gates, ii. 386. -
Lydians, i. 41, 328, 397, 453; ii. - -277, 317, 326, 329, 332, 346, - -384, 386, 396, 402, 403, 406, - -407; iii. 24, 38, 63—65, 140, - -141. -
Lydus, son of Atys, i. 326, 467. -
Lygæus, ii. 173. -
Lygdamis, leader of the Cimmerii, - -i. 96. -
Lyncēstæ, people of Macedonia, i. - -495, 500, 501. -
Lyncestis, i. 500. -
Lynx, iii. 277, 278, 281, 282. -
Lyrceium, mtn of Argolis, ii. 51, - -58, 124. -
——, vill. of Argolis, i. 410. -
Lyrnēssis, in the Troad, ii. 345. -
Lyrnēssus, t. of the Troad, ii. 343, - -345, 377, 384. -
——, t. of Pamphylia (
Lysias, fortress of Judæa, iii. 181. -
——, t. of Syria, iii. 166. -
——, t. of Phrygia, ii. 332. -
Lysimachia, city of the Thracian
-
-Chersonese (
——, t. and lake of Ætolia, - -ii. 172. -
Lysimachus, son of Agathocles, i. - -464, 469, 490, 517; ii. 315, 355, - -301, 371, 377, 399, 400; iii. 11, - -20, 22. -
Lysiœdi, iii. 23. -
Lysippus, sculptor, i. 424; ii. 171, - -350. -
Lysis, iii. 23. -
Mä, temple of Enyus, ii. 279. -
Macæ, people of Arabia Felix, iii. - -186, 187. -
Macar, ii. 32, 346. -
Macaria, part of Messenia, ii. 38. -
Macaria, ftn of Attica, ii. 59. -
Macaros-polis, same as Lesbos. -
Macedonia, i. 42, 187, 194, 425,
-
-432, 466, 481, 493, 495, 496,
-
-499, 500, 501, 504—516, 519;
-
-ii. 1—3, 10, 64, 92, 94, 129, 132,
-
-140, 141, 147—154, 157; iii.
-
-220, 297,
——, Upper, i. 500, 506. -
——, Lower, i. 506. -
——, Gulfs of (
Macedonian kings, ii. 44, 88. -
—— empire, i. 509. -
—— mtns, i. 488, 496, 507. -
—— nations, i. 485. -
—— city, ii. 56. -
Macedonians, i. 192, 257, 439, 485,
-
-495, 496, 498, 500, 504; ii. 4,
-
-55, 57, 68, 88, 105, 114, 128,
-
-131, 132, 137, 147, 172; iii. 39,
-
-115,
Machærus, fortress of Judæa, ii. - -120; iii. 181. -
Macistia, ii. 16, 23, 24. -
Macistii, ii. 16, 17, 45. -
Macistum, Macistus, t. of Triphylia, - -i. 385; ii. 18, 19, 24, 155. -
Macra, r. of Etruria, i. 330. -
Macras, Macra, Syrian plain, iii. - -170. -
Macri Campi, in Cisalpine Gaul, i. - -322. -
Macris, same as Eubœa, ii. 151. -
Macrocephali, i. 68; ii. 258. -
Macron-Tichos, i. 518. -
Macrōnes, people of Pontus, ii. - -296. -
Macronici.
Macropogones, ii. 219. -
Macynia, t. of Ætolia, ii. 160, 171. -
Madys, the Scythian, i. 96, 97. -
Madytus, c. of the Thracian Cher- - -sonese, i. 518. -
Mæander, r. of Phrygia and Caria
-
-(
Mæandrius, ii. 311. -
Mæcēnē, distr. of Arabia, iii. 189.
-
-
-
-
Mædi, people of Thrace, i. 485, 489, - -514. -
Mædobithyni, Thracian race, i. 453. -
Mæmacca, t. of Bætica, i. 235. -
Mænalus, mtn of Arcadia, ii. 76. -
——, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75. -
Mænoba, t. of Bætica, i. 215. -
Mæŏnes, Mēŏnes, or Mysi, ancient - -inhabitants of Lydia, ii. 298, 317, - -326, 332, 346, 396, 402, 403; iii. - -64, 65. -
Mæonia, same as Mysia, ii. 332, - -346, 405, 406. -
Mæōtæ, i. 195; ii. 219, 221, 224. -
Mæōtis, Palus (
Magarsa, t. of Cilicia, iii. 60. -
Magi, Persian priests, i. 35, 149, - -152; iii. 116, 136, 137, 140, 141, - -180. -
Magnēsia, Magnētis, distr. of Thes- - -saly, i. 506, 510; ii. 132—135, - -139—141, 146, 148. -
——, t. of Caria, ii. 299, 303, - -335; iii. 6, 7, 21—24, 43. -
——, t. of Lydia (
Magnesian Sea, ii. 135. -
Magnētes, of Thessaly, i. 43; ii. - -131, 140, 146—148; iii. 7. -
——, of Caria, ii. 333; iii. 22, - -23. -
Magnētis, i. 507. -
Magnopolis, c. of Pontus, ii. 306. -
Magōdi, same as Lysiōdi, iii. 23. -
Malaca, c. of Bætica (
Malaus, ii. 340. -
Maleæ, prom. of Laconia (
Maleōs, i. 335. -
Malia, prom. of Lesbos (
Maliac Gulf (
—— war, ii. 153. -
Malians, Malienses, i. 43; ii. 2, 5, - -135, 136, 147, 151. -
Malii, people of Mesopotamia, iii. - -158. -
Malli, people of India, iii. 94. -
Mallus, city of Cilicia, ii. 283; iii. - -59, 60. -
Malŏthas, c. of Arabia, iii. 212. -
Malūs, in the Troad, ii. 371. -
Mamaus, r. of Triphylia, ii. 16. -
Mamertīni, in the c. of Messana, i. - -404, 405. -
Mamertium, t. of the Bruttii, i. 391. -
Mana.
Mandanis, iii. 113, 114, 116. -
Mandūbii, people of Gaul, i. 285. -
Manes, Phrygian name, ii. 467. -
——, Paphlagonian name, ii. 302. -
——, r. of Locris,
Manius Aquillius, iii. 21. -
Mantiane, lake of Armenia, ii 270
-
-
Mantineia, c. of Arcadia, ii. 8, 75; - -iii. 378. -
Manto, daughter of Tiresias, ii. 148; - -iii. 15, 59. -
Mantua, c. of Cisalpine Gaul, i - -317. -
Maracanda, ii. 254. -
Maranītæ, people of Arabia, iii. - -204. -
Marathēsium, t. of Ionia (
Marathon, vill. of Attica, ii. 57, 59, - -67, 86, 90. -
——, Tetrapolis of, ii. 153. -
——, field of Spain, i. 240. -
Marathus, t. of Phocis, ii. 122. -
——, t. of Phœnicia, iii. 167. -
Marcellus, founder of Corduba, - -212. -
——, Marcus, i. 244.
-
-
-
-
Marcecus, son of Octavia, iii. 59. -
Marcia, wife of Cato, ii. 250. -
Marcian water, i. 356. -
Marcina, c. of Campania (
Marcomanni, people of Germany, i. - -444. -
Mardi, people of Persia and Ar- - -menia, ii. 240, 264. -
Mardonius, ii. 108. -
Mareōtis, Mareia, lake of Egypt, - -iii. 223, 228, 230, 236, 241, 247. -
Margala, Margalæ, t. of Triphylia, - -ii. 23, 24. -
Margiana, distr. of Asia, i. 112, - -113. -
Margiani, ii. 245, 251, 252. -
Margus, r. of Margiana, ii. 252. -
——, r. of Illyria, i. 488. -
Mariaba, city of the Sabæans, iii. - -190, 207. -
Mariandyni, people of Paphlagonia, - -i. 453; ii. 18, 286—288, 290, - -314; iii. 63. -
Mariandynus, ii. 287. -
Marinum, i. 337. -
Marisus, r. of Dacia (
Marius, i. 274, 354. -
Marmaridæ, people of Africa, i. - -198; iii. 275, 294. -
Marmarium, t. of Eubea, ii. 153. -
Marmōlītis, distr. of Paphlagonia, - -ii. 314. -
Marobodus, i. 444. -
Marōnia, t. of Thrace, i. 515, 516. -
Marrucina, i. 358, 359. -
Marrucini, people of Italy, i. 358, - -359. -
Mars, i. 232, 277, 340, 357, 372; - -ii. 328, 362, 395, 409. -
Marsi, people of Italy, i. 326, 349, - -351, 353, 356, 358. -
Marsi, people of Germany, i. 443. -
Marsiaba, city of Arabia, iii. 212. -
Marsian or Marsic war, i. 353, - -358, 388. -
Marsyas, ii. 186, 334, 390. -
——, r. of Phrygia, ii. 303, - -333, 334. -
Martius Campus, i. 350, 371. -
Marucini.
Maruvium, city of Italy, i. 359. -
Masæsylii, Masæsyli, people of - -Numidia, i. 198; iii. 279—282, - -287, 289, 291. -
Masanasses, king of Numidia, iii. - -282, 285, 286. -
Masēs, t. of Argolis, ii. 54, 58. -
Masiani, people of India, iii. 90. -
Masius, mtn of Armenia (
Massabatica, distr. of Media, ii. - -264; iii. 154. -
Massaga, t. of India, iii. 90. -
Massagětæ, Scythian race, ii. 240, - -245, 247, 248; iii. 75. -
Massalia, city of Gaul (
——, Gulf of, i. 271. -
Massilians, Massilienses (
Massyas, distr. of Syria, iii. 166, - -170, 171. -
Mastaura (
Masthles, iii. 41. -
Masylies, people of Numidia, i. - -198; iii. 282, 284, 285. -
Matalum, port of Gortyna, ii. 200. -
Mataurus, t. of Sicily, i. 416. -
Mater Isodroma, temple of, ii. - -145. -
Matiana, distr. of Media, i. 78, 112,
-
-ii. 242, 262, 264, 270.
-
-
-
-
Matiani, Matiēnī, inhabitants of - -Matiana, ii. 249, 273. -
Matrīnum, port of Adria, i. 358. -
Matrīnus, r. of Picenum (
Mauretania.
Mauri, same as Maurusii, iii. 276. -
Maurusia (
Maurusians, i. 7, 198, 206; ii. 36; - -iii. 276. -
Mausōleium, of Halicarnassus, iii. - -34. -
—— (
Mausōlus, king of Caria, ii. 383; - -iii. 34, 35. -
Maximus Æmilianus.
Mazaca (
Mazacēni, ii. 283. -
Mazæi, people of Pannonia, i. 483. -
Mazēnēs, king of the island Doracta, - -iii. 188. -
Mazūsia, prom. of the Thracian - -Chersonese, i. 517. -
Mecestus, r. of Phrygia (
Mecōne, same as Sicyon. -
Mecyberna, port of Olynthus, i. - -511. -
Medea, i. 31, 72, 73, 321, 332, 484; - -ii. 266, 273. -
Mědeōn, t. of Phocis, ii. 106, 122. -
——, t. of Bœotia, ii. 106, 122. -
Medes, i. 41, 196; ii. 125, 216, 230, - -239, 249, 264—270; iii. 239. -
Mēdia, i. 72, 76, 112, 115, 123; ii. - -235, 238, 240, 242, 250, 259— - -271, 273; iii. 109, 124, 125, 129 - -—134, 153, 154, 158. -
——, Atropatian, ii. 260,264, 267. -
——, the Greater, ii. 260, 264, - -267. -
Mediolanium (
Mediolanum (
Mediomatrici, people of Gaul, i. - -288, 289. -
Mediterranean Sea, i. 8, 56, 60, 62,
-
-75, 78, 81, 82, 85, 87, 88, 105,
-
-120, 128, 173, 174, 183, 184, 189,
-
-190, 192, 206, 210, 216, 234,
-
-241, 244, 245, 253, 264, 266,
Medius, historian, ii. 272. -
Medma, t. of Magna Grecia, ii. 383, - -384. -
Medoaci, people of Italy, i. 321. -
Medoacus, r. of Italy, i. 318. -
——, port of Patavia, i. 318. -
Mědon, ii. 134. -
Medus, son of Medea, ii. 266; iii. - -132. -
Medusa, ii. 62. -
Mědylli, people of Gaul, i. 276, - -303. -
Megabari, people of Ethiopia, iii. - -203, 219, 266. -
Megabates, leader of the Persians, - -ii. 96. -
Megabyzi, priests of the Ephesians, - -iii. 13. -
Megalagyrus, ii. 391. -
Megalocephali, i. 458. -
Megalopolis, city of Arcadia, ii. 37, - -71, 75. -
——, city of Pontus, ii. 306, - -310. -
Megalopolītæ, iii. 145. -
Megalopolītis, distr. of Arcadia, ii. - -5, 15, 72. -
——, distr. of Pontus, ii. - -306, 309. -
Megara, city of Greece, ii. 3, 48 - -57, 80—84, 108, 122; iii. 30. -
——, city of Sicily, i. 403, 404, - -406, 407. -
——, city of Syria, iii. 165. -
Megaræans, Megareans, Megarians, - -i. 404, 412, 490, 494; ii. 2, 4, 63, - -70, 81, 82, 84, 315. -
Megarenses, Hyblæi, ii. 73. -
Megarici, sect of philosophers, ii. - -82. -
Megaris, i. 256, 506; ii. 4, 6, 62, - -63, 78—81, 84, 91, 99. -
——, mountains of, ii. 99.
-
-
-
-
Megasthenes, of Chalcis, founder of - -Cumæ, i. 361. -
——, historian, i. 107—109, - -117, 120; iii. 75, 79, 80, 84, 96, - -97, 101, 103, 110, 116. -
Megēs, son of Phyleus, ii. 9, 143, - -167, 170. -
Megillus, iii. 83. -
Megiste, island, iii. 47. -
Melæna, prom. of Ionia, iii. 18, - -19. -
——, prom. of Chios, iii. 18, 19. -
Melæne, vill. of the Troad, ii. 371. -
——, Melania, city of Cilicia
-
-(
Melamphyllus, same as Samos, ii. - -168; iii. 8. -
Melampus, ii. 20. -
Melanchus, tyrant of Lesbos, ii.
-
-391.
Melanēis, same as Eretria, ii. 155. -
Melania, same as Melænæ. -
Melanippe, mother of Bœotus, i. - -399. -
Melanippus, ii. 344. -
Melanthus, father of Codrus, ii. 35, - -81, 82. -
Melantian rocks, in the Ægean (
Melas, prom. of Mysia, ii. 332. -
——, Gulf of (
——, r. of Bœotia (
——, r. of Thrace, i. 517. -
——, r. of Thessaly, ii. 129. -
——, r. of Pamphylia (
——, r. of Cappadocia (
Meldi, people of Gaul, i. 290. -
Meleager, son of Althea, i. 64; ii. - -179. -
——, of Gedara, iii. 114, 175. -
Meleagrides (probably
Mělēs, r. near Smyrna, ii. 303; - -iii. 20. -
Mělia, ii. 109, 318; iii. 67. -
Melibœa, t. of Thessaly, i. 378; ii - -140, 148. -
Meligūnis, same as Lipara, i. 417. -
Mēlinus, port of the Arabian Gulf, - -iii. 196. -
Melitæa, t. of Phthiotis, ii. 136 -
Melitæeis, ii. 134. -
Melitē, vill. of Attica, i. 102, 103. -
——, lake belonging to the Oeni- - -adæ, ii. 171. -
——, island (
——, same as Samothrace, ii. - -189. -
Mělitēnē, distr. of Cappadocia (
Meliteni, ii. 268, 278. -
Melius, ii. 386. -
Mellaria, i. 210. -
Mělōn, leader of the Sicambri, i. - -446. -
Mēlos, island (
Melpis, r. of Latium (
Melsus, r. of Asturia, i. 250. -
Memnon, village of, in Mysia, ii. - -347. -
——, sepulchre of, ii 347. -
——, son of Tithonus, iii. 130, - -258. -
——, dithyramb of Simonides, - -iii. 130. -
——, Rhodian, ii. 382. -
Memnŏnium, in Egypt, iii. 258, - -261, 262. -
——, of Abydos, iii. 258. -
——, citadel of the Susi, iii. - -130. -
Memphis, city of Egypt, ii. 190; - -iii. 241, 243—248, 251, 253, 257 - -—259, 263 -
Memphite nome, iii. 241. -
Mēn Ascæus, temple of, at Pisidia, - -ii. 307, 333. -
—— Carus, temple at Antioch, ii - -307, 336. -
—— Pharnaci, temple in Pontus - -ii. 306, 307. -
Menander, comic poet, i. 455; ii. - -162, 210; iii. 8, 9. -
——, king of the Bactrians, ii
-
-252. 253.
-
-
-
-
Menapnii, people of Germany, i. 289, - -290, 297, 298. -
Měnas, founder of Mesembria, i. - -490. -
Mende, t. of Macedonia, i. 511. -
Mendes, c. of Egypt, iii. 240. -
Mendesian mouth of the Nile, iii. - -239. -
—— nome, vill. of Egypt, iii. - -240. -
Mendesians, iii. 257. -
Meněbria, same as Mesēmbria. -
Meněcles, iii. 34, 40. -
Měnēcrates, disciple of Xenocrates, - -ii. 299, 300, 326, 396. -
——, disciple of Aristarchus, - -iii. 26. -
Menedēmus, an Eretrian philoso- - -pher, ii. 82, 156. -
Menelaïte nome, iii. 239. -
Menelaüs, son of Atreus, i. 3, 15,
-
-18, 47, 59—64, 67, 68, 72, 76,
-
-225, 333; ii. 35, 43, 47, 53, 173,
-
-186,
——, brother of Ptolemy I., iii. - -238, 239. -
——, t. in the Delta of Egypt, - -iii. 242. -
——, t. and port of Cyrenæa, i. - -64; iii. 238, 239, 294. -
Menestheus, i. 392; ii. 83, 398. -
——, port of (
——, son of Spercheus, ii. - -136. -
——, oracle of, i. 211. -
Meninx, island (
Menippus, of Gadara, iii. 175. -
——, of Stratonice, iii. 40. -
Mennæus, iii. 166. -
Mēnŏdōrus, iii. 24. -
Mēnŏdŏtus, ii. 401. -
Menœtius, father of Patrocles, ii. - -126. -
Měnōn, companion of Alexander, ii. - -271. - -Mentes, king of the Taphii, ii. 166, - -171. -
Mēŏnes, inhabitants of Lydia.
Mēčnia.
Mercury, i. 158; ii. 16; iii. 263. -
Mermadalis, r. in the land of the - -Amazons, ii. 235. -
Meroë, sister of Cambyses, iii. 225. -
——, island, i. 50; iii. 195, 217— - -220, 270. -
——, metropolis of Ethiopia, i. - -50, 98, 99, 106, 107, 110, 112, - -119, 120, 144, 171, 172, 174, 199, - -200, 203; iii. 84, 217—220, 270 - -—272, 275. -
Meropidæ, ii. 345. -
Meropis, name of the island of Cos, - -i. 459. -
Měrops, i. 52. -
——, of Percoté, ii. 345, 316. -
Mērus, mtn of India, iii. 687. -
Mesēmbria, t. of Thrace (
Mesēmbriani, i. 490. -
Měsēne, distr. of Babylon, i. 129. -
Mesēni, Arabians, iii. 146. -
Měsōgis, mtn of Lydia, ii. 145, 407, - -408; iii. 7, 8, 24—26. -
—— wine of, iii. 26. -
Mesola, ii. 37. -
Mesopotamia, i. 66, 122, 124, 127, - -134, 137, 196, 416; ii. 260, 261, - -267, 271, 284; iii. 109, 142, 150, - -154, 156, 157, 161, 166, 185. -
Messa, t. of Laconia, ii. 41. -
Messala, i. 305. -
Messapia, same as Iapygia, i. 422, - -423, 430; ii. 98. -
Messapian language, i. 431. -
Messapii, i. 427, 428. -
Messapius, mtn (
Messapus, ii. 98. -
Messēis, ftn of Thessaly, ii. 134. -
Messēne, c. of Messenia, i. 186, 236,
-
-425—427; ii. 5, 8, 14—18, 22,
-
-24, 25, 27, 28, 31, 35, 37—40,
-
-42, 45—47, 54, 77, 81.
-
-
-
-
Messēne, Messana, Messenia, in
-
-Sicily (
Messenian Gulf (
—— war, i. 385, 424—427; ii. - -39. -
Messenians, i. 385, 404, 405, 425, - -426; ii. 5, 7, 11, 31, 35, 36, 38, 39, - -82; iii. 2. -
——, in Sicily, i. 376. -
Messina, Strait of, i. 37, 39, 69, 85, - -86, 105, 110, 140, 158—160, 163, - -173, 179, 180, 184, 193, 256, 313 - -—315, 360, 379, 383, 384, 386, - -401—404; ii. 60. -
Messŏa, part of Sparta, ii. 41. -
Messŏla, t. of Messenia (
Metabum, same as Metapontium, - -i. 399. -
Metabus, i. 399. -
Metagonians, i. 255, 256. -
Metagōnium, prom. of Mauritania
-
-(
Metapontium, city of Magna Græcia
-
-(
Metapontus, i. 399. -
Metaurus, r. of Umbria, i. 337. -
——, r. of the Bruttii (
Metellus (Q. Metellus Pius), i. - -244. -
——, surnamed Balearicus.
Methana, Methōne, t. and penins. - -near Trœzene, ii. 56. -
Methōnē, city of Messenia, i. 92; - -ii. 36, 37. -
——, c. of Macedonia, i. 508, - -509. -
——, c. of Magnesia, ii. 140. -
——, of Thrace, ii. 140. -
Methydrium, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75. -
Mēthymna, city of Lesbos (
Mēthymnæans, ii. 351, 382. -
Mētrodōrus, of Scepsis, ii. 235, - -380; iii. 202. -
Mētrodōrus, disciple of Epicurus, - -ii. 350. -
Mētropolis, t. of Thessaly, ii. 141. -
——, t. of Magna Phrygia
-
-(
——, t. of Lydia, iii. 1. -
Mētropolītæ, ii. 141; iii. 8. -
Mētrōum, temple of the mother of - -the gods, iii. 20. -
Mětūlum, t. of the Iapodes, i. 309, - -483. -
Mēvania, city of Umbria (
Micipsa, son of Masinissa, iii. 282, - -285, 286. -
Micythus, i. 376. -
Midaeium, c. of Phrygia Epictetus, - -ii. 332. -
Midas, king of Magna Phrygia, i. - -96; ii. 321, 326; iii. 66. -
——, Phrygian name, i. 467. -
Midea, t. of Bœotia, ii. 54. -
——, t. of Argolis, ii. 54. -
Mideia, t. of Bœotia, i. 92; ii. 110. -
Milesian territory, i. 493. -
Milesians, i. 470, 476, 490, 517; - -ii. 287, 291, 293, 294, 317, 349 - -—357, 377; iii. 1, 4, 5, 37, 239. -
Milētopolis, t. of Mysia, ii. 331, - -382; iii. 67. -
Milētopolïtis, lake in Mysia (
Milētus, c. of Ionia, i. 492; ii. - -303, 328, 333, 383; iii. 2, 4—6. -
——, in Crete, ii. 200, 328; iii. - -4. -
Milo, i. 395. -
Miltiades, ii. 90. -
Milya, Milyas, distr. near Pisidia, - -ii. 324, 409, 410; iii. 48. -
Milyæ, ii. 304, 328; iii. 49, 63. -
Mimallŏnes, ii. 183. -
Mimas (
Mimnermus, i. 74; iii. 2, 316. -
Minæa, distr. of Arabia Felix, iii - -191. -
Minæi, people or Arabia, iii. 190
-
-204.
-
-
-
-
Mincius, r. of Gaul (
Minerva, i. 66, 224, 235, 346; ii. - -9, 14—16, 19, 27, 84, 108; iii. - -33. -
——, temple of, i. 368, 428, 433; - -ii. 110, 138, 142, 186,189, 355, - -367, 368,383, 389; iii. 153, 239, - -263. -
——, Alæan, ii. 75. -
——, Scilluntian, ii. 16. -
——, Alalcomenian, ii. 110. -
——, Trojan, i. 398. -
——, Itonian, ii, 107, 138, 142. -
——, Nedusian, ii. 37, 210. -
——, Polias, ii. 84, 86. -
——, Glaucopis, ii. 366. -
Minius, r. (
Minōa, t. of Argolis, ii. 48. -
——, t. of Crete (
——, prom. of Megaris, ii. 80. -
Minōs, king of Crete, i. 76, 225, 413, - -425, 430; ii. 55, 196—200, 204, - -328; iii. 40, 179. -
Minōtaur, ii. 197. -
Minteius, same as Minyeïus. -
Minthe, mtn near Pylus, ii. 17. -
Minturnæ, city of Latium, i. 347, - -352, 353. -
Minyæ, in Triphylia, ii. 8, 21, 93, - -111. -
Minyeians, ii. 111. -
Minyeius, Minyeïus, r. of Triphylia, - -ii. 10, 20, 27, 55. -
Misēnum, prom. and port of Cam-
-
-pania (
Misēnus, companion of Ulysses, i. - -39, 364. -
Mithracina, ii. 271. -
Mithras, god of the Persians, the - -Sun, iii. 136. -
Mithridates, of Pergamus, ii. 401. -
—— Ctistes, king of Pontus, ii. 314. -
—— Euergetes, king of - -Pontus, ii. 197, 198. -
—— Eupator, king of Pon- - -tus, i. 22, 114, 440, 471, 472, - -475—479; ii. 198, 209, 285, 286, - -290, 292, 294, 304—307, 313, - -314, 356, 357, 380, 387, 401,405; - -iii. 13, 232. -
Mithridatic war, ii. 89, 305—307, - -312, 356, 386; iii. 25. -
Mithridatium, citadel of the Galatæ, - -ii. 320. -
Mithropastes, iii. 188. -
Mitylenæans, i. 5, 16; ii. 366,374, - -376, 392. -
Mitylene, c. of the island of Les- - -bos, ii. 145, 220, 365, 366, 391, - -392. -
Mnasalces, ii. 108. -
Mnasyrium, iii. 33. -
Mneyis, god of the Egyptians, iii. - -241, 245. -
Mnōans, ii. 287. -
Moagetes, tyrant of Cibyra, ii. 410. -
Moaphernes, ii. 228, 307. -
Moasada, fortress of Judæa, iii. - -183. -
Mōchus, philosopher, iii. 173. -
Modra, t. of Phrygia, ii. 289. -
Mœris, lake in Egypt, i. 79; iii. - -223, 253, 255, 257, 258. -
Mœsi, people of Thrace, i. 453, - -454, 466; ii. 287. -
Mŏlō, iii. 34, 40. -
Molochath, r. of Mauritania (
Molossi, Molotti, nation of Epirus, - -i. 427, 493, 495, 496, 499, 500, - -502, 504; ii. 131, 137, 356. -
Molycreia, t. of Etolia (
Molycrium, Rhium, same as Antir- - -rhium, ii. 6. -
Mōmemphis, city of Egypt, iii. 241, - -242. -
Mōmemphitæ, iii. 241. -
Momemphite nome, iii. 241. -
Monarites wine, ii. 278. -
Monētium, t. of the Iapodes, i. 309,
-
-483.
-
-
-
-
Monœci Portus, in Liguria (
Monœcus, Hercules, temple of, i. - -301. -
Monommati, i. 68, 458; iii. 108. -
Moon, temple to the, ii. 234. -
Mopsium, t. of Thessaly, ii. 146, - -148. -
Mopsŏpia, ancient name of Attica, - -ii. 87, 148. -
Mopsopus, ii. 87, 148. -
Mopsuhestia, t. of Cilicia, iii. 61. -
Mopsus, one of the Lapithæ, ii. 148. -
——, son of Mantus, ii. 148; iii. - -15, 50, 59, 60. -
Mōrēna, distr. of Mysia, ii. 330. -
Morgantium, t. of Sicily, i. 386, - -408. -
Morgētes, the, emigrate to Sicily, i. - -385, 386, 407, 408. -
Morimēnē, distr. of Cappadocia, ii. - -278, 281, 284, 321. -
Morimēni, ii. 321. -
Morini, people of Gaul, i. 289, 290, - -297, 298. -
Mormolyca, i. 29. -
Moro, t. of Lusitania (
Morys, ii. 317. -
Morzeus, king of Paphlagonia, ii. - -314. -
Moschi, ii. 225. -
Moschic mountains, i. 96; ii. 219, - -226, 260, 267, 296. -
Moschice, distr. of Colchis, ii. 228, - -229. -
Mōsēs, iii. 177, 178. -
Mosynœci, people of Pontus, ii. - -269, 297. -
Mūgilōnes, people of Germany, i. - -445. -
Mulius, ii. 10. -
Mūnda, metropolis of Turdetania
-
-(
Mundas, r. of Lusitania (
Mūnychia, port of the Athenians, - -ii. 85. -
Murēna, ii. 410; iii. 53. -
Mūsæus, ii. 187; iii. 180. -
Muses, the, i. 66; ii. 11, 23, 24, - -183, 187. -
Mūseum of Alexandria, iii. 229. -
Mūisicanus, distr. in India, iii. 85, - -86, 95, 106. -
Mūtina, t. of Italy (
Mycale, prom. of Ionia (
Mycalessus, vill. of Bœotia, ii. 96, - -99, 106. -
Mycēnæ, c. of Argolis, i. 329; ii. - -48, 53, 54, 59, 60. -
Mycēnæa, ii. 53. -
Mycenæans, ii. 53, 55. -
Mychus (
Mycŏnus, island (
Mygdones, i. 453, 506, 514; ii. - -316, 330. -
——, people of Mesopotamia, - -ii. 268; iii. 142, 157. -
Mygdonia, Mygdonis, part of Mysia, - -i. 515; ii. 299, 332, 348. -
——, part of Mesopotamia, iii. - -157. -
Mylæ, t. of Sicily (
Mylasa, c. of Caria, iii. 37—40. -
Mylasians, iii. 38. -
Myndia, iii. 37. -
Myndii, Myndians, ii. 383; iii. 36. -
Myndus, c. of Caria, ii. 383; iii. - -37. -
Mynēs, king of Lyrnessus, ii. 343, - -384, 394. -
Myonnesus, island, ii. 138, 393. -
——, t. of lonia, iii. 16, 17. -
Myra, t. of Lycia, iii. 45, 47. -
Myrcinus, t. of Macedonia, i. 512. -
Myriandrus, t. of Syria, iii. 61. -
Myrina, Amazon, ii. 298, 328, 399. -
——, c. of Æolis, ii. 237, 298, - -397, 399. -
Myrinæans, ii. 397.
-
-
-
-
Myrleani (
Myrleātis, ii. 299. -
Myrleia, c. of Bithynia (
Myrmēcium, c. of the Tauri (
Myrmidons, ii. 50, 57, 132, 136. -
——, tragedy of Æschylus, - -ii. 390. -
Myrōn, statuary, iii. 7. -
Myrrinūs, vill. of Attica, ii. 90. -
Myrsilus, historian, i. 93; ii. 382. -
——, tyrant of Mitylene, ii. 391. -
Myrsinus, t. of Elis, ii. 12, 13. -
Myrtōan Sea, i. 187,496, 518, 519; - -ii. 6, 49, 57. -
Myrtūntium, t. of Elis, ii. 13. -
——, estuary near Leucada, - -ii. 171. -
Myscellus, Achæan, founder of - -Crotona, i. 394, 406, 407; ii. 73. -
Mysi, or Mysians, i. 9, 195, 453,
-
-454, 457,460, 461, 466, 468, 488;
-
-ii. 277, 287, 302, 316—319, 389,
-
-402, 407; iii. 27, 38, 63, 67,
——, around Olympus, ii. 319, - -326, 330. -
——, tragedy of Sophocles, ii. 32. -
Mysia (
—— Abrettēnē,
—— Olympii, ii. 326. -
Mysian Bosporus, ii. 318. -
—— Olympus, iii. 30. -
Mysius, r. of Mysia, ii. 390. -
Mysos, the beech tree, ii. 326, 327. -
Mylūs, c. of Caria (
—— Hormus, port of Egypt on
-
-the Arabian Gulf (
Nabatæa, distr. of Arabia, iii. 204. -
Nabatæans, iii. 177, 189, 204, 209 - -—211, 214. -
Nabiani, people inhabiting the - -Caucasus, ii. 239. -
Nabocodrŏsor, iii. 75. -
Nabrissa, city of Bætica.
Nabūrianus, mathematician, iii. - -146. -
Nacoleia, t. of Phrygia Epictetus, - -ii. 332. -
Nagidus, t. of Cilicia, iii. 52, 69. -
Naïs, ii. 375. -
Namnetæ, people of Aquitania - -(capital Nantes), i. 283. -
Nanno, poem of Mimnermus, iii. - -2,3. -
Nantuātæ, an Alpine race, i. 303. -
Napata, city of Ethiopia, iii. 268. -
Napē, t. near Methymna, ii. 127. -
Napitinus, Gulf of, i. 379. -
——, Bay of.
Nar, r. of Umbria (
Narbōn, the Narbonnaise (
Narcissus, ii. 96. -
Narnia, r. of Dalmatia (
Narōn, c. of Umbria (
Narthacium, t. of Thessaly, ii. 136. -
Narthēcis, island, iii. 7. -
Narycus, t. of the Opuntian Locri- - -ans, ii. 126. -
Nasamōnes, race of Africa, i. 198; - -iii. 291, 294. -
Nasica, Cornelius Scipio, i. 484. -
Natison, r. near Aquileia, i. 319. -
Nauclus, son of Codrus, iii. 2. -
Naucratis, c. of Egypt, iii. 239, - -242, 250, 252. -
Naulochus, t. of Mœsia, i. 490; ii. - -145. -
Naupactus, c. of the Ozolean Lo
-
-crians (
Nauplia, c. of Argolis, ii. 48, 54, - -55. -
Nauplius, son of Neptune, ii. 48. -
Nauportus, c. of the Taurisci.
Naustathmus, ii. 360, 363, 364, 385. -
——, port of the Cyrenaic, - -iii. 294. -
Naxos, island (
——, c. of Sicily, i. 403—406, 412, - -414. -
Nea, vill. (
Neæthus, r. of Magna Grecia
-
-(
Neandria, t. of the Troad, ii. 373, - -375. -
Neandris, ii. 189. -
Neanthēs, of Cyzicus, i. 71. -
Neapolis, c. of the Tauric Cher- - -sonese, i. 479. -
——, c. of Macedonia (
——, c. of the Samians on the - -coast of Ephesus, iii. 10. -
——, c. of Pontus (
——, c. of the Carthaginians, - -iii. 288, 289. -
——, c. of Campania (
——, same as Leptis, iii. 289. -
Neapolitans, i. 39, 368, 369. -
Neapolitis, same as the Halys, ii. - -311. -
Nearchus, i. 109, 119; iii. 74, 80— - -85, 88, 100, 101, 114, 115, 120, - -122, 127—129, 132, 187, 188. -
Nebrissa (
Nebrodes, mtns, i. 415. -
Necropolis, suburb of Alexandria, - -iii. 230, 231, 236. -
Necyomantels, iii. 180. -
Něda, r. of Peloponnesus, ii. 17, 22, - -24, 26, 37. -
Nědōn, r. of Laconia, ii. 28, 37. -
——, vill. of Messenia, razed by - -Teleclus, ii. 37. -
Nedūsian Minerva, temple of, iii. - -37. -
Negra, iii. 218. -
Negrana, c. of Arabia, iii. 212. -
Negrani, iii. 212. -
Neis, ii. 394. -
Nēïum, in the isl. of Ithaca, ii. 164. -
Neleïdæ, i. 398; ii. 35. -
Nēleus, father of Nestor, ii. 7, 17, - -26, 27. -
——, founder of Miletus, iii. 2, 4. -
——, son of Coriscus, ii. 378, - -379. -
——, r. of Eubœa, ii. 157. -
Nēlia, t. of Magnesia, ii. 139. -
Nemausus, city of Gaul (
Něměa, r. near Corinth, ii. 66. -
——, t. of Argolis, ii. 60. -
Nemean games, ii. 60. -
—— lion, ii. 60. -
Nemesis, statue of, at Rhamnusia, - -ii. 87, 90. -
—— Adrastea, temple of, ii. - -348. -
Nemōssus, head of the Arverni, i. - -284. -
Němus, temple of Diana near Aricia, - -i. 355. -
Nemydia, cognomen of Diana, ii. - -14. -
Neoclēs, father of Epicurus, iii. 9. - -Neocōmïtæ, i. 317. -
Neōn, t. in the vicinity of Parnas- - -sus, ii. 143. -
Neon-teichos, ii. 396. -
Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, ii. - -119, 120, 140, 343. -
——, general of Mithri- - -dates, i. 472. -
——, writer of glosses, ii. - -350. -
——, tower of, i. 469. -
Nepheris, fortress of the Cartha- - -ginians, iii. 287. -
Něpita, t. of Etruria (
Neptune, i. 32, 53, 69, 342; ii. 6, - -17, 48, 70, 72, 211, 335, 367. -
——, temples of, ii. 16, 40, 55, - -69, 71, 109, 154, 213; iii. 7, 230 -
——, Asphalian, i. 90.
-
-
-
-
Neptune, Heliconian, ii. 69; iii. - -10. -
——, Isthmian, ii. 49, 63. -
——, Samian, ii. 16—19. -
——, Ægæan, temple of, ii. 98.
-
-
Nēritum, mtn of Ithaca, ii. 162— - -164. -
Nēritus, t. of Leucas, i. 92; ii. - -161. -
Něrium, Cape, prom. of Spain
-
-(
Nēroassus, fortress of Cappadocia, - -ii. 281. -
Nervii, people of Germany, i. 289. -
Nēsæa, distr. of Hyrcania, ii. 243, - -246, 271. -
Nēsæan horses, ii. 265. -
Nessōn, Thessalian, ii. 149. -
——, harbour of, in Thessaly, ii. - -131, 144, 146, 149. -
Nessus, centaur, ii. 127, 160. -
Nestor, son of Neleus, i. 14, 61, - -330, 398; ii. 7, 8, 10, 11, 14,16, - -18—20, 22—28, 30, 31, 36, 47, - -132, 155, 210; iii. 2. -
——, Stoic, iii. 58. -
——, Academician, the preceptor - -of Marcellus, iii. 59. -
Nestus, r. of Thrace (
Netium (
Nibarus, mtn of Armenia, ii. 268, - -273. -
Nicæa, c. ofBithynia (
——, c. of the Massilians (
——, c. of Locris, ii. 127, 129. -
——, c. of India, iii. 92. -
——, daughter of Antipater, the - -wife of Lysimachus, ii. 318. -
Nicander, iii. 273. -
Nicator.
Nicatorium, mtn of Assyria, iii. - -144. -
Nicēphorium, grove of Pergamus, - -ii. 400. -
Nicēphorium, t. of the Mygdoni of
-
-Mesopotamia (
Nicias, tyrant of Cos, iii. 36. -
Nicium, c. of Egypt, iii. 236. -
Nicolaus, of Damascus, iii. 118. -
Nicomēdēs, king of Bithynia, ii. - -313; iii. 21. -
——, son of Prusias, ii. 401. -
Nicomēdia, c. of Bithynia (
Niconia, t. of the Tyregetæ, i. 469. -
Nicopolis, c. of Epirus, i. 497— - -499; ii. 159. -
——, c. of Lesser Armenia, ii. - -305. -
——, c. of Cilicia, iii. 61. -
——, c. of Egypt, iii. 230, 231, - -237, 238. -
Nicostrata, mother of Evander, i. - -343. -
Nicyrus, iii. 36. -
Nigrētes, Nigrïtæ, people of Africa, - -i. 198; iii. 277, 280. -
Nile, r. of Egypt, i. 36, 45—47, 50,
-
-56—58, 60, 82, 101, 102, 129,
-
-130, 137, 148, 149, 163,171, 172,
-
-178, 179, 191, 196, 410, 416, 458;
-
-ii. 219, 220, 255; iii. 73, 74, 82,
-
-84, 86—88, 96, 173, 174, 177,
-
-189, 194, 195, 210, 211, 217—
-
-226, 228, 241—248, 257, 263,
-
-266, 270—276,
——, cataracts of, i. 60. -
——, mouths, i. 190. -
——, Canopic mouth, i. 101, 129, - -130, 137; iii. 237, 238. -
——, Pelusiac mouth, iii. 53, 177, - -220, 223, 226, 239, 240. -
Nilus, tract of Ethiopia, iii. 200. -
Nineveh, iii. 142, 143. -
Ninias, t. of Dalmatia, i. 484. -
Ninus, king of Assyria, i. 129; iii. - -143. -
——, c. of Assyria, i. 129; ii. - -274; iii. 140, 143. -
Niobē, wife of Amphion, ii. 36, 326,
-
-337.
-
-
-
-
Niobē, tragedy of Æsehylus, ii. - -337. -
Niphates, mtn of Armenia (
Nisa, t. of Bœotia, ii. 98, 99. -
——, of Megaris, ii. 99. -
Nisæa, port of Megara, ii. 4, 55, 80 - -—82, 84. -
Nisibis, c. of the Mygdonians of - -Mesopotamia, ii. 261, 268; iii. - -142, 157. -
Nisus, father of Scylla, ii. 55, 81. -
Nisyrus, island, ii. 212—214; iii. 34. -
——, t. of the island of, ii. 213. -
——, t. of Carpathus, ii. 214. -
Nitiobriges, people of Aquitania
-
-(
Nitriote nome, iii. 242. -
Noarus, r. of Illyria, i. 483, 488. -
——
Noiga, t. of the Asturi, i. 250. -
Nola, i. 367, 370. -
Nomades, Numide (Wanderers), - -i. 51, 198, 441, 461; ii. 231, 233, - -240, 299, 302, 352; iii. 166, 194, - -197, 198, 205, 212. -
Nomentana Via, i. 339, 354. -
Nomentum, i. 338. -
Nora, ii. 281. -
Noreia, c. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Norici, Taurisci Norici, i. 306, 307, - -310, 448. -
Northern Ocean, i. 451, 452. -
Nŏtium, coast and promontory of - -Chios, iii. 18. -
Notu-ceras, promontory of Ethiopia, - -iii. 200. -
Nŏtus, wind, i. 45, 97. -
Novum- comum, t. of Cisalpine - -Gaul, i. 317. -
Nūbæ, people inhabiting the Nile, - -iii 219, 266. -
Nūcěria, c. of Umbria (
——, c. of Campania (
Numa Pompilius, i. 338, 339. -
Numantia, c. of Spain, i. 229, 243, - -244, 439. -
Numantians, the, i. 243. -
Numitor, king of Alba-longa, i. - -340. -
Nycteus, father of Antiopa, ii. 97. -
——, cave, iii. 164. -
Nymphæum, c. of the Tauric Cher- - -sonese, i. 476. -
——, prom. of Mt Athos
-
-(
——, rock near Apollonia., - -i. 486. -
Nysa, vill. of Bœotia, ii. 99. -
Nysa or Nysais, distr. of Lydia, ii. - -345, 408. -
——, c. of Caria, iii. 24—27, 43. -
——, c. and mtn of India, iii. 76. -
——, mtn of Thrace, iii. 76. -
Nysæi or Nysæans, people of India, - -iii. 76, 90. -
Nysaeis, in Caria, ii. 335. -
Nysaïs, distr. of Lydia.
Obelisks, iii. 245, 262. -
Obidiacēni, a Mæotic race, ii. - -223. -
Obodas, king of the Nabatæi, iii. - -211—213. -
Obulco (
Ocalea, t. of Bœotia, ii. 106, 107. -
Ocean, i. 4—6, 33, 38, 39, 53, 68,
-
-73, 74, 111, 143,
——, Northern, i. 115. -
——, Western (
——, Eastern (
Ocelum, t. of Cisalpine Gaul
-
-(
Ochē, name of Eubœa, ii. 152. -
Ochē, mtn of Eubœa (
Ochus, r. of Bactriana and Hyr- - -cania, ii. 243—245, 251, 254, - -255. -
Ochyrōma, citadel of Ialysus, iii. - -33. -
Ocra, mtn, i. 300, 308, 309, 314,
-
-482
-
-
-
-
Ocricli, t. of Umbria (
Octavia, sister of Augustus, iii. 59. -
Ocypodæ, iii. 108. -
Odeium, theatre of Pericles at - -Athens, ii. 87. -
Odēssus, t. of Mœsia (
Odius, leader of the Halizoni, ii. - -297—299. -
Odomantes, people of Macedonia, i. - -514. -
Odomantis, district of Armenia, ii. - -269. -
Odrysæ, people of Thrace, i. 5, - -16. -
Odryssēs, r. of Mysia, ii. 299. -
Odysseia.
Odysseus.
Œantheia, t. of the Ozolian Locri- - -ans, ii. 128. -
Œaso, i. 242. -
$Oechalia, c. of Eubœa, ii. 156. -
——, c. of Ætolia, ii. 156. -
——, c. of Arcadia, afterwards - -Andania, ii. 10, 11, 23, 24, 37, - -156. -
——, two cities of Thessaly, - -ii. 142, 156. -
——, the taking of, poem of - -Homer, iii. 9. -
Œdanēs, r. of India, iii. 118. -
Œdipus, ii. 64. -
Œneiadæ, city of Thessaly, ii. 137. -
Œneus, father of Deianira, i. 64; - -ii. 170, 174, 175. -
Œniadæ, c. of Ætolia, ii. 137,159, - -169, 171. -
——, lake of the, in Ætolia, ii. - -171. -
Œnoa, fortress of the Corinthians, - -ii. 63, 105. -
Œnoanda, c. of Lycia (
Œnoë, t. of Attica, ii. 57, 67. -
——, t. of Elis, ii. 9. -
——, t. in the isl. of Icaria, iii. - -10. -
Œnomaus, king of Elis, ii. 31. -
Œnōnē, wife of Paris, ii. 360. -
Œnōnē, ancient name of Ægina, ii. - -57. -
——, two demi of Attica, ii. 57. -
Œnoparas, r. of Syria (
Œnops, ii. 375. -
Œnōtri, Œnotrians, Œnotrides, an- - -cient inhabitants of Lucania, i. - -376, 377, 379, 380, 386, 399. -
Œnōtria, i. 313, 379. 400. -
Œnōtrian kings, i. 383. -
Œnōtrides, islands, i. 376, 387. -
Œta, mtn, i. 505; ii. 4, 114—116, - -128—132, 135, 147, 158, 160. -
Œtæa, distr. of Thessaly, ii. 123, - -132, 136, 160. -
Œtæan hellebore, ii. 116. -
Œtæi, people of Greece, ii. 114, - -158, 386. -
Œtylus, t. of Laconia, ii. 35, 36. -
Œum, castle of, i. 95. -
Ogyges, ii. 68. -
Ogygia, ancient name of Bœotia, i. - -38; ii. 101. -
Ogyium, mtn, i. 459. -
Ogyris, isl. of the Red Sea, iii. 187, - -188. -
Oïsci.
Olane, citadel of Armenia, ii. 270. -
Olba, t. of Cilicia, iii. 55. -
Olbia, city of the Massilians (
——, c. of Pamphylia (
——, c. situated on the Borys- - -thenes, i. 470. -
Oleastrum, t. of Spain, i. 239. -
Olěnian rock, mtn of Elis, ii. 12— - -14, 27, 74. -
Olenii, ii. 71. -
Olěnus (
——, c. of Ætolia, ii. 72, 160, 172. -
Olgassys, mtn of Paphlagonia, ii. - -313, 314. -
Oliarus, one of the Cyclades (
Oligasys, name of the Paphlago- - -nians, ii. 302. -
Olizōn, t. of Magnesia, ii. 139, 142.
-
-
-
-
Olmeius, r. of Bœotia, ii. 101, 108. -
Olmiæ, prom. of the Bay of Cor- - -inth, ii. 63, 105. -
Oloossōn, t. of Thessaly, ii. 143, - -145. -
Olophyxis, t. of Macedonia, i. 512, - -513. -
Olūris, Olūra, t. of Messenia, ii. 24. -
Olympēne, distr. of Mysia, ii. 332. -
Olympēni, ii. 319. -
Olympia, i. 409; ii. 5, 8, 14—16, - -28, 30—33, 45, 61, 76, 176. -
Olympic Games, i. 391, 395, 498; - -ii. 29—31, 34, 365; iii. 32. -
Olympium, temple of Jupiter at - -Athens, ii. 87, 97. -
Olympus, inventor of the flute, ii. - -186, 334. -
——, c. of Lycia (
——, mtn of Lycia, i, 40, 41. -
——, mtn and fortress of Cilicia, iii. 54. -
——, of Crete, ii. 186. -
——, mtn of Cyprus, iii. 69. -
——, mtn of Pisatis, ii. 32. -
——, mtn of Thessaly, i. 94, - -311, 506—508; ii. 29, 32, 131, - -145—147, 186, 272. -
——, mtn of Macedonia, ii. - -378. -
——, mtn of Mysia (
Olynthus, c. of Macedonia, i. 182, - -506, 511; ii. 103, 154. -
Olysipo, c. of Lusitania, i. 228. -
Olyssa, t. of Crete, ii. 200. -
Omanus, god of the Persians, ii. - -246; iii. 137. -
Ombrica (
Ombrici, Ombri, people of Italy
-
-(
Omphale, wife of Hercules, i. 326. -
——, tragedy of Ion, i. 94. -
Omphaliōn, ii. 39. -
Onchēsmus, port of Epirus (
Onchēstus, t. of Bœotia, ii. 106, - -107, 109. -
Oneia, mtns in Megaris, ii. 62, 82. -
Onēsicritus, i. 109; ii. 253; iii. - -80—87, 93, 95, 100, 102, 106, - -112—114, 133. -
Onesii, hot-springs of the, in Aqui- - -tania, i. 284. -
Onŏba, t. of Bætica (
Onomarchus, leader of the Phocæ- - -ans, ii. 119. -
Onugnathus, peninsula of Laconia, - -ii. 41. -
Ophelas (
Ophienses, people of Ætolia, ii. 160, - -179. -
Ophiōdēs, isl. in the Arabian Gulf
-
-(
Ophiogeneis, ii. 348. -
Ophiūssa, same as the isl. of Rhodes, - -iii. 31. -
——, t. of the Tyregetæ, i. 469. -
——, isl. near Spain, i. 251. -
Ophlimus, mtn of Pontus, ii. 306. -
Ophrynium, t. of the Troad, ii. 357. -
Opici, people of Campania, i. 360, - -372; iii. 32. -
Opis, c. of Assyria, i. 124; ii. 271; - -iii. 146, 147. -
Opistholepria, part of Ephesus, iii. 3. -
Opitergium, t. of Cisalpine Gaul
-
-(
Opoeis, same as Opus, ii. 125. -
Opsicella (Ocella?), t. of Cantabria, - -i. 236. -
Opuntii.
Opuntian Gulf, ii. 114, 125, 126. -
Opūs, c. of the Locrians, i. 95; ii. - -125, 126. -
Orbēlus, mtn of Macedonia (
Orbis, r. of Gaul (
Orcaorci, ii. 320, 321, 332. -
Orchēni, sect of the Chaldæan as- - -tronomers, iii. 146. -
Orchistēnē, distr. of Armenia, ii. - -268. -
Orchoměnia, ii. 93, 101.
-
-
-
-
Orchoměnii, ii. 93, 111—113. -
Orchomenus, c. of Bœotia (
——, Minyeian, ii. 20, 55, - -111. -
——, c. of Arcadia, ii. 10, - -39, 75. -
——, c. of Eubœa, ii. 113. -
Oreitæ, ii. 152; iii. 120, 124. -
Orestæ, people of Epirus, i. 499; - -ii. 137. -
——, in Macedonia, i. 505, 508. -
Orestes, i. 499; ii. 68, 93, 279, 281, - -339. -
——, tragedy of Euripides, ii. 60. -
Orestia, part of Macedonia, i. 514. -
Orestias, distr. of Epirus, i. 499, - -500. -
Orestis, distr. of Macedonia, i. 505. -
Oretani, people of Spain, i. 209, - -212, 228, 234, 235, 243, 245. -
Orētania, i. 210, 228, 243. -
Oreus, c. of Eubœa (
Oreus-Histiæa, ii. 152. -
Orgäs, r. of Phrygia, ii. 333. -
Oria, c. of Spain (
——, vill. of Eubœa, ii. 152. -
Orīcum, t. of Illyria, i. 486. -
Oriōn, ii. 97, 152. -
——, constellation, i. 5. -
Orithyia, i. 452. -
Ormenium, Orminium, t. of Thes- - -saly, ii. 134, 139, 142, 143, 146. -
Ormenus, Ormenides, ii. 142, 143. -
Orminium.
Orněæ, t. near Corinth, ii. 58, 59, - -66, 347. -
——, vill. of Argolis, ii. 58, 59. -
Orněates, Priapus, ii. 66. -
Ornithōpŏlis, in Phœnicia, iii. 173. -
Oroatis, r. of Persia (the
Orobiæ, t. of Eubœa, ii. 98, 152. -
Orōdes, king of the Parthians, iii. - -97. -
Orontēs, r. of Syria (
——, king of Armenia, ii. 273. -
Orōpia, ii. 79. -
Orōpii, ii. 90. -
Orōpus, c. of Bœotia, i. 102 103; - -ii. 79, 90, 92, 96. -
Orospeda, mtns of Spain (
Orpheus, Thracian, i. 508, 513, iii. - -187; iii. 180. -
Orphic ceremonies, ii. 187. -
—— arts, ii. 192. -
Orthagoras, iii. 187. -
Orthagŏria, c. of Thrace, i. 516. -
Orthanēs, god of the Athenians, ii. - -348. -
Orthē, citadel of Thessaly, ii. 143, - -144. -
Orthopolis, t. of Macedonia, i. 514. -
Orthōsia, c. of Syria (
——, c. of Caria, iii. 26. -
Ortilochus, father of Diocles, ii. 46. -
Ortōn, port of the Frentani (
Ortōnium, i. 359. -
Ortospana, c. of the Paropamisadæ
-
-(
Ortygia, nurse of Latona, iii. 11. -
——, grove near Ephesus, iii. 11. -
——, same as Delos, ii. 210, 211. -
——, isl. and part of the city of
-
-Syracuse (
Osca, c. of Spain (
Osci, people of Campania, i. 346, - -352, 360, 367. -
Osiris, iii. 242, 243, 247, 253, 259. -
Osismii, people of Gaul, i. 291. -
Ossa, mtn of Thessaly, i. 40, 94, - -96, 311, 507; ii. 130, 131, 1.39 - -146—148, 272. -
Ossa, mtn of Pisatis, ii. 32. -
Ossŏnŏba, c. of Spain, i. 215. -
Ostia, c. of Latium, i. 218, 325, - -329, 334, 335, 339, 344, 345, - -348. -
Ostimii (
Othia, ii. 12. -
Othryadas, a Lacedæmonian, ii. - -58. -
Othryoneus, ii. 367. -
Othrys, mtn of Thessaly (
Otreus, ii. 318. -
Otrœa, t. of Bithynia, ii. 318. -
Otus, Cyllenian, ii. 9, 167. -
Oxeiæ islands, ii. 169, 170. -
Oxus, r. of Bactriana (
Oxyartes, ii. 254. -
Oxyathrēs, brother of Darius Codo- - -mannus, ii. 291. -
Oxybii, or Oxybian Ligurians, i. - -276, 301. -
Oxybius, port in Liguria, i. 276. -
Oxylus, king of the Ætolians, ii. 3, - -30, 33, 77, 176. -
Oxynia, t. of Thessaly, i. 501. -
Oxyrynchus, city of Egypt (
Ozolæ.
Paches, Athenian commander, ii. - -366. -
Pachynus, prom. of Sicily (
Pacorus, leader of the Parthians, - -iii. 159, 163. -
Pactōlus, r. of Lydia, ii. 303, 353, - -403. -
Pactya, c. of the Thracian Cherso- - -nese, i. 517, 518. -
Pactyas, mtn, iii. 7, 21. -
Padus.
Pæŏnia, i. 488, 489, 504, 505, 509, - -512—514; ii. 131. -
——, mtns, i. 43, 481, 496. -
——, nations, i. 485. -
Pæŏnians, Pæones, people of Mace- - -donia, i. 9, 489, 495, 496, 506, - -508, 514, 515; ii. 383, 394. -
Pæsēni, ii. 349. -
Pæstum, Gulf of, i. 373. -
Pæstus, c. of Lucania, i. 373. -
Pæsus, t. of the Troad, ii. 349; iii. - -5. -
——, r. of the Troad (
Pagæ, Pēgæ, t. of Megaris (
Pagasæ, t. of Magnesia, ii. 139. -
Pagasitic Gulf, in Thessaly, ii. 140, - -142 -
Pagræ, fortress of Syria (
Palacium, t. of the Tauric Cherso- - -nese, i. 479. -
Palacus, i. 471, 475. -
Palæa, t. of Mysia, ii. 387. -
——, t. of Cyprus, iii. 69. -
Palæbyblus, c. of Phœnicia, iii. - -170. -
Palæopolis, the old city where the - -Emporitæ dwelt, i. 240. -
Palæpaphus, c. of Cyprus, iii. 70. -
Palæpharsalus, t. of Thessaly, ii. - -133; iii. 233. -
Palæphatus, ii. 299, 300. -
Palærus, t. of Acarnania (
Palæscēpsis, t. of the Troad, ii. 371, - -372, 375, 376. -
Palætyrus, t. of Phœnicia, iii. 173. -
Palamēdēs, son of Nauplius, ii. 48. -
——, tragedy of Euripides, ii. - -186. -
Palatium, hill of Rome, i. 348, 351. -
Paleis, t. of Cephallenia, ii. 166, - -167. -
Palestine, iii. 204. -
Palibothra, Palimbothra, c. of India
-
-(
Palibothrus, iii. 97. -
Palici, in Sicily, i. 416. -
Palinthus, sepulchre of Danaus, ii. - -52. -
Palinurus, prom. of Lucania, i. 376
-
-
-
-
Paliurus, t. of the Cyrenaic, iii. - -294. -
Pallantia, t. of Spain (
Pallas, son of Pandion, ii. 81. -
Pallēne, peninsula of Macedonia, i. - -510—512; ii. 154, 299. -
Palma, t. of the Baleares, i. 251. -
Palmys, son of Hippotion, ii. 317. -
Paltus, t. of Syria, iii. 130, 167. -
Palus.
Pambœotia, festival, ii. 108. -
Pamisus, r. of Messenia (
——, r. of Laconia, ii. 38. -
——, r. of Elis, ii. 7, 16, 38. -
Pamphylia (
——, cities, ii. 324. -
——, Sea of, i. 183, 189; ii. - -325; iii. 68. -
——, Gulf of, i. 189. -
Pamphylians, i. 196; ii. 304; iii. 63. -
Pamportus, t. of the Taurisci.
Pan, worshipped by the Mendesii, - -iii. 240. -
——, in Meroë, iii. 271. -
Panænus, ii. 29. -
Panætius, Stoic, iii. 33, 60. -
Panchæa, i. 58, 459. -
Pandarus, king of the Lycians, ii. - -317, 344, 346. -
——, worshipped at Pinara, iii. - -46, 47. -
Pandataria, island (
Pandiōn, father of Lycus, ii. 328. -
——, king of India, iii. 49, 74. -
Pandionidæ, ii. 81. -
Pandōra, mother of Deucalion, ii. - -149. -
——-, name of Southern Thessaly, - -ii. 149. -
Pandosia, c. of the Bruttii, i. 382. -
——, c. of Thesprotia, i. 382, - -497. -
Paneium, temple of Pan, at Ana- - -phlystus, ii. 89. -
——, at Alexandria, iii. 231. -
Pangæum, mtn of Macedonia, i. - -512, 515; iii. 66. -
Pangani, ii. 239. -
Panhellenes, ii. 50. -
Panionian festival, sacrifices, ii. - -69. -
Paniōnium (
Panna, t. of Samnium, i. 371. -
Pannōnia, i. 483; iii. 10. -
Pannonii, Pannonians, i. 309, 448, - -482, 483, 487. -
Panŏpeis, ii. 121, 123. -
Panŏpeus, t. of Phocis, ii. 113, 122, - -123, 124. -
Panōpolis, t. of Egypt, iii. 258. -
Panormus, t. of Sicily (
——, t. of Epirus (
——, port of Ephesus, iii. 11. -
Pans, with wedge-shaped heads, i. - -109; ii. 186. -
Pantaleōn, son of Omphalion, ii. 39. -
Panticapæans, ii. 222. -
Panticapæum (
——, temple of Æsculapius - -at, i. 114; ii. 221. -
Panxani.
Paphlagonia, i. 96, 202, 475; ii. 18, - -285, 287, 289, 290, 297, 301, 314, - -319, 329. -
Paphlagonian names, ii. 301. -
Paphlagonians, i. 195, 279, 291, - -440, 458, 476; ii. 18, 302, 304, - -310, 313, 314. -
Paphos, c. of Cyprus, i. 65; ii. 13; - -iii. 68, 70, 71. -
——, Palæpaphos, iii. 70, 71. -
Parachelōïtæ, in Thessaly, ii. 136. -
——, in Ætolia, ii. 136. -
Parachelōïtis, distr. of Ætolia, ii. - -169. -
Parachoathras, mtn of Media, ii.
-
-245, 249, 260, 267.
-
-
-
-
Paradeisus, t. of Cœie-Syria, iii. - -170. -
Parætaæ, Parætacēni, a people of - -Media, ii. 261, 264; iii. 135, 142, - -146, 153. -
Parætacēne, i. 123; iii. 124, 132, - -152 -
Parætacium, port of Marmara
-
-(
Paralus, founder of Clazomenæ, iii. - -3. -
Parapomisus, ii. 245, 248; iii. 78, - -89, 121—126. -
Parapotamia, Parapotamii, t. of - -Phocis, ii. 101, 113, 123, 124. -
——, distr. of Syria, iii. - -166. -
Parasōpia, distr. of Bœotia, ii. 97, - -103. -
Parasōpias, in Thessaly, ii. 136. -
Parasōpii, in Bœotia, ii. 103. -
——, vill. of Thessaly, ii. 66. -
Parati, people of Sardinia, i. 334. -
Pareisactus, iii. 230. -
Parianē, ii. 350. -
Pariani, ii. 347, 348, 374. -
Parii, Parians, inhabitants of the - -island of Paros, i. 484; ii. 210, - -349. -
Paris (Alexander), i. 65, 274; ii. - -360, 376. -
Parisa, ii. 235. -
Parisades, i. 476, 477. -
Parisii, people of Gaul, i. 290. -
Parisus, r. of Pannonia, i. 482. -
Parium, c. of Mysia (
——, in the Propontis, ii. 210. -
Parma, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 322. -
Parměnides, i. 143, 375. -
Parmenio, ii. 272; iii. 125. -
Parmesans, i. 323. -
Pannesus, ii. 108. -
Parnassii, ii. 121. -
Parnassus, i. 40, 311, 505; ii. 2, - -62, 67, 93, 105, 114—116, 121, - -123, 125, 129, 143, 158, 195. -
Parnēs, mtn of Attica, ii. 90. -
Parni, Aparni, ii. 241, 244, 248. -
Paropamisadæ, iii. 77, 82, 124— - -128. -
Paropamisus.
Parōræa, distr. of Epirus, i. 498. -
Parōræi, people of Epirus, i. 499. -
Parorbelia, distr. of Macedonia, i. - -514. -
Parōreatæ, people of Triphylia, ii. - -19. -
Parōreius.
Paros (
Parrhasii, people of Arcadia, ii. 7, - -75, 241. -
Parrhasius, the painter, iii. 14. -
Parsii, same as Parrhasii. -
Parthenia, same as Samos, ii. 168; - -iii. 8. -
Partheniæ, i. 424—426. -
Parthenias, r. of Elis, ii. 32. -
Parthěnium, mtn of Arcadia (
——, prom. of the Tauric - -Chersonese, i. 474. -
——, vill. of the Cimmerian - -Bosporus, i. 474, 477; ii. 222. -
——, temple of Diana in the - -Tauric Chersonese, i. 474. -
Parthenius, r. of Samos,
——, r. ii. 287—290, 351. -
——, mtn, ii. 58, 76. -
Parthenōn, temple of Minerva, in - -the Acropolis, ii. 84, 86. -
Parthenopē, t. of Campania, iii. 32. -
——, one of the Sirens, i. - -34, 39. -
——, tomb of, i. 365. -
Parthi, Parthyæi, Parthians, i. 18,
-
-22, 195, 196, 441; ii. 216, 241—
-
-245, 250—255, 263—277; iii.
-
-97, 124—126, 131, 135, 136, 152,
-
-159,
Parthi, Histories of, i. 178; iii. 73. -
Parthia, ii. 246, 250, 251, 262, 264 - -—274; iii. 124, 128, 131, 141 - -152, 153. -
Parthian autocrat, Labienus, iii. - -39. -
Parthiene, ii. 250. -
Parthini, people of Illyria, i. 500.
-
-
-
-
-
-
Parus, one of the Liburnian islands.
-
-
Paryadrēs, mtn of Armenia (
Parysatis, iii. 216. -
Pasargadæ, c. of Persia (
Pasiani, Scythian race, ii. 245. -
Pasitigris, iii. 131, 132. -
Patala, c. of India, iii. 95. -
Patalēne, distr. of India (
Patara, c. of Lycia (
Patarus, iii. 47. -
Patavini, city of the (
Patavium (
Pateischŏreis, Persian nation, iii. - -130. -
Patmos, one of the Sporades (
Patræ, Patreis, c. of Achæa (
Patraeus, t. of the Bosporus (
Patrŏclēs, i. 106—108, 115; ii. 242, - -243, 255; iii. 79. -
Patrŏclus, leader of the Myrmidons, - -ii. 26, 89, 126, 136, 343, 395. -
——, rampart of, isl., ii. 89. -
Paulus Æmilius, i. 495, 516. -
Paunitis, ii. 269. -
Pax Augusta, t. of Spain (
Pēdalium, prom. of Cyprus, iii. 69. -
Pēdasa, t. of Caria, ii. 383. -
Pēdaseis, ii. 383. -
Pēdasis, ii. 383. -
Pēdasum, t. of Caria, ii. 383. -
Pēdasus, t. of the Leleges, near
-
-Troy (
——, t. of Messenia, ii. 35—37.
-
-Pegasitic Gulf (
Pēgasus, ii. 62. -
Peiræeus, port of Athens.
Peirēne, ftn of the Acrocorinthi, ii. - -62. -
Peirithous, son of Ixion, ii. 137, - -144. -
Peirōssus, c. of Mysia, ii. 349. -
Peirus, r. of Achæa, ii. 14, 71. -
Peirustæ, nation of Pannonia, i. - -483. -
Peisander, poet, iii. 34, 78. -
——, son of Bellerophon, ii. - -328, 409. -
Peisistratus, son of Nestor.
Pēïum, citadel of the Tolistobogii, - -ii. 320. -
Pelagonia, part of Macedonia, i. - -500, 508, 514, 516. -
——, Tripolitis, i. 500, 501. -
Pelagonians, Pelagones, people of - -Macedonia, i. 501, 514; ii. 137. -
——, same as Titans, i. - -514. -
Pělana, t. of Messenia, ii. 37. -
Pelargi, same as Pelasgi, ii. 87. -
Pelasgi, Pelasgians, i. 328, 329, - -335, 367, 493, 501, 502, 513; ii. - -18, 87, 93, 105, 148, 288, 395— - -397; iii. 40. -
Pelasgia, Peloponnesus, i. 329. -
Pelasgian Zeus, i. 328, 329. -
—— Argos, i. 329; ii. 49, 133. -
—— temple, ii. 93. -
—— plain, ii. 139, 148. -
Pelasgicum, part of Athens, ii. 49. -
Pelasgitæ, same as Hellenes, i. - -329; ii. 52, 132, 146. -
Pelasgiōtis, part of Thessaly, i. 503, - -504; ii. 132, 139. -
Pelasgus, i. 329. -
Pēlěgōn, father of Asteropæus, i. - -514. -
Pělethrŏnium, i. 460. -
Pēleus, ii. 115, 126,135—137,142. -
Pělias, i. 72, 74; ii. 139. -
——, daughters of, i. 72. -
Pěligni, people of Italy, i. 326, 344, - -353, 358—360. -
Pelinæum, mtn, iii. 19.
-
-
-
-
Polinnæum, t. of Histiæotis, ii. 141, - -142. -
Pēliŏn, mtn of Thessaly, i. 33, 40, - -311, 460, 507; ii. 130, 131, 139, - -142, 144—148, 157. -
Pella, c. of Macedonia, i. 495, 508, - -509, 516. -
——, c. of Syria, iii. 165. -
Pellæan country (
Pellana, t. of Laconia, ii. 72. -
Pellene, t. of Achæa, ii. 59, 71, 72. -
——, vill. of Achæa, ii. 72. -
Pēlōdes, lake, in Epirus, i. 497. -
Pelopidæ, ii. 51, 53, 59; iii. 66. -
Peloponnesian war, ii. 366; iii. 32. -
Peloponnesians, ii. 50, 175. -
Peloponnesus, i. 40, 105, 140, 158,
-
-159, 186, 201, 256, 257, 329, 330,
-
-385, 400,404, 408, 478,492, 496;
-
-ii. 2—11, 33, 34, 38, 43, 49—
-
-51, 57, 59, 60, 68, 71, 77, 78, 80,
-
-128, 140, 142,
——, figure of, i. 128; ii. - -5. -
——, islands, ii. 192. -
——, promontories of, i. - -139; iii. 291. -
Pelops, i. 492; ii. 31, 36, 39, 43, - -56, 326. -
Pelorias, i. 400—404. -
Pelorus, monument of, i. 17. -
——, tower, i. 256. -
——, Cape (
Peltæ, t. of Phrygia, ii. 332. -
Peltinian plain, in Phrygia, ii. 407. -
Pelūsiac mouth of the Nile.
Pelūsium, c. of Egypt (
Pēneius, r. of Peloponnesus, ii. 8, - -9, 11. -
——, r. of Thessaly (
Penelope, Penelopeia, i. 328 ii. - -50, 162, 173, 300. -
Penestæ, slaves of the Thessalians, - -ii. 287. -
Penta Dactylon.
Pentelic marble, ii. 90. -
Pentheus, ii. 103. -
Penthilus, son of Orestes, ii. 94, - -154, 339, 340. -
Peparēthus, isl. (
Perasia.
Percope, ii. 351. -
Percōtē, t. of Mysia (
Perdiccas, ii. 394; iii. 229. -
Pergamēnē, ii. 326, 332. -
Pergamum, c. of Mysia, ii. 387, - -389—402; iii. 66. -
Pergamus, ii. 379; iii. 46. -
Pergē, t. of Pamphylia (
Periander, tyrant of Corinth, ii. - -366. -
Perias, t. of Eubœa, ii. 152. -
Pericles, ii. 84, 152; iii. 9. -
Perinthus, c. of Thrace, i. 515, 518. -
Perisadyes, people of Epirus, i. - -500. -
Periscii, i. 146. -
Permēssus, r. of Bœotia, ii. 101, - -108. -
Perperēna, t. of Mysia, ii. 376. -
Perperna, iii. 21. -
Perrhæbi, people of Thessaly, i. 96, - -410, 507; ii. 10, 137, 141, 143— - -147, 153, 158. -
Perrhæbia, ii. 144—147. -
Perrhæbic cities, ii. 145. -
Perrhæbis, ii. 144. -
Persepolis, i. 122, 123; iii. 130— - -133. -
Perseus, i. 202, 439, 495, 509, 516; - -ii. 41, 59, 108, 211, 315, 400; iii. - -208, 239, 259. -
Persia, i. 117, 122—126, 131, 132,
-
-201; ii. 240, 254—274, 293; iii,
-
-34, 109, 113, 120, 124, 125, 128
-
-—142, 188, 208, 213.
-
-
-
-
Persian Sea, ii. 219, 257; iii. 146, - -149, 186, 188. -
—— gates, iii. 132. -
—— palaces, i. 331. -
—— war, i. 518; ii. 7, 57. -
—— Gulf, i. 68, 121, 123, 124, - -129, 183, 196, 261; ii. 266, 267, - -270, 271; iii. 88, 120, 125—129, - -132, 146, 185, 186, 188, 215. -
Persians, i. 17, 41, 96, 196, 463; - -ii. 84, 87, 94, 96, 108, 130, 155, - -181; iii, 35. -
Perūsia, c. of Etruria (
Pessinuntis, cognomen of Rhea, ii. - -184. -
—— (
Pessinūs, c. of Phrygia (
Petalia, isl., ii. 151. -
Peteon, vill. of Bœotia, ii. 106. -
Peteus, ii. 83. -
Petilia, t. of the Lucani, i. 378. -
Petnēlissus, t. of Pisidia (
Pětra Nabatæōn, c. of Arabia, iii.
-
-189, 204, 209, 211.
Pětrēius, legate of Pompey, i. 242. -
Pětrocorii, people of Aquitania (
Petronius, prefect of Egypt, iii. 222; - -267—269. -
Peucē, isl. of the Danube (
Peucětii, people of Italy, i. 315, - -422, 423, 428, 431, 432, 436. -
Peucini, people of the Bastarni, i. - -469, 470. -
Peucolaïtis, c. of India, iii. 90. -
Phabda, t. of Pontus, ii. 296. -
Phabra, isl. near Attica, ii. 89. -
Phabrateria, t. of Latium.
Phaccūssa, c. of Egypt, iii. 245. -
Phæaces, Phæeces, Phæacians, i. - -39; ii. 122, 190. -
Phædimus, i. 65. -
Phædon, ii. 82. -
Phædrus, leader of the Athenians, - -ii. 153. -
——, dialogue of Plato, i. 452; - -ii. 91. -
Phæstus, c. of Crete (
Phaetōn, son of the Sun, i. 320. -
—— tragedy of Euripides, i. - -52. -
Phagres, t. of Macedonia, i. 512. -
Phagroriopolis, c. of Egypt, iii. - -245. -
Phagroriopolite nome, iii. 245. -
Phalacrum, prom. of Corcyra, i. - -497. -
Phalanna, t. of Thessaly, ii. 144. -
Phalannæi, ii. 144. -
Phalanthus, i. 424, 425, 430. -
Phalara, t. of Thessaly (
Phalasarna, t. of Crete, ii. 193, 200. -
Phalces, ii. 77. -
Phalēreis, demus of Attica, ii. 89. -
Phalericum, ii. 91. -
Phalerii, people of Etruria, i. 335. -
Phalērus, iii. 70. -
Phalisci, people and city of Etruria, - -i. 335. -
Phaliscum, c. of Etruria, i. 335. -
Phanæ, port of the island of Chios
-
-(
Phanagŏria, Phanagoreia, Phana- - -goreium, c. of the Bosporani, i. - -472, 477; ii. 223. -
Phanarœa, distr. of Pontus, i. 113; - -ii. 295, 305, 309, 311. -
Phanias, ii. 210, 392. -
Phanŏteis, ii. 101. -
Phanŏteus, c. of Phocis, ii. 122, - -123. -
Phaon, ii. 162. -
Phara, c. of Achæa, ii. 71, 74. -
——, c. of Messenia,
——, t. of the Carthaginians, iii. - -285. -
Pharæ, village near Tanagra, ii. - -99. -
——, c. of Thessaly.
Pharätæ, in Messenia, ii. 74. -
Pharbetite nome, iii. 240.
-
-
-
-
Pharcadōn, c. of Thessaly, ii. 142. -
Phareis, Pharieis (Pharæeis?), in - -Achæa, ii. 73. -
Pharenses, inhabitants of Phara, ii. - -74. -
Pharis, c. of Laconia, ii. 40. -
Pharmacussæ, islands near Salamis, - -ii. 85. -
Pharnaces, king of the Bosporani, - -ii. 224, 239, 292, 294, 306, 311, - -401. -
Pharnacia, c. of Pontus, i. 190, - -491; ii. 294, 296, 297, 304, 305; - -iii. 61. -
Pharos, isl. of Egypt, i. 46, 47, 58, - -59, 88, 91, 211; iii. 226, 227, - -238, 240. -
——, tower or lighthouse on the - -island, ii. 280; iii. 230. -
——, one of the Liburnian islands
-
-(
Pharsalia, ii. 132; iii. 233. -
Pharsalii, ii. 134, 135. -
Pharsalus, mtn, ii. 32. -
——, c. of Thessaly, anciently - -Palæpharsalus, now Satalda, ii. - -133—136; iii. 233. -
——, New, on the Enipeus, ii. - -133—136, 155. -
Pharusii, people of Libya, i. 198; - -iii. 277, 280. -
Pharygæ, c. of Locris, ii. 127. -
——, c. of Argolis, ii. 127. -
Pharygæa Juno, ii. 127. -
Pharygium, prom. of Phocis, ii. - -122. -
Pharziris, same as Parysatis, iii. - -216. -
Phasēlis, t. of Lycia (
Phāsis, c. of Colchis, i. 440; ii. - -225, 227, 230. -
——, r. of Colchis (
Phatnitic mouth of the Nile, iii. - -239, 240. -
Phauēne (? Phasiane), distr. of - -Armenia, ii. 268. -
Phaunitis, distr. of Armenia, ii. - -269. -
Phayllus, ii. 119. -
Phazēmon, c. of Pontus, ii. 311. -
Phazēmonitæ, ii. 311. -
Phazēmonitis, ii. 310, 311. -
Phea, Pheæ, Pheia, c. of Pisatis, - -ii. 16, 22, 25, 26. -
——, prom. of Pisatis, ii. 15. -
Pheidippus, iii. 31. -
Pheidōn, ii. 34, 58. -
Phellōn, r. of Triphylia, ii. 16. -
Phellos, stronghold of Lycia, iii. - -47. -
Phēmŏnoē, ii. 117. -
Phěněus, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75, 76. -
Phēræ, Phēra, c. of Messenia.
Phěræ, c. of Thessaly (
Phēræa (Heræa?), c. of Arcadia, - -ii. 32, 42. -
Phěræi, ii. 143. -
Phěrěcydes, Syrian, i. 28, 254; ii. - -167, 190, 211; iii. 2, 15. -
——, Athenian, ii. 211. -
Phēsti or Festi, t. of Latium, i. - -341. -
Phidēnæ or Fidenæ, t. of Latium, - -i. 335, 341. -
Phidias, of Athens, ii. 29, 53, 86, - -87. -
Phigalia, t. of Arcadia, ii. 22. -
Philadelpheia, t. of Lydia. (
Philadelphia, t. of Judæa, iii. 177, - -181. -
Philadelphus.
Philæ, isl. and c. of Upper Egypt, - -i. 64; iii. 243, 265, 267. -
Philæni, altars of the, i. 256, 257; - -iii. 290, 291. -
Philalēthēs, ii. 336. -
Philēmōn, comic poet, iii. 55. -
Philětærus, ii. 198, 307. -
——, founder of the Attali, ii. - -289, 399, 400. -
——, son of Attalus, ii. 400. -
Philētes, poet, ii. 42; iii. 36. -
Philip, son of Amyntas, i. 463, 492,
-
-508, 509, 512, 513; ii. 38, 39,
-
-56, 64, 111; iii. 165,
——, city of, i. 512.
-
-
-
-
Philip, father of Perseus, i. 439; ii. - -38, 146, 315. -
——, tyrant of the Areitæ, ii. 152. -
——, Pseudo, ii. 401. -
——, isl. of, in the Arabian Gulf, - -iii. 199. -
Philipopolis, c. of Macedonia, i. - -514. -
Philippi, c. of Macedonia, i. 515. -
——, battle of, iii. 58. -
Philippus, historian, iii. 41. -
Philisteides, tyrant of Eubœa, ii. - -152. -
Philo, historian, i. 119. -
——, architect, ii. 85. -
Philochorus, i. 502; ii. 39, 81, 88, - -97. -
Philoctētēs, i. 378, 411; ii. 134, - -140, 148. -
Philodēmus, of Gadara, Epicurean, - -iii. 175. -
Philŏgěnes, founder of Phocæa, - -iii. 3. -
Philomela, sister of Procne, ii. - -122. -
Philomēlium, t. of Phrygia (
Philōn, in Egypt, iii. 245. -
Philonomus, ii. 43. -
Philopœmen, ii. 71. -
Philōtas, founder of Priene, iii. - -2, 7. -
——, son of Parmenio, iii. 60, - -125. -
Philōtěra, c. of Egypt (
——, sister of Ptolemy II., - -iii. 193. -
Phineus, i. 465. -
Phinŏpolis, t. of Thrace, i. 490. -
Phirmum, or Firmum Picenum, t. - -of Picenus, i. 357. -
Phlegra, i. 364, 511. -
——, ancient name of Pallene, - -i. 510, 511. -
Phlegræan plain, i. 361. -
Phlegyæ, people of Thessaly, i. - -507; ii. 147. -
Phlegyas, brother of Ixion, ii. 147. -
Phliasia, ii. 66. -
Phligadia, mtn, i. 308. -
Phliūs, c. of Argolis, ii. 60, 66, 71. -
Phōcæ, island of, iii. 204. -
Phōcæa, c. of Ionia (
Phōcæi, Phocæans, Phocæïs, Pho- - -cæenses, and Phocenses, i. 235, - -268, 280, 375, 397; ii. 2, 101. -
Phocian mtns, ii. 101. -
—— towns, ii. 101. -
Phocis, i. 95; ii. 4, 6, 62, 78, 93, - -99, 104, 106, 113—124, 350. -
Phōcōn-nesoi or Seals' Island, in - -the Arabian Gulf, iii. 199, 204. -
Phocylides, ii. 212. -
Phœbia, same as Rhegium, i. 387. -
Phœbus.
Phœnice, c. of Epirus, i. 497. -
Phœnicia, Phœnïce, i. 8, 15, 41, 59 - -—61, 63—65, 68, 90, 91, 189, - -235, 256; iii. 50, 52, 56, 67, 140, - -148, 160, 167, 171—173, 177. -
Phœnician expenditure, i. 258. -
Phœnicians, i. 3, 4, 65, 66, 68, 76, - -224—226, 252, 259, 262, 334, - -493; ii. 93, 304; iii. 289. -
——, islands of the, i. 194. -
Phœnicis, c. of Bœotia, same as - -Měděōn, ii. 106, 107. -
Phœnicium, mtn of Bœotia, ii. 106. -
Phœnicodes, i. 421. -
Phœnicon, iii. 209. -
Phœnicus, mtn of Lycia (
——, c. and port of Marmara, - -iii. 235. -
Phœnicussa, one of the Lipari Is- - -lands, i. 420. -
Phœnix, king of the Dolopes, ii. - -132, 133, 142, 143. -
——, mtn of Caria, iii. 28, 29. -
——, fortress of Caria, iii. 29. -
——, t. of Crete (
——, r. of Phthiotis, ii. 129. -
Pholegandrus, one of the Cyclades
-
-(
Phŏloe, mtn of Arcadia (
Phorcys, iii. 66. -
Phōrōn, port of Attica, ii. 85.
-
-
-
-
Phorōneus, ii. 188. -
Phorōnis, ii. 188. -
Phosphorus, temple of, i. 211. -
Phraates, i. 441; iii. 97, 159, - -160. -
Phranicatēs, iii. 164. -
Phrentani, i. 432. -
Phricius, mtn of Locris, ii. 340, - -396. -
Phricōnis, Cume, ii. 340. -
——, Larisa, ii. 397. -
Phrixa, t. of Triphylia, ii. 15. -
Phrixeium, temple of Phrixus, i. - -72. -
Phrixus, i. 72, 228, 229; ii. 291. -
Phryges, Briges, or Brygi,
Phrygia, i. 96, 195, 279, 410, 492; - -ii. 180, 185, 188, 191, 276, 283, - -284, 289, 307, 314, 326—337, 345, - -351, 407, 409; iii. 43, 60, 66, - -188. -
——, the Greater, ii. 319—321, - -326, 332. -
——,the Less, ii. 315, 326. -
——, Lower, i. 78. -
—— Epictetus, i. 195; ii. 289, - -314, 315, 320, 326, 332. -
——-, the goddess, ii. 184. -
Phrygian hare, i. 58. -
Phrygians, i. 41, 452, 510, 514; ii. - -180, 184—188, 191, 277, 290, - -298, 301, 304, 316—334; iii. 63, - -66, 67. -
Phrygius, r. of Lydia and Ionia, ii. - -403. -
Phrynæ, people of India, ii. 253. -
Phrynichus, tragic poet, iii. 5. -
Phryno, ii. 365, 366. -
Phtheirophagi, ii. 219, 225. -
Phtheiron, mtn, iii. 6. -
Phthia, part of Thessaly, ii. 67, 132 - -—137, 142, 143. -
Phthii, ii. 134. -
Phthiōtæ, ii. 43, 68, 131, 136, 137. -
Phthiotides Thēbæ, ii. 133—138. -
Phthiōtis, part of Thessaly, ii. 128, - -132—139. -
——, Achæan, i. 71. -
Phycūs, prom. of Cyrenea (
Phycūs, t. of Cyrenæa, iii. 292. -
Phylacē, c. of Phthiotis, ii. 135, - -138. -
Phylarchi, i. 196. -
Phyleides, vill. of Attica, ii. 87. -
——, ii. 167. -
Phyleus, ii. 170. -
Phyllus, c. of Thessaly, ii. 138. -
Physee, ii. 406. -
Physcon.
Physcus, c. of Caria (
Piasus, ii. 397. -
Picentes, people bordering on Cam- - -pania, i. 374. -
Picentia, i. 374. -
Picentine boundary, i. 359. -
Picentini, i. 339, 357, 373. -
Picenum, i. 338, 357, 358, 360. -
Pictæ, i. 351, 352. -
Pictones (capital Poictiers), i. 283, - -284. -
Pieres, Pieriōtæ, people of Macedo- - -nia, i. 506; ii. 105, 147. -
Piěria, Pieris, distr. of Macedonia, - -i. 41, 506—509, 514; ii. 105. -
——, mtn in Thrace, ii. 187. -
——, distr. of Syria, iii. 61, 161. -
——, mtn of Syria, iii. 164. -
Pillars of Hercules (
Pimōlisa, t. of Pontus, ii. 313. -
Pimolisēne, Pimolitis, distr. of - -Pontus, ii. 302, 312, 313. -
Pimpla, Pimpleia, t. of Macedonia, - -i. 508; ii. 105, 187. -
Pinaca, t. of Mesopotamia, iii. 157. -
Pinara, t. of Lycia (
Pinarus, r. of Cilicia, iii. 60. -
Pindar, poet, i. 232, 256, 369, 405
-
-
-
-
-
-
Pindus, mtn of Thessaly, i. 410, - -501, 505, 507; ii. 128—135, 137, - -141—147, 158. -
——, t. of Locris, ii. 128, 137. -
——, r. of Locris, ii. 128. -
Pionia, t. of the Leleges in Mysia, - -ii. 381. -
Piræeus, same as Amisus, ii. 294. -
Piræus, i. 91; ii. 79, 85, 87, 89, - -91; iii. 32. -
Pirithous, i. 76, 507. -
Pisa, tract of country, ii. 32. -
——, c. of Elis, ii. 31, 32. -
——, ftn, ii. 31, 32. -
——, c. of Etruria, i. 315, 323, - -329, 330, 334. -
Pisātæ, in Elis, i. 330; ii. 9, 15, - -28, 30, 31, 33, 39. -
——, in Etruria, i. 331, 334. -
Pisātis, distr. of Elis, i. 330; ii. 8, - -11. 13—16. 28. 30—34. 45 53, - -56, 59. -
——, territory of Pisa, i. 315, - -330. -
Pisidia, land of Asia, i. 32, 54; ii. - -307, 322—326, 332, 383, 409; - -iii. 48, 54, 63. -
——, mtns, iii. 47, 48. -
——, cities, ii, 324—326. -
——, Taurus, i. 195; ii. 319. -
Pisidians, i. 195; ii. 216, 304, 322 - -—324, 407, 409. -
Pisilis, t. of Caria, iii. 28. -
Pisistratus, son of Nestor, ii. 25, - -46. -
——, tyrant of Athens, ii. - -83, 88 -
Piso, Cnæus, praefect of Libya, i. - -197. -
——, Carbo, i. 319. -
——, Ahenobarbus, i. 277. -
——, son of Pompey, i. 213. -
Pissūri, ii. 245. -
Pitanæi, ii. 383. -
Pitanātæ, in Samnium, i. 372. -
Pitane, t. of Mysia (
Pithecūssa, Pithecūssæ, isl. (
Pithecussæans, i. 365. -
Pitnisus, t. of Lycaonia, ii. 321. -
Pittacus, ii. 366, 391, 392. -
Pittheus, son of Pelops, ii. 56. -
Pitya, Pityeia, t. of Mysia, ii. 317, - -346, 349, 371. -
Pityassus, t. of Pisidia, ii. 324. -
Pityocamptēs, ii. 80. -
Pityūs, vill. of the Troad, ii. 349. -
—— the Great, part of the coast - -of Colchis, ii. 225, 226. -
Pityūssa, ancient name of Lampsa- - -cus, Salamis, and Chios, q. v. ii. - -83. -
Pityūssæ, islands, i. 251. -
Pixōdarus, king of Caria, iii. 35. -
Placentia, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. - -322—325. -
—— (
Placus, mtn, ii. 343, 386. -
Planasia (
Planctæ, or Wandering Rocks, i. - -32, 224, 256. -
Platææ, c. of Boeotia, ii. 66, 94, - -100, 104, 107, 108, 111. -
——, vill. of Sicyon, ii. 108. -
Platæans, ii. 100. -
Platamōdes, prom. of Messenia, ii. - -22. -
Platanistus, shore of Cilicia, iii. - -52. -
——-, same as Macistus, ii. - -18. -
Plato, i. 154, 390, 452, 462, 464; - -ii. 91, 183, 188, 197, 353, 354, - -382; iii. 34, 110, 179, 222, - -240. -
Plax, ii. 386. -
Pleias, Plēïas, Plēïades, constel- - -lation, iii. 59, 82, 83, 126, 274. -
Pleistus, r. of Phocis, ii. 116. -
Plēmyrium, c. of India, iii. 89.
-
-
-
-
Pleræi, people of Dalmatia, i. 484, - -485. -
Pleurōn, c. of Ætolia, Old and - -New, ii. 72, 159, 160, 171, 172, - -175, 178, 179. -
Pleurōnia, ii. 160, 178, 179. -
Pleurōnii, ii. 160, 173, 176. -
Pleutauri, people of Spain, i. 233. -
Plinthinē, c. of Egypt, iii. 236. -
Plumbaria, isl. (
Plūtiadēs, iii. 59. -
Plūto, i. 220; iii. 25. -
Plutonium, i. 363; ii. 408; iii. 25. -
Plutus, i. 220, 221. -
Plynos, port of Marmara, iii. 294. -
Pneuentia, t. of the Piceni (Pol- - -lentia?), i. 357. -
Pnigeus, t. of Marmara, iii. 235. -
Po, r. of Italy, i. 287, 303, 312, - -316, 317, 320, 322, 323, 360, - -438, 439; ii. 71. -
Podalirius, heroum or shrine of, i. - -434. -
Podarcēs, brother of Protesilaus, ii. - -134. -
Pœaessa, t. of Laconia, ii. 37. -
Pœcile, iii. 54. -
Pœdicli, same as Peucětii, i. 423, - -431. -
Pœeïssa, t. of the isl. of Ceos, ii. - -210. -
Pœmandris, same as Tanagra, ii. - -96. -
Pœum.
Pœus, mtn of Thessaly, i. 501. -
Pōgōn, port of Trœzen, ii. 55. -
Pŏla, t. of Istria,i. 73, 313, 321, 483. -
Pŏlěmōn, son of Pharnaces, king - -of Pontus, ii. 220, 223, 224, 305, - -322. -
——,of Laodicea, son of Zeno, - -ii. 334. -
——, philosopher, ii. 387. -
——, Periēgētēs, i. 23; ii. 86. -
Polentia, t. of the largest of the
-
-Balearic Islands (
Polichna, ii. 84, 371, 376. -
Pŏlieum, t of Lucania, i. 397. -
Pŏlisma, Polium, t. of the Troad, - -ii. 368. -
Polites, companion of Ulysses, i. - -380. -
——, son of Priam, ii. 364. -
Polium, ii. 368. -
Pollentia.
Poltyŏbria, t. of Thrace, i. 490. -
Polyanus, mtn of Epirus, i. 501. -
Polybius, historian, i. 1, 23, 31, 35,
-
-36, 38, 39, 145, 147, 148, 156—
-
-164, 209, 222, 226, 244, 256, 258,
-
-259, 274, 283, 301, 309, 310, 315,
-
-319, 330, 360, 393, 418, 435, 438,
-
-481, 487, 495, 518; ii. 1, 51, 64,
-
-77, 120, 251; iii. 234,
Polybōtēs, ii. 213. -
Polybus, ii. 64. -
Pŏlycasta, mother of Penelope, ii. - -173. -
Polycles, ii. 288. -
Polycletus, historian, ii. 243, 244; - -iii. 130, 139, 150. -
——, statuary, ii. 53. -
Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, iii. 8, - -9. -
Polydamas, Trojan, ii. 364. -
Polydamna, iii. 238. -
Polydectēs, brother of Lycurgus, - -ii. 203, 204. -
——, king of the Seriphii, ii. - -211. -
Polydōrus, son of Priam, ii. 344. -
Polymēdium, t. of the Troad, ii. - -376, 390. -
Polymnastus, iii. 16. -
Polynices, ii. 21. -
Polyphagi, i. 299; ii. 239. -
Polypœtēs, king of the Lapithæ, ii. - -143, 145. -
Polypŏrus, r. of the Troad.
Polyrrhēnii, in the island of Crete, - -ii. 200. -
Polystephanus, same as Præneste, - -i. 354. -
Polytimētus, r. of Sogdiana, ii. - -254. -
Polyxěna, tragedy of Sophocles, ii.
-
-186.
-
-
-
-
Pomentïne plain in Latium, i. 344, - -346. -
Pometia, i. 344. -
Pompædius, leader of the Marsi
-
-(
Pompēia, Pompæa, t. of Campania
-
-(
Pompeiopolis, c. of Paphlagonia
-
-(
Pompēiopŏlis, same as Pompělōn; - -same as Sŏli, iii. 45, 46, 55. -
Pompělōn, Pompēiopŏlis, t. of
-
-Spain (
Pompey the Great, i. 242, 317,350; - -ii. 74, 217, 218, 231, 233, 235, - -246, 271, 286, 294, 305—310, - -320, 392; iii. 24, 27, 55, 164, - -170, 176, 180, 181, 232, 233. -
——, sons of (Cnæus and Sex- - -tus), i. 213, 242; iii. 27. -
——, trophies of, i. 234, 239, - -240, 267. -
Pompeius Sextus.
—— Cnæus.
——, Mark, ii. 392. -
—— Strabo, father of Pompey - -the Great, i. 317. -
Pontia, island (
Pontic Sea, i. 480. -
—— coasts, i. 489. -
—— castor, i. 245. -
Pontica, same as Pontus. -
Pontici, ii. 246. -
Pontius, Glaucus, tragedy of - -Æschylus, ii. 155. -
Pontus, i. 54, 149, 216, 489, 490;
-
-ii. 113, 145, 285—320, 386; iii.
-
-75, 77, 142, 297,
Pontus, part of Cappadocia, ii. 278, - -302, 305. -
——, Gulf of the, i. 189. -
—— Axenus, i, 458, 461. -
—— Euxinus, i. 458; ii. 145.
-
-
——, mouth of, at Byzantium, i. - -489, 496; ii. 315. -
——, the right shore, i. 95; ii. - -221, 226. -
——, the left shore, ii. 145. -
Poplōnium, c. of Etruria, i. 329— - -332, 334. -
Pordalis, ii. 393. -
Pordoselēnē, Poroselēnē, isl.,ii. 393. -
Pornopiōn, name of Apollo, ii. 386. -
——, month, ii. 386. -
Porsena, king of Clusium i. 327. -
Porthaon, ii. 175. -
Porthaŏnidæ, kings of the Ætolians, - -ii. 179. -
Porticanus, king of India, iii. 95. -
Pōrus, iii. 74, 82, 91, 92. -
——, r. of Achaia, ii. 14. -
Poseidium, grove, ii. 21. -
——, Samian, ii. 26. -
——, in Alexandria, iii. 230. -
——, prom. and c. of Epirus, - -i. 4 7. -
——, prom. of Thessaly (
——, of Chios, iii. 18. -
——, of the Milesians (
——, of Lucania, i. 375, 376. -
——, Bay of Lucania, i. 375. -
——, of Samos, with temple, - -ii. 16, 17. -
——, of Arabia, iii. 203. -
——, t. of Syria, iii. 164, - -167. -
——, temple of Neptune, in - -Elis, ii. 16, 17, 21, 26. -
Poseidōn.
Poseidonia, in the isl. Tenos, ii. - -211. -
Poseidonia, or Trœzen, ii. 55. -
Poseidōnia, c. of Lucania (
Posidonium, Posidonian Gulf, Po-
-
-sidoniate Gulf (
——, near Rhegium, i. 384. -
Posidonius, the Stoic, i. 1, 6, 8, 23,
-
-44, 66, 84, 86, 90, 143, 144, 146,
-
-148, 152, 154—156, 158, 203,
-
-
-
-
Potamia, distr. of Paphlagonia, ii. - -314. -
Potamii, ii. 89. -
Potamō, of Mitylene, ii. 392. -
Potamus, vill. of Attica, ii. 89. -
Potentia, c. of Picenum, i. 357. -
Potidæa, c. of Macedonia, i. 511. -
Potniæ, c. of Beotia, ii. 103, 109. -
Practius, r. of Mysia, ii. 340, 344, - -346, 350, 351. -
Prænestina, Via, i. 352, 353. -
Præneste, c. of Latium, i. 353, 354, - -370. -
Pramnæ, iii. 117, 118. -
Prasia, vill. of Attica (
Prasiæ, c. of Argolis, ii. 48, 55. -
Prasii, people of India, iii. 97. -
——, inhabitants of the city of - -Prasus, ii. 189, 199. -
Prasus, c. of Crete, ii. 195, 199. -
Prausi, Gallic nation, of whom - -Brennus was king, i. 280. -
Praxander, iii. 69. -
Praxiphanes, iii. 33. -
Praxitělēs, ii. 105; iii. 13. -
Preferni, i. 344. -
Prēmnis, t. of Ethiopia, iii. 268. -
Prepesinthus, one of the Cyclades
-
-(
Priam, ii. 169, 301, 342, 344, 345, - -360, 367, 377. -
Priamidæ, ii. 378. -
Priamōn (?Prōmōn), c. of the Dal- - -matæ, i. 484. -
Priapeia, songs of Euphronius, ii. - -66. -
Priapēnē, distr. of Mysia, ii. 347. -
Priapēni, ii. 347. -
Priāpus, son of Bacchus, temple of, - -ii. 66, 348. -
Priāpus, t. of Mysia, i. 518; ii. - -317, 332, 340, 347—349. -
Priēnē, c. of Ionia (
Priēnians, ii. 69; iii. 10. -
Priōn, mtn near Ephesus, iii. 3. -
Privernum, t. of Latium, i. 352. -
Probalinthus, t. of Attica, ii. 67, - -90. -
Prochyta, isl. (
Procleïdæ, ii. 44. -
Prŏclēs, brother of Eurysthenes, ii. - -42, 44, 77, 203, 212. -
——, founder of Samos, iii. 3. -
Procnē, sister of Philomela, ii. 122. -
Proconnēsus, isl. of the Propontis
-
-(
Proerna, t. of Phthiotis, ii. 136. -
Prœtides, ii. 50. -
Prœtus, king of Tiryns, ii. 54. -
Promētheus, i. 273, 458; ii. 238; - -iii. 77. -
—— Loosed, a play of - -Æschylus, i. 52. -
Prōnēsus, t. of Cephallenia, ii. 166. -
Prophthasia, c. of Drangiana (
Propontis (
Proschium, t. of Ætolia, ii. 160. -
Proseleni, ii. 75. -
Proserpine, i. 295, 383; ii. 17; iii. - -25, 180. -
Prosōpite nome, vill. of Egypt, iii. - -240. -
Prosymna, t. of Argolis, ii. 54. -
Prōtarchus, iii. 37. -
Proté, island, ii. 23, 35. -
Prōtesilaeium, in the Thracian - -Chersonese, i. 517; ii. 358. -
Prōtesilaus, king of the Thessalians, - -i. 454; ii. 83, 134—138. -
Prōteus, father of Cabira, i. 59, 62, - -225. -
Prōtogenes, iii. 29, 30.
-
-
-
-
Prusa, c. of Mysia, ii. 315, 316, - -318. -
Prusias, c. of Bithynia (
——, king of Bithynia, ii. 315, - -407. -
Prusienses, inhabitants of Prusias, - -ii. 316. -
Prytaneis, ii. 123. -
Psammetichus, king of Egypt, i. - -96; iii. 195, 219, 239, 244. -
Psaphis, vill. of the Oropii, ii. 90. -
Psěbo, lake of Ethiopia (
Pselchis, c. of Ethiopia, iii. 268. -
Pseudopenias, prom. in the Greater - -Syrtis, iii. 291. -
Pseudophilip, i. 516. -
Psillis, r. of Bithynia, ii. 288. -
Psygmus, on the coast of Ethiopia, - -iii. 200. -
Psylli or Psyllians, people of Libya, - -i. 198; ii. 348; iii. 260, 294. -
Psyra (
Psyttalia, isl. near Salamis, ii. 85. -
Pteleasimum, distr. of Triphylia, ii. - -24. -
Ptělěōs, ii. 357. -
Ptělěum, mtn of Epirus, i. 505. -
——, c. of Triphylia, ii. 23, 24. -
——, c. of Thessaly, ii. 24, - -135, 139. -
Pterelas, ii. 162. -
Ptolemaïs, t. of Phœnicia, i. 201. -
——, t. of Pamphylia (
——, t. of the Cyrenaic, iii. - -292. -
——, t. of the Troglodytic, i. - -200; iii. 191, 194, 204. -
——, t. of the Thebais, iii. - -258. -
Ptolemies, i. 178. -
Ptolemy Aultes, ii. 308; iii. 231, - -232, 234. -
—— Ceraunus, ii. 400. -
——, Cocce's son, iii. 230. -
—— Epiphanes, iii. 231. -
Ptolemy Euergētes, iii. 231. -
—— Euergētes II. or Physcon, - -i. 149, 152, 156; ii. 124, 172; - -iii. 231, 234. -
—— Lathūrus, iii. 231. -
—— Philadelphus, ii. 120, 172; - -iii. 47, 193, 194, 224, 231, 260. -
—— Philomētor, iii. 164, 231. -
—— Philopator, ii. 199; iii. - -176, 231. -
—— Sōter, iii. 290. -
——, king of Cyprus, iii. 71. -
——, son of Aulētes, iii. 234. -
——, son of Juba, iii. 281, 283, - -297. -
——, son of Lagus, i. 463; iii - -123, 229, 231, 239. -
——, son of Mennæus, iii. 166 -
Ptōum, mtn of Bœotia, ii. 109. -
Publius Crassus.
—— Claudius Pulcher.
—— Servilius, ii. 322. -
Pulcher, Publius Claudius, iii. 71. -
Punic War, Second, i. 239. -
Puteoli (
Putrid Lake.
Pydna, c. of Macedonia, i. 508, 509, - -513. -
Pygalgeis, iii. 11. -
Pygěla, c. of Ionia, ii. 299; iii. 10, - -11. -
Pygmies, i. 54, 55, 59, 67, 68, 109, - -458; iii. 107, 270. -
Pylæ, Thermopylæ, i. 17; ii. 118, - -129, 130, 137. -
Pylæan convention of Amphyctyons, - -ii. 118, 130. -
Pylæměnēs, ii. 286, 289. -
Pylæum, mtn of Lesbos, ii. 396. -
Pylæus, king of the Pelasgi, ii. 395, - -396. -
Pylagŏræ, Pylagŏri, ii. 118. -
Pylaïc Assembly, ii. 140. -
—— Gulf (
Pylēnē, t. of Ætolia, ii. 160, 172. -
Pylian Sea, ii. 22. -
Pylii, Pylians, inhabitants of Pylus,
-
-
-
-
Pylōn, t. of Illyria, i. 495. -
Pylus, part of Elis, ii. 11, 17, 18. -
——, c. of Nestor, ii. 7, 25, 46; - -iii. 4. -
——, Eleian, ii. 25, 26. -
——, Triphylian, Lepreatic, or - -Arcadian, ii. 8, 11, 16, 18, 19, - -25, 26. -
——, Messenian, ii. 11, 18—22, - -26—28, 35—38. -
——, Ematheeis, ii. 31. -
Pyræchmēs, ii. 33. -
Pyrætheia, iii. 137. -
Pyræthi, in Cappadocia, iii. 137. -
Pyramids, the, in Egypt, iii. 249— - -252, 255. -
Pyramus, r. of Cilicia (
Pyrasus, t. of Phthiotis, ii. 138, - -139. -
Pyrēnæan Venus, i 267, 272. -
Pyrenees, i. 110, 161, 181,192, 193, - -206, 219, 233, 234, 239—242, - -249, 250, 264—267, 271, 272, - -275, 278, 279, 282, 284, 285, 292, - -296. -
Pyrgi, t. of Triphylia, ii. 22. -
——, t. of Etruria, i. 335. -
Pyrgïtæ, in Triphylia, ii. 22. -
Pyriphlegethōn, r. near Dicæarchia, - -i. 39, 363. -
Pyrrha, wife of Deucalion, ii. 125, - -134, 149. -
——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 134. -
——, t. of Ionia, iii. 6. -
——, t. of Lesbos (
——, isl., ii. 139. -
——, prom. of Thessaly, ii. 139. -
——, prom. of Mysia, ii. 376. -
Pyrrhæa, name of Thessaly, ii. - -149. -
Pyrrhæan Euripus, in the island of
-
-Lesbos (
Pyrrhic dance, ii. 182. -
Pyrrhichus, ii. 182, 202. -
Pyrrhon, ii. 82. -
Pyrrhus Neoptolemus, son of A- - -chiles, i. 500. -
——, king of Epirus, i. 387, 427, - -438, 498; ii. 59, 68. -
Pythagoras, i. 395, 456; iii. 9, 114. -
Pythagoreans, i. 25, 375, 395; ii. - -68, 183; iii. 180. -
——, philosophy of the, i. - -427, 457; iii. 114. -
Pythaïstæ, ii. 97. -
Pythangelus, harbour, altars, iii. 199 - -—201. -
Pytheas, i. 99—101, 110, 116, 154, - -157, 158, 173, 204, 223, 237, 283, - -291, 299, 452. -
Pythian games, i. 390; ii. 117, 120. -
—— priestess, ii. 117; iii. 179. -
Pythias, the, ii. 121. -
Pythium, temple of Apollo, ii. 97. -
——, vill. of Attica, ii. 81. -
Pytho, t. of Phocis, ii. 55, 115, 119. -
Pythŏdōris, ii. 305, 306, 309, 310. -
Pythŏdōrus, ii. 305; iii. 24. -
Pythŏlaus, prom. of Ethiopia, iii. - -199, 201. -
Pythōn, ii. 120, 121. -
Pytia, ii. 349. -
Pytius, ii. 349. -
Pytna, part of Mt Ida, ii. 189. -
——, in Crete, ii. 189. -
Pyxūs, prom., r., and t. of Lucania, - -i. 376. -
Quadi, i. 444. -
Querci.
Quintius Titus, ii. 146. -
Quintus Fabius Maximus Æmilia- - -nus, i. 277. -
Quirïnalis Collis, Mount Quirinus, - -at Rome, i. 348. -
Quirites, i. 342—344 -
Ram's Head.
Raphia (
Rapti, modem name of Prasia. -
Rauraris, i. 272. -
Ravenna, i. 314, 318, 319, 322, - -323, 326, 337. -
Reatě, c. of the Sabines (
Red Sea,
Reggio, i. 315, 317. -
——, in Modena.
Regis-Villa, c. of Etruria, i. 335. -
Rēmi, people of Gaul, i. 289, 290. -
Rěmus, brother of Romulus, i. 340, - -343. -
Reneia, isl. (
Rhacōtis, part of Alexandria, iii. - -227. -
Rhadamanthus, Cretan lawgiver, - -ii. 196, 204. -
——, brother of Minos, i. - -3, 225; ii. 122, 196, 328. -
——, tragedy of Euri- - -pides, ii. 32. -
Rhadinē, song of Stesichorus, ii. 21. -
Rhæci, i. 343. -
Rhæti, i. 287, 304, 306, 307, 311, - -317, 447, 448, 482. -
Rhætian wine, i. 306. -
Rhætica, Rhetia, i. 482. -
Rhaga, ii. 264. -
Rhagæ, Rhages, c. of Media, i. 94; - -ii. 250, 264. -
Rhamanïtæ, people of Arabia, iii. - -212. -
Rhambæi, people of Syria, iii. 166. -
Rhamis, i. 446. -
Rhamnūs, t. of Attica, ii. 90. -
Rhathēnus, ii. 296. -
Rhatōtes, name of the Paphlagoni- - -ans, ii. 302. -
Rhea, mother of the gods, ii. 22, - -183—189. -
—— (Agdistis, Idæa, Dindymēnē, - -Sipylēnē, Pessinūntis, Cybělē, - -Cybēbē), ii. 184—186. -
——, Silvia, daughter of Numitor, - -i. 340. -
Rhecas, ii. 224. -
Rhegians, i. 391. -
Rhegīni, i. 385, 386. -
Rhegium (
——, c. of the Bruttii, i. 77, - -384—386, 388—390, 404, 431. -
——, t. of Gaul, beyond the
-
-Po (
—— Lepidum, t. of Gaul, this
-
-side the Po (
Rhēgma, at the mouths of the - -Cydnus, iii. 56. -
Rhenus, r. (
——, sources of the, i. 265, 289, - -304, 317. -
——, mouths of the, i. 99, 265, - -288, 289, 296, 447, 451. -
Rhesus, king of Thrace, i. 514; ii. - -351. -
——, r. of the Troad, ii. 304, - -341, 351, 357, 371. -
Rhetia, mother of the Corybantes, - -ii. 190. -
Rhiginia, r. of Thrace, i. 516. -
Rhinocolūra, Rhincocorura, t. of
-
-Phœnicia (
Rhipē, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75. -
Rhium, prom. of Achaia (
——, t. of Messenia, ii. 37, 38. -
Rhizæi, Bay of the, i. 485. -
Rhizōn, t. on the coast of Illyria
-
-(
Rhizonic Gulf (
Rhizophagi, people of Ethiopia, iii. - -195. -
Rhizūs, t. ofThessaly, ii. 139, 148. -
Rhoa, i. 269. -
Rhodanus,
Rhodaspes, son of Phraates, iii. - -160. -
Rhodes, i. 38, 105, 109, 123, 131,
-
-133, 160, 172—175, 179, 180,
-
-184, 187, 189, 201, 202, 332, 423,
-
-486; ii. 164, 188, 189, 212, 213
-
-
-
-
Rhodians, Rhodii, i. 90, 240, 398; - -ii. 85, 194; iii. 33, 34. -
Rhodius, r. of the Troad, ii. 304, - -357, 371. -
Rhodŏpē (Rhodos, Rhode ?), t. of - -Spain, i. 240; iii. 32. -
——, mtn of Thrace (
Rhodōpis, iii. 250. -
Rhodos.
Rhoduntia, citadel near Thermo- - -pylæ, ii. 129. -
Rhoeitēs, r. of the Troad, ii. 371. -
Rhœtaces, r. of Albania, ii. 230. -
Rhœtium, t. of the Troad, ii. 357, - -358, 361, 368. -
Rhombites, the Greater, Bay of - -Mæotis, ii. 221. -
——, the Lesser, ii. 221 -
Rhōsus, r. of Syria, iii. 164. -
Rlundacus, r. of Mysia (
Rhypes, c. of Achæa, ii. 71, 73, 75. -
Rhypis, ii. 73. -
Rhytium, t. of Crete, ii. 200. -
Riphæan mtns, i. 452, 459. -
Romans, i. 3, 16, 18, 22, 104, 153,
-
-175, 191, 192, 209, 210, 212, 217,
-
-222, 226—228,231,234,238,239,
-
-243, 247, 249, 250, 253, 262, 263,
-
-270, 271, 284, 286, 287,290—295,
-
-298, 302, 305, 306, 310, 313, 317,
-
-319, 321, 322, 324, 326, 327, 331,
-
-333—335, 338—356, 358, 360,
-
-361, 364, 366, 371, 373, 374, 377,
-
-378, 381, 383, 387, 397, 404, 405,
-
-408, 412, 413, 424, 427, 437—
-
-441, 443, 446, 447, 450, 451, 466
-
-—468, 475, 477, 480, 484, 485,
-
-488, 491, 494, 498, 500, 505, 509,
-
-516; ii. 38, 43, 44, 46, 59, 61,
-
-63, 64, 71, 73, 85, 88, 89, 92,
-
-100, 108, 111, 128, 172, 174,
Roman army, i. 178. -
—— camp, i. 246. -
—— cavalry, i. 292. -
—— citizens, i. 342, 366. -
—— colonists, i. 252, 373. -
—— colony, i. 212, 322, 323. -
—— ustoms, i. 278. -
—— Empire, view of the, iii. - -295—297. -
—— garrison, i. 270. -
—— historians, i. 249. -
—— polity, i. 278. -
—— prefects, i. 286. -
—— territory, i. 151, 341. -
Rome, i. 140, 202, 216, 253, 278, - -293, 297, 317, 322—327, 330, - -331, 333, 336—356, 358, 366, - -370, 371, 398, 412, 413, 431, 441, - -444; ii. 64, 65, 140, 171, 368; - -iii. 172, 295—297. -
Rōmulus, i. 340, 342, 343. -
Rōxana, wife of Alexander, ii. 254; - -iii. 229. -
Rōxolani, Scythian nation, i. 172, - -451, 470, 471. -
Rūbicōn, r. of Italy (
Rūcantii, i. 307. -
Rudiæ, c. of Calabria, i. 429, 430. -
Rūscino, r. and t. of Gaul (
Rūspinum, t. of Numidia, iii. 284. -
Rūtēni, people of Aquitania, i. 284. -
Rūtūli, people of Latium, i. 339, - -343, 346. -
Saba, port in the Arabian Gulf, iii. - -195. -
Sabæ (
Sabæans, people of Arabia Felix, - -iii. 190, 206, 207, 209. -
Sabata, c. of Arabia, iii. 190. -
—— (
Sabatorum Vada, t. of Liguria
-
-(
Sabazius, god of the Phrygians, ii. - -186, 188. -
Sabelli, i. 372. -
Sabina, i. 338, 339, 351.
-
-
-
-
Sabini, Sabines, people of Italy, i. - -325—327, 338,339,342, 357, 371, - -438. -
Sabos, king of Arabia, iii. 212. -
——, king of India, iii. 95. -
Sacæ, Scythian race, i. 465; ii. 245 - -—250. -
Sacæa, ii. 246. -
Sacarauli, Scythian race, ii. 245. -
Sacasēne, distr. of Armenia, i. 112; - -ii. 242, 246, 268. -
Saccopodes, Adiabeni, iii. 154. -
Sacred Promontory, Promontory of
-
-Spain (
Sadacora, t. of Cappadocia, iii. 44. -
Sadracæ, palace of Darius, near - -Arbela, iii. 144. -
Sætabis, t. of Spain (
Sagalasseis, ii. 324. -
Sagalassus, ii. 323, 410. -
Sagapēni, iii. 154. -
Sagra, Sagras, r. i. 391, 392. -
——, battle of the, i. 395 -
Sagrus, r., i. 360. -
Sagūntum, c. of Spain (
Sagylium, citadel of Pontus (
Saii, a Thracian tribe, ii. 169, 298.
-
-
Sais, c. of Egypt, iii. 239, 242. -
Saïtæ, iii. 257. -
Saïtic mouth of the Nile (
—— nome, in Egypt, iii. 239, 240. -
Salaminiac Bay, ii. 6. -
Salaminii, ii. 83. -
Salamis, c. of Cyprus, iii. 69. -
Salamis, isl. (
——, t. of the isl., ii. 83. -
——, Gulf of, ii. 82, 83, 89. -
Salapia, c. of Apulia, i. 433, 434 -
Salaria Via, i. 339. -
Salas, r. of Germany, i. 445. -
Salassi, people of Cisalpine Gaul, i. - -303—306, 309, 311, 314. -
Salda, port of Mauritania (
Salentine territory, i. 429. -
Salentini, people of lapygia, i. 422, - -428. -
Salentinum, i. 430. -
Salernum, c. of Campania, i. 374. -
Salganeus, Bœotian, i. 17; ii. 96. -
——, c. of Bœotia, ii. 92, 98. -
Salmacis, ftn near Halicarnassus, - -iii. 35. -
Salmōnē, c. of Pisatis, ii. 31, 32. -
——, ftn of Enipeus, ii. 31, 32. -
Salmōneus, king of Elis, ii. 31—33. -
Salmōnium, prom. of Crete (
Salmydēssus, c. and coast of Thrace
-
-(
Salōmē, sister of Herod, iii. 184. -
Salōn, t. of the Dalmatæ, i. 484. -
Salōn, t. of Bithynia, ii. 317, 318. -
——, cheese of, ii. 318. -
Saltiātæ (Saltigetæ?), in Lusitania, - -i. 217. -
Salyes, people of Transalpine Gaul, - -i. 267, 269—271, 275, 276, 278, - -301, 302. -
Samæi, in Cephallenia, ii. 166. -
Samaria, same as Sebaste, c. of - -Judæa, iii. 177. -
Samarianē, c. of Hyrcania, ii. 242. -
Samē, t. of Cephallenia, ii. 163, - -166, 167. -
Sami, heights, ii. 169.
-
-
-
-
Samia, Samos, ii. 212, 213; iii. - -10. -
Samian strait, iii. 10. -
Samians, inhabitants of Samos, i. - -518; ii. 168, 212; iii. 9, 10. -
Samicum, citadel of Triphylia, ii. 16, - -17, 19, 21, 26. -
Samicus, plain, ii. 21. -
Samnīte, Samnites, Saunītæ, i. - -339, 344, 346, 357, 360, 367, - -371—374, 377, 378, 380, 387, - -399, 431, 438. -
Samnites, c. of the, i. 353. -
——, women of the, in an - -island of Gaul, i. 295. -
Samnitic mtns, i. 326. -
Samnium, i. 360. -
Samōnium, prom. of Crete.
——, in the Neandris, ii. 189. -
——, Alexandrian, ii. 189. -
Samos, isl. in the Icarian Sea
-
-(
——, Thracian, ii. 10. -
——, Ionian, ii. 10, 21. -
——, c. of the island of, iii. 3. -
——, c. of Triphylia, ii. 19, 21, - -25. -
——, and Samē, same as Cephal- - -lenia, and c. of this isl., ii. 163, - -166, 167. -
——, Threïcian, same as Samo- - -thrace, i. 516; ii. 168. -
Samosata, c. of Syria, iii. 44, 161. -
Samothracē, Samothracia, isl. (
Samothracians, i. 516; ii. 180. -
Sampsiceramus, prince of the Emi- - -seni, iii. 166, 167. -
Sanā, t. of Pallene, i. 511. -
Sanaus, c. of Phrygia, ii. 332. -
Sandalium, citadel of Pisidia, ii. - -323. -
Sandaracurgium, mtn of Pontus, - -ii. 313. -
Sandobanes, r. of Albania, ii. 230. -
Sandōn, father of Athenodorus, iii. - -58. -
Sandrocottus, king of the Prasii, i. - -109; iii. 97, 105, 107, 125. -
Sandyx, ii. 271. -
Sangarius, r. of the Troad (
Sangias, vill. of Phrygia, ii. 288. -
Sanisēnē, distr. of Paphlagonia, ii. - -314. -
Sanni, people of Pontus, ii. 296. -
Santoni (
Saōcondarius, ii. 321. -
Saos, r.
Sapæ, Sapæi, people of Thrace, i. - -515, 516; ii. 169, 298, 305. -
Saperdes, ii. 393. -
Saphnioeis.
Sapis, r. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Sappho, i. 65; ii. 162, 388, 391, - -393; iii. 250. -
Sapra limnē (
——, in the Troad, ii. 387. -
Saraastus, king of India, ii. 253. -
Saramēnē, ii. 294. -
Sarapana, fortress of Colchis (
Saraparæ, people dwelling beyond - -Armenia, ii. 273. -
Sarapis, god of the Egyptians, iii. - -242, 248. -
Sarapium, temple of Sarapis, iii. - -230, 248. -
Saravēnē, prefecture of Cappa- - -docia, ii. 278. -
Sardanapalus, king of Assyria, iii
-
-55, 143.
-
-
-
-
Sardinia, i. 78, 160, 177, 185, 216, - -330—331; iii. 32, 240, 297. -
——, Sea of, i. 78, 84, 159, 185, - -216, 325. -
Sardinian Gulf, i. 216. -
Sardis, Sardeis, c. of Lydia (
Sardō, Sardōn, isl., i. 219, same as - -Sardinia. -
Sareisa, c. of the Gordyenes, iii. - -157. -
Sargarausēnē, prefecture of Cappa- - -docia, ii. 278, 281. -
Sarmatians, Sauromatæ, i. 453, 468, - -470, 480; ii. 219, 226, 227, 230, - -240, 302. -
Sarnius, r. of Hyrcania, ii. 245. -
Sarnus, r. of Campania (
Sarōnic Gulf, ii. 6, 49, 56, 63. -
—— Sea (
Sarpēdōn, prom. of Cilicia, ii. 405; - -iii. 53, 69. -
——, prom. of Thrace, i. - -516. -
——, brother of Minos, founder of Miletus, ii. 328, 347; iii. - -49. -
——, leader of the Syrians, iii. - -174. -
Sarsina, t. of Umbria, i. 337. -
Sarus, r. of Cappadocia and Cilicia, - -ii. 279. -
Sasō, isl. (
Satalca, t. of Mesopotamia, iii. - -157. -
Satnioeis, or Saphnioeis, r. of the - -Troad, i. 494; ii. 375, 379, 394. -
Satnius, ii. 375, 394. -
Saturn, i. 494; ii. 39, 183,184, 189, - -378. -
——, temple of, i. 254. -
Satyr, painted by Protogenes, iii. - -29, 30. -
Satyri, ii. 180, 184, 186. -
Satyrium, near Tarentum, i. 425. -
Satyrus, king of Bosporus, i. 462, - -476. -
——, monument of, ii. 222. -
——, founder of the city of Phi- - -lotera, iii 193. -
Saunitæ,
Sauromatæ, i. 172, 194, 195, 452,
-
-464; ii. 240, 302.
Saus, Sauus, r. of Hungary.
Scæan gates, in the city of Troy, ii. - -351, 363. -
—— wall, ii. 351. -
Scæi, ii. 351. -
Scæus, r. in the Troad, ii. 351. -
Scamander, r. i. 90; ii. 358, 360, - -361, 363, 369, 370, 378. -
——, plain of, ii. 361, 362. -
Scamandrius, son of Hector, ii. - -377, 378; iii. 66. -
Scandaria, Scandarium, prom. of - -the island of Cos, iii. 36. -
Scardon, a Liburnian city (
——, in Elis, ii. 347. -
Scardus, mtn of Macedonia (
Scarphē, c. of Bœotia, i. 95; ii. - -103. -
Scarpheia, Scarphē, c. of the Epicnemidian Locrians (
Scaurus, M. Æmilius, i. 323. -
Scēnæ, c. of Mesopotamia, iii. 159. -
Scēnītæ, Scenites, in Arabia, Meso- - -potamia, Syria, etc., i. 63, 196, - -441; ii. 219, 252; iii. 160, 166, - -185, 190, 204. -
Scepsia, ii. 361, 375. -
Scēpsian territory, ii. 190. -
Scēpsians, ii. 361, 377. -
Scēpsis, ii. 300, 360, 369, 375— - -381; iii. 5. -
Scēpsius, Demetrius.
Scēptūchiæ, Scēptūchi, ii. 225. -
Schědia, t. of Egypt, iii. 237—241.
-
-
-
-
Schědieium, ii. 124 -
Schedius, ii. 124. -
Scheria, same as Corcyra, i. 459. -
Schœnus, c. of Bœotia (
Schœnus, r. of Bœotia, ii. 103. -
——, port of Corinth, ii. 49, - -63, 79. -
——, clans of, i. 16. -
Sciathus (
Scillūs, t. of Triphylia, ii. 16. -
Scilūrus, king of the Scythians, i. - -471, 475, 479. -
Scingomagum, t. in the Alps, i. 268. -
Sciōnē, c. of Pallene, i. 511. -
Scipio, Metellus, iii. 281, 284, 285. -
—— Æmilianus, i. 283; iii. 51, - -286. -
—— Africanus, i. 361. -
—— Caius, i. 317. -
—— Nasica, i. 484. -
Scira, vill. of Attica, ii. 82. -
Sciras, same as Salamis, ii. 82. -
—— Athene, ii. 82. -
Sciron, ii. 80, 81. -
Scirones (N.W. wind), i. 43. -
Scironides rocks, ii. 80, 82. -
Scirophoriōn, ii. 82. -
Sciros, rocks of, i. 43. -
Scollis, mtn of Elis, ii. 11, 13, 14, - -74. -
Scōlus, c. of Bœotia (
Scombraria, isl. near Spain (
Scombrus, iii. 25. -
Scŏpas, the sculptor, ii. 373; iii. - -11. -
Scordistæ, Scordisci, i. 450, 454, - -482, 483, 485, 488, 489. -
——, Great, i. 488. -
——, Little, i. 488. -
Scotūssa, c. of Pelasgiotis, i. 503, - -504, 514; ii. 146. -
Scūltanna, r. of Cisalpine Gaul
-
-(
Scydisēs, mtn of Armenia (
Scylacium.
Scylax, ii. 318, 340; iii. 37. -
——, r. of Pontus (
Scylla, i. 31—33, 36, 37, 39. -
——, daughter of Nisus, ii. 55. -
Scyllæum, prom. and port of Italy, - -i. 35—37, 384. -
——, prom. of Argolis (
Scyllēticus Sinus, Gulf of Scylle-
-
-tium (
Scyllētium, Scylacium, t. of the
-
-Bruttii (
Scyrus, isl. (
Scythia (
——, desert of, i. 79, 82. -
——, Little (or Tauric), i. 478, - -489; ii. 279. -
Scythian nations, i. 247, 480, 481; - -ii. 235. -
—— bow, i. 188. -
—— history, i. 32. -
—— zone, i. 147; ii. 247. -
—— custom, i. 299. -
Scythians, i. 23, 51, 52, 106, 115,
-
-172, 179, 180, 194, 195, 458, 461,
-
-462, 464, 467, 468, 475, 480; ii.
-
-218, 219, 221, 230, 240, 244, 245,
-
-248, 273, 288, 302,
Scythians of the East, i. 172. -
Scythopolis, c, of Galilee, iii. 181. -
Sebastē, c. of Pontus, ii. 300. -
——, same as Samaria, iii, 177. -
Sebennytic nome, iii. 240. -
—— mouth of the Nile, iii. - -239, 240. -
Sebennytice, c. of Egypt, iii. 239. -
Secinus (
Segeda.
Segesama, t. of the Vaccæi (
Segesta (
Segestes, father of Segimuntus, i. - -446. -
Segestica (
Segida, t. of the Aruaci, i. 243. -
Segimūntus, prince of the Cherusci, - -i. 446. -
Segobriga, t. of the Celtiberi, i. 243. -
Segusii, or Segusiani, people of - -Gaul, i. 277, 286. -
Seiris, r. of Lucania, i. 397.
Sělēnē, or the Moon, goddess wor- - -shipped by the Albani, ii. 234. -
——, by the people of Memphis, - -iii. 248. -
——, cognomen of Cleopatra, iii. - -161. -
——, Greek name for Luna, c. and - -port of Etruria, i. 330. -
Seleuceia, c. of Susiana, iii. 154. -
——, c. of Assyria, on the Ti- - -gris, ii. 262, 271; iii. 145, 146, - -152, 156, 162. -
——, Pierian, c. of Syria (
——, fortress of Mesopotamia, - -iii. 161. -
——, c. of Cilicia, iii. 53, 54. -
Seleucis, part of Syria, iii. 160, 161, - -167, 171. -
Seleucus, the Babylonian, i. 8, - -261. -
—— Nicator, king of Syria, ii. - -334, 400; iii. 51, 74, 125, 145, - -146, 161, 162, 165. -
—— Callinicus, king of Syria, - -ii. 248; iii. 162, 168. -
Selgē, c. of Pisidia (
Selgeis, ii. 323—325. -
Selgessus, same as Sagalassus, ii. - -323. -
Selgic mountains, ii. 325. -
Sēlinūntia, hot springs in Sicily (
Sēlinūntius Apollo, worshipped by - -the Orobii, ii. 152. -
Sēlinūs, c. of Sicily, i. 412. -
——, c. of Cilicia, iii. 52. -
——, r. of Sicily, ii. 73; iii. 68. -
——, r. near Ephesus, ii. 73. -
——, r. of Elis, ii. 73. -
——, r. of Achæa, ii. 73. -
Selinüsia, lake near Ephesus, iii. - -14. -
Sellēis, r. near Sicyon, ii. 9. -
——, r. of Elis, i. 502; ii. 9—11. -
——, r. of the Troad, ii. 351. -
Selli, people of Epirus, i. 44, 502. -
Selūrus, i. 413. -
Sēlybria, c. of Thrace, i. 490, 518. -
Selys, i. 490. -
Sembritæ, Egyptians driven into - -exile by Psammitichus, iii. 195, - -219. -
Semiramis, wife of Ninus, i. 129; - -ii. 271, 281, 309, 310; iii. 74, 75, - -122, 143. -
——, rampart of, i. 124. -
Semnōnes, people of Germany, i. - -445. -
Sēna, t. of Umbria (
Sěnŏnes, people of Gaul, i. 289. -
——, people of Italy, i. 291, 317, - -322. -
Sentīnum, t. of Umbria (
Sēpias, prom. and coast of Thessaly
-
-(
——, c. of Magnesia, ii. 139. -
Sepius, same as Sipus. -
Septempěda, t. of Picenum (
Sēquana, r. (
Sēquani, people of Gaul, i. 278, - -286—288, 291, 307, 310. -
Serapis.
Seraspadanes, son of Phraates, iii, - -160. -
Sērěs, people of India, ii. 253; iii - -95, 97. -
Serguntia, t. of Celtiberia, i. 243 -
Seriphians, ii. 211.
-
-
-
-
Seriphos, one of the Cyclades (
Serrium, prom. of Thrace, i. 516. -
Sertōrius, i. 238, 242, 244, 439; - -iii. 281. -
Servilius, P. Isauricus, ii. 322; iii. - -46, 55. -
Servius, king of the Romans, i. 348. -
Sesamum (
Sesamus, t. of Paphlagonia, ii. 291. -
Sesarēthii, people of Epirus, i. 500. -
Sesithacus, leader of the Cherusci, - -i. 446. -
Sesōstris, king of Egypt, i. 61, 96; - -iii. 74, 191, 194, 224, 244. -
Sēstia, prom. of, in the Thracian - -Chersonese, i. 518. -
Sēstos, t. of the Thracian Cherson- - -ese, i. 164, 188, 518; ii. 350, - -352—354. -
——, strait of, i. 517. -
Setabis (
Sethroite nome, iii. 243. -
Sētia, t. of Latium (
——, wine of, i. 347. -
Sētium, prom. of Gallia Narbonen-
-
-sis (
Seusamora, c. of Iberia Caucasia, - -ii. 231. -
Seuthēs, king of the Odryse, i. 5, 6. -
Seven Brothers, monuments of the, - -iii. 278. -
Sextiæ, hot-baths near Marseilles, i. - -267, 270. -
Sextius, i. 270. -
Sextus Pompeius, i. 213, 362, 386, - -388, 404, 408, 411. -
Sibæ, people of India, iii. 77, 94. -
Sibini, people of Germany, i. 445. -
Sibyl, Erythræan, ii. 321; iii. 18, - -258, 259. -
Sicambri, i. 289, 444—446, 451. -
Sicani, people of Sicily, i. 407. -
Sicenus (
Sicilians, i. 9, 336, '385, 407; ii. - -118. -
Sicily, i. 33—78, 84, 89, 93, 128, - -164, 184—186, 194, 213, 224, - -334, 361, 362, 369, 376—378, - -383—386, 388, 389, 392, 400 - -—404, 407—409, 411, 412, 414, - -417—422, 425, 430. 437, 438, - -459; ii. 4, 35, 41, 71, 92, 116, - -154, 158, 378, 404; iii. 32, 59. -
——, Sea of, i. 85, 185—187, 315, - -346, 379, 380, 400, 495; ii. 5, - -16, 287, 288, 297. -
——, Strait of.
Sicyōn, c. of Peloponnesus (
Sicyōnia, ii. 5, 62, 66, 103. -
Sicyōnii, Sicyonians, ii. 64, 66. -
Sidē, c. of Pontus, ii. 295. -
——, c. of Pamphylia (
Sidēnē, distr. of Pontus (
——, c. and distr. of Mysia, ii. - -347, 368. -
Sidētani, in Spain, i. 245. -
Sidicīni, people of Italy, i. 352, - -436. -
Sidicīnum.
Sidōn, c. of Phoenicia (
Sidŏnes, people of the Bastarnæ, i. - -470. -
Sidōnia (Pēdōnia ?), isl. on the - -coast of Egypt, iii. 235. -
Sidonian women, i. 65. -
Sidŏnii, Sidonians, i. 2, 41, 60, 65, - -66, 68, 458; iii. 173, 174, 215, - -216. -
Siga, c. of the Masæsylii (
Sigeia, prom. in the Troad, ii. 358, - -372. -
Sigēlus, monument of Narcissus, - -ii. 96. -
Sigertis, king of India, ii. 253. -
Sigeum, t. of the Troad (
Sigia, ii. 373. -
Sigimērus, Segimerus, prince of the - -Cherusci, i. 446. -
Siginni, people inhabiting the Cas- - -pian, ii. 258. -
Signia, t. of Latium (
Signium (wine), i. 352. -
Sigriana, distr. of Media, ii. 265. -
Sigrium, prom. of Lesbos (
Sila, forest of the Bruttii, i. 391. -
——, r. of India, iii. 98. -
——, t., i. 435. -
Silacēni, people of Assyria, iii. 154. -
Silanus, i. 258. -
Silaris, r. of Campania (
Silēni, servants of Bacchus, i. 286, - -288, 290, 291, 297. -
Silenus, ii. 186, 318. -
Silli, people of Ethiopia, iii. 16. -
Silphium (
Silta, in Thrace, i. 518. -
Silvium, t. of the Peucetii, i. 432. -
Simi, iii. 197. -
Simmias, Rhodian, ii. 42; iii. 34. -
Simodia, iii. 23. -
Simoeis, r. of the Troad, ii. 358, - -361, 362, 368. -
——,r. of Sicily, ii. 378. -
——, plain of, in the Troad, ii. - -361. -
Simōnides, lyric poet, ii. 146, 210, - -394; iii. 108. -
—— Amorginus, ii. 212; iii. - -130. -
Simuntis, cognomen of Troy, ii. 74. -
Simus, physician, iii. 36. -
——, lyric poet, iii. 23. -
Simyra, c. of Syria (
Sinda, c. of Pisidia (
Sindi, Mæotic race. ii. 223. -
Sindic harbour, ii. 225 -
Sindica, distr. by the Cimmerian - -Bosporus, i. 478; ii. 219, 224, - -305. -
—— Sea, ii. 219. -
Sindomana, c. of India, iii. 95. -
Singitic Gulf, Bay of Macedonia
-
-(
Singus, c. of Macedonia, i. 511. -
Sinna, citadel of, iii. 170. -
Sinōpe, c. of Pontus, colony of the - -Milesians, i. 72, 106, 113, 114, - -202, 216, 491; ii. 198, 225, 227, - -284, 291—294, 302, 310; iii. 44, - -61—63. -
Sinopenses, ii. 291. -
Sinōpis, Sinopītis, Sinopic district, - -ii. 313. -
Sinŏria, fortress of Armenia, ii. 305. -
Sinōtium, t. of the Dalmatians, i. - -484. -
Sinti, Sinties, or Saii, people of - -Thrace, i. 514, 515; ii. 169, - -298. -
Sinuessa, Sinoessa, t. of Latium
-
-(
Siphnian bone, ii. 207. -
Siphnus, isl. (
Sipūs, c. of Apulia (
Sipylēnē, cognomen of Rhea, ii. - -184. -
—— (
Sipylus, mtn of Lydia, i. 91; ii. - -326, 335, 337; iii. 66. -
——, c. of Lydia, i. 91; ii. - -326. -
Siraces, Siraci, inhabitants of the - -Caucasus, ii. 219, 238, 239. -
Siracēnē, ii. 236. -
Sirbis, r. of Lycia (
Sirbōnis, Sirbōnitis, lake in Egypt
-
-(
Sirens, i. 34, 35, 375, 387.
-
-
-
-
Sirenusæ, Sirenussæ, prom. (
Siris, c., i. 397—399. -
——, r. Sinno, i. 397. -
Siritis, i. 380. -
Sirmium, c. of Pannonia, i. 483. -
Sisapō, c. of Spain, i. 214. -
Siscia, t. of Pannonia, i. 483. -
Sisimythres, stronghold of, in Bac- - -triana, ii. 254. -
Sisinus, treasure-hold of, ii. 281. -
Sisis, ii. 304. -
Sisypheium, in the Acrocorinthus, - -ii. 62. -
Sisyrba, an Amazon, iii. 3. -
Sisyrbītæ, iii. 3. -
Sitacēnē, distr. of Babylon, of Apol-
-
-lōniātis (
Sitacēni, ii. 223. -
Sithōnes, people of Macedonia, i. - -506. -
Smintheas.
Sminthia, ii. 374. -
Sminthium, temple of Apollo, near - -Hamaxitus, ii. 190, 374. -
Smyrna, c. of Ionia, ii. 237, 298, - -303, 336; iii. 1, 4, 8, 20, 43. -
——, part of Ephesus, iii. 3. -
——, Bay of, iii. 20, 21. -
——, an Amazon, iii. 3. -
Smyrnæans, iii. 3, 20. -
Soandus, t. of Cappadocia, iii. 44. -
Soanes, people bordering on the - -Caucasus, ii. 225, 229. -
Soatra, t. of Lycaonia, ii. 321. -
Sōcrates, i. 452; ii. 95; iii. 114. -
Sodom, c. of Judæa, iii. 183. -
Sogdiana, i. 113; ii. 245, 248, 253 - -—255; iii. 125, 126. -
Sogdiani, Sogdii, Sogdians, i. 112, - -195; ii. 245, 248, 253. -
Soli, c. of Cilicia (
Soli, c. of Cyprus, iii 70. -
Solii, iii. 70. -
Solmissus, mtn near Ephesus, iii. - -11. -
Solŏcē, iii. 154. -
Sŏlōn, i. 154; ii. 83. -
Solyme, mtns of Lycia, i. 53; iii. - -48. -
Solymi, people of Lycia, i. 8, 32, - -54; ii. 328, 409, 410; iii. 48, 49, - -63, 65. -
Solymus, mtn of Pisidia, iii. 409. -
Somnus, ii. 341. -
Sōpeithēs, king of the Indians, iii - -92, 93. -
Sōphēnē, distr. of Armenia (
——, prince of, ii. 278. -
Sōphēni, ii. 272, 273, 278. -
Sophoclēs, i. 410; ii. 32, 42, 51, - -81, 90, 135, 170, 186, 191, 377; - -iii. 9, 15, 59, 60, 76. -
Sōra, t. of Latium, i. 353. -
Soracte, mtn of Latium (
Sosicrates, ii. 193. -
Sōsipŏlis, Jupiter, worshipped at - -Magnesia, iii. 23. -
Sōssinati, people of Sardinia, i. 334. -
Sōstratus, tomb of, ii. 74. -
——, grammarian, iii. 26. -
—— of Cnidus, iii. 227. -
Sōtades, ii. 19. -
——, poet, iii. 23. -
Sōteira, harbour in the Arabian - -Gulf, iii. 194. -
Sōtēres, or Saviours, cognomen of - -the Dioscuri i. 345. -
Southern Sea, i. 183. -
Spadines, ii. 239. -
Spain, i. 3, 9, 13, 33, 43, 54, 72,
-
-100, 101, 128, 141,151,152, 157,
-
-160, 161, 163, 165, 175, 180, 184,
-
-192, 205, 206, 208, 210, 213,215
-
-—219, 222—226, 228, 229, 283,
-
-234, 236, 240—242, 244, 245,
-
-249, 251, 252, 255, 263, 264, 267,
-
-
-
-
Spain, Citerior, i. 249, 250. -
——, Ulterior, i. 240, 245; iii. - -297. -
Sparta, i. 274; ii. 15, 25, 36, 40
-
-—44, 47, 49, 59, 153, 203.
Spartans, i. 385; ii. 42, 202, 203. -
Spartarium, plain of, 241. -
Spauta (Capauta ? ), marsh in Me-
-
-dia (
Spedon, ii. 113. -
Spercheius, r. of Thessaly (
Spermophagi, people of Ethiopia, - -iii. 195. -
Sphagia, Sphactēria, island, ii. 22, - -36. -
Sphēttus, t. of Attica, ii. 88. -
Spina, c. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Spinītæ, i. 318; ii. 119. -
Spitamenes, ii. 248, 255. -
Spŏlētium, c. of Umbria (
Sporades, islands, i. 187; ii. 192. - -207, 211—213; iii. 33. -
Stadia, ancient name of Rhodes, iii. - -31. -
Stagirus, Stagira, t. of Macedonia, - -i. 512, 513. -
Staphylus, ii. 195. -
Stasanōr, iii. 70. -
Statanian wine, i. 347, 361. -
Statōnia, t. of Etruria, i. 335. -
Steganopodes, i. 68, 458. -
Steiria, vill. of Attica, ii. 89. -
Stēlæ.
Stenyclarus, c. of Messenia, ii. 38. -
Sterophthalmi, i. 68, 458. -
Stērŏpa, ii. 198. -
Stēsichorus, i. 67; ii. 21, 32. -
Stēsimbrŏtus, ii. 189. -
Sthěnělus, king of the Mycenæ, ii. - -59. -
Sthěnis, ii. 293. -
Stiphane (
Stoa Pœcile, ii. 87. -
Stŏbi, t. of Macedonia, i. 504; ii. - -77. -
Stœchades, islands, i. 276. -
Stoics, i. 24, 156. -
Stŏmalimnē, a salt lake, i. 275; ii. - -358, 361. -
——, village, iii. 36. -
Stŏni (
Stony Plain, the, i. 273. -
Stŏras, r. of Latium, i. 346. -
Strabo, geographer, i. 505, 507, 516, - -517: his country, ii. 195, 197, - -311: his ancestry, ii. 307: his - -masters, iii. 26, 27, 53, 173: his - -friends, i. 178, 209, 262: his age, - -439: his travels, i. 91, 178, 332; - -ii. 61, 208, 255; iii. 102, 247, 262, - -265; his History, i. 21; ii. 251. -
——, Pompey, i. 317. -
Straits.
Stratarchas, ii. 198. -
Stratia, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75. -
Stratius, priest, i. 114. -
——.
Strato, isl. of, in the Arabian Gulf, - -iii. 195. -
—— tower, in Judæa, iii. 174. -
——, tyrant, ii. 294. -
——, natural philosopher, i. 78 - -80—82. -
Stratocles, Athenian, ii. 35. -
——, Rhodian, iii. 33. -
Stratonice, ii. 401. -
Stratoniceia, c. of Caria (
——, by the Taurus, iii. 40. -
Stratoniceians, ii. 383; iii. 39, 40. -
Stratonicus, ii. 381; iii. 28. -
Stratus, c. of Acarnania, ii. 159. -
——, c. of Achaia, afterwards - -Dyme, ii. 74. -
Strongyla, one of the Lipari islands
-
-(
Strophades, islands (
Strūthophagi, in Ethiopia, iii. 197. -
Strymōn, r. of Thrace (
Strymonic Gulf (G.
Stygian stream.
Stymbara, t. of the Deuriopes, i. 501. -
Stymphalian lake, ii. 52, 76. -
Stymphalides, ii. 52. -
Stymphalii, ii. 76. -
Stymphalus, t. of Arcadia, i. 416; - -ii. 52, 66, 75, 76. -
Styra (
Styrieis, ii. 153. -
Styx, at Lake Avernus, i. 363. -
——, near Pheneus, ii. 76. -
——, at Telchinas, iii. 31. -
Suangela, c. of Caria, ii. 383. -
Sūchus, the sacred crocodile, iii. - -195. -
Sūcro, r. of Spain (
——, t. of Spain, i. 238. -
Sudinus, iii. 146. -
Suessa, c. of the Volsci, i. 344, 352. -
Suessiones, people of Gaul, i. 289, - -293. -
Suessūla, t. of Campania (
Suevi, i. 289, 308, 444, 445, 448, - -452. -
Sūgambri, people of Germany.
Suidas, i. 503. -
Sulchi, t. of Sardinia, i. 333. -
Sūlgas, r. of Gaul (
Sulmō, c. of the Peligni (
Sun, Colossus of the, iii. 29. -
Sūnium, prom. of Attica (
Sūnium, demus of Attica, ii. 89. -
Sūrena, iii. 31. -
Surrentum, c. of Campania (
Sūsa, c. of Susiana (
Sūsiana, distr. (
Sūsians, i. 196; ii. 264, 266. -
Sūsis, Sūsias, same as Susiana. -
Suspiritis, ii. 235. -
Sūtrium, c. of Etruria (
Sybaris, c. of Lucania, i. 394—396; - -ii. 73. -
——, c. of the Bruttii, a colony - -of the Rhodians, i. 398, 399; iii. 33. -
——, r. of Lucania, i. 394—397; - -ii. 73. -
——, ftn of Achaia, ii. 73. -
Sybaritæ, Sybarites, i. 373, 376, - -399; ii. 119. -
Sybota, islands (
Sycaminopolis, c. of Judæa, iii. 175. -
Sydracæ (al. Oxydraceæ), people - -of India, iii. 76, 94, 95. -
Syedra, t. of Cilicia, iii. 52. -
Syēnē, c. of Egypt (
Sylla, L. Cornelius, i. 331, 371; ii. - -85, 89, 154, 308, 356, 357, 380; - -iii. 32, 232. -
Syllæus, iii. 210—213, 267. -
Sylŏsōn, iii. 8, 9. -
Symæthus, r. of Sicily (
Symbace, c. of Armenia or Media, - -ii. 263. -
Symbŏlōn limen, or Signal harbour,
-
-in the Tauric Chersonesus, i.
-
-474, 475.
-
-
-
-
Symbri, Symbrii (
Symē, isl. of Caria, iii. 34. -
Symplēgaděs, by the Thracian Bos- - -porus, same as the Cyaneæ, i. 32, - -224, 256. -
Synnada, t. of Phrygia (
Synnadic marble, ii. 140, 333. -
Synoria.
Syphax, iii. 282. -
Syracuse (
Syracūsans, i. 357, 389, 394, 407, - -408; ii. 158. -
Syria, i. 63, 76, 90, 129, 189, 196, - -416; ii. 145, 211, 240, 250, 262, - -264, 267, 273, 274, 281, 308, - -404; iii. 50, 51, 60, 61, 130, 140, - -150, 158, 160—176, 179, 185, - -207, 209, 216, 230, 232. -
——, Upper, i. 201. -
——, Lower, iii. 83, 150. -
——, Cœle-Syria, i. 201; iii. 160, - -161, 167, 169, 171, 185, 189. -
——, Sea of, i. 129; ii. 279; iii. - -160. -
Syrians, i. 66, 196, 440; ii. 290, - -301, 304. -
——, Leuco, ii. 301, 302, 304. -
Syriē, same as Syros. -
Syrmūs, king of the Triballi, i. - -463. -
Syros (
Syrtis, on the coast of Africa, i. - -185, 197, 198, 256, 403; iii. 275, - -282, 285, 288—291. -
——, Greater (
——, Lesser (
—— Lotophagitis, iii. 288. -
Syrus, i. 467. -
Syspirītis, distr. of Armenia, ii. 272. -
Tabæ, c. of Phrygia (
Tabēnian plain, ii. 407. -
Tænarum, prom. of Laconia (
——, t. of Laconia, ii. 36, 37. -
Tagus, r. of Spain, i. 161, 208, 209, - -214, 227—231, 243. -
Talabrŏcē, t. of Hyrcania, ii. 242. -
Talæmenes, ii. 403. -
Talares, people of Epirus, ii. 137. -
Tamarus, prom. of India, ii. 257. -
Tamassus, t. of Cyprus (
Tamna, t. of Arabia Felix, iii. - -190. -
Tamynæ, t. of Eubœa, ii. 155. -
Tamyracas, or Corcinitic Gulf, in - -the Tauric Chersonese, i. 471, - -473. -
——, promontory, i. 473. -
Tamyras, r. of Phœnicia (
Tanagra, c. of Bœotia, ii. 66, 95— - -97, 99, 104, 105. -
Tanagræa, Tanagricē, ii. 92, 95, 96, - -143. -
Tanaïs, c., situated on the river of - -that name, ii. 239, 224. -
——, river (
Tanis, c. of Egypt on the Delta, - -iii. 240. -
——, c. of the Thebaid, iii. 258. -
Tanitic nome, iii. 240. -
—— mouth of the Nile, iii. 239, - -240. -
Tantalus, i. 91; ii. 326, 337; iii. - -66. -
Taŏcē, c. of Persia (
Tapē, c. of Hyrcania, ii. 242. -
Taphiassus, mtn of Ætolia (
Taphii, Taphians, ii. 166, 170, 173.
-
-
-
-
Taphītis, prom. on the Carthaginian
-
-coast (
Taphos, Taphiūs, island near Acar- - -nania, ii. 166, 167, 170, 173. -
Taphrii, in the Tauric Chersonesus, - -i. 473. -
Tapŏseiris, c. of Egypt, iii. 236. -
—— the Less, c. of Egypt, - -iii. 236, 238. -
Taprŏbanē, isl. (
Tapyri, people of Asia, ii. 248, - -250, 258, 263. -
Taracōn, c. of Spain.
Taranto, Gulf of.
Taras.
Tarbassus, c. of Pisidia, ii. 324. -
Tarbelli, people of Gaul, i. 283. -
Tarcon (Tarquin), governor of Tar- - -quinia, i. 326. -
Tarcondimŏtus, king of Cilicia, iii. - -60. -
Tarentini, Tarentines, i. 372, 389, - -397—399, 427, 430, 438. -
Tarentum, i. 347, 377, 379, 393, - -399, 400, 423, 425, 427—434, - -497. -
——, Gulf of, i. 313, 315, 377, - -378, 393, 423, 429. -
Taricheæ, c. of Judæa, iii. 183. -
Taricheiæ, islands near Carthage, - -iii. 288. -
Tarnē, t. of Bœotia, ii. 110. -
——, t. of Lydia, ii. 110. -
Taronitis, ii. 268, 269. -
Tarpētěs, ii. 223. -
Tarphē, c. of the Locrians, ii. 110, - -127. -
Tarquin.
Tarquinia, c. of Etruria, i. 326. -
Tarquinii, the, i. 327. -
Tarquinius Priscus, Lucius, i. 327, - -344. -
—— Superbus, i. 327, 344, - -438. -
Tarracina, t. of Latium, i. 344, 346, - -347. -
Tarraco (
Tarsius, r. of Mysia (
Tarsus, c. of Cilicia (
Tartarus, i. 223, 224. -
Tartēssians, i. 51. -
Tartēssis, i. 223. -
Tartēssus, c. of Spain, i. 224, 226. -
——, r. of Spain (
Tarūsco, t. of Gaul, i. 267, 268, - -279. -
Tasius, leader of the Roxolani, i. - -471. -
Tatta, marsh in Phrygia (
Taucheira (
Taulantii, people of Epirus, i. 500. -
Tauri, Scythian race, i. 476, 478. -
——, Troglodytic mountains, iii. - -194. -
Tauriana, distr. of the Bruttii, i. - -379. -
Tauric Chersonesus.
—— coasts, i. 475. -
Taurīni, people of Liguria, i. 303, - -311. -
Taurisci, Tauristæ, a people of - -Gaul, i. 307, 309, 310, 317, 450, - -454, 466, 482. -
Taurisci Norici, i. 310. -
Tauroentium, t. of Gaul (
Tauroměnia (Taormina), i. 404. -
Tauroměnitæ, i. 412. -
Tauroměnium, c. of Sicily (
Tauropŏlium, temple of Diana, iii. - -10, 186. -
Taurus, fortress of Judæa, iii. 181. -
——, mtn of Asia, i. 32, 82, 105,
-
-106, 113, 120, 125, 126, 128, 131,
-
-136, 139, 179, 184, 194, 195,
-
-439; ii. 215, 216, 218, 226, 244,
-
-250, 255, 256, 259—262, 267,
-
-277—279, 281, 284, 290, 314,
-
-321—325, 329, 333, 347, 355,
-
-
-
-
Taurus, Pisidian, i. 195; ii. 319. -
——, Cilician, ii. 276, 278, 319. -
——, Anti-, ii. 259, 260, 278, - -279. -
Tavium, ii. 320. -
Taxila, c. of India, iii. 82, 90, 111, - -112. -
Taxiles, king of the Taxili, iii. 90, - -92, 114. -
Taÿgětum, mtn of Laconia (
Teanum, Sidicinum, c. of Campania
-
-(
——, Apulian, i. 359, 436. -
Tearco, Ethiopian, i. 96; iii. 74. -
Teatea, c. of the Marrucini (
Tectosages, people of Gallia Nar- - -bonensis, i. 279, 280, 282. -
——, people of Galatia, ii. - -319, 320. -
Těgěa, c. of Arcadia, ii. 8, 54, 58, - -64, 75, 76. -
——, territory of, ii. 76. -
Tegeatæ, ii. 60. -
Teichiūs, fortress near Thermopylæ, - -ii. 129. -
Teirěsias, ii. 107, 111; iii. 15, 180. -
Telamōn, ii. 83; iii. 69. -
Telchïnes, inhabitants of Rhodes, - -ii. 180, 188; iii. 31, 32. -
Telchīnis, name of the island of - -Rhodes, iii. 31, 32. -
Tēlěboæ, i. 494; ii. 166, 170—173. -
Tēlěboas, i. 494. -
Tēlěclus, i. 425; ii. 37. -
Tēlemachus, i. 59, 62, 65, 503; ii. - -9, 14, 17—19, 25, 46, 47, 155, - -173. -
Tēlephus, father of Eurypelus, ii. - -327, 343, 346, 389. -
Tělěsia, t. of the Samnites, i. 371. -
Telethrius, mtn of Eubœa (
Tellēnæ, t. of Latium, i. 344. -
Telmēssis, prom. of, in Lycia, iii. - -46. -
Telmēssus, t. of Lycia, iii. 46. -
Tēlos, one of the Sporades (
Tembriōn, founder of Samos, ii. - -168; iii. 3. -
Tēměnium, t. of Argolis, ii. 48. -
Tēměnus, leader of the Heraclidæ, - -ii. 33, 34, 48, 77. -
Těměsa, c. of Magna Grecia, after- - -wards named Temsa, i. 9, 381. -
——, in Italy, ii. 300. -
Temmices, occupy Bœotia, i. 493; - -ii. 93. -
Tēmnum, mtn in Mysia, ii. 390. -
Tēmnus, c. of Mysia, ii. 397. -
Tempē, vill. of Thessaly, i. 505, - -507; ii. 77, 130, 131, 139—147, - -272. -
Tempyra, c. of Thrace, i. 516. -
Těněa, t. of the Corinthians, ii. 63. -
Těněas, r. of Umbria, i. 337, 349. -
Těnědii, ii. 64. -
Těnědos, isl. and t. (
Tēněric plain, in Bœotia, ii. 109. -
Tēnerus, son of Apollo, ii. 109. -
Tēnessis, distr. of Ethiopia, iii. 195. -
Tennes, son of Cycnus, ii. 64, 373. -
Tēnos, one of the Cyclades (
Tentyra, c. of Egypt, iii. 260. -
Tentyrïtae, iii. 260. -
Těōs, c. of Ionia, iii. 2, 16, 17. -
Těrēdōn, c. of Babylon, i. 123; iii. - -186, 187. -
Tereia, Tereiē, c. of Mysia, ii. 317, - -346, 349. -
——, mtn, ii. 349. -
Terentius Varro, i. 306. -
Tēreus, the Thracian, i. 493; ii. - -122. -
Tergestě (
Terina, c. of the Bruttii (
Terměrium, prom. of Caria, iii. 36. -
Termerum, c. of Caria, iii. 36.
-
-
-
-
Termēssians, ii. 409. -
Termēssus, c. of Pisidia, ii. 409, - -410; iii. 48. -
Termilæ, inhabit Lycia, ii. 328; iii. - -49, 63. -
Terpander, ii. 393. -
Tetrapolis, Athenian, ii. 56, 57, 67, - -88. -
——, the Dorian, ii. 114, 115, - -125, 128, 195. -
——, of Marathon, ii. 153. -
Tetrapyrgia, in the Cyrenaic, iii. - -294. -
Teucer, son of Telamon, i. 236; - -iii. 55, 56, 69. -
——, of Attica, ii. 374. -
Teucrians, inhabitants of the Troad, - -i. 96; ii. 373, 374. -
Teumēssus, t. of Boeotia, ii. 104, - -108. -
Teutamis, ii. 395. -
Teuthěa, t. of Achæa, ii. 14. -
Teuthěas, r. of Achæa, ii. 14. -
Teuthrania, distr. of Mysia, ii. 299, - -326, 389. -
Teuthras (? Traeis), river of the - -Bruttii, i. 398. -
——, king of Teuthrania, ii. - -326—328, 346, 389. -
Teutons, i. 292. -
Teutria, isl. of, i. 434. -
Thala, t. of Numidia, iii. 284. -
Thalamæ, t. of Laconia, ii. 36. -
Thales, Milesian, i. 12; iii. 5. -
—— of Crete, poet, ii. 202, - -204. -
Thalēstria, queen of the Amazons, - -ii. 237. -
Thamyris, the Thracian, i. 513; ii. - -10, 23, 24, 187. -
Thapsacus, c. of Babylonia (
Thapsus, t. of Africa (
Thasian pottery, i. 487. -
Thasii, i. 515. -
Thasos, island (
Thaumaci, c. of Phthiotis, ii. 77, - -136. -
Thaumacia, c. of Magnesia, ii. 140 -
Thebaic keep, in Egypt, iii. 258. -
Thebaïs, part of Egypt, i. 67; iii. - -84, 211, 221, 225, 243, 258, 260. -
——, Thebais, Thebaïce, portion - -of Bœotia, ii. 97, 102—106. -
Thebans, i. 155; ii. 39, 43, 68, 92, - -94, 104, 109—112, 175. -
Thēbe, city of Pamphylia, iii. 49, - -63, 65. -
——, Thebæ, city of the Troad, - -ii. 343, 344, 346, 348, 384—387, - -394. -
—— Hypoplacia, ii. 343. -
Thebes, city of Beotia, i. 499; ii. - -66, 74, 93, 95, 97, 102, 103, - -107—109. -
——, city of Egypt, i. 15, 46, 56, - -64; ii. 112, 300; iii. 140, 245, - -257, 258, 261. -
—— Phthiotides, city of Thessa- - -ly, ii. 133, 135, 136, 138. -
——, plain of, in the Troad, ii.
-
-374, 385, 390,
Thěmella, prince of the Arabians, - -iii. 167. -
Thěmis, ii. 121. -
——, Ichnæan, ii. 138. -
Themiscyra, distr. of Pontus (
Themiscyran plain, i. 190. -
Themisōnium, t. of Phrygia (
Themistæ, i. 503. -
Themistocles, ii. 347; iii. 6, 22. -
Thěna, t. of Africa, iii. 285, 288. -
Theocles, Athenian, i. 404. -
Theocritus, the Sophist, iii. 19. -
Theodectes, poet, iii. 87. -
Theodōrus, ii. 402; iii. 175. -
Theodŏsia, c. of Chersonesus (
Theodŏsius, mathematician, ii. 318. -
Theomnēstus, of Cos, musician, iii.
-
-36.
-
-
-
-
Theōn-limen, city of Numidia, iii. - -282. -
Theophanes, of Mitylene, ii. 220, - -269, 271, 305, 392. -
Theophilus, maternal uncle of - -Strabo, ii. 307. -
Theophrastus, Peripatetic philoso- - -pher, ii. 88, 199, 378, 379, 392, - -393. -
Theopompus, of Cnidus, iii. 34. -
——, of Chios, i. 69, 459, - -487, 496; ii. 54, 57, 123, 152, - -294, 352, 407; iii. 19. -
Theoprosōpon, prom. of Syria
-
-(
Theoris, ii. 89. -
Thera, isl. (
Therapnæ, t. of the Thebans, ii. 104. -
Thēras, founder of Thera, ii. 21. -
Therasia, isl., i. 89, 90; ii. 207. -
Theriaca, iii. 273. -
Therma, Therme, t. of Macedonia, - -i. 508—510. -
——, Thermum, c. of Ætolia, - -ii. 176. -
Thermaic, Thermæan, Gulf (
Thermessa, isl., i. 417—419. -
Thermōdōn, r. of Pontus (
Thermopylæ, i. 17, 57, 94, 95, 328; - -ii. 4, 118, 125, 127, 129, 131, - -136, 137, 151, 396. -
Thēseium, ii. 86, 87. -
Theseus, i. 30, 40, 76, 430; ii. 63, - -80, 86, 88, 90, 197. -
Thespiæ, Thespeia, Thespia, c. of - -Bœotia, ii. 58, 95, 104—106, 111. -
Thespians, ii. 99, 107. -
Thesproti, i. 493, 496, 497, 502. -
Thesprōtia, i. 382, 502,504; ii. 10. -
Thesprōtis, i. 9, 43, 502. -
Thessalian dress, ii. 272. -
Thessalians, i. 71, 319, 328, 500, - -501, 503, 508; ii. 2, 4, 83, 114, - -130—149, 158, 195, 272, 287. -
Thessaliōtæ, Thessaliōtis, ii. 132, - -138, 142. -
Thessalonica, Thessaloniceia, c.
-
-of Macedonia (
Thessalonice, wife of Cassander, i. - -509. -
Thessalus, son of Hæmon, ii. 149; - -iii. 31. -
Thessaly, i. 72, 328, 493, 501, 506,
-
-507, 519; ii. 3, 11, 24, 32, 50,
-
-70, 75, 93, 107, 115, 123, 129,131
-
-—149, 177, 195, 350,
——, mountains of, i. 43, 131. -
——, plains, ii. 132, 133, 140 - -—143. -
——, dress, ii. 156. -
Thestiadæ, brothers of Althæa, ii. - -179. -
Thestius, father of Leda, ii. 173. -
——, father of Althæa, ii. 179. -
Thetidium, temple of Thetis, ii. 133. -
Thimbrōn, iii. 292. -
Thisbe, Thisbæ, c. of Bœotia, i. - -25, 457; ii. 106, 107. -
Thoæ, islands, ii. 25, 169. -
Thoantium, part of the coast of - -Rhodes, iii. 33. -
Thoas, or Achelous, ii. 158. -
——, king of the Ætolians, i. 381. -
Thome, or Ithome, ii. 141. -
Thōnis, king of Egypt, iii. 238. -
——, c. of Egypt, iii. 238. -
Thōpitis, lake of Armenia, same as - -Arsene, ii. 270; iii. 156. -
Thōrax, mtn of Lydia (
Thoreis, village of Attica, ii. 89. -
Thoricus, t. of Attica, ii. 88—90. - -208. -
Thornax, ii. 41. -
Thrace, Thracia (
Thracian Chersonesus (
Thracian Bosporus.
—— army, ii. 67. -
—— tribes, i. 247, 482, 483, - -496. -
—— mtns, i. 41, 488, 492, 504. -
—— race, i. 9. -
—— Sea, i. 42. -
—— coast, i. 9. -
Thracians, i. 164, 453—455, 460, - -461, 463, 466, 468, 478, 481, - -485, 488, 493, 496, 506, 519; ii. - -93, 105, 151, 187, 286, 287, 301, - -316, 318. -
——, Cabrenii, ii. 351. -
——, Xanthii, ii. 351. -
Thrasō, sculptor, iii. 13. -
Thrasyalces, of Thasos, i. 44; iii. - -225. -
Thrasybulus, Athenian, ii. 87. -
Thrax, castle of Judæa, iii. 181. -
Thriasian plain, in Attica, ii. 81, 84. -
Thrinacia, name of Sicily, i. 400. -
Throni, prom. and t. of Cyprus (
Thronia, i. 67. -
Thronium (
Thryum, Thryoessa, t. of Triphylia, - -ii. 23, 24, 27, 28. -
Thucydides, i. 499; ii. 2, 36, 50, - -56, 58, 122, 174, 366; iii. 41. -
Thule (
Thumæum, same as Ithome or - -Thome, ii. 141. -
Thūmelicus, son of Arminius, i. - -446. -
Thūnatæ, nation of Illyria, i. 485. -
Thuria, t. of Messenia, ii. 36—38. -
——, ftn, i. 396. -
——, c. of the Thurii, i. 427. -
Thurian wine, i. 397. -
Thuriatic Gulf, ii. 37. -
Thurii or Thurians, t. of Lucania, - -i. 379, 380, 390, 396—398, 427; - -iii. 35. -
Thurius, same as Herodotus, iii. 35. -
Thūsnelda, daughter of Segestes, i. - -446. -
Thyamus, Thyamis, r. of Epirus, i. - -497. -
Thyateira, ii. 402; iii. 21. -
Thymbra, plain near Ilium, ii. 362. -
Thymbræus.
Thymbria, village of Caria, iii. 6. -
Thymbrius, r. near Ilium, ii. 363. -
Thyni, people of Bithynia, i. 453; - -ii. 287, 304. -
Thynia, isl. ii. 289. -
Thynias, prom. and district of - -Thrace, i. 490; ii. 287, 289. -
Thyreæ, c. of Cynuria, i. 102, 103; - -ii. 58. -
Thyrides, isl. and prom. of Laconia, - -ii. 5, 36, 40. -
Thyssos, t. of Macedonia, i. 512, - -513. -
Tianos, ii. 399. -
Tibarani, Tibarēni, ii. 267, 277, - -285, 296, 304. -
Tibarania, distr. of Pontus, i. 476. -
Tibaranic nations, i. 195. -
Tiber, r., i. 322, 325—327, 330, - -336—310, 345, 348, 349, 351. -
Tiberius, Emperor, i. 234, 307, - -441, 447; ii. 392, 405; iii. 269. -
—— Gracchus.
Tibius, relative of Strabo, ii. 307. -
——, Paphlagonian name, i. 467; - -ii. 302. -
Tibūra, c. of Latium (
Tiburtine stone-quarries, i. 354. -
Ticinum, t. of Cisalpine Gaul
-
-(
Ticinus, r. of Cisalpine Gaul
-
-(
Tieium, c. of Bithynia (
Tiga, c. of Mauritania, iii. 278. -
Tigranes, king of Armenia, ii. 270 - -—274, 284, 381; iii. 154, 157, - -164. -
Tigranocerta, c. of Armenia (
Tigris, i. 75, 122—124, 126, 134, - -137, 416; ii. 260—262, 267, 270; - -iii. 131, 132, 146, 147, 150, 152, - -156, 158, 162. -
Tigurēni, i. 450. -
Tilphōssa, ftn of Bœotia, ii. 107, - -110, 111. -
Tilphōssium (
——, t. of Bœotia, ii. 107, - -110. -
Timæus, i. 274, 369, 390, 409; - -ii. 366; iii. 12, 32. -
Timagěnēs, i. 280; iii. 108. -
Timavum, temple of Diomede (
Timavus, r. of Istria (
Timia, i. 349. -
Timon, iii. 230. -
Timōnītis, distr. of Paphlagonia, ii. - -313. -
Timōnium, iii. 230. -
Timosthenes, i. 44, 139, 141, 142, - -210; ii. 120; iii. 279. -
Timŏthěus, Patriōn, ii. 293. -
Tingis, or Tiga, c. of Mauritania
-
-(
Tirizis, prom. and citadel of Hæ- - -mus, i. 490. -
Tiryns, c. of Argolis, ii. 49, 54, 58; - -iii. 31. -
Tisamenus, son of Orestes, ii. 68, 77. -
Tisiæūs, c. of Numidia, iii. 284. -
Titanes, same as Pelagones, i. 514; - -ii. 188. -
Titanus, t. of Thessaly, ii. 143. -
Titarēsius,'r. of Thessaly, i. 507; - -ii. 145, 146. -
Titarius, mtn of Thessaly, i. 507; - -ii. 146. -
Tithōnus, father of Memnon, ii. - -347; iii. 130. -
Titius, iii. 160. -
Titus Quintius, ii. 146. -
—— Flaminius, i. 421. -
—— Tatius, i. 338, 342, 343, 348. -
Tityri, servants of Bacchus, ii. 180, - -183, 186. -
Tityrus, mtn of Crete, ii. 200. -
Tityus, ii. 121—123. -
Tlepolemus, son of Hercules, ii. 9; - -iii. 31, 32. -
Tlōs, c. of Lycia (
Tmarus.
Tmōlus, mtn of Lydia (
Tochari, Scythians beyond the Iax- - -artes, ii. 245. -
Togati, i. 227, 250. -
Tolistobōgii, people of Galatia, i. - -279; ii. 294, 319, 320. -
Tolōssa, Toulouse, i. 280, 281. -
Tomaruri, same as Tomuri, i. 503. -
Tomarus, Tmarus, mtn near Do- - -dona, i. 501—503; ii. 137. -
Tŏmis, c. of Mœsia, i. 489, 490. -
Tomisa, Tomisæ, fortress of Cappa- - -docia, ii. 278; iii. 44. -
Tomūri, i. 502, 503. -
Tŏpeira, c. of Thrace, i. 515. -
Toreatæ, ii. 223. -
Torōnæan, Torōnic, Gulf, in Mace-
-
-donia (
——
Tōygeni, i. 274, 450. -
Tracheia, iii. 3. -
Trachin, t. of Phocis, ii. 123. -
——, t. of Thessaly, i. 94; ii. 123, - -129, 132, 135, 136. -
——, Heracleian, ii. 103, 130. -
Trachina, same as Tarracina. -
Trachinia, distr. of Thessaly, ii. 66, - -135, 156. -
Trachinii, ii. 123. -
Trachiōtæ, i. 196; iii. 50. -
Trachiōtis, Tracheia,
Trachōnes, mtns near Damascus, - -iii. 169, 171. -
Traclinia, ii. 4. -
Tragææ, islands not far from Mile- - -tus, iii. 6. -
Tragasæan salt-pan, ii. 374.
-
-
-
-
Tragium, c. of Laconia, ii. 37. -
Tragurium, isl. (
Tralles, c. of Lydia, ii. 145, 305; - -iii. 24, 25, 43. -
Tralliani, ii. 336; iii. 25. -
Transpadana, i. 316, 321. -
Trapězōn, hill of Syria, iii. 164. -
Trapězūs, c. of Pontus (
——, hill of the Tauric Cher- - -sonese, i. 476. -
Trapontium, t. of Latium, i. 352. -
Trarium, c. of Mysia, ii. 376. -
Trasumennus, lake, i. 336. -
Trebias, r. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 323. -
Trebōnius, iii. 20. -
Trēbūla, t. of the Sabines (
Trephea, lake in Bceotia, ii. 102. -
Trēres, i. 93, 96; ii. 246, 301, 329, - -346, 405; iii. 22. -
Trērus, r. of Latium (
Trēta, c. of Cyprus (
Trētum, prom. of Numidia (
Treviri, people of Gaul, i. 289. -
Triballi, Thracian race, i. 463, 468, - -585, 488. -
Tribocchi, people of Gaul, i. 288, - -289. -
Tricca (
Triccæus, Æsculapius, ii. 36. -
Trichæces, cognomen of the Dori- - -ans, ii. 195. -
Trichōnium, c. of Ætolia, ii. 159. -
Triclari, in Thessaly, i. 508. -
Tricorii, people of Gaul, i. 276, - -303. -
Tricorythus, Tricorynthus, t. of - -Attica, ii. 59, 67, 90. -
Tridentini, i. 304. -
Triērēs, t, of Syria, iii. 169. -
Trieteric dance, ii. 186. -
Tneterides, ii. 185. -
Trinacria, same as Sicily, i. 400. -
Triněmeis, vill. of Attica, ii. 91. -
Trinx (
Triphylia, part of Elis, ii. 8, 11, 14 - -—19, 21, 22, 33—35, 45, 53, 155. -
Triphyliac towns, ii. 17. -
Triphylian Sea, ii. 22, 28. -
Triphylii, ii. 8, 16, 22, 28, 31. -
Triphyllus, ii. 409. -
Tripodes, Tripodiscium, t. of Me- - -garis, ii. 84. -
Tripolis, c. of Phœnicia, iii. 169. -
Tripolītis.
Triptolemus, father of Gordyes, i. - -40; iii. 57, 157, 162. -
——, tragedy of Sophocles, - -i. 40, 41. -
Tritæa, c. of Achaia, ii. 14. -
Tritæenses, Tritæeis, ii. 14, 71. -
Tritōn, t. of Bœotia, ii. 101. -
Tritōnis, iii. 291. -
Trōad, i. 8, 91, 172, 187, 189, 195, - -202, 453, 517; ii. 56, 189, 277, - -317, 332, 338—390. -
——, Pelasgic, i. 329. -
Trōades.
Trōas, Alexandreia (
Trocmi, people of Galatia, i. 279, - -ii. 312, 319, 320. -
Trœzen, son of Pelops, ii. 56. -
—— (
Trœzenians, iii. 35. -
Trōgilius, prom. of Ionia (
——, isl. of Ionia, iii. 7. -
Trogïtis, marsh, in Lycaonia, ii. 322. -
Troglodytæ, inhabiting the Arabian - -Gulf, i. 202, 203, 267, 489; iii. - -203, 210, 215, 217, 219, 266, - -280. -
——, in the Caucasus, ii. 238, - -239; iii. 203. -
Troglodytic, i. 197; iii. 88, 191, - -193, 210, 235. -
Trŏphōnius, brother of Agamedes,
-
-ii. 119; iii. 180.
-
-
-
-
Trophonius Zeus, oracle of, at Le- - -badea, ii. 111. -
Trojan war, i. 31, 61—63, 76, 224, - -316, 377, 404; ii. 30, 72, 200, - -201. -
—— colony, i. 397. -
—— forces, i. 518. -
—— Minerva, i. 397. -
—— territory, i. 17. -
Trojans, i. 64, 274, 394, 397, 453,
-
-508, 516; ii. 18, 162, 163; iii.
-
-41, 184, 299,
——, Aphneian, ii. 344, 346. -
Troy, Troja, Ilium, ancient city
-
-of the Troad, i. 25, 26, 33, 55,
-
-64, 65, 76, 77, 91, 224, 330, 394,
-
-398, 494, 499, 508, 509, 511, 514,
-
-519; ii. 16, 30, 74, 113, 132, 157,
-
-174, 186, 191, 317, 339, 350—
-
-363; iii. 34,
——, village of Egypt, iii. 252. -
Truentum, r. (
——, t. i. 358. -
Tryphōn,
Tūbattii, people of Germany, i. 447. -
Tūder, t. of Umbria (
Tūisi, t. of Cantabria, i. 234. -
Tūikkis (
Tūllum, mtn, i. 308. -
Tunis, c. of the Carthaginians, iii. - -287. -
Turdētani, people of Spain, i. 209, - -221, 226, 227. -
Turdētania, i. 209, 210, 212, 214, - -216—219, 224, 226, 235. -
Turdūli, same as Turdētani, i. 209, - -223, 227, 230. -
Tūriva, distr. of Bactriana, ii. 253. -
Tusci, same as Tyrrheni. -
Tusculan mountain, i. 351. -
Tusculum, c. of Latium (
Tyana, c. of Cappadocia (
Tyanītis, prefecture of Cappadocia, - -ii. 278, 281. -
Tychius, ii. 102, 403. -
Tychōn, ii. 348. -
Tymbrias, c. of Pisidia, ii. 324. -
Tymphæi, Tymphæans, i. 499, 501, - -505. -
Tymphē, mtn of Epirus, i. 498. -
Tyndareian rocks, four islands on - -the coast of Marmora, iii. 235. -
Tyndaris, c. of Sicily (
Tyndarus, ii. 173. -
Typaněæ, c. of Triphylia, ii. 17 -
Typhoëus, ii. 403. -
Typhōn, i. 368, 369; ii. 336, 404, - -406; iii. 163, 243. -
Typhōneia, iii. 260. -
Typhrēstus, mtn of Thessaly, ii. - -136. -
Tyrambē, c. on the Cimmerian Bos- - -porus, ii. 221. -
Tyrann1ōn, ii. 296, 380. -
Tyras, r. of Sarmatia (
Tyre, c. of Phœnicia (
——, isl. in the Persian Gulf
-
-(
Tyregetæ, i. 177, 194, 443, 452, - -470. -
Tyrians, i. 238, 255. -
Tyriæum, c. of Phrygia, iii. 43. -
Tyrō, daughter of Salmoneus, ii. 32. -
Tyrrheni, Tyrrhenians, i. 319, 322, - -325—328, 331, 334, 335, 357, - -360, 367, 385, 404, 417, 438; - -ii. 197, 404. -
Tyrrhenia, Tyrrhenicē, i. 31, 35, - -177, 301, 313, 323—330, 335— - -338, 349, 415, 502; ii. 61, 387. -
Tyrrhenian cities, i. 331. -
—— Gulf, i. 139. -
—— Sea, i. 85,159, 185, 193,
-
-311, 314, 315, 325, 357, 360, 373,
-
-377—380, 403, 415.
-
-
-
-
Tyrrhenian pirates, i. 345. -
—— diviners, iii. 180. -
Tyrrhenus, son of Atys, i. 326, - -329. -
Tyrtæus, poet, i. 426; ii. 39, 45. -
Tyrtamus, same as Theophrastus, - -ii. 392; iii. 17. -
Ubii, people of Germany, i. 289. -
Ucromirus, leader of the Chatti, i. - -446. -
Ugernum, t. of Gaul (
Ulyssea (
Ulysses, i. 18,26,27, 31, 33—37, 54, - -60, 62, 64, 69—72, 76, 224, 225, - -236, 237, 328, 332, 346, 362, 364, - -368, 376, 381, 459; ii. 9, 46, 83, - -115, 143, 162, 166, 167, 201,364, - -385; iii. 58. -
——, altar of, iii. 288. -
Umbria.
Umbrians.
Undalus, c. of Gaul.
Uranopolis, t. of Macedonia, i. 513. -
Urgi (Georgi?), i. 470. -
Uria, t. of Calabria (
——, lake of Ætolia (
Uriathus.
Urium, t. of Apulia (
Ursō, c. of Betica (
Usipi, people of Germany, i. 447. -
Uxia, distr. of Persia, iii. 131. -
Uxii, people of Persia, ii. 264; iii. - -131, 132, 135, 152. -
Uxisama, island (
Uzita, t. of Numidia, iii. 284. -
Vaccæi, people of Spain, i. 228, - -229, 243, 244. -
Vacūa, r. of Lusitania (
Vaga, t. of Numidia (
Valeria, i. 353. -
——, Via, i. 351, 353, 402. -
Valerius Flaccus, consul, ii. 356. -
Vapanes, t. of Corsica, i. 333. -
Var, r., i. 267, 275, 302, 313. -
Varagri, Alpine race, i. 303. -
Vardæi.
Varia, t. of Keltiberia, i. 243. -
——, t. of Latium, i. 353. -
Varius Flaccus, ii. 356. -
Varus Quintilius, i. 446. -
Vascōns, people of Spain, i.233, 242. -
Vates, i. 294. -
Veii, i. 335. -
Velitræ, t. of Latium (
Vellæi, people of Gaul (
Venafrum, t. of Campania (
Venasii, ii. 281. -
Vendōn, t. of the Iapodes (
Veněti, people of Gaul,
——, in the Adriatic, i. 291. -
——, of Paphlagonia, i. 316. -
Vennōnes, people of the Vindelici - -i. 304, 307. -
Ventidius, iii. 163, 164. -
Venus.
Venusia (
Vera, ii. 263. -
Verbanus (
Vercelli, vill. of Cisalpine Gaul, i.
-
-325.
-
-
-
-
Vercingetorix, i. 285. -
Verestis, r., i. 355. -
Veretum, i. 429, 430. -
Verona, i. 306, 317. -
Vertinæ, t. of Lucania (
Vescini.
Vesta, i. 327, 340. -
Vestīni, i. 326, 338, 358, 359. -
Vesuvius, Mount, i. 39, 367. -
Vettōnes, people of Spain, i. 209, - -228, 229, 243, 246. -
Vibo-Valentia, t. of the Bruttii, i. - -383. -
Vicětia, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Vienne, capital of the Allobroges, i. - -277, 278. -
Villa Publica, in the Campus Mar- - -tius, i. 371. -
Viminal Gate, in Rome, i. 348. -
—— Hill, i. 348. -
Vindalum, t. of Gaul (
Vindelici, i. 287, 306, 307, 447, - -448, 482. -
Viriathus, i. 238, 439. -
Visurgis (
Vitia, t. of Hyrcania, ii. 273. -
Vitii, people of Hyrcania, ii. 241, - -248. -
Vivisci (
Vocontii, people of Gaul, i. 268, - -276, 279, 302, 303. -
Volaterræ, c. of Etruria (
Volaterrani, i. 331. -
Volcæ Arecomisci, people of Gaul, - -i. 278, 279, 302. -
——, Tectosages, i. 279. -
Volsci, people of Italy, i. 339, 343, - -344, 353. -
Volsinii, c, of the Tyrrhenians
-
-(
Vulcan, i. 65, 418; ii. 190; iii. - -248. -
Vulturnus, c. and r. of Campania
-
-(
Wain, the (constellation), 4, 5. -
Xanthia, t. of the Ciconi, i. 515. -
Xanthii, in Lycia, iii. 47. -
——, Thracians, ii. 351. -
——, a tribe of the Dahæ, ii - -245, 251. -
Xanthus, c. of Lycia (
——, r. of Lycia, iii. 47. -
——, r. of the Troad, ii 351. -
——, king of the Bœotians, ii. - -82. -
——, of Lydia, historian, i. 78, - -80; ii. 326, 336, 406; iii. 66, 67. -
Xenarchus, iii. 53. -
Xenŏclēs, guardian of Alexander's - -treasure, i. 108. -
——, orator, ii. 387; iii. 40. -
Xenocrates, Bithynian, ii. 299, 318, - -382. -
Xenophanes, natural philosopher - -and poet, iii. 16. -
——, tyrant, iii. 56. -
Xenophōn, ii. 73, 95. -
Xerxēne, district of Lesser Ar- - -menia, ii. 268. -
Xerxes, son of Darius, i. 17, 96, - -516, 517; ii. 83, 84, 148, 254, - -347, 352; iii. 4, 6, 145. -
——, canal of, i. 512, 513. -
——, bridge of, i. 518. -
Ximēnē, distr. of Pontus, ii. 312. -
Xiphonia, prom. in Sicily, i. 403. -
Xoïs, isl. and c. of Egypt, iii. 240. -
Xūthus, father of Ion, ii. 67. -
Xypěteon, ii. 374. -
Ypsilo Nisi, iii. 16. -
Zacynthians, i. 239. -
Zacynthus, isl. (
Zagrium, Zagrus, mtn of Asia
-
-(
Zagrus, r., iii. 146, 153. -
Zaleucus, i. 390. -
Zama, t. of Numidia (
Zamolxis (
Zanclæans, in Sicily, i. 385, 405, - -413. -
Zancle, i. 404. -
Zardōces, Paphlagonian name, ii. - -302. -
Zariadris, leader of the Armenians, - -ii. 269, 273. -
Zariaspa, same as Bactra, ii. 249, - -253. -
Zarmanochegas, iii. 119. -
——,
Zēla, city of Pontus (
Zēlas, father of Prusias, ii. 315. -
Zeleia, city of the Troad (
Zēlis (
Zēlītis, ii. 306, 309, 310, 312. -
Zella, iii. 285. -
Zenicetes, iii. 55. -
Zeno, of Citium, Stoic, i. 24, 66, - -458; ii. 334, 382, 387; iii. 69, -
Zeno, of Elea, the Pythagorean, i. - -375. -
——, orator, ii. 334; iii. 39. -
Zēnodōrus, robber, iii. 171. -
Zēnodŏtus, grammarian, ii. 110, - -289, 302. -
Zēnophanes, tyrant of Cilicia, iii. - -56. -
Zephyr, wind, i. 3, 42—44, 62. -
Zephyra.
Zephyria, prom. of Cyprus (
Zephyrium, prom. of Italy (
——, prom. of Caria, iii. 37. -
——, prom. of Cilicia (
——, prom. of Cilicia (
——, prom. of Egypt, iii. - -238, 294. -
——, place on the coast of - -Marmara, iii. 236. -
Zerethra, ii. 76. -
Zethus, ii. 107. -
Zeugma, at Thapsacus, ii. 263, 274; - -iii. 44, 157. -
——, at Commagene, iii. 157. -
——, at Samosata, ii. 274; iii - -44, 157. -
——, Straits of, ii. 352. -
Zeus.
Zeuxis, physician, ii. 336. -
Zincha, t. of Numidia, iii. 284. -
Zoïlus, orator, i. 410. -
Zōnas.
Zōstēr, prom. of Attica, ii. 89. -
Zūchis, lake and people of Libya, - -iii. 289. -
Zūmi, people of Germany, i. 444. -
Zygi, inhabitants of the Caucasus, - -i. 195; ii. 219, 224, 225; iii. - -296. -
Zygopolis, city of Pontus, ii. 296. -
AARASSUS, t. of Pisidia, ii. 324.
+Aba, daughter of Zenophanes, iii. 56.
+—, Abæ, t. of Phocis, ii. 122, 151.
+Abaïtæ, ii. 402.
+Abaïtis, district of Phrygia, ii. 333.
+Abantes (Eubœans), ii. 151.
+Abantis (Eubœa), ii. 151.
+Abaris, i. 463.
+Abas, great-grandson of Erectheus, ii. 151.
+—, ii. 133.
+Abdēra, t. of Thrace, i. 515; ii. 272, 298 ; iii. 17.
+—, t. of Spain (
Abderus, i. 515.
+Abeacus, ii. 239.
+Abella, t. of Campania (
Abii, i. 453, 454, 458, 461, 465, 479; ii. 302.
+Abilyx, Abyle (
Abisarus, iii. 90.
+Abōniteichos, t. of Paphlagonia, (
Aborace, ii. 223.
+Aborrhas, r. of Mesopotamia, iii. 158.
+Abrettene, district of Mysia, ii. 330, 332.
+Abrettenus, Jupiter, ii. 330.
+Abrotonon (
Absyrtides (
Abus mtn in Armenia, ii. 268, 273.
+Abydeni, ii. 353.
+Abydon.
Abydos, t. of Mysia, i. 164, 189, 508; ii. 338—354, 366, 374; iii 5, 66.
+—–, strait of, i. 517.
+—–, t. of Egypt, iii. 258, 259.
+Acacesium, i. 459.
+Academy, philosophers of the, iii 294.
+Acalandrus, r. i. 427.
+Acamas, Athenian, iii. 71.
+—–, prom. of Cyprus (
Acanthian gulf, i. 511.
+Acanthus, t. of Egypt, iii. 253.
+—–, t. of Macedonia, i. 51—513.
+Acara, i. 322.
+Acarnan, ii. 174, 178.
+Acarnania, i. 493, 499, 501; ii. 3, 5, 14, 25, 58, 129, 150, 161—163, 167, 171—174.
+Acarnanians, Acarnanes, i. 410, 494, 498; ii. 2, 6, 75, 114, 128, 130, 131, 158—162, 169, 172—175, 178; iii. 297.
+Acatharti, iii. 197.
+Acathartic gulf, Acathartus, iii. 193.
+Ace, city of Phœnicia.
Acerræ, i. 367, 370.
+Acesines, r. of India (
Achæan league, ii. 59, 70.
+—– cities, ii. 73.
Achææ, rocks, ii. 21.
+Achæi, Achæans, i. 55, 96, 195, 328, 395, 399; ii. 3, 5, 7, 13, 27, 42, 49, 50, 51, 53, 66—68, 70, 71, 73, 118, 132, 160, 181, 182, 195, 219, 224—226, 329, 366.
+—–, Phthiōtæ, ii. 224.
+—–, in Bosporus, ii. 224.
+—–, in Pontus, ii. 113.
+—–, robbers, iii. 296.
+—–, harbour, in the Troad, ii. 358, 363.
+—–, in Æolis, ii. 397.
+—–, in Cyprus, iii. 69.
+Achæium, t. of the Troad, ii. 360, 371—373.
+Achæmenidæ, iii. 130.
+Achæus, son of Xuthus, ii. 67.
+—–, father of Antiochis, ii. 400.
+Achaia, Achæa, i. 506; ii. 6, 8, 43, 68, 72, 77, 132, 160; iii. 297.
+—– t. of the Cimmerian Bosporus, ii. 224.
+—– t. of Aria, ii. 252.
+Achaïcarus, iii. 180.
+Acharaca, t. of Lydia, ii. 335; iii. 25, 26.
+Achardeus, r. of the Caucasus, ii. 239.
+Achelōus, r. of Acarnania (
—–, r. of Achæa, ii. 14, 158.
+—–, r. of Thessaly, ii. 136, 158.
+Acheron, r. of Triphylia, ii. 17.
+—–, of Italy, i. 382.
+—–, of Epirus, i. 497.
+Acherræ, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 367.
+—–, t. of Campania, i. 367, 370.
+Acherusian Lake, marsh in Campania (
Achilleium, in the Troad, ii. 366, 372.
+—–, in the Cimmerian Bosporus, i. 477; ii. 222.
+Achilles, i. 71, 73, 470, 472, 500; ii. 22, 35—37, 115, 126, 181, 132—138, 140, 157, 168, 342, 343, 345, 358, 359, 363, 366, 377, 383, 384, 394; iii. 58.
+Achilles, course of, peninsula, i. 472, 473.
+—–, rampart of, in Mysia, ii. 386.
+—–, temple of, ii. 222, 359.
+Achivi, rampart of the, i. 154.
+Acholla, t. of the Carthaginians (
Acidon, r. of Triphylia, ii. 22, 26.
+Acila, prom. of Arabia (
Acilisene, distr. of Armenia, ii. 260, 268, 269, 272, 274, 305.
+Aciris, r. of Leucania (
Acisene, ii. 269.
+Acmon, ii. 191.
+Aconites, people of Sardinia, i. 334. Acontia (Acuteia ?), t. of Spain, i. 228.
+Acontium, mtn of Bœotia, i. 113.
+Acqui.
Acra (
Acræa, Venus, iii. 69.
+Acrææ, t. of Laconia, ii. 15, 41.
+Acræphiæ, Acræphium, t. of Bœotia, ii. 107, 109, 110.
+Acragas, city of Sicily (
Acrathos (
Acrisius, ii. 118, 211.
+Acritas, prom. of Messenia, i. 36.
+Acrocorinthus, ii. 38, 60, 61, 62, 70.
+Acrolissus.
Acropolis, ii. 86.
+Acrothōï, t. on Mount Athos, i. 512, 513.
+Acta, Lepre, iii. 3.
+Actæon, ii. 87.
+Acte, ii. 77, 79, 174.
+Acte, Actice.
Actē.
Actia, Actian games, i. 499.
+Actian war, i. 36; ii. 330.
+Actis, ii. 375.
+Actium, prom. of Acarnania (
—–, t. of Acarnania, ii. 73 115, 159, 161, .71.
Actium, battle of, ii. 208; iii. 230, 233.
+Acusilaus, Argive, ii. 189.
+Acyphas, or Pindus, ii. 128.
+—–, in the Œtæan district, ii. 136.
+Ada, dr of Hecatomnus, iii. 35, 36.
+—–, dr of Pixodarus, iii. 35.
+Adada, c. of Pisidia, ii. 324.
+Adæ, town of Æolis, iii. 397.
+Adarbal, Adherbal, iii. 284.
+Adeimantus, ii. 350.
+Adiabene, ii. 272; iii. 142, 146, 154.
+Adiatorix, son of Domnecleus, ii. 288.
+—– f. of Dyteutus, ii. 308.
+Admetus, i. 72; ii. 155.
+Adobogion, ii. 401.
+Adonis, iii. 170.
+—–, river of Phœnicia (
Ador, ii. 270.
+Adramyttene, district of Mysia, ii. 370, 400.
+Adramytteni, ii. 383, 384.
+Adramyttium, t. of Mysia (
—–, gulf of, ii. 342, 374, 386, 400.
+Adrapsa, iii. 126.
+Adrasteia, district of Mysia, ii. 317, 332, 337, 348.
+—–, t. of Mysia, ii. 345—348.
+—–, mtn near Cyzicus, ii. 331.
+—– (Nemesis), ii. 348.
+Adrastus, ii. 59, 97.
+—–, ii. 174, 346, 348.
+Adria, city and naval station of Picenum (
Adrias, r. i. 487.
+Adriatic (
Adrion, mtn of Dalmatia.
Adrumes (
Adula, Adulas, mtn, i. 287, 304, 317.
+Æa, city, i. 31, 32, 72—74.
+—–, ftn, i. 509, 510.
+Æacidæ, i. 496; ii. 83.
+Æacus, ii. 57.
+Ææa, i. 6, 32, 73.
+Æaneium, ii. 126.
+Æanes, ii. 126.
+Æanis, ii. 126.
+Æas, r. of Illyria.
—–, son of Telamon.
Æclus, i. 493; ii. 152, 154.
+Ædepsus, t. of Eubœa (
Ædui, i. 278, 286—288.
+Æeta, i. 72, 73.
+Æetes, i. 72—74.
+Æga, prom. of Æolis, ii. 388.
+—-, city of Achaia, ii. 71—73.
+Ægæ, t. of Mysia, ii. 397.
+—–, t. of Eubœa, ii. 72, 98.
+Ægææ, Ægæ, t. of Cilicia (
—–, t. of Laconia, ii. 42.
+Ægæan Sea (
Ægæi, ii. 71.
+Ægaleum, mtn of Messenia, ii. 35.
+Ægeira, t. of Achæa, ii. 71, 73.
+Ægeirus, t. in Lesbos, ii. 391.
+Ægesta, t. of Sicily, i. 379, 411, 415; ii. 378.
+Ægestani, i. 401, 411.
+Ægestes, Trojan, i. 378, 411.
+Ægeus, ii. 81.
+Ægialeia Ægialus, ii. 3, 23, 67, 68, 72, 288.
Ægiali (Sicyon), ii. 66.
+Ægialians, ii. 53, 67, 68.
+Ægialus, Ægialeia, in Paphlagonia, ii. 288, 291.
+Ægieis, Ægienses, ii. 73, 157.
+Ægilieis, in Attica, ii. 89.
+Ægilips, ii. 161, 163.
+Ægimius, ii. 128.
+Ægimurus (
Ægina, t. of Argolis, ii. 57, 58.
+——, island, i. 84, 187; ii. 47, 49, 54, 57, 58, 82, 136.
+——, city, ii. 55, 58.
+Æginetæ, ii. 57, 58, 83.
+Æginium, t. of Thessaly, i. 501.
+Ægirussa, ii. 84.
+Ægisthus, i. 25.
+Ægium, city of Achæa (
Ægletes Apollo.
Ægospotami, t. and r., i. 438, 518.
+Ægua, t. of Spain, i. 213.
+Ægys, city and district of Laconia, ii. 42, 153.
+Ælana, Aila (
Ælanitic Bay, iii. 176, 191, 204, 254.
+Ælius Gallus, i. 178; iii. 209–212, 246, 262, 267.
+—— (Catus), i. 466.
+Æmilian road, i. 323.
+Æmilianus, Q. Fabius Maximus, i. 277, 285.
+——, Scipio, iii. 51, 286.
+Æmilius, Paulus, i. 495.
+Ænarium.
Ænea, t. of the Troad, ii. 372.
+——, t. of Macedonia, i. 509, 510.
Æneas, i. 76, 225, 339, 346, 347; ii. 317, 344, 353, 356, 357, 360, 377, 378, 383.
+Ænesippeia, isl., iii. 235.
+Ænesisphyra, prom. of Egypt, iii. 235.
+Æniana (Ænia), ii. 242.
+Æniānes, people of Thessaly, i. 96; ii. 128, 147, 158, 241, 273.
+Æniates, name of the Paphlagonians, ii. 302.
+Ænius, r. of the Troad, ii. 371.
+Ænobarbus (Cnæus), i. 277.
+——(Domitius), i. 285; iii. 24.
+Ænus, mtn of Cephallenia (
——, city of Thrace, i. 490, 516 519.
+Æolia, i. 17, 64, 187, 195, 224; ii. 153; iii. 140.
+Æolian nation, ii. 3.
+—— colony, ii. 94.
+Æolians, i. 96, 328; ii. 2, 3, 154, 366, 374, 382–386; iii. 34.
+Æolic dialect, ii. 2, 3.
+——expedition, ii. 93.
+——migration, iii. 2.
+Æolis, ii. 339–341, 346, 366, 384, 398.
+Æolus, king, i. 31, 35, 36, 39, 194, 403, 417, 419; ii. 142.
+——, Islands of (
——, Play of Euripides, ii. 32.
+Æpasian plain, region of Triphylia, ii. 22.
+Æpeia, town of Messenia, ii. 35, 37.
+Æpeia Methone, ii. 37.
+Æpy, town of Triphylia, ii. 23, 24.
+Æpytus, son of Neleus, iii. 2.
+Æqui, i. 339, 343, 344, 353.
+Æquum-Faliscum, i. 335.
+Aëria, t. of the Cavari (
Æsar, r. of Etruria, i. 330.
+Æsarus, r. near Crotona (
Æschines, Athenian, ii. 188.
+——, Milesian, iii. 5.
+Æschylus, i. 52, 68, 329, 386, 458, 462; ii. 13, 73, 82, 154, 187, 337, 390; iii. 130.
+Æsculapius.
Æsēpus, r. of Mysia,
Æsernia, city of the Samnites (
Æsis, r. of Umbria (
Æsyetes, tomb of, ii. 361, 364.
+Æthalia, island (
Æthaloeïs, r. of Scepsia, ii. 190.
+Æthices, people of Epirus and Thessaly, i. 499, 501; ii. 131, 137, 144.
+Æthicia, i. 501.
+Æthiopia.
Ætna, Mount, i. 31, 35, 84, 368, 369, 386, 403, 404, 406, 411, 413–415, 418.
+Ætnæans, i. 405.
+Ætolia, i. 493, 499, 501, 505 ; ii. 6, 10, 33, 72, 75, 114, 129, 136, 150, 155, 156, 159, 160, 171, 172, 174.
+Ætna, town of Sicily, i. 405, 414.
+Ætōli, Ætolians, i. 381; ii. 2, 6, 12, 30, 33, 121, 122, 127–131, 146, 158–161, 169, 172, 175, 176,
Ætolian mountains, ii. 115, 131.
+—— promontories, i. 93.
+—— polity, i. 494.
+Ætolicus, Demetrius, ii. 160.
+Ætōlus, ii. 33, 122, 176, 177.
+Æxoneis, vill. of Attica, ii. 89.
+Æxonici, ii. 89.
+Afranius, legate of Pompey, i. 242.
+African coast, i. 76.
+——sea, ii. 193, 194, 199, 212.
+Agamedes, ii. 119.
+Agamemnon, i. 17, 63, 499; ii. 22, 35, 36, 53, 56, 57, 59, 83, 115, 174, 186, 340, 356, 368, 374; iii. 10, 15,
Agapenor, iii. 70.
+Agatha, a city of Gaul (
Agatharchides, iii. 34, 208.
+Agathocleia, iii. 231.
+Agathocles, tyrant of Sicily, i. 383 427; iii. 288.
+Agathocles, father of Lysimachus, ii. 399.
+——, son of Lysimachus, ii. 400.
+Agathyrnum, i. 401.
+Agdistis, the goddess Rhea, ii. 184.
+——, temple of, ii. 320.
+Agesilaus, i. 427.
+Agidæ, ii. 44.
+Agis, ii. 43, 44.
+Agnu-Ceras, promontory of Egypt iii. 239.
+Agoracritus, ii. 87.
+Agra, village of Attica, ii. 91.
+Agradates, iii. 132.
+Agræa, district of Ætolia, ii. 10.
+Agræi, a people of Ætolia, ii. 158 160, 179.
+——, people of Arabia, iii. 189.
+Agræus, ii. 77.
+Agri, ii. 223.
+Agriades, ii. 8.
+Agriānes, a people of Thrace, i 488, 514, 515.
+Agrigentini, i. 401.
+Agrigentum.
Agrii, a people of Ethiopia, iii. 196.
+Agrippa, i. 289, 310, 350, 364; ii 36, 350; iii. 170.
+Agrius, ii. 175, 179.
+Agylla, t. of Etruria, i. 328; 335.
+Agyllæi, i. 328.
+Aias,
Aigan, ii. 388.
+Aila.
Ajax, son of Teucer, iii. 55, 56.
+——, temple of, ii. 357, 359.
+——, son of Telamon, ii. 83, 84 102.
+——, the Locrian, ii. 126, 367.
Alabanda, t. of Caria (
Alæan Minerva, ii. 75.
+Alæis Æxōnici, vill. of Attica, ii. 89.
+Alæsa, t. of Sicily (
Alalcŏmĕnæ, t. of Bœotia, i. 501; ii. 107, 110.
+——, t. of Asteria, ii. 168.
+Alalcomenium, temple of Minerva, ii. 106, 110.
+Alazia, t. of Mysia, ii. 299.
+Alazōnes, ii. 298, 299.
+Alazonia, Alazonium, t. of the Troad, ii. 300, 371.
+Alazonius, r. of Albania, ii. 230, 231, 234.
+Alba (
Alban wine, i. 347.
+Albania (
Albanians, i. 178, 195, 341, 344, 440; ii. 217, 232–235, 248, 260, 267–272, 307.
+Albanus, Mount (
Albia, Alpionia, i. 300.
+Albienses, i. 302.
+Albii, i. 482.
+Albingaunum (
Albiœci, i. 302.
+Albis, r. (
Albium Intemelium (
Albius, Mount, i. 300, 483.
+Albūla, cold waters, i. 354.
+Alcæus, poet of Mitylene, i. 58; ii. 108, 109, 366, 375, 391, 393; iii. 40.
+Alcestis, i. 72.
+Alchædamnus, iii. 166.
+Alcimedon, ii. 42.
+Alcimus, ii. 42.
+Alcmæōn, i. 499; ii. 122, 174.
+Alcmæonis, the poem, ii. 162.
+Alcman, i. 68, 458; ii. 13, 153, 172, 203, 337.
+Alcmene, ii. 30.
+Alcyonis Sea, ii. 6, 82, 92.
+Alea Athena, ii. 75.
+Alece, r. of the Bruttii.
Aleian plain, ii. 304; iii. 60, 61.
+Aleisium, Aleisius, t. and hill of, in ii. 12, 14.
+Aleisius, r. in Elis, ii. 14.
+Alesia, i. 285.
+Alesiæum, t. of Elis, ii. 14.
+Alesius, tumulus of, ii. 27.
+Alētes, ii. 77.
+Alētia, t. of Calabria, i. 430.
+Aletrium, t. of Latium (
Alěus, ii. 389.
+Alexander, son of Priam, i. 65, 90.
+——, poet of Ætolia, ii. 318; iii. 23, 67.
+——Lychnus, the orator, iii. 14.
+——Philalethes, ii. 336.
+——, son of Antiochus, iii. 401.
+——Balas, iii. 161.
+——, king of Judæa, iii. 180.
+——of the Molossi, i. 382, 427.
+——the Great, son of Philip, i. 22, 77, 104, 108, 109, 122, 137, 257, 463, 464, 512, 513; ii. 237, 238, 241, 243, 253,
Alexandria, city of Egypt, i. 13, 38, 91, 98, 118, 130, 131, 140, 153, 171, 172, 189, 190, 197, 200–202, 318; ii. 213, 235, 249, 252, 274, 276; iii. 33, 34, 53, 57, 59, 162, 164, 211, 213–273, 275, 294.
+——, in the Troad, i. 202; ii. 355, 361, 364, 373, 377, 385.
——, city of Syria, iii. 59.
+——, mtn of Mysia, ii. 376.
+Alexandrian merchants, i. 178.
+Alexandrini, ii. 190, 373.
+Alexandrium (near Teos), iii. 17.
+—— (in Judæa), iii. 181.
+Alexarchus, i. 513.
+Algidum, city (
Algidus, Mount, i. 355.
+Alinda, t. of Caria, iii. 36.
+Alliphæ (
Allitrochades, i. 109.
+Allobroges, i. 277, 289, 302.
+Allotriges, i. 233.
+Alobe, Alope, Alybe, ii. 300.
+Alope, t. of the Opuntian Locrians, i. 95; ii. 126, 128, 132, 135.
+——, t. of the Locri Ozolæ, ii. 128.
+——, t. of Phthiotis, ii. 128, 135.
+Alōpecia, ii. 221.
+Alopeconnesii, i. 516.
+Alopeconnesus, t. of Thrace, i. 517.
+Alōrium, t. of Triphylia, ii. 24.
+Alōrus, t. of Bottiæa, i. 508, 509.
+Alpheius, r. of Elis (
Alpōnus, t. near Thermopylæ, i. 95.
+Alps, i. 110, 193, 264–269, 276–280, 286, 287, 291, 296, 300–315, 317, 319, 322–324, 337, 357, 439, 444, 448, 450, 481–483.
+Alps, Pennine, i. 305, 309, 310.
+Alsium, t. of Etruria, i. 335.
+Altes, ii. 314; iii. 395.
+Althæa, ii. 179.
+Althæmenes, Argive, ii. 201, 203; iii. 30.
+Altinum, city of Cisalp. Gaul (
Alus, ii. 132.
+Alyattes, ii. 118, 405; iii. 66, 141.
+Alybe, Alope, or Alobe, ii. 298, 299, 372.
+Alybes, ii. 297, 298, 299.
+Alyzeus, ii. 162.
+Alyzia, t. of Acarnania (
Amadocus, i. 516.
+Amaltheia, i. 226; ii. 170.
+Amanides Gates, iii. 60, 164.
+Amanus, ii. 259, 278, 279; iii. 60, 63, 143, 160, 163.
+Amardi, ii. 241, 245, 248, 263.
+Amarynces, king, ii. 12.
+Amarynthia Diana, ii. 155.
+Amarynthium, the, ii. 156.
+Amarynthus, t. of Eubœa, ii. 155.
+Amaseia, city of Pontus (
Amasenses, ii. 312.
+Amasias, r. of Germany (
Amasis, ii. 311.
+Amastris, city of Paphlagonia, (
Amastris, wife of Dionysius, tyrant of Heracleia, ii. 291.
+Amathus, r. of Elis, ii. 7, 11, 26, 38.
+——, t. of Cyprus (
——, t. of Laconia, ii. 41.
+Amathusii, ii. 13.
+Amazones, plain of the, i. 82, 190.
+Amazonides, ii. 298.
+Amazons, ii. 300, 301, 328,
Ambarvia, i. 341.
+Ambiani, i. 289, 309.
Amblada, t. of Pis dia, ii. 324.
+—— wine, ii. 324.
+Ambracia, t. of Thesprotia (
Ambracian Gulf, Ambracian Sea, (
Ambrōnes, i. 274.
+Ambryseis, ii. 123.
+Ambrysus, t. of Phocis (
Aměnanus, r. of Sicily (
Ameria, t. of Umbria (
——, t. of Pontus, ii. 306.
+Amisēne, ii. 290, 294, 296.
+Amiseni, ii. 290, 294, 296, 310, 311.
+Amisus (
Amiternum, city of the Sabines, i. 338, 359.
+Ammon Balithon, prom., iii. 288.
+——, seat of oracle, i. 504; iii. 226, 253, 258, 283.
+——, temple of, i. 78, 79, 87, 88; iii. 253, 258, 289, 294, 295.
+Ammonia, iii. 235.
+Amnias, r. of Paphlagonia (
Amnisus, port of Cnossus, ii. 196.
+Amorgos, isl. (
Amorium, t. of Phrygia (
Ampelus, prom. of Samos, ii. 212; iii. 8.
+Amphaxītis, distr. of Macedonia, i. 506, 509.
+Amphiale, prom. of Attica, ii. 84.
+Amphiaræum, ii. 90.
+Amphiaraus, ii. 90, 96, 97, 174; iii. 15.
+Amphictyons, ii. 116–120, 128, 130.
+Amphictyonic body, ii. 55, 109, 118.
+Amphidolia. Amphidolis, t. of Elis, ii. 14, 23.
+Amphigeneia, t. of Triphylia, ii. 23, 24.
+Amphilochi, t. of Spain, i. 236.
+Amphilochians, i. 410, 493, 499; ii. 131, 158, 174.
+Amphilochic Argos.
Amphilochus, i. 236, 410, 499; ii. 174, 175; iii. 15, 50, 59, 60.
+Amphimalla, t. of Crete, ii. 194.
+Amphinomus, i. 405, 502.
+Amphion, ii. 36, 107.
+Amphipolis (
Amphiscii, i. 146.
+Amphissa (
Amphissenses, ii. 116.
+Amphistratus, ii. 224.
+Amphitryōn, ii. 166, 170, 173.
+Amphius, ii. 346.
+Amphrysus, r. of Thessaly, ii. 135, 138.
+Ampsani.
Amulius, i. 340.
+Amyclæ, city of Laconia, i. 424; ii. 40–42.
+Amycteres, iii. 108.
+Amydōn, t. of Macedonia, i. 508–510.
+Amymōne, mother of Nauplius, ii. 48.
+——, fountain at Lerna, ii. 52.
+Amynander, ii. 128.
+Amyntas, father of Philip, i. 472, 492, 500, 509, 510; ii. 39, 111.
+——, successor of king Deiotarus, ii. 320–325, 333; iii. 297.
+Amyntor, ii. 142, 143.
+Amyrus, ii. 147; iii. 22.
+Amythaonidæ, ii. 52.
+Amyzōn, t. of Caria, iii. 37.
+Anabūra, t. of Pisidia, ii. 324.
+Anacharsis, i. 463, 465; iii. 86.
+Anacreon, i. 226; iii. 2, 9, 17, 40.
+Anactorium, t. of Acarnania, ii. 159, 161.
+Anacyndaraxes, iii. 55.
+Anadatus, ii. 246.
+Anæa, Anaïtis, iii. 137, 144.
Anagnia, t. of the Hernici (
Anagurasii, vill. of Attica, ii. 89.
+Anaïtis, ii. 246.
+——, temple of, ii. 274, 275, 309.
+Anaphe, isl. (
Anaphlystii, ii. 89.
+Anaphlystus, vill. of Attica, ii. 89.
+Anapias, i. 406.
+Anariacæ, ii. 240–242, 248.
+Anariace, ii. 241.
+Anas (
Anaurus, r. of Magnesia, ii. 139.
+Anaxagoras, iii. 20.
+Anaxarchus, ii. 356.
+Anaxenor, iii. 23.
+Anaxicrates, iii. 191.
+Anaxilas, the tyrant of Rhegium, i. 384, 385.
+Anaximander, the Milesian, i. 1, 12; iii. 5.
+Anaximenes of Lampsacus, disciple of Anaximander, ii. 350; iii. 5, 20.
+Ancæus, iii. 2.
+Anchiale, a town of Pontus, i. 490.
+——, t. of Cilicia, iii. 55, 56.
+Anchialus, ii. 166.
+Anchises, i. 339; ii. 344, 353, 378.
+Anchoë, ii. 100.
+Ancon, Ancona, i. 315, 337, 357, 435, 483.
+Ancus Martius, i. 326, 345, 348.
+Ancyra, t. of Galatia (
——, t. of Phrygia (
——, t. of Gaul, i. 279.
+Andania, t. of Arcadia, ii. 11, 24, 37, 156.
+Andeira, city of Mysia, ii. 381, 386, 387.
+Andeirene, ii. 387.
+Andetrium, t. of Dalmatia, i. 484.
+Andirus, r. of the Troad, ii. 370.
+Andizetii, i. 483.
+Andræmōn, iii. 2.
+Andriace, t. of Thrace, i. 490.
+Andriclus, mtn of Cilicia (
Andrii, i. 511.
+Androclus, iii. 2, 11.
+Andromache, ii. 343, 356, 363, 394
+Andromeda, i. 68; iii. 175.
+Andron, ii. 81, 167, 195.
+Andronicus, iii. 33.
+Andropompus, iii. 2.
+Andros, isl. (
Androsthenes, iii. 186.
+Anemurium, prom. of Cilicia (
Anemoreia, Anemoleia, t. of Phocis, ii. 123.
+Anias, r. of Arcadia, ii. 76.
+Anigriades, ii. 19, 20.
+Anigrus, r. of Triphylia, ii. 20, 21.
+Anio, r. of Latium (
Anniceric sect, iii. 293.
+Anniceris, iii. 293.
+Annius, ii. 17.
+Ansander, i. 479.
+Antæus, iii. 281.
+Antalcidas, i. 438.
+Antandria, ii. 375, 384.
+Antandrians, ii. 386.
+Antandros (
——, t. of the Troad (
Antemnæ, t. of Latium, i. 341.
+Antenor, i. 76, 225, 236, 316; ii. 289, 377.
+Antenoridæ, ii. 360, 377.
+Anthedon, c. of Bœotia, i. 25; ii. 92, 98, 102, 103, 106.
+Antheia, ii. 35, 37.
+Anthemis, ii. 168.
+Anthemus, iii. 8.
+Anthemusia, iii. 158.
+Anthes, ii. 56; iii. 35.
+Anticasius, mtn of Syria, iii. 164.
+Anticeites, r. of the Mæotæ, ii. 221, 222.
+Anti-Cinolis, t. of Paphlagonia, ii. 291.
Anticlides, i. 329.
+Anticragus, iii. 46.
+Anticyra, t. of Phocis (
——, t. of Locris, ii. 137.
+——, t. on the Maliac bay, ii. 116, 137.
+Antigonia, t. of Bithynia, ii. 318.
+——, t. of the Troad, ii. 355, 361.
+——, t. of Syria, iii. 162.
+Antigonus, son of Philip, ii. 318, 355, 361; iii. 20, 55, 162.
+——, king of Macedonia, ii. 70.
+——, of Apelles, iii. 36.
+Antilibanus, mtn of Syria, iii. 149, 169, 171.
+Antilochus, ii. 359.
+Antimachus, ii. 18, 42, 74, 104, 348.
+Antimenidas, ii. 391.
+Antimnestus, i. 385.
+Antioch, i. 416; ii. 307, 409; iii. 21, 24, 43, 118, 159, 161–164.
+——, city of Mygdonia, iii. 157.
+Antiocheia, city of Caria, ii. 409; iii. 21, 24, 43.
+——, city of Phrygia (
——, city of Margiana, ii. 252.
+Antiochis, dr of Achæus, and mother of Attalus, ii. 400.
+Antiochus, the Syracusan, i. 360, 379, 385, 394, 398, 399, 424.
+——the Great, i. 439; ii. 269, 273, 285, 355, 400; iii. 46, 153, 176.
+——Sōter, ii. 252, 333, 400.
+——, son of Demetrius, iii. 51.
+——, son of Epiphanes, iii. 162.
+——Ierax, iii. 198.
+——, philosopher of Ascalon, iii. 175.
+Antiope, ii. 97.
+Antipater, of Macedon, i. 513; ii. 56, 136, 318.
+Antipater, son of Sisis, ii. 304.
+Antipater, Derbētes, the robber, ii 278, 322; iii. 64.
+——of Tarsus, the Stoic, iii 58.
+——of Tyre, iii. 173.
+Antiphanes, the Bergæan, i. 74, 152, 154.
+Antiphellus, t. of Lycia, iii. 47.
+Antiphilus, harbour of, iii. 196.
+Antiphræ, iii. 235, 236.
+Antiphus, ii. 149, 403; iii. 31.
+Antipolis, t. of Gaul (
Antirrhium, prom. of Ætolia (
——cape, ii. 6.
+Antirrhodus, isl. iii. 230.
+Antissa, t. of Lesbos, i. 93; ii. 393.
+Antitaurus (
Antium, t. of the Volsci (
Antonius, Marcus, ii. 166.
+——, Caius, ii. 166.
+Antony, i. 213, 499; ii. 36, 263, 271, 274, 285, 294, 330, 334, 357, 358; iii. 23, 52, 56, 58, 72, 159, 184, 230, 231, 233, 281.
+Antrōn, t. of Thessaly, ii. 24, 135, 138, 139.
+——, Ass of, ii. 139.
+Anubis, iii. 245, 257.
+Aones, i. 493; ii. 88, 93.
+Aonian plain, ii. 108.
+Aornum, castle of India, iii. 6.
+Aornus, bay of Campania, i. 39.
+Aorsi, ii. 219, 239.
+Aōus, r. of Illyria, i. 486.
Apæsus, t. of the Troad.
Apama, wife of Seleucus Nicator, ii. 334; iii. 161.
+——, wife of Prusias, ii. 315.
+Apameia, city of Syria (
Apameia, city of Phrygia (
——, city of Media, ii. 250, 264.
+——, city of Bithynia, ii. 315.
+Apameis, ii. 316.
+Aparni,
Apasiacæ, ii. 248.
+Apaturum, ii. 223.
+Apellas.
Apelles, philosopher, i. 23.
+——, painter, iii. 14.
+——, Antigonus of, iii. 36.
+Apellicon, ii. 379, 380; iii. 17.
+Apennine Mount, the, i. 308.
+Apennines, i. 193, 300, 314–316, 322, 324–326, 331, 336–338, 344, 347, 357, 388, 431, 432, 437.
+Aphamiōtæ, iii. 76.
+Aphetæ, t. of Thessaly, ii. 139, 143.
+Aphidna, Aphidnæ, vill. of Attica, ii. 39, 86, 88.
+Aphneii, ii. 317, 346.
+Aphnēïs, wife of Pixodarus, iii. 35.
+Aphnitis, lake of, same as Dascylïtis, in Mysia (
Aphrodisias, city of Phrygia (
Aphrodisium, city of Cyprus, iii. 69.
+——, temple of Venus, i. 271, 272.
+Aphrodite (Venus), i. 346; ii. 62, 136, 155, 376.
+——Acrocorinthus, temple of, at, ii. 62.
+Acræa, iii. 69.
+——Anadyomene, painting of
+Apelles, iii. 36.
+Apatura, ii. 223.
+——Arsinoe, iii. 238.
+——, Cyprian, iii. 69.
+——Castnietis, ii. 141.
+——Colias, ii. 89.
+——, Paphian, iii. 70.
+——, Pyrenæan, temple of, i. 267, 272.
+——, temple of, at Comana, ii. 309.
+——, at Corinth, ii. 61, 309
+Aphrodite, temple of, in Elis, ii. 16.
+——, at Erycina, i. 412.
+——, at Lavinium, i. 345.
+——, at Memphis, iii. 248.
+——, in Tritonis, iii 291.
+——, at Pyrrha, ii. 376.
+Aphrodites Hormus, iii. 193.
+Aphroditopolis, iii. 240, 253, 258, 263.
+Aphytis, t. of Pallene, i. 511.
+Apia, plain of, in Mysia, ii. 390.
+Apia, Apian land (
Apidanus, r. of Thessaly (
Apidones, ii. 52.
+Apiola, t. of the Volsci, i. 344.
+Apis, vill. of Marmara, iii. 235.
+——, god of the Egyptians, iii. 241, 245, 247, 248.
+Apobathra, near Sestos, ii. 352.
+Apœcus, iii. 2.
+Apollo, i. 385, 491, 499, 504; ii. 55, 64, 89, 95, 109, 115, 119–121, 155, 162, 190, 208, 334; iii. 70, 146, 179, 186, 258, 259, 261, 263.
+—— Actius, i. 498, 499; ii. 158, 161, 384.
+—— Ægletes, ii. 206.
+——, Cataonian, ii. 280.
+—— Cillæus, ii. 384, 385, 393.
+—— Clarius, iii. 15.
+——, Delphian, temple of the, i. 268.
+— Didymeus, iii. 4.
+—— Erythibius, ii. 386.
+—— Gryneus, ii. 393.
+—— Hecatus, ii. 393.
+—— Laphrius, ii. 171.
+—— Larisæus, ii. 396.
+—— Leucatas, ii. 162.
+—— Marmarinus, ii. 153.
+—— Musegetes, ii. 183.
+——, Phyllæan, ii. 138.
+—— Pornopion, ii. 386.
+——, Pythian, ii. 115.
+—— Selinuntius, ii. 152.
+—— Smintheus, ii. 210, 372–374, 384, 385, 393.
+—— Teneates, temple of, ii. 63.
+—— Thymbræus, ii. 363.
Apollo, Tilphösian, ii. 107.
+—— Ulius, iii. 5.
+——, Colossus of, i. 490.
+——, temples of, i. 73, 490; iii. 19, 20, 162.
+——, temple of, at Actium, i. 498.
+——, at Adrasteia, ii. 348.
+——, at Amyclæ, ii. 40.
+——, in Argolis and Bœotia, ii. 47.
+——, at Anapha, ii. 206.
+——, at Calydon, ii. 171.
+——, at Ceos, ii. 210.
+——, at Chalcia, ii. 213.
+——, in Chios, iii. 20.
+——, at Chrysa, ii. 374, 384–386.
+——, at Cyprus, iii. 69.
+——, at Delos, ii. 207.
+——, at Delphi, i. 417.
+——, at Grynium, ii. 397.
+——, at Orobiæ, ii. 152.
+——, at Rhodes, ii. 386.
+——, between Smyrna and Clazomene, iii. 20.
+Apollocrates, i. 389.
+Apollodorean sect, ii. 402.
+Apollodorus, the grammarian, i. 378, 457, 460, 466, 502; ii. 10, 11, 48, 50, 98, 300; iii. 61, 63–67, 73.
+—— of Artemita, the historian, i. 49, 68, 71, 78, 96, 178; ii. 250, 252, 253, 264.
+——, orator, ii. 402.
+Apollonia, t. of Mœsia, i. 490.
+——, city of Macedonia, i. 509, 512, 513, 518.
+——, city of Epirus (
——, city of Lydia, ii. 402.
+——, city of Cyrenæa, iii. 292, 294.
+——, city of Syria, iii. 165.
+——, city of Mysia, ii. 331.
+Apollonias, arsenal of Cyrene, iii. 292.
+——, city of Phrygia (
Apolloniatæ, i. 486, 490; iii. 135.
+Apolloniatis, district of Babylon, ii. 264; iii. 135, 142.
+——, lake of Mysia (
Apollōnides, i. 475; ii. 262, 269.
+Apollōnis, wife of Attalus, ii. 400, 402.
+——, city of Lydia, ii. 402; iii. 21.
+Apollonium, prom. in the bay of Carthage, iii. 285.
+Apollonius of Erythræ, iii. 18.
+—— Cronos, iii. 37, 294.
+——, physician, iii. 69.
+——, grammarian, iii. 41.
+——, Stoic, iii. 26.
+—— Malacus, iii. 33, 40, 41.
+—— the Cyrenæan.
—— Alabanda, iii. 34, 40, 41.
+—— of Rhodes, iii. 34.
+—— of Tyre, iii. 173.
+Apollonnesoi, Hecatonnesoi, ii. 393.
+Apollonopolis, city of Egypt, iii. 261, 263.
+Appaïtæ, ii. 296.
+Appia Via, i. 346, 347, 351, 352, 355, 370, 431, 432.
+Apsus, r. of Illyria, i. 486.
+Apsynthis, district of Thrace, i. 519.
+Apsyrtides (islands), i. 484.
+Apsyrtus, i. 484.
+Aptera, t. of Crete, ii. 200.
+Apuli, i. 360, 432, 436.
+Apulia.
Aquæ-Statiellæ, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Aquileia, i. 186, 307, 309, 310, 319, 321, 324, 435, 448, 482.
+Aquinum, t. of Latium (
Aquitani, i. 264, 265, 282, 283, 284.
+Aquitania, Aquitaine, i. 242, 247, 282–285, 296, 310.
+Arabia, i. 63, 197, 458; iii. 86, 88, 89, 132, 148, 149, 171, 176, 185, 186, 189–217, 241, 243, 247, 252, 261, 266.
+—— Felix, i. 41, 63, 129, 130
Arabia Nabatæa, iii. 241.
+Arabian Gulf, the (
Arabians, i. 63, 66, 67, 196, 458; ii. 154, et passim.
+——, Skenitæ, iii. 146, 158, 159.
+——, Troglodyte, i. 2, 67.
+Arabs, tribes of, i. 440.
+Arabus, daughter of, i. 67.
+Araby the Blest, iii. 76.
+Arachōsia, distr. of Ariana, ii. 252.
+Arachōti, ii. 249.
+——, people of Ariana, ii. 248; iii. 122, 124, 126.
+Aracynthus, a mtn of Ætolia (
Aradii, iii. 167, 168, 170, 215.
+Aradus, isl. in the Persian Gulf, (
——, city of Phœnicia, iii. 167, 169, 172.
+Aræthyrea, distr. of Argolis, ii. 59, 66.
+Aragus, r. (
Arambi, iii. 216.
Aramæi, Arammæans, i. 66; ii. 404; iii. 216.
+Arar, r. of Gaul (
Ararene, distr. of Arabia, iii. 212.
+Arathus, r. of Epirus, i. 498, 501.
+Aratus, poet, i. 4, 156; ii. 42, 73, 199, 207, 209; iii. 55.
+——, leader of the Achæi, ii. 66, 70.
+Arausio, t. of the Cavari (
Araxēnæ, distr. of Armenia, i. 113; ii. 242.
+Araxenian plain, ii. 268, 270.
+Araxēnus, ii. 268.
+Araxes, r. of Armenia (
Araxes, r. of Scythia, ii. 247.
+——, r. of Persis (
Araxus, prom. of Elis (
Arbaces, iii. 143.
+Arbēla, t. of Assyria (
Arbēlus, iii. 144.
+Arbies, iii. 120.
+Arbis, r. of Gedrosia (
Arcadia, i. 94, 343, 416; ii. 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 22, 28, 32, 33, 37, 52, 74–77, 142, 153, 156, 327, 339; iii. 145.
+Arcadian mountains, ii. 40.
+—— cities, ii. 71.
+Arcadians, Arcades, i. 328, 329, 432; ii. 3, 8, 22, 24, 31, 39, 76.
+Arcadicus, ii. 16.
+Arcesilaus, i. 23; ii. 387.
+Arceuthus, r. of Syria, iii. 164.
+Archæanax, ii. 365.
+Archan, ii. 388.
+Archedēmus, the Stoic, iii. 58.
+Archelaus, king, ii. 277, 278, 282, 284, 285, 305–308; iii. 54, 232.
+——, priest, ii. 308; iii. 232.
+——, father of priest, ii. 308; iii. 232.
+——, son of Penthilus, ii. 340.
+——, physician, iii. 20.
+——, play of Euripides, i. 329.
+Archemachus, ii. 178.
+Archias, Corinthian, founder of Syracuse, i. 394, 406, 407; ii. 63.
+——, general of Antipater, ii. 55.
+Archidamus, i. 427.
+Archilochus, ii. 50, 169, 210, 298; iii. 23.
+Archimedes, i. 85, 87.
+Archytas, i. 427.
+Arconnesus, iii. 16, 35.
+Arctic Circle, i. 4, 5, 144, 200.
+—— constellation, i. 5.
+Arcton, mtn, ii. 331.
+Arcturus, i. 201; iii. 82, 83.
+Ardania, prom. of Marmara, i. 64.
Ardanis, Ardanixis (
Ardea, city of the Rutuli, i. 339, 346, 371.
+Ardia, distr. of Dalmatia, i. 481.
+Ardiæi, i. 483–485, 487, 488, 489, 505.
+Ardium, mtn of Dalmatia, i. 484.
+Arduenna (
Arēcomisci.
Arēgon, ii. 16.
+Areion, ii. 97.
+Areius, iii. 53.
+Arelate, t. of Gaul (
Arēne, t. of Triphylia, ii. 20–23, 27, 38.
+Areopagite code, i. 390.
+Arēs.
Aretas, iii. 212.
+Arēte, iii. 212, 293.
+Arethusa, castle of Syria, iii. 166, 167.
+——, ftn of Chalcis, ii. 157.
+——, ftn of the Island of Ortygia, i. 408, 409.
+——, city of Macedonia, i. 514.
+Argæus, mtn of Cappadocia (
Arganthōnius, king of Tartessus, i. 226.
+——, mtn of Bithynia, ii. 315.
+Argeadæ, i. 506, 508.
+Argeia.
Argennum, prom. of Ionia, iii. 18.
+Argestes (N.W. wind), i. 45; ii. 80.
+Argia, Argolis, Argeia, i. 187, 416; ii. 6, 51, 66.
+Argian territory, ii. 52, 58.
+Argillæ (under-ground passages), i. 363.
+Argilus, t. of Macedonia, i. 512.
+Arginussæ, islands, ii. 388, 391.
+Argissa, Argūra, t. of Pelasgiotis, ii. 143, 144.
+Argive territory, ii. 51–55, 76, 158.
+Argives, i. 55, 102; ii. 8, 39, 47, 48, 49, 51–55, 58–60, 66, 97, 174, 175.
+Argo, the ship, i. 72, 73, 332; ii. 139, 315.
+Argolic Bay (
Argolica, ii. 58, 75.
+Argolis (
Argonautic expedition, i. 31.
+Argonautics, iii. 34.
+Argonauts, i. 71–73, 332; ii. 21, 111, 139, 148, 331.
+Argos, i. 35, 329, 410, 486; ii. 12, 42, 43, 48–56, 58–60, 71, 76, 77, 97, 110, 124, 133, 203; iii. 41, 60.
+——, Pelasgic, i. 328; ii. 50, 52, 132, 133.
+——, Inachian, ii. 74.
+——, Achæan, ii. 43, 49, 50.
+——, castle of Cappadocia, ii. 281.
+——, Amphilochian, city of Acarnania (
——, Hippium, i. 320, 433; ii. 49.
+——, Jasum, ii. 49, 50. 52.
+——, Orestic, city of Epirus or Macedonia, i. 500.
+——, distr. of Peloponnesus, ii. 50–55.
+Argoüs, harbour of Æthalia, i. 332.
+Argūra.
Argyria, city of the Troad, ii. 300, 371.
+Argyrippa.
Argyrippeni, port of, i. 433.
+Argyrusci, i. 344.
+Aria, distr. of Persia, i. 112–114; ii. 246, 251, 252; iii. 124, 125.
+Ariamazas, rock of, ii. 254.
+Ariana, i. 121, 125, 127–129; ii. 218, 252, 253, 263; iii. 78, 88 119–129.
+Ariani, i. 66, 104, 196; iii. 125.
+Ariarathes, ii. 277, 283, 401.
+Aricia, t. of Latium (
Aridæus, iii. 229.
+Arii (
Arima, mtns of Cilicia, ii. 405.
+Arimæi.
Arimaspi, i. 32; ii. 240.
+Arimaspian poems, ii. 349.
+Arimi, ii. 304, 403–405; iii. 163, 216.
+Ariminum, t. of Umbria (
Ariminus, r. of Umbria, i. 323.
+Arimus, ii. 406.
+Ariobarzanes, ii. 285.
+Arion, ii. 393.
+Arisba, t. of the Troad, ii. 344, 350, 351; iii. 5.
+Arisbus, in Thrace, ii. 351.
+Aristarcha, i. 268, 269.
+Aristarchus, i. 48, 49, 51, 57, 156; ii. 380; iii. 26.
+Aristeas, of Proconnesus, i. 32; ii. 349; iii. 10.
+Aristeides, painter, ii. 64.
+Aristera, or left coast of Pontus, ii. 286.
+Aristio, ii. 89.
+Aristippus, Socratic philosopher, iii. 293.
+—— Metrodidactos, iii. 293.
+Aristo, Athenian, i. 23.
+——, of Ceos, ii. 210; iii. 225, 226.
+——, of Cos, iii. 36.
+——, of Rhegium, i. 390, 391.
+Aristobulus, ii. 243, 254; iii. 55, 83–86, 95, 102, 111, 112, 133, 148, 150, 187, 274.
+——, king of Judæa, iii. 180.
+Aristocles, iii. 34.
+Aristocrates, ii. 39.
+Aristodemus, iii. 26, 27.
+Aristonicus, grammarian, i. 60.
+——, iii. 20, 21.
+Aristopatra, iii. 96.
+Aristotle, i. 44, 143, 144, 156, 229, 273, 459, 494, 512, 513; ii. 18, 55, 56, 64, 151, 154, 156, 363, 378–382, 392, 393; iii. 86, 98, 173, 225.
+Aristoxenus, i. 25.
+Aristus, of Salamis, iii. 69, 134.
+Arius, r. of Aria, ii. 252, 254.
+Ariusia, in Chios, iii. 19.
+Arměne, t. of Paphlagonia (
Arměnia, i. 72, 76, 78, 95, 113, 115, 120, 122, 123, 126, 127, 177, 195; ii. 217, 218, 226, 227, 230–235, 238, 245, 259, 260–272, 276, 284–286, 304–306, 309, 310; iii. 108, 109, 147, 150, 154, 156, 157.
+——, Greater, ii. 260, 262, 305; iii. 150.
+——, the Lesser, ii. 260, 267, 269, 286, 294, 296, 304, 305, 310; iii. 63, 150.
+——, gates of, i. 123, 124.
+——, mountains, i. 96, 115, 120, 122, 126, 127; ii. 226, 241.
+Armenians, i. 66, 196, 440; ii. 216, 230, 239, 260, 263–277, 294, 296, 304, 309; iii. 216.
+Armenium, t. of Thessaly, ii. 235, 272.
+Armenius, i. 446.
+Armenus, ii. 235, 272.
+Arnæi, inhabitants of Thessaly, ii. 93.
+Arnæus, ii. 300.
+Arnarium, ii. 70.
+Arné, city of Thessaly, i. 92; ii. 107, 110, 138, 143.
+Arnus, r. of Etruria (
Arǒma, t. of Lydia, iii. 26.
+Arotrebæ.
Arotria.
Arpi, t. of the Daunii.
Arpina, ii. 32.
+Arrechi, ii. 223.
+Arrētium, city of Etruria (
Arrhabæus, i. 500.
+Arsacæ, iii. 97, 160.
+Arsaces, a Scythian, ii. 248, 251.
Arsaces, son of Pharnaces, ii. 311.
+Arsacia, city of Media, same as Rhaga, ii. 264.
+Arsēne, lake of Armenia (
Arses, iii. 141.
+Arsinoë, t. of Cilicia (
——, two towns of Cyprus, iii. 69, 70, 72.
+——, t. of Ethiopia, iii. 193, 199.
+——, t. of Cyrene, iii. 291.
+——, t. of Egypt, iii. 243, 244.
+——, formerly
——, t. of Œtolia (
——, same as Ephesus, iii. 12.
+——, same as Patara, iii. 47.
+——, prom. of Cyprus, iii. 70.
+Arsinoite nome, iii. 223, 253, 256.
+Arsinoites, iii. 256.
+Arsīnus.
Arsites, satrap of Phrygia, iii. 188.
+Artabazus, ii. 334.
+Artabri, Arotrebæ, people of Lusitania, i. 181, 206, 221, 230, 262.
+——, port of the, i. 230.
+Artacaëna, city of Aria, ii. 252.
+Artace, mtn, ii. 332.
+——, island, ii. 332; iii. 5.
+——, t. there situated, ii. 340; iii. 5.
+Artacēne, iii. 144.
+Artagēræ, castle of Armenia, ii. 270.
+Artamita, Apollodorus of, ii. 252.
+Artanes, ii. 273.
+Artavasdes, ii. 263, 270, 271, 274.
+Artaxata, city of Armenia, ii. 269, 270.
+Artaxerxes, i. 78; iii. 34.
+Artaxias, ii. 269, 270, 273.
+Artaxiasata,
Artemidorus, of Ephesus, i. 207, 208, 223, 235, 236, 239, 246, 251, 255, 258, 274, 277, 295, 332, 364, 393, 402, 435, 518; ii. 5, 48, 77; iii. 12, 15, 34, 43–45, 53, 59, 62, 118, 192, 201–203, 208, 239, 243, 276, 281, 282.
+Artemidorus, of Cnidus, iii. 34.
+——, of Tarsus, iii. 59.
+Artemis.
Artemisia, iii. 35.
+Artemisium, Dianium, t. of Iberia, i. 239.
+——, prom. of Caria, with temple of Diana, iii. 28.
+——, or Grove of Diana, i. 355, 356.
+——, at Ephesus, ii. 73.
+Artemita, t. of Assyria (
——, one of the Echinades, i. 93.
+Artimachus, ii. 348.
+Artis, iii. 2.
+Aruaci, i. 243.
+Arupenum, t. of the Iapodes (
Arverni (
Arxata, city of Armenia, ii. 270.
+Asander, i. 479; ii. 224, 401.
+Asbystæ, i. 198.
+Asca, t. of Arabia, iii. 212.
+Ascæus, ii. 307.
+Ascalon, city of Judæa (
Ascalonitæ, iii. 175.
+Ascania, region of Phrygia, ii. 300, 316–318; iii. 66, 67.
+——, region of Mysia or Bithynia, ii. 316–318; iii. 66, 67.
+——, vill. of Mysia, iii. 67.
+Ascanius, lake of Bithynia (
——, son of Æneas, i. 339, 340; ii. 377, 378.
+——, leader of the Phrygians and Mysians, ii. 316, 317.
+Asclēpiadæ, in Thessaly, ii. 136, 142.
+Asclepiades, of Prusa, ii. 318.
+——, the Myrlean, i. 235, 249.
Asclepieium, iii. 36.
+Asclepius, i. 114; ii. 9, 56, 141; iii. 22.
+——, temple of, at Carthage, iii. 285.
+——, Celæni, in the Troad, ii. 371.
+——, in the Island of Cos, iii. 36.
+——, of Epidaurus, ii. 56, 321.
+——, of Gerenia, ii. 36.
+——, of Olenus, ii. 71.
+——, of Tricca, ii. 36, 56, 141.
+——, grove of, between Berytus and Sidon, iii. 171.
+Ascra, t. of Bœotia, ii. 104, 105, 110, 122, 398.
+Asculum Picēnum (
Asdrubal, i. 238.
+——, wife of, iii. 285.
+Asea, a village of Arcadia, ii. 15.
+Asia, i. 22, 50, 55, 56, 88, 103, 105, 156, 161, 162, 179, 183, 187, 188, 190, 191, 194, 197, 213, 431, 437, 439–441, 453, 465, 466, 477, 478, 490, 510, 517, 518; ii. 2, 32, 60, 62, 68, 93, 145, 154, 209; iii. 38, 39, 98,
——, Upper, ii. 244.
+——, Eastern, ii. 244.
+——, a Roman province, ii. 401.
+——, within the Taurus, ii. 333.
+Asiatic coast, ii. 491.
+Asii, ii. 245.
+Asinæan Gulf.
Asinæus, ii. 36.
+Asine, city of Messenia, ii. 35–37, 54, 55.
+——, city of Laconia, ii. 41.
+——, city of Argolis (
——, Hermionic, ii. 36.
+Asinius, i. 287.
+Asioneis, Esioneis, ii. 405.
+Asisium, i. 338.
+Asius, son of Dymas, ii. 351.
+——, poet, i. 399.
+——, Hyrtacides, the Trojan, ii. 344, 345, 350, 351.
+——, meadow of, iii. 26.
+Asius, temple to, iii. 26.
+Asōpia, vill. of Sicyonia, ii. 103.
+Asōpian district, ii. 66.
+—— Thebes, ii. 74.
+Asōpus, r. of Sicyon, i. 410; ii. 66, 103.
+——, r. of Bœotia, ii. 103, 104, 108.
+——, r. of Phthiotis, ii. 67, 129.
+——, r. of the isl. of Paros, ii. 66.
+——, city of Laconia, ii. 41.
+Aspaneus, near Ida, ii. 376.
+Aspasiacæ,
Aspendus, t. of Pamphylia (
Asphalius (name of Neptune), i. 90.
+Aspiōnus, satrapy of, ii. 253.
+Aspis, t. by the Greater Syrtis, iii. 290.
+——, t. of the Carthaginians, i. 421; iii. 288.
+——, island, iii. 16.
+Asplēdon, city of Bœotia, ii. 113.
+Aspordēnum, ii. 393.
+Asporēne, Aspordēne, ii. 393.
+Aspurgiani, a nation of Mœotis, ii. 223, 305.
+Assacanus, land of, in India, iii. 82, 90.
+Assus, t. of Mysia (
——, people of, ii. 375, 381, 382.
+Assyria, iii. 34, 142–160.
+Assyrians, i. 66.
+Asta, city of Iberia, i. 211, 213, 215.
+Astaboras, r. of Ethiopia (
Astacēni, iii. 90.
+Astacus, t. of Bithynia, ii. 171.
+——, t. of Acarnania, ii. 171.
+——, Gulf of (
Astæ, people of Thrace, i. 516
+Astapus, r. of Ethiopia (
Astasobas, r. of Ethiopia, iii. 195, 219, 270.
+Astëeis, iii. 4.
Asteria, Asteris, isl. (
Asterium, ii. 142, 143.
+Asteropæus, i. 514.
+Asti, people of Thrace, i. 490, 492.
+Asturian mountains, i. 250.
+Asturians, i. 229, 233, 241, 243, 250.
+Asty, ii. 85, 87, 91.
+Astyages, ii. 264; iii. 134.
+Astygis, t. of Spain (
Astyochea, ii. 9.
+Astypalæa, prom. of Attica, ii. 89.
+——, prom. of Caria, iii. 37.
+——, old city of the Coans, iii. 36.
+——, one of the Sporades (
Astypalæans, inhabitants of Rhætium, ii. 368.
+Astyra, t. of Mysia, ii. 376, 386, 387.
+——, t. of the Troad, ii. 353; iii. 66.
+Atabyris, mtn of Rhodes (
Atagis (
Atalanta, isl. near Attica, ii. 85, 125.
+—— opposite Eubea (
Atargata, iii. 216.
+Atargatis, iii. 158.
+Atarneitæ, ii. 383.
+Atarneus, city of Mysia (
——, city of the Troad, ii. 387.
+Atax, r. of Gaul, i. 272, 282.
+Ateas, king of the Bospori, i. 472.
+Ategua, t. of Spain, i. 213.
+Atella, t. of Campania, i. 370.
+Ateporix, ii. 310.
+Aternum, t. of the Vestini (
Aternus, r. of Italy, i. 359.
+Atēsinus, r. of Rhætia, i. 308.
+Athamanes, nation of Epirus, i. 493, 499; ii. 128, 130, 131, 137, 144, 158, 160; iii. 30.
+Athamania, ii. 138, 147.
+Athamantis, iii. 2.
+Athamas, ii. 135; iii. 2.
+Athara, iii. 216.
+Athenæ Diades, ii. 153.
+——, city of, ii. 55, 87.
+Athenæum, i. 93, 368.
+——, promontory of Campania (
Athenæus, the Peripatetic, iii. 53.
+Athenais, son of Attalus, ii. 400.
+——, iii. 18, 259.
+Athene.
Athenian legation, i. 75.
+—— colony, i. 513.
+Athenians, i. 102, 155, 329, 365, 392, 396, 404, 478, 517; ii. 2, 35, 36, 39, 57–59, 67, 68, 79, 80–83, 85–90, 95, 108, 111, 121, 136, 140, 152–154, 374,
Athenocles, ii. 294.
+Athenodorus, Cananites, iii. 58, 59, 209.
+——, Cordylion, iii. 58.
+——, the Natural Philosopher, i. 8, 86, 259.
+Athens, i. 23, 24, 101, 102, 105 -107, 123, 126, 127, 131, 133, 173, 271, 329, 335; ii. 39, 68, 80–83, 95, 108, 121, 124, 125, 164, 166, 170,
——, captured by Sylla, ii. 380.
+——, town of Bœotia, ii. 101.
+Athmoneus, iii. 144.
+Athos, Athon (
Athribis, town of Egypt, iii. 240.
+Athribitæ, iii. 257.
+Athribite nome, iii. 240.
+Athrulla, town of Arabia, iii. 212.
+Athymbradus, iii. 26.
+Athymbrus, iii. 26.
+Athyras, r. of Thrace, i. 518.
+Atintānes, i. 499.
+Atlantic Ocean, Exterior Sea, i. 7, 8, 39, 46, 51, 62, 78, 81, 82, 87. 101, 102, 170, 184, 192, 194,
Atlantides, daughters of Atlas, ii. 19.
+Atlantis, island of, i. 154.
+Atlas, father of Calypso, i. 39.
+——, mtn of Mauritania, iii. 276.
+Atmŏni, tribe of the Bastarnæ, i. 470.
+Atrax, city of Pelasgiotis, ii. 142, 146.
+Atrebates, people of Gaul, i. 289, 290.
+Atreus, i. 25, 35; ii. 53.
+Atria, city of Cisalpine Gaul (
Atropatene, Atropatia, or Atropatian Media, ii. 238, 263, 267, 270.
+Atropateni, Atropatii, ii. 264, 274.
+Atropates, satrap of Media, ii. 262.
+Attaleia, city of Pamphylia (
Attalic kings, kings of Pergamus, ii. 320.
+Attalici, ii. 315.
+Attalus, first king of Pergamus, i. 440; ii. 390, 400.
+—— Philadelphus, ii. 400; iii. 13, 49.
+—— Philometor, ii. 401; iii. 21.
+——, brother of Philetærus, ii. 400.
+Attasii, tribe of the Massagetæ, ii. 248.
+Attea, t. of the Troad, ii. 376.
+Atthis, daughter of Cranaus, ii. 87.
+——, Attica, i. 40, 43, 105, 187; ii. 2, 3, 87. Silver mines of, i. 221.
+Attic dialect, ii. 2.
+—— miners, i. 221.
+Attica, i. 493, 506, 507; ii. 57, 62, 67, 78–81, 84, 86–91, 95–97, 99,
Aturia, part of Assyria, iii. 142–141.
+Atys, father of Tyrrhenus, i. 326, 329.
+Auases or Oases, in Libya, i. 197; iii. 226, 258.
+Aude.
Aufidus, r. of Apulia (
Auge, daughter of Aleus, ii. 389.
+Augeas, king of the Epeii, ii. 10, 13, 27, 30, 31, 170.
+Augeiæ, city of Laconia, ii. 42.
+——, city of Locris, ii. 42.
+Augila (
Augusta, city of the Salassi, (
Emerita, t. of the Turduli in Spain (
Aulis, city of Bœotia (
Aulon, valley in Messenia, ii. 24.
+——, royal, valley of Syria, iii. 171.
+Aulōnia.
Auscii, people of Aquitania, i. 284.
+Ausonian Sea, i. 185, 193, 346, 497.
+Ausonians, people of Campania, i. 346, 360, 381.
+Autariatæ, nation of Illyria, i. 481, 485, 488, 489, 505.
+Autěsion, father of Thera, ii. 21.
+Autochthones, i. 339; ii. 2, 75.
+Autolycus, founder of Sinope, ii. 143, 293.
+Autŏmala, t. of Cyrene, i. 186; iii. 290, 294.
+Automedon, ii. 42.
+Auxumon, t. of Picenum (
Avenio, t. of the Cavari (
Aventine mount, i. 270, 384.
+Avernus, Lake (
Axine.
Axius, r. of Macedonia (
Azamora, t. of Cataonia, ii. 280.
+Azānes, a people of Arcadia, ii. 7, 75.
+Azani, Azanitis, t. and district of Phrygia, ii. 332.
+Azara, Zara, t. of Armenia, ii. 268.
+——, t. of Elymais, iii. 153.
+Azaritia, ii. 315.
+Azenieis, vill. of Attica, ii. 89.
+Azorus, t. of Pelagonia, i. 501.
+Azōtii, iii. 106.
+Azōtus, city of Judæa, iii. 175.
+Babanomum, t. of Ponlus, ii. 312.
+Babas, iii. 130.
+Babylon, i. 13, 120, 123–126, 129, 131, 132, 134, 135, 137, 165; ii, 233, 262, 267, 271; iii. 9, 130, 132, 134, 135, 140, 143–158, 186, 189, 229.
+——, t. of Egypt (
Babylonia, i. 201; ii. 239, 260, 267, 271; iii. 83, 130, 135, 142, 146, 148, 150, 151, 158, 159, 185, 187, 189.
+Babylonians, i. 155, 196, 463; ii. 391.
+Babyrsa, fortress of Armenia, ii. 270.
+Babys, father of Pherecydes, ii. 211.
+Bacchæ, ii. 180, 183.
+——, tragedy of Euripides, i. 40; ii. 186; iii. 75.
+Bacchantes, i. 295.
+Bacchiadæ, i. 500; ii. 60.
+Bacchides, ii. 292.
+Bacchus, i. 41, 76, 257, 459; ii. 40, 64, 183–187, 238, 347; iii. 16, 74–76, 108.
+——, Bromius, ii. 185.
+—— Pyrigenes, ii. 406.
+——, temple of, ii. 40.
+Bacchylides, ii. 210, 390.
+Bactra (
Bactria, Bactriana, i. 22, 41, 106, 107, 112–117, 141, 178, 179; ii. 188, 245, 246, 248, 251–255; iii. 73, 83, 89, 124–127.
+Bactrian gates, iii. 76.
+Bactrians, Bactrii, i. 112, 195; ii. 248, 253, 273, 296.
+Badas, r. of Syria, iii. 130.
+Bænis, r. of Lusitania.
Bætera, city of Gaul (
Bætica, i. 240, 243, 250.
+Bætis, r. of Spain (
——, city of Spain, i. 213.
+Bætorix, father of Deudorix, i. 446.
+Bæturia, district of Spain, i. 214.
+Bætylus, Œtylus, t. of Laconia, ii. 36.
+Bagadania, distr. of Cappadocia, i. 113; ii. 284.
+Bagas, name of the Paphlagonians, ii. 302.
+Bagōus, a eunuch, iii. 141.
+Bagradas, r. of Africa (
Baiæ, t. of Campania, i. 336, 362, 364, 366, 369.
+Baïus, companion of Ulysses, i. 39, 364.
+Balanæa, t. of Syria, iii. 167.
+Balari, people of Sardinia, i. 334.
+Balbura, t. of Lycia (
Balbus, the Gaditanian, i. 253, 254.
+Baleares, Balearic islands, i. 251, 252; iii. 32.
+Balearicus, Metellus, i. 252.
+Balithōn.
Bambyce, t. of Syria, iii. 158, 163.
+Bamōnītis, part of Pontus, ii. 302.
+Bandobēne, distr. of India, iii. 89.
+Barathra, Berethra, ii. 76; iii. 241.
+Barbarian laws, i. 240.
+Barbarians, i. 17, 18, 77, 104, 114.
+Barbarium, Cape, prom. of Lusitania (
Barca, city of Cyrene, same as Ptolemais, iii. 291, 292.
+Barcas, Hamilcar, father of Hannibal, i. 226, 238.
+Bards, Celtic poets, i. 294.
+Bardyli, Bardyali, Bardyētæ, Bardyītæ, people of Spain, i. 233, 243.
+Bargasa, t. of Caria, iii. 34.
+Bargosa, city of India, iii. 119.
+Bargus, r. of Illyria, i. 488.
+Bargylia, t. of Caria, ii. 383; iii. 37.
+Baris (Zaris), temple of, ii. 273.
+Baris, city, i. 429.
+Barium (
Barnichius, r. of Elis.
Barnus, city of Macedonia, i. 495.
+Basgædariza, fortress of Armenia, ii. 304.
+Basileius, r. of Mesopotamia, iii. 158.
+Basilii, i. 470.
+Basoropeda, district of Armenia, ii. 269.
+Bassus, Cecilius, iii. 166.
+Bastarnæ, i. 141, 177, 194, 443, 451–453, 468–471.
+Bastetani, Bastuli, i. 210, 212, 234, 243, 245.
+Bastetania, i. 232, 235.
+Bata, t. of Pontus (
Bathynias, i. 518.
+Bathys Limen (Deep Harbour), in Aulis, ii. 95.
+Batiæ, city of the Cassopæi, i. 497.
+Batieia, ii. 328, 361, 399.
+Batōn, leader of the Pannonii, 483.
+Batōn, historian, ii. 293.
+Battus, founder of Cyrene, iii. 292.
+Bear, the (constellation), i. 4, 5.
+——, Greater, i. 21, 117–120.
+——, Lesser, i. 117–120, 200.
+Bebryces, a people of Thrace, i. 453; ii. 287, 304, 346; iii. 63.
+Beitylus, ii. 36.
Belbina, an island, ii. 57, 89.
+Belgæ, i. 264, 266, 286, 290–293.
+Bělio, r. of Lusitania (
Bellerophon, ii. 62, 328, 409; iii. 48.
+Bellovaci, a people of Gaul (
Bělō (
Belus, i. 67.
+——, tomb of, iii. 145; temple of, 153.
+Bembina, city of Argolis, ii. 60.
+Bēnacus, lake of Italy, i. 311.
+Bendidæan rites, ii. 186, 188.
+Beneventum, t. of Samnium (
Berecyntes, people of Phrygia, ii. 184, 337; iii. 66, 67.
+Berecyntia, distr. of Phrygia, ii. 337.
+Berecyntian pipes, ii. 187.
+Berenice, dr. of Salome, iii. 184.
+——, t. of Cyrene, (
——, t. in the Troglodytic, iii 197, 260.
+——, t. of Egypt (
Berenice, Hair of (constellation), i. 4.
+Berga, i. 514.
+Bergæan, the.
Bērisades, king of the Odrysæ, i. 516.
+Bermium, Bermius, mtn of Macedonia (
Berœa, t. of Macedonia (
——, t. of Syria, iii. 163.
+Bērones, people of Spain, i. 238, 243.
+Bertiscus, mtn of Macedonia, i. 505.
+Bērytus (
Bēsæeis, Bēsæenses, ii. 127.
+Besbicus, isl. (
Bēssa, in Locris, ii. 127.
+Bessi, nation of Thrace, i. 489, 516.
+Bēssus, ii. 248, 255.
+Betarmones, ii. 190.
+Betteres, t. of Spain, i. 240.
+Bias, iii. 7.
+Biasas, name of the Paphlagonians, ii. 302.
+Bibracte, fortress of the Ædui, i. 286.
+Bilbilis, t. of the Celtiberians, (
Billarus, sphere of, ii. 293.
+Bion, philosopher, i. 23, 24; ii. 210.
+——, astronomer, i. 45.
+Bīsa, ftn of Elis.
Bisalti, Bisaltæ, people of Macedonia, i. 506, 514.
+Biscay, people of.
Bistones, race of Thrace, i. 515.
+Bistonis, lake of Thrace (
Bisurgis.
Bithynia, ii. 289, 293 313–318, 329, 356, 402; iii. 297.
+Bithynians, i. 195, 453; ii. 277, 286, 287, 289, 290, 314, 316, 319, 320, 330; iii. 63.
+——, of Thrace, ii. 287.
+Bithynium (
Bituitus, son of Luerius, i. 285.
+Bituriges Cubi, i. 283, 284.
+—— Vivisci, people of Gaul, i. 283.
+Bizōne, t. of Mœsia, i. 84, 490.
+Bizya, t. of Thrace, i. 516.
+Black Forest, the.
Black Sea, i. 6,
Blaēnē, distr. of Paphlagona, ii. 313.
+Blascōn, isl., i. 271.
+Blaudus, t. of Phrygia (
Bleminātis, in Laconia, ii. 15.
+Blemmyes, a people of Ethiopia, iii. 219, 266.
+Blera, t. of Etruria (
Blēsino, t. of Corsica, i. 333.
+Blessed, Isles of the (
Blucium (Luceium?), fortress of the Tolistobogii, ii. 320.
+Boagrius, r. of Locris (
Bōcalia (?), Bōcarus, r. of Salamis, ii. 83.
+Bocchus, king of Mauritania, iii. 280.
+Bœa, t. of Laconia, ii. 41.
+Bœbē, t. of Magnesia, ii. 139, 142, 272.
+Bœbēis or Bœbias, lake of Thessaly, ii. 131, 139, 142, 146–148, 235; iii. 22.
+Bœi, people of Gaul, i. 291–485.
+Bœōnōa, t. of Elis, ii. 9.
+Bœoti, t. of Laconia, ii. 2.
+—— (Athenians), ii. 81.
+Bœotia, i. 6,
Bœotian coast, ii. 98.
Bœotians, i. 102, 493; ii. 98, 101, 102, 105, 134, 175,
Bœōtus, son of Melanippe, i. 399.
+Bœrebistas, king of the Getæ.
Boēthus, Sidonian, iii. 173.
+——, of Tarsus, iii. 58.
+Bœum, city of the Dorians, i. 505; ii. 128, 195.
+Bogodiatarus (? Deïotarus), ii. 320.
+Bogus, king of Mauritania, i. 151, 153, 154; ii. 36; iii. 278, 280.
+Boïanum, city of the Samnites (
Boii, i. 291, 306, 307, 317, 321, 322, 448, 450, 454, 466, 482, 485.
+Bolbe, lake of Macedonia, i. 514.
+Bolbitine mouth of the Nile, iii. 239.
+Bōmianes, a nation of Ætolia, ii. 160.
+Bonōnes, son of Phraates, iii. 160.
+Bonōnia, city of Italy (
Boos-Aule, cave of Eubœa, ii. 152.
+Boosura, city of Cyprus (
Boreas, Borras, i. 42, 44, 97.
+Boreion, prom. of Cyrene (
Borrhama, iii. 170.
+Borsippa, t. of Babylonia, iii. 146.
+Borsippeni, Chaldæans, iii. 146.
+Borus, ii. 110.
+Borysthenes (
Bosporani, Asian, ii. 223.
+——, European, ii. 223.
+——, Bosporiani, Bosporians, ii. 223, 224; iii. 180.
+Bosporii, i. 476.
+Bosporus, Cimmerian (
——, Thracian, i. 138, 189 ii. 318.
+——, Mysian, ii. 318.
+Botrys, fortress of Syria, iii. 170.
+Bottiæa, distr. of Macedonia, i. 430, 508, 509.
+Bottiæi, people of Macedonia, i. 425, 506, 508.
+Bottōn, i. 506.
+Boxos, Boxes, iii. 208.
+Brachmānes, philosophers of India, iii. 109–111, 114, 117.
+Branchidæ, priests of Apollo, ii. 254; iii. 4, 259.
+——, their city in Sogdiana, ii. 254.
+Branchus, ii. 120; iii. 4.
+Braurōn, t. of Attica, ii. 52, 88, 89.
+Breasts, the (
Brěnæ, people of Thrace, i. 516.
+Brennus, i. 280.
+Brentěsium, t. of lapygia (
Brescia, i. 317.
+Brettii, i. 315–441.
+Breuci, people of Hungary, i. 483.
+Breuni, nation of Illyria, i. 306.
+Brigantii, a people of the Vindelici, i. 307.
+Brigantium (
Briges, people of Thrace, i. 453, 510.
+Brilessus, mtn of Attica, ii. 90.
+Briseïs, ii. 313, 384.
+Britain, i. 99, 100, 111, 116, 117, 141, 157, 172–175, 181, 193, 263, 264, 281, 283, 288–290, 295–298.
+Britannic Islands, British Islands
British Channel, i. 192.
+Britomartis, ii. 199, 200.
+Britons, i. 116, 177, 298, 299.
+Briula, iii. 26.
+Brixia, t. of the Insubri, i. 317.
+Brothers, Seven, monuments of the, iii. 278.
+Bructeri, a people of Germany, i. 444, 445, 447.
+Brundusians, i. 430.
+Bruttii, i. 315, 339, 374, 377–383, 391, 431.
+Brutus, the Gallician, i. 228, 230, 233.
+——, Decimus, vanquished at Philippi, i. 305, 515.
+Bryanium, t. of Macedonia, i. 501.
+Bryges, Brygi, Phryges, ii. 298.
+Brygi, people of Epirus, i. 500, 501.
+Bubastite nome, iii. 245.
+Bubastus, t. of Egypt, iii. 245.
+Bubōn, t. of Lycia (
Buca, t. of the Frentani, i. 359, 436.
+Bucephālia, city of India, iii. 91.
+Bucephalus, the horse of Alexander, iii. 91, 92.
+Buchetium, city of the Cassopæi, i. 497.
+Bucolopolis, t. of Judæa, iii. 175.
+Budŏrus, r. of Eubœa, ii. 153.
+——, mtn of Salamis, ii. 153.
+Bujæmum, i. 444.
+Bulliones, people of Illyria, i. 500.
+Buprasian district, ii. 18.
+Buprasii, Buprasians, ii. 12, 13, 27.
+Buprasium, ii. 12, 14, 23, 28, 74.
+——, t. of Elis, ii. 12, 13, 27, 32, 162.
+Būra, city of Achæa (
Burdegala (
Busiris, king of the Egyptians, iii. 240.
+——, city of Egypt, iii. 240.
+Busirite nome, iii. 240.
+Būthrōtum, t. of Epirus (
Butice-limné, lake of Egypt, iii. 239.
+Būtrium, t. of the Umbri (
Būtus, t. of Egypt, iii. 239.
+Byblos (
Bylliace, district of Illyria, i. 486.
+Byrchanis, island (
Byrebistas, Bœrebistas, king of the Getæ, i. 457, 466, 467; iii. 180.
+Byrsa, acropolis of Carthage, iii. 285, 286.
+Byzacii, people of Libya, i. 198
+Byzantines, ii. 292, 332.
+——, Horn of the, i. 491.
+Byzantium (
——, Strait of, i. 80, 110, 189; ii. 314, 318.
+——, temple of, i. 491.
+Byzēres, a nation of Pontus, ii. 297.
+CABÆUM, prom. of the Ostimii (
Cabaleis, same as Solymi, ii. 409.
+Cabalis, c. and distr. of Phrygia and Lycia, ii. 408, 409.
+Caballa, t. of Armenia, ii. 271.
+Caballiō, t. of Gaul (
Cabeira, t. of Pontus, ii. 190, 306.
+Cabeirides, ii. 190.
+Caberus, mtn of Berecyntia, ii. 189.
+Cabesus, ii. 367.
+Cabiorides, ii. 190.
+Cabiri, i. 516; ii. 180, 189, 190.
+Cabyllīnum, t. of Gaul (
Cadēna, t. of Cappadocia, ii. 281.
+Cadi, t. of Phrygia (
Cadmē, same as Priene, iii. 7.
+Cadmeia, citadel of Thebes, ii. 108, 109.
Cadmeian victory, i. 224.
+—— territory, i. 493; ii. 93.
+Cadmus, founder of Cadmeia, i. 493, 500; ii. 93, 154.
+——, Melesian, i. 281; iii. 66.
+——, r. of Phrygia, ii. 334.
+——, mtn of Phrygia, ii. 334.
+Cadurci, a people of Gaul (
Cadusii, a people of Asia, ii. 240–242, 245, 248, 249, 263, 264.
+Cæcias, name of a wind (N.E.), i. 45.
+Cæcilius Bassus, iii. 165.
+Cæcubum, distr. of Latium, i. 345, 347.
+Cælius, Mount, i. 348.
+Cænepolis, ii. 36.
+Cæni, people of Thrace, ii. 401.
+Cænys, prom. of Italy, i. 385, 400.
+Cæpio, Q. S., a Roman general, i. 280.
+——, tower of, i. 211.
+Cæratus, same as Cnossus, ii. 190.
+Cærea, c. of Etruria, i. 328.
+Cæretana, hot-springs, i. 328.
+Cæretani, i. 327, 335.
+Cæsar, i. 213, 241, 242, 270, 271, 285, 290, 305; ii. 44, 270, 274, 278, 297.
+—— Augusta, c. of the Celtiberi (
——, Augustus, i. 234, 265, 275, 286, 298, 304, 306, 308, 349–351, 369, 388, 404, 408, 411, 439, 441, 444, 446, 449, 467, 483, 484; ii. 294, 309, 334, 356–358, 392, 402; iii. 36, 53, 54, 58, 59, 74, 118, 159, 184, 209, 231, 233, 281, 296, 297.
+——, Julius or divus, i. 265, 285, 288, 297, 298, 317, 350, 439, 457, 497–499; ii. 65, 294, 308; iii. 20, 24, 227, 284, 287.
+Cæsarea, c. of Numidia, iii. 284.
+Cæsarium, temple of Alexandria, iii. 230.
+Cæsēna, c. of Italy, i. 322.
+Caiata, gulf of (
——, promontory of, i. 347
+Caicus, r. of Mysia (
——, plain of, ii. 332, 388–390, 401; iii. 82.
+Caieta, nurse of Æneas, i. 347.
+Cainochorion, fortress of Pontus, ii. 306.
+Calabri, i. 422, 423.
+Calabria, i. 430.
+Calachene, distr. of Assyria, ii. 235, 272; iii. 142.
+Calaguris, t. of Spain (
Calamis, i. 490.
+Calanus, iii. 74, 112, 113, 115, 116.
+Calasarna, t. of Lucania, i. 379.
+Calatia, c. of Campania (
Calauria, island (
Calbis, r. of Caria (
Calchas the prophet, iii. 15, 50, 59, 60.
+——, shrine of, i. 434; ii. 324.
+Calche, the, ii. 271.
+Cale-Peuce, ii. 371.
+Calenian wine, i. 361.
+Calēs, c. of Campania (
Caleti, people of Gaul, i. 281, 289.
+Callaïci, people of Spain, i. 222–251.
+Callanian plain, ii. 407.
+Callas, r. of Eubœa, ii. 152.
+Callateria (
Callatis, t. of Mœsia (
Calliarus, t. of Locris, ii. 127.
+Callias, ii. 393.
+Callicolōnē, ii. 362.
+Callidromus, part of Œta, ii. 129.
+Callimachus, i. 70–72, 321, 459; ii. 21, 29, 87, 141, 199, 206; iii. 9, 35, 245, 292.
+Callinicus, iii. 162, 168.
Callīnus, ii. 373, 405; iii. 3, 22, 23, 50.
Calliŏpe, ii. 189.
+Callipidæ, nation of Scythia, ii. 298.
+Callipolis, t. of Sicily, i. 412.
+——, t. of the Thracian Chersonesus (
——, t. of Macedonia, i. 514.
+Callisthenes, ii. 39, 254, 288, 356, 383, 405; iii. 5, 49, 66, 225, 245, 261,
Callydium, fortress of Mysia, ii. 330.
+Calpas, r. of Bithynia, ii. 288.
+Calpé, t. of Spain, i. 81, 210, 212.
+——, rock of Spain (
Calybe, t. of the Asti, i. 492.
+Calycadnus, r. of Cilicia (
Calydna, same as Tenedos, ii. 214, 372.
+Calydnæ, islands, ii. 212–214, 372.
+Calydōn, c. of Ætolia, ii. 127, 155, 159, 160, 171, 172, 175, 179.
+Calymna, Calymnæ, isl (
Calynda, c. of Caria, iii. 28.
+Calypso, island of, i. 459.
+Camarina, c. of Sicily (
Cambysene, distr. of Armenia, ii. 232, 234, 269.
+Cambyses, ii. 190; iii. 141, 224, 245, 261.
+Cameirus, t. of Rhodes (
Camertes, t. of Umbria, i. 338.
+Camici, t. of Sicily, i. 413, 425.
+Camillus, son of Vulcan, ii. 189.
+Camisa, fortress of Pontus, ii. 310.
+Camisene, distr. of Cappadocia, ii. 293, 310.
+Campani, Campanians, i. 352, 357, 361. 366, 369, 371, 373; 377, 387, 404.
+Campania, i. 326, 344, 346, 360, 361, 369–371, 373, 379, 429, 431, 432.
+Campodunum, t. of the Vindelici, i. 307.
+Campsiani, people of Germany, i. 445.
+Campus Martius, i. 350, 371.
+Camuni, people of the Rhæti, i. 306.
+Canæ, c. of Æolia, ii. 153, 388.
+——, mtns (
Canastræum, prom. of Macedonia (
Canastrum, prom. of Pallene (
Candace, queen of Ethiopia, iii. 268, 269.
+Candavia, mtns of Illyria, i. 495, 500.
+Canēthus, hill of Eubœa, ii. 154.
+Canidius, ii. 231.
+Cannæ, t. of Apulia, i. 436.
+Canopic mouth of the Nile, i. 101; iii. 237, 238.
—— gate of Alexandria, iii. 231, 237.
+—— canal, iii. 231, 237, 239.
+Canōpus, constellation, i. 4, 180.
+——, c. of Egypt (
Cantabria, i. 236, 247.
+Cantabrian mtns, i. 250.
+Cantabrians, i. 230, 233, 234, 239, 241, 243, 246–248, 250, 439.
+——, Conish, the, i. 243.
+Cantharius, prom. of Samos, iii. 10.
+Cantharōlěthron, i. 511.
+Cantium.
Canusitæ, emporium of the, i. 433.
+Canusium, t. of Apulia (
Capedunum, t. of the Scordisci, i. 488.
+Caphareus, prom. of Eubœa, ii. 48.
+Caphyeis, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.
Capitol, the, i. 298, 342, 348, 351, 424, 490; iii. 8.
+Capitūlum, t. of Latium, i. 353.
+Capnobatæ, i. 454, 455.
+Cappadocia, i. 113, 195, 262, 279; ii. 216, 218, 246, 259–261, 265, 273, 276–286, 301, 307, 310, 314, 319–322; iii. 35, 44, 54, 63–65, 137, 150, 232.
+——, the Great, ii. 278, 293, 294, 307, 321.
+——, Upper, ii. 259.
+——, on Pontus, ii. 278.
+Cappadocians, i. 440; ii. 273–286, 290, 301, 320, 322.
+Capreæ, Capriæ, Capria, isl. (
Capria, 1. of Paphlagonia, iii. 49.
+Caprus, port of
——, island, i. 512, 513.
+——, r. of Phrygia, ii. 334.
+——, r. of Assyria (
Capsa, t. of Numidia (
Capua, (
Capyæ, t. of Arcadia, ii. 378.
+Capys, ii. 378.
+Caracoma, i. 516.
+Caralis, t. of Sardinia (
Carambis, prom. of Paphlagonia (
Carana, t. of Pontus, ii. 310.
+Caranītis, ii. 310.
+Carcathiocerta, t. of Armenia (
Carcinites Gulf, i. 471, 473, 474, 478.
+Carcoras, r. of Noricus, i. 482.
+Cardaces, iii. 138.
+Cardamylæ, t. of Messenia (
Cardia, t. of the Thracian Chersonesus, i. 517.
+Cardūchi, people of Asia, iii. 157.
+Carēnitis, distr. of Armenia, ii. 269.
+Carēsēnē, distr. of the Troad, ii. 371.
+Carēsus, t. of the Troad, ii. 304, 371.
+——, r. of the Troad, ii. 357, 371.
+Caria, i. 8, 102, 103, 133, 140, 172, 187, 190, 195, 202, 493; ii. 56, 68, 259, 298, 313, 329, 333, 334, 383, 407, 409; iii. 1, 2, 6, 27–44, 59.
+——, coast, iii. 34.
+Carians, i. 96, 103, 493, 494; ii. 50, 56, 88, 277, 327–329, 383; iii. 2, 35, 38–43, 63.
+Cariatæ, ii. 254.
+Carmalas, r. of Cataonia, ii. 280–283.
+Carmania (
Carmanians, iii. 120.
+Carmēl, mtn of Judæa, iii. 175.
+Carmentis, mother of Evander, i. 343.
+Carmō, t. of Spain (
Carmylessus, t. of Lycia, iii. 46.
+Carna, Carnana, c. of Arabia, iii. 190.
+Carneades, iii. 293.
+Carneates, mtn of Sicyonia, ii. 66.
+Carni, i. 307–309, 321, 448, 482, 483.
+Carnus, t. of Syria (
Carnutes (
Carpasia, t. of Cyprus, iii. 69.
+Carpasian islands, iii. 69.
+Carpathian Sea, i. 187; ii. 212; iii. 68.
+Carpathus, ii. 212, 213.
+Carpetani, i. 209, 212, 228, 229, 243.
+Carpetania, distr. of Spain, i. 214.
+Carrhæ, c. of Mesopotamia, iii. 157.
+Carseoli, t. of Latium (
Carsūli, t. of Umbria, i. 337.
Carta, t. of Hyrcania, ii. 242.
+Cartalia, t. of Spain, i. 239.
+Carteïa, c. of Spain, i. 210, 213, 218, 226.
+Cartera, Comé, vill. of Thrace, i. 515.
+Carthæ, ii. 210.
+Carthage, in Africa, i. 101, 140, 180, 184, 197, 198, 201, 403, 411, 439; ii. 331; iii. 51, 282, 284–291.
+Carthagena, in Spain, i. 222, 234, 238, 239, 245, 251, 262, 334; iii. 279.
+Carthaginian Bay, iii. 285, 287.
+—— wars, iii. 284.
+Carthaginians, i. 104, 226, 238, 334, 377, 403, 404, 408, 424, 438, 439; ii. 71, 73; iii. 240, 275, 285.
+Carura, t. of Phrygia, ii. 334, 336, 409; iii. 43.
+Caryanda, t. and isl. of Caria, ii. 318, 340; iii. 37.
+Caryandians, iii. 37.
+Carystian marble, ii. 140, 153.
+Carystus (
——, in Laconia, ii. 153.
+Casiana, fortress of Syria, iii. 165.
+Casii, ii. 213, 214.
+Casilīnum, t. of Campania (
Casīnum, t. of Latium, i. 352.
+Casium, mtn of Egypt (
——, mtn of Syria (
Caspian Sea, i. 54, 102, 109, 115, 122, 123, 132, 135–138, 183, 194, 451, 471; ii. 216–218, 226, 227, 230, 232, 235, 239, 240–246, 249, 255, 256, 260, 267, 270, 272.
+Caspian Gates (
—— tribes, ii. 234.
+Caspiana, distr. of Albania, ii. 234, 269.
+Caspii, ii. 226, 248, 253, 258.
+Caspius, mtn. of the Caucasus, i. 137–139; ii. 226.
+Cassander, king of Macedonia, i. 509–511; ii. 88, 89.
+Cassandra, i. 398, 511; ii. 367
+Cassandria, i. 511.
+Cassiŏpē, port of Epirus (
Cassiopeia, constellation, i. 202.
+Cassiterides (
Cassius, i. 515; iii. 164.
+Cassōpæi. people of Epirus, i. 493, 496–498.
+Castabala, t. of Cilicia, ii. 278, 281.
+Castalian fountain, ii. 116.
+Castellum, port of Firmum Picenum (
Casthanæa, t. of Magnesia, ii. 148.
+Castor, father of Deiotarus, ii. 314.
+——, son of Saocondarus, ii. 321.
+Castor and Pollux.
Castrum, Castrum Novum, t. of Picenum (
Castulōn, Castlōn (
Casus, ii. 212–214.
+Casystes, iii. 17.
+Catabathmus, mtn and t. of Egypt,
Catacecaumene, distr. of Mysia, or Lydia, ii. 332, 335, 336, 403, 404, 406; iii. 8, 43.
+Catacecaumene, wine of, ii. 406; iii. 8.
+Catana, c. of Sicily (
Catanæa, i. 405, 411.
+Catanæi, Catanæans, i. 405, 406, 412.
Cataones, Cataonians, people inhabiting the Taurus, ii. 269, 276, 277; iii. 64.
+Cataonia, part of Cappadocia, i. 82, 202; ii. 259, 276–279, 280; iii. 59, 65.
+Cataractes, r. of Pamphylia, iii. 49.
+Cataracts, of Teverone, i. 353.
+——, of the Euphrates, iii. 147.
+——, of the Nile, iii. 217, 265.
+Catennenses, ntn of Pisidia, ii. 324.
+Cathæa (? Cathay), distr. of India, iii. 92.
+Cathæi, iii. 93.
+Cathylci, people of Germany.
Cato, Marcus, ii. 250; iii. 58, 72, 291.
+Catocas.
Catopterius, near Parnassus, ii. 123.
+Catoriges, an Alpine nation, i. 303.
+Cattabaneis, people of Arabia, iii. 190.
+Cattabania, iii. 191.
+Caucasian mtns, i. 106, 115–117, 130, 131, 162, 177, 195, 273; ii. 219, 220, 230–232, 235, 258, 269; iii. 79.
+—— tribes, ii. 227.
+Caucasus, ii. 224–226, 229–235, 238, 239, 245, 267; iii. 77, 78, 80, 107, 125.
+Cauci, a people of Germany, i. 445.
+Caucon, r. i. 14, 15; ii. 74.
+——, monument of a, ii. 18.
+Caucōnes, in Elis, i. 493, 494; ii. 8, 14, 15, 18, 19, 28, 31, 74, 286–288, 290, 327, 383, 394.
+Cauconia, ancient name of Elis, ii. 18.
+Cauconiatæ, Cauconītæ, in Paphlagonia, ii. 18, 286–288; iii. 63, 65.
+Cauconis, Cauconitis, ii. 14, 74.
+Caudium, t. of the Samnites (
Caulci, people of Germany, i. 445.
+Caulōnia, t. of the Bruttii, i. 392.
Caunians, iii. 28.
+Caunus, t. of Caria (
Cavari, people of Gaul, i. 276–278.
+Caÿster, r. of Ionia, ii. 145, 396, 397, 402–407; iii. 10, 14, 26.
+——, plain of, ii. 397; iii. 82.
+——, Larisæans in the. ii. 397.
+Caÿstrius, iii. 26.
+Ceans, ii. 210.
+Cěbrēn, Cebrēnē, t. of the Troad, ii. 373, 375, 376.
+Cěbrēni, in the Troad, ii. 361, 375.
+——, in Thrace, ii. 351.
+Cěbrēnia, a part of the Troad, ii. 360, 362.
+Cěbriŏnes, ii. 360.
+Cecrŏpia, citadel of Athens, ii. 88.
+Cěcrops, i. 493; ii. 87, 88, 101.
+Ceii, inhabitants of Ceus, ii. 253.
+Cěladōn, r. of Elis, ii. 15, 22.
+Celænæ, hill of the Troad, ii. 333, 390.
+——, t. of Phrygia, ii. 333, 335, 407.
+Celæno, one of the Danaids, ii. 335.
+Celænus, son of Neptune, ii. 335.
+Celenderis, t. of Cilicia (
Cělia, t. of Apulia (
Celmis, one of the Dactyls, ii. 191.
+Cēlōssa, mtn of Sicyonia, ii. 66.
+Celsa, t. of Spain (
Celtica.
Cemmenus, mtn (
Cēnæum, prom. of Eubœa (
Cenchreæ, port of the Corinthians, (
——, t. of Argolis, ii. 58.
+Cencrius, r. near Ephesus, iii. 11.
+Cenomani, people of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 321.
Centauri, Centaurs, ii. 20.
+Centoripa, t. of Sicily (
Centrones, Alpine ntn, i. 303, 305, 309.
+Ceōs, island (
Cephalæ, prom. (
Cephallēnes, Cephallenians, ii. 83, 161, 162, 166, 167, 173.
+Cephallenia (
Cephalœdium, t. of Sicily (
Cephalōn, ii. 350.
+Cephalus, son of Deïonius, ii. 162, 166, 170, 173.
+Cēphēnes, i. 67.
+Cephisia, t. of Attica, ii. 88.
+Cēphissis, lake of Bœotia, ii. 102, 107.
+Cēphissus, r. of Phocis and Bœotia (
——, r. of Attica, ii. 91, 124.
+——, r. of Salamis, ii. 124.
+——, r. of Sicyonia, Scyrus, Argolis, ii. 124.
+——, ftn of Apollonia, ii. 124.
+Cephisus, r. ii. 351.
+Cēpi, t. of the Cimmerian Bosporus, ii. 223.
+Ceramietæ, iii. 40.
+Ceramus, t. of Caria, iii 34.
+Cerasus, t. of Pontus, ii. 296.
+Cerata, mtns of Attica, ii. 84.
+Ceraunia, part of the Caucasus, ii. 232, 235.
+Ceraunian mtns, on the coast of Albania, i. 31, 159, 429, 432, 435, 486, 487, 489, 497, 500; ii. 78, 79.
+Cerberus, ii. 40.
+Cerbesii, people of Phrygia, ii. 337.
+Cercaphus, father of Ormenus, ii. 142; iii. 32.
+Cercesura, t. of Egypt, iii. 247.
+Cercetæ, people of Asia, ii. 219, 225.
+Cerceteus, mtn of Icaria, ii. 212.
+Cercinna, isl. and town (
Cercinnītis, island, iii. 288.
+Cercītæ, people of Pontus, ii. 296.
+Cercyra.
Cereate, t. of Latium (
Ceres.
——, Eleusinian, temple of the, ii. 84; iii. 2.
+——, temples of, i. 411; ii. 17, 138, 139.
+——, grove of, ii. 17.
+Cēreus, r. of Eubœa, ii. 137.
+Cērilli, t. of the Bruttii (
Cērinthus, t. of Eubœa, ii. 152, 153.
+Cerne, island.
Cersobleptes, king of the Odrysæ, i. 516.
+Ceryneia, t. of Achæa, ii. 73.
+Cestrus, r. of Pamphylia (
Cētæi, ii. 389, 395; iii. 63, 65.
+Cēteium, r. of Mysia, ii. 389.
+Chaa, c. of Triphylia, ii. 22.
+Chaalla, c. of Arabia, iii. 212.
+Chaarene, distr. of Ariana, iii 126.
+Chabaca, c. of Pontus, ii. 296.
+Chabrias, iii. 241.
+——, rampart of, vill. in the Delta of Egypt, iii. 177.
+Chabum, c. of the Tauric Chersonesus, i. 479.
+Chæanœtæ, Chamæeunæ, Chamæcœtæ, people of the Caucasus, ii. 239.
+Chærēmōn, iii. 246.
+Chærōneia, c. of Bœotia (
Chalcēdōn, c. of Bithynia, i. 491; ii. 286, 289, 314, 315, 318, 380.
+——, temple at, i. 491; ii. 289, 315.
+Chalcedonian shore, i. 491.
+Chalcēdonians, i. 491, 492.
Chalcētŏres, Chalcētōr, c. of Caria, iii. 6, 37.
+Chalcia, Chalcis, mtn of Ætolia (
——, one of the Sporades (
Chalcideis, in Eubœa, iii. 17.
+Chalcidenses, Chalcidians, in Eubœa, i. 361, 365, 369, 385, 404, 506; ii. 154, 157, 158.
+——, in Ionia, iii. 17.
+——, in Thrace, i. 506.
+Chalcidic cities, i. 513.
+Chalcidica, distr. of Syria, iii 166.
+Chalcis, iii. 33.
+——, c. of Eubœa, i. 65, 86, 90 ii. 96, 151–156, 160, 162, 178, 188.
+——, or Hypochalcis, c. of Ætolia, ii. 127, 155, 160, 172.
+——, c. of Triphylia, ii. 16, 25, 26.
+——, c. of Syria (
——, r. of Triphylia, ii. 16.
+——, or Chalcia, mtn of Ætolia (
Chaldæans, i. 35; iii. 185.
+Chaldæi, people of Pontus, ii. 296, 297, 300, 304, 305.
+Chalestra, c. of Macedonia, i. 508, 509, 510.
+Chalybē, c. of Pontus, ii. 297.
+Chalybes, people of Pontus, ii. 269, 297, 298, 300; iii. 63, 64.
+Chalybonian wine, iii. 140.
+Chalonītis, distr. of Assyria, ii. 271; iii. 142.
+Chamæcœtæ, ii. 239.
+Chamanēnē, prefecture of Cappadocia, ii. 278, 284, 285.
+Chanes, r. of Albania, ii. 230.
+Chaones, nation of Epirus, i. 496, 497.
+Charadra, c. of Messenia, ii. 36.
+Charadrūs, fortress of Cilicia (
Charax. t. of Corsica, i. 333.
+Charax, place near the Greater Syrtis, iii. 290.
+——, Chabriou.
——, Patrŏclou.
Charaxus, iii. 250.
+Chares, of Lindus, iii. 29.
+——, r. of Colchis, ii. 229.
+Charilaus, king of Sparta, ii. 204.
+Charimortus, altar of, on the coast of Egypt, iii. 201.
+Charmides, father of Phidias, ii. 29.
+Charmŏlěo, i. 247.
+Charmŏthas, c. and port of Arabia, iii. 205.
+Charon, of Lampsacus, ii. 340, 350.
+Charondas, ii. 284.
+Charonia, ii. 385.
Charonitis, ii. 271.
+Charonium, sacred cave, iii. 6, 25.
+Charybdis, in the frith of Sicily (
Chatramōtītæ, people of Arabia Felix, iii. 190.
+Chatramōtītis, iii. 191.
+Chatti, people of Germany, i. 415— 447.
+Chattuarii, people of Germany, 445–447.
+Chaubi, i. 445.
+Chaulotæi, people of Arabia, iii. 189.
+Chazēnē, distr. of Assyria, iii. 142.
+Cheiměrium, prom. of Epirus, i. 497.
+Cheirocrates (
Chelidoniæ, islands, near the coast of Pamphylia (
Chělōnatas, prom. of Elis (
Chělōnophagi, iii. 199.
+Cherronesus, t. of Spain (
Chersicrates, i. 407.
+Chersiphron, iii. 12.
Chersonesus, c. of the Tauric Chersonese, i. 474–480; ii. 288.
+——, same as Apamea in Syria, iii. 165.
+——, port of Lyctus in the isl. of Crete, ii. 199, 200; iii. 294.
+——, fortress of Egypt, iii. 236.
+——, prom. and port of Cyrenæa (
——, Thracian, by the Hellespont (
——, Tauric or Scythian, by the Palus Mæotis, i. 474–480 ii. 291; iii. 61.
+——, Greater, i. 471, 474, 475, 478.
+——, Smaller, i. 475.
+Chersonitæ, i. 475–480.
+Cherūsci, people of Germany, i. 445–447.
+Chian pottery, i. 487.
+Chiana, i. 349.
+Chians, ii. 396; iii. 19.
+Chieti.
Chiliocōmon, ii. 312.
+Chimæra, monster, iii. 46.
+——, valley of Lycia, iii. 46, 47.
+——, mtns of, in Albania.
Chimerium, promontory, i. 497.
+Chios, isl. (
——, wine of, iii. 36.
+Chlōris, mother of Nestor, ii. 20.
+Choaspes, r. of India (
——, r. of Persia (
Chœnicides, ii. 292.
+Chœrilus, poet, i. 465; iii. 55.
+Chōne, c. of Lucania, i. 378, 380.
+Chōnes, inhabitants of Lucania, i. 377, 378, 380.
+Chōnia, iii. 33.
+Chorasmii, people of the Sacæ or
+Massagetæ, ii. 248.
+Chordiraza, c. of the Mygdones in Mesopotamia (
Chorene, ii. 250.
+Chorzēne, distr. of Armenia (
Chrysa, c. of the Troad, ii. 373, 374, 384–386.
+——, Cilician, ii. 385.
+Chrysaoreon, Chrysaoric body, in Caria, iii. 39, 40.
+Chryseïs, ii. 343, 384, 385.
+Chryses, ii. 385.
+Chrysippus, Stoic, i. 463; ii. 382; iii. 55.
+Chrysopolis, vill. in Bithynia, ii. 315.
+Chrysorrhoas, r. of Syria, iii. 169.
+Chytrium, place near Clazomene, iii. 20.
+Cibotus, port of Alexandria, iii. 230.
+Cibyra, Great, city of Phrygia (
Cibyratæ, ii. 409, 410; iii. 50.
+——, the Little, in Pamphylia, iii. 50.
+Cibyrātis, Cibyratica, ii. 408, 410; iii. 27.
+Cicero, ii. 166; iii. 40, 234.
+Cichyrus, i. 497; ii. 10.
+Cicŏnes, people of Thrace, i. 508, 515, 519.
+Cicynēthus, isl. (
Cicysium, ii. 32.
+Cidēnas, iii. 146.
+Cierus, t. of Thessaly, ii. 138.
+Cilbianum, plain, in Lydia, ii. 407.
+Cilicia, i. 75, 76, 82, 96, 105, 107, 109, 110, 130, 189, 190; ii. 74, 115, 244, 259, 276, 278–281, 285, 404; iii. 28, 44, 50–64, 73, 160, 162, 177, 216.
Cilicia, Tracheia, ii. 276–278, 281, 285, 322; iii. 44, 45, 50, 54, 68.
+——, Lyrnessian, ii. 345.
+—— Pedias, iii. 50.
+——, sea of, i. 129; ii. 218, 281.
+Cilician Gates, ii. 281, 283; iii. 53, 61.
+Cilicians, i. 196; ii. 197, 216, 345, 322, 327, 329; iii. 1, 50–64.
+——, in the Troad, ii. 375, 383, 385, 389, 394, 395; iii. 49, 63.
+Cilla, t. of the Troad, ii. 384, 385.
+Cillæum, mtn of the Troad, ii. 384.
+——, mtn of Lesbos, ii. 384.
+Cillæan Apollo, ii. 384, 385.
+Cillanian plain, in Phrygia, ii. 407.
+Cillus, r. near Cilla, ii. 385.
+——, charioteer of Pelops, ii. 385.
+Cimarus, prom. of Crete, ii. 193, 195.
+Cimbri, nation of Germany, i. 154, 288, 292, 319, 445, 448–451.
+Cimiata, fortress of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.
+Cimiatēnē, distr. of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.
+Ciminius, lake, in Etruria (
Cimmerian Bosporus.
——, village, ii. 222.
+Cimmerians, Cimmerii, Kimmerii, i. 8, 31, 96, 223, 224, 363, 364, 476; ii. 221, 246, 301, 329, 405.
+——, Cimbri Cimmerii, i. 450.
+Cimmericum, city of the Cimmerian Bosporus, ii. 221.
+Cimmeris, i. 459.
+Cimmerium, hill in the Tauric Chersonesus, i. 476.
+Cimōlus, isl.
Cindya, vill. of Caria, iii. 37.
+Cindyas Artemis, iii. 37.
+Cineas, historian, i. 503.
+Cingulum, Mount, i. 337.
+Cinnamon country, i. 99, 111, 115, 144, 171, 179–181, 199, 200.
+Cirtōlis, t. of Paphlagonia (
Cinōlis, Anti, ii. 291.
+Cinyras, tyrant of Byblus, i. 63; iii. 170.
+Circæum, prom. of Latium (
Circe, i. 31, 69, 70, 73, 332, 346; ii. 85.
+Cirphis, t. of Phocis, ii. 114.
+——, mtn of Phocis, ii. 116.
+Cirra, t. of Phocis, ii. 114, 116.
+Cirrha, ii. 77.
+Cirta, c. of Numidia (
Cisamus, t. of Crete (
Cispadana, i. 316, 321, 322, 323.
+Cisseus, i. 509, 510.
+Cissia, mother of Memnon, iii. 130.
+Cissii, same as Susii, iii. 130.
+Cissus, father of Althæmenes, ii. 77, 203.
+Cissus, t. of Macedonia, i. 509, 510.
+Cisthēnē, t. of Mysia, ii. 376.
+——, isl. and t. near Lycia, iii. 47.
+Cithærōn, i. 40; ii. 62, 82, 97, 99, 103, 107, 108.
+Citium, c. of Cyprus, i. 24; ii. 382; iii. 69.
+Citrum, t. of Macedonia, i. 509.
+Cius, friend of Hercules, ii. 315.
+——, c. of Bithynia, ii. 314.
+Cizari, citadel of Phazemonitis, ii. 311.
+Clanis, r. in the Norican Alps, i. 308.
+——, r. of Latium, i. 347.
+Clarus, c. of Ionia, iii. 15, 50.
+Clastidium, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Claterna (
Clautinatii, people of the Vindelici, i. 307.
+Clazomenæ, c. of Ionia (
Clazomenians, i. 517; ii. 221; iii. 17.
Cleanactidæ, tyrants of Mitylene, ii. 391.
+Cleandria, t. of the Troad, ii. 371.
+Cleandridas, leader of the Thurii, i. 398.
+Cleanthes, Stoic, ii. 382.
+——, painter, ii. 16.
+Cleides, islands, iii. 68–70.
+Cleitor, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.
+Cleobūlus, iii. 33.
+Cleomachus, iii. 23.
+Cleombrotus, founder of Heræa, ii. 8.
+Cleōn, ii. 330.
+Cleōnæ, t. on Mt Athos, i. 512, 513.
+——, city of Argolis, ii. 59, 60, 66.
+Cleōnæi, ii. 60.
+Cleonymus, i. 427; ii. 8.
+Cleopatra, daughter of Auletes, i. 440, 499; iii. 52–56, 71, 72, 231–234, 281.
+——, wife of Euergetes II., i. 149, 150.
+—— Selene, iii. 161.
+Cleopatris, t. of Egypt, iii. 210, 243, 244.
+Cleophanes, rhetorician, ii. 318.
+Cleuas, leader of the Æolians, ii. 340.
+Climax, mtn of Lycia, iii. 48.
+——, mtn of Cœle-Syria, iii. 170.
+Clitarchus, i. 332, 449; ii. 217, 237; iii. 117.
+Clusium (
Clyměnē, i. 52.
+Clypea, city of the Carthaginians.
Clytemnestra, i. 25.
+Cnemīdes, t. of the Locrians, ii. 126.
+Cnemis, mtn in Locris (
Cnidian wine, iii. 8.
+—— territory, ii. 213.
+Cnidii, Cnidians, i. 417, 484; iii. 30.
+Cnidus, city of Caria (
Cnōpia, Thebaïc, vill. of Bœotia, ii. 96.
+Cnōpus, son of Codrus, iii. 2.
+Cnossus, city of Crete (
Cnuphis, god of the Egyptians, iii. 263.
+Coa, same as Cos.
+Coans, iii. 31, 36.
+Cōbialus, vill. of Paphlagonia, ii. 291.
+Cōbus, of Trerus, i. 96.
+Cōcalus, i. 413, 425.
+Coccēius, i. 364.
+Coccēs.
Cŏdridæ, ii. 68.
+Cŏdrus, i 493; ii. 68, 82; iii. 2, 3, 30.
+Cœle-Syria, i. 201.
+—— Elis, ii. 7, 8.
+Cœlius, Roman historian, i. 343.
+Cœus, ii. 208.
+Cōgæōnus, mtn and r. of the Getæ, i. 457.
+Colapis, r. (
Colchis (
Colchians, i. 73, 321; ii. 188, 225, 229, 235, 238.
+Colchic Sea (
Colias, ii. 89.
+Collatia, i. 341.
+Colline (or Quirinal) Gate, at Rome, i. 339, 348, 412.
+Colobi, iii. 196, 198.
+Coloë, lake of Lydia, ii. 403, 405.
+Colōnæ, t. near Lampsacus, ii. 350.
+——, in the Troad, ii. 350, 373, 381.
+Colophōn, city of Ionia, iii. 2–4, 15, 16.
+Colophonii, iii. 16.
+Colossæ, t. of Phrygia (
Colosseni, ii. 334.
+Cŏlōtes, sculptor, ii. 9.
Columna Rheginorum, i. 384, 400, 404.
+Colus, i. 480.
+Colyttus, vill. of Attica, i. 102, 103.
+Cŏmana, city of Cataonia, ii. 259, 279, 281, 306–310, 330.
+——, city of Pontus, ii. 279, 295, 308, 309; iii. 232.
+Comarus, port of Epirus (
Comisēnē, distr. of Parthia (?), ii. 250.
+——, distr. of Armenia, ii. 268.
+Commagene, distr. of Syria (
Commageni, ii. 267, 268.
+Como, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 287, 304, 306, 317.
+——, Lake of.
Concordia, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 319.
+Coniaci, people of Spain, i. 234.
+——, people of India, iii. 80, 81.
+Conisalus, ii. 347.
+Conisci.
Conistorgis, t. of Spain, i. 213.
+Cŏnōn, altars of, in the Troglodytic, iii. 196.
+Cōnōpa, city of Ætolia.
Constantinople, Strait of, i. 32, 86.
+Convěnæ, people of Gaul (
Cōpæ, t. of Bœotia, ii. 100, 106, 107.
+Cōpaïs, lake, i. 92; ii. 100–102, 107–109, 113, 124.
+Cophēs, r. of India (
Cophus-Limen (Deaf-Harbour), port of Pallene, i. 511.
+Cōpiæ,
Cŏpratas, r. of Susiana (
Coptus, city of Egypt (
Cŏra, t. of Latium (
Coracēsium, t. of Cilicia, iii. 50, 52, 53.
+Coracium, mtn of Ionia, iii. 16.
+Coracius, Country of, in Ethiopia, iii. 196.
+Cŏrălis, lake, in Lycaonia, ii. 322.
+Cŏralius, r. of Bœotia, ii. 108.
+Coralli, people of Thrace, i. 489.
+Corassiæ, or Corsiæ, islands,
Coraus, iii. 196.
+Cŏrax, mtn of Ætolia (
Coraxi, i. 217.
+Corbiane, province of the Elymæi, iii. 154.
+Corbilōn, t. of Gaul, i. 283.
+Corcoras, r., i. 482.
+Corcyra, Cercyra (
——, Black (
Corcyræan Sea, i. 505.
+Corcyræans, Corcyræi, Cercyræi, i 485, 486, 504.
+Corduba, c. of Bætica (
Corean Games, i. 149.
+Coressia, ii. 210.
+Coressus, mtn near Ephesus, iii. 11.
+Corfinium (
Corinth, i. 326; ii. 5, 21, 38, 53, 58–61, 63–66, 77, 129, 208, 209, 309, 347; iii. 287.
+——, isthmus of, i. 85, 256, 406, 497; ii. 49, 79, 80.
+——, Gulf of (
Corinthian territory, ii. 62–64, 66.
+Corinthians, i. 486, 511; ii. 49, 63, 64, 78, 82, 111.
+Coriscus, ii. 378.
+Cornelius Gallus, prefect of Egypt, iii. 267.
+Corœbus, ii. 30.
Corocondamē, t. of the Cimmerian Bosporus (
Corocondamitis, lake, ii. 222.
+Corōne, city of Messenia, ii. 37.
+Corōneia, city of Bœotia, ii. 101, 107, 108, 111, 136.
+——, city of Thessaly, ii. 136.
+——, Messenian, ii. 108, 136.
+Corōnii, Coronenses, ii. 108.
+Coropassus, t. of Lycaonia, ii. 322; iii. 43.
+Corpīli, people of Thrace, i. 516.
+Corpilice, in the Hellespont, i. 519.
+Corsiæ, the Furni Islands, ii. 212; iii. 7.
+Corsūra, island (
Corus, r. of Iberia, same as Cyrus, ii. 230.
+Corybantes, i. 516; ii. 180, 184, 188, 191.
+Corybantium, ii. 190.
+Cŏrybissa, near Scepsis, ii. 190.
+Corybus, ii. 188.
+Cōrycæans, pirates of Ionia, iii. 18.
+Cōrycian cave, ii. 405; iii. 54.
+Corycium, ii. 115.
+Cōrycus, mtn and prom. of Ionia, iii. 17, 18.
+——, prom. of Crete (
——, prom. of Cilicia, iii. 54, 70.
+——, coast of Lycia, iii. 48.
+——, city of Lycia, iii. 49, 55.
+Corydalleis, ii. 85.
+Corydallus, mtn of Attica (
Coryphantis, t. of the Mitylenæans, ii. 376.
+Coryphasium, mtn and prom. of Messenia (
——, t. of Messenia, ii. 211.
+Cos, island (
——, city, ii. 56, 328; iii. 74, 94.
+Cŏssa, r. of Latium, i. 352.
+Coscinia, t. of Caria (
Coscinii, ii. 347.
+Cosentia (
Cossa, Cossæ, city of Etruria, i. 330, 334, 335.
+Cossæa, distr. of Asia, iii. 153.
+Cossæan mtns, iii. 150.
+Cossæi, ii. 261, 264; iii. 148, 153.
+Cossūra, island and town (
Cōteis, prom. of Mauritania (
Cōthōn, island and port of the Carthaginians, iii. 285, 286.
+Cŏthus, i. 493; ii. 152, 154.
+Cŏtiaeium, t. of Phrygia (
Cotinæ, t. of Bætica, i. 214.
+Cottius, country of, in the Alps, i. 268, 303, 323.
+Cŏtuantii, i. 307.
+Cotyliæ, waters at, i. 338.
+Cŏtylus, summit of Mt Ida, ii. 369.
+Cŏtys, prince of the Sapæi, ii. 305.
+——, king of the Odrysæ, i. 516.
+——, goddess of the Edoni, ii. 187, 189.
+Cotytia, rites of, ii. 186.
+Cragus, c. of Lycia, iii. 46.
+——, mtn. and prom. of Lycia, iii. 46.
+——, rocks of Cilicia, iii. 52.
+Crambūisa, t. of Lycia (
——, isl. of Cilicia, iii. 54.
+Cranaë, island, ii. 90.
+Cranaï, ii. 87.
+Cranaüs, king of the Athenians, ii. 87.
+Cranes, battles of the, i. 109.
+Cranii, t. of Cephallenia, ii. 166, 167.
+Crannōn, t. of Thessaly, i. 507; ii. 146, 147.
+Crannonii, i. 507; ii. 10, 147.
+Crapathus or Carpathus, ii. 212–214.
+Crassus, Publius, i. 263; iii. 21.
+——, triumvir, iii. 157, 159.
+Crater (
Craterus, iii. 96, 121, 127.
Crates, the miner of Chalcis, ii. 101.
+——, of Mallos, i. 4, 6, 48, 49, 57, 60, 155, 156, 176, 237; ii. 143, 380; iii. 60.
+Crāthis, r. of Achæa, ii. 72.
+——, r. of Italy (
Cratippus, iii. 25.
+Crěmaste, t. of Thessaly, ii. 138.
+Cremna, t. of Pisidia, ii. 323.
+Crěmōna, t. of Italy, i. 322, 367.
+Crenides, t. of Macedonia, i. 512, 515.
+Creontiades, founder of Elea, i. 376.
+Creophagi, a nation of Ethiopia, iii. 196, 198, 199.
+Creōphylus, iii. 9, 10.
+Creopōlus, mtn of Argolis, ii. 58.
+Cresphontes, ii. 38, 77.
+Crestonia, t. of Thrace, i. 515.
+Cretan code, i. 390.
+—— sea, i. 187, 496; ii. 6, 49, 57, 193, 212.
+—— rites, ii. 185.
+Cretans, i. 425, 428, 430; ii. 58, 83, 287, 328; iii. 4.
+Crēte (
Creūsa, Creusia, t. of Bœotia, ii. 6, 92, 99, 104, 105.
+Crimissa, fortress of Lucania, i. 378.
+Crinacus, i. 493.
+Crinagoras, ii. 392.
+Crisa, city of Phocis (
Crisæans, ii. 116, 117, 120.
+Crissæan Sea, ii. 99.
+—— Gulf, i. 388, 496, 506; ii. 4, 6, 62, 79, 92, 99, 104–106, 114–116.
+Crissæan plain, ii. 116, 128.
+Critasirus, king of the Boii, i. 466, 482.
+Crithōte, prom. of Acarnania (
——, t. of the Thracian Chersonesus, i. 518; ii. 171.
+Criumetopon, prom. of Crete (
——, prom. of the Tauric Chersonesus (
Crobyzi, a Thracian race, i. 489.
+Crocian plain, in Thessaly, ii. 135, 138.
+Crocodeilopŏlis, t. of Egypt, iii. 256, 263.
+——, t. of Judæa, iii. 175.
+Crocyleia, ii. 58, 161, 163.
+Crœsus, ii. 118, 119, 277, 316, 354, 368, 403, 405; iii. 11, 66, 141.
+Crommyōn, t. of Megaris, ii. 63, 78, 80.
+Crommyonia, ii. 63, 81.
+Crommyonian sow, ii. 63.
+Crommyum Acra, prom. of Cyprus (
Crōmna, t. of Paphlagonia, ii. 288, 291.
+Crŏnium, temple of Saturn, i. 254.
+Crŏtōn, ii. 73.
+Crotona, i. 378, 388, 392–395, 407.
+Crotoniatæ, i. 391, 392, 395, 396, 407.
+Crotoniātis, i. 378, 392, 411.
+Crows, the Port of Two, i. 295.
+Crucis, distr. of Macedonia, i. 509.
+Cruni, t. of Mœsia, i. 490.
+——, ftn of Triphylia, ii. 16, 25, 26, 155.
+Ctěnus, port of the Tauric Chersonesus, i. 475, 480.
+Ctesias, Cnidian, i. 69; ii. 241; iii. 34, 80, 208, 216.
+Ctesiphōn, city of Assyria (
Ctiměnē, ii. 163.
+Ctistæ, i. 454.
+Cuarius, r. of Thessaly and Bœotia, ii. 108, 109, 138.
+Cubi.
Cucūlum, t. of Latium, i. 353.
+Cūlūpēnē, distr. of Pontus, ii. 310.
+Cumæ (
Cumæa, in Campania, i. 369, 415.
Cumæa, in Æolis, i. 369; ii. 350, 397; iii. 21.
+——, gulf of, i. 34.
+Cumsæi, Cumæans, i. 360, 361, 364, 365, 516; ii. 398; iii. 50.
+Cumē, city of Æolis, ii. 237, 298, 395–399, 404.
+Cūneus, prom. of Lusitania, i. 206.
+Cupid, statue of, ii. 105.
+Cupra, Tyrrhenian name of Juno, i. 357.
+Curalius, r. of Thessaly, ii. 142.
+Curbantes, i. 516.
+Cures, vill., i. 338.
+Curētes, i. 516; ii. 12, 202; iii. 11.
+Curētěs, people of Ætolia, i. 494; ii. 130, 160, 175–192.
+Curētis, Curētica, same as Pleurōnia, ii. 178.
+Curias, prom. of Cyprus (
Curium, t. of Cyprus (
——, mtn of Ætolia, ii. 160, 179.
+Curtii, people of Media, ii. 263.
+Cyanæan rocks, same as the Symplēgades, i. 32, 137, 138, 224, 490, 491, 518; ii. 292.
+Cyané, lake.
Cyaxares, king of the Medes, iii. 239.
+Cybēbe, same as Cyběle.
+Cyběia, mtn of Phrygia, ii. 321.
+Cyběle, or Cyběbe, name of Rhea, ii. 184–186, 321.
+Cybělia, t. of Ionia, iii. 18.
+Cybiosactes, king of the Egyptians, iii. 232.
+Cybistra, t. of Cataonia (
Cybrene, ii. 360.
+Cychreia, same as Salamis, ii. 82.
+Cychreus, ii. 83.
+Cychrides, serpent, ii. 83.
+Cyclades, islands, i. 90, 187; ii. 47, 192, 207–214; iii. 7.
+Cyclopæ, Cyclops, i. 31–33, 64; ii. 54, 354.
+Cyclopean mode of life, ii. 233.
+Cyclopeia, ii. 48.
+Cycnus, king of the Colonæ, ii. 64, 350, 373.
+Cydippe, wife of Cercaphus, iii. 32.
+Cydnus, r. of Cilicia (
Cydonia, city of Crete, ii. 58, 195, 198, 200.
+Cydonians, people of Crete, i. 328; ii. 195.
+Cydoniatæ, ii. 199, 200.
+Cydrēlus, son of Codrus, iii. 2.
+Cydriæ, t. of Epirus, i. 501.
+Cyinda, fortress of Cilicia, iii. 55.
+Cyllēnē, city of Elis, ii. 9, 13.
+——, mtn of Arcadia, ii. 75, 76.
+Cynætha, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.
+Cynamolgi, people of Ethiopia, iii. 196.
+Cynia, lake, in Ætolia, ii. 171.
+Cynocephali, people of Ethiopia, i. 68, 458; iii. 200.
+——, in Thessaly, ii. 146.
+Cynōpolis, city of Egypt, iii. 240, 257.
+Cynopolite nome, iii. 257.
+Cynos-sema, ii. 357; iii. 34, 236.
+Cynthus, Cythnus, mtn of Delos, ii. 208.
+Cynthus (
Cynūria, distr. of Argolis, ii. 51, 58.
+Cynus, t. and prom. of Locris (
Cynyps, r. (
Cyparisseïs, r. of Messenia, ii. 24.
+——, r. of Triphylia, ii. 24.
+Cyparissenses, Cyparissii, ii. 18, 22, 36.
+Cyparissia, t. of Triphylia, ii. 22, 35.
+——, t. of Messenia, ii. 24, 35, 37.
+——, t. of Laconia, ii. 41.
+Cyparisson, iii. 144.
+Cyparissus, ii. 122.
+Cyphus, mtn. of Thessaly, ii. 147.
+——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 145, 147.
Cypria, same as Cyprus.
+Cyprian copper, i. 245.
+Cyprians, ii. 13.
+Cyprus, i. 8, 15, 41, 59, 61, 63, 65, 82, 189, 381; ii. 13, 92, 213, 280; iii. 31, 32, 51, 52, 67–72, 148, 226, 297.
+Cypsela, city of Thrace (
Cypselus, tyrant of Corinth, i. 498; ii. 29, 60, 61, 161.
+Cyra, city of Bactriana, ii. 254.
+Cyrbantes, same as Corybantes.
+Cyrlēnæa, ii. 21; iii. 226, 235, 260, 294, 295, 297.
+Cyrenæans, ii. 206.
+Cyrenaic, the, i. 89, 185, 186, 196–198.
+—— juice, iii. 292.
+—— philosophy, iii. 293.
+—— sect, iii. 293.
+Cyrenaica, ii. 41, 193–195; iii. 290, 292–294.
+Cyrene, i. 78, 88, 89, 201, 237; iii. 281, 290, 292–294.
+Cyrictica, i. 186, 484.
+Cyrinius (Quirinus), ii. 323.
+Cyrnus (
Cyrrhēstica, part of Syria, iii. 163.
+Cyrsilus, historian, ii. 272.
+Cyrus, king of the Persians, i. 96, 376; ii. 246, 247, 254, 264, 283, 316, 405; iii. 74, 75, 122, 126, 133, 141.
+——, r. of Persia (
——, r. of Iberia and Albania (
Cytæan Œeta.
Cythēra, island and town (
Cytherius, r. of Pisatis, ii. 32.
+Cytherus, t. of Attica, ii. 88.
+Cythnus, island, ii. 208.
+Cytinium, t. of Locris, ii. 128, 195.
+Cytōrum, t. of Paphlagonia, ii. 288, 291
+Cytōrus, t. of Pontus, ii. 296.
+——, son of Phrixus, ii. 291.
+Cyzicene, ii. 317, 338–341, 347.
+Cyziceni, i. 189; ii. 299, 331, 332, 340, 341, 347, 349; iii. 5.
+Cyzicus, island and city (
Daci, Dacians, Daæ, i. 309, 317, 467, 468, 481.
+Dactyli, Idæan, ii. 30, 180, 191.
+Dædala, t. of Caria, iii. 28, 45, 46.
+——, mtn of Lycia, iii. 45, 46.
+Dædalus, father of Iapyx, i. 425; ii. 197; iii. 10.
+Daēs, of Colonæ, ii. 384.
+Dahæ, ii. 241, 245, 257.
+Daisitiatæ, nation of Hungary, i. 483.
+Daliōn, r. of Triphylia, ii. 17.
+Dalmatæ, Dalmatians, i. 484, 487.
+Dalmatia, Dalmatice, i. 483, 484.
+Dalmatium, city of the Dalmatæ, i. 484.
+Damascus, city of Syria, iii. 169–171.
+Damasia, t. of the Licattii, i. 307.
+Damastes, historian, i. 74, 75; ii. 340; iii. 70, 71.
+Damastium, in Epirus, i. 500.
+Damasus the Athenian, iii. 2.
+—— Scombrus, iii. 25.
+Damnamenus, one of the Idæan Dactyli, ii. 191.
+Danaë, mother of Perseus, ii. 211.
+——, play of Æschylus, i. 329.
+Danai, i. 329; ii. 49, 52, 133, 329.
+Danaïdes, ii. 52, 335; iii. 33.
+Danala, fortress of the Galatæ, ii. 320.
+Danaus, i. 35, 329, 493; ii. 52, 53; iii. 51.
+Dandarii, ii. 223, 224.
+Danthēlētæ, people of Thrace, i. 489.
+Daorizi, a nation of Dalmatia, i. 484.
+Daphitas, the grammarian, iii. 22.
+Daphne, city of Syria (
Daphnus, t. of Phocis or Locris, (?) i. 95; ii. 114, 124–126.
+——, port of Ethiopia, iii. 200.
+Darada, city of, iii. 197.
+Darapsa, city of Bactriana, ii. 253.
+Dardani, Dardanii, Dardanians, i. 485, 489; ii. 77, 62, 353, 375; iii. 41.
+Dardania, distr. of the Troad, i. 481, 516; ii. 317, 353, 354, 360, 369, 371, 375.
+Dardaniatæ, Dardanii, a people of Illyria, i. 485, 505; ii. 3.
+Dardanica, a region of Illyria, i. 485.
+Dardanis, Dardanian prom. ii. 357.
+Dardanium, i. 347.
+Dardanus, t. of the Troad, ii. 347, 352, 357, 366.
+——, brother of Jasion, i. 516; ii. 19, 353, 354.
+Darieces, name of Darius, iii. 216.
+Darius, i. 148, 152, 462, 463, 465, 468, 469; ii. 347; iii. 60, 89, 133, 134, 141, 144, 188, 216, 244, 259.
+——, son of Hystaspes, iii. 5, 9, 163.
+——, father of Xerxes, ii. 352.
+——, conquered by Alexander, ii. 291.
+—— Longimanus, iii. 140.
+Dasarētii, a people of Illyria, i. 485, 489.
+Dascylītis, lake of Mysia (
Dascylium, t. of Mysia, ii. 331, 340.
+Dasmenda, fortress of Cappadocia, ii. 284.
+Dastarcum, a fortress of Cataonia, ii. 280.
+Dasteira, city of Armenia, ii. 305.
+Dateni, people of Macedonia, i. 513.
+Datis, ii. 90.
+Datum, city of Thrace, i. 512–514.
+Daulia, Daulis, city of Phocis, ii. 114, 122.
+Daulieis, i. 493; ii. 123.
+Daulius, king of Crissa, i. 399.
+Daunia,
Daunii, i. 320, 360, 422, 428, 431–433, 436.
+Davi, i. 467.
+Dazimonitis, distr. of Pontus (
Debæ, people of Arabia, iii. 206.
+Dēcæneus, Getæan bard, i. 457, 467; iii. 180.
+Deceleia, t. of Attica, ii. 88.
+Deciētæ, a people of the Ligurians, i. 301.
+Decimus Brutus, i. 305.
+Degmenus, ii. 33.
+Deïaneira, daughter of Œneus, ii. 64, 160, 170.
+Deïmachus, historian, i. 107–109, 112, 114, 117, 118, 120; iii. 80.
+Deïoneus, father of Cephalus, ii. 162, 166, 170.
+Deïŏtarus, prince of the Galatæ, ii 320, 321.
+——, king of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.
+Deïphontes, ii. 77.
+Deire, c. and prom. of Ethiopia, iii. 191, 193, 198, 199, 201.
+——, straits of, iii. 191.
+Deliaca, iii. 130.
+Delians, iii. 5.
+Delium, city of Bœotia (
——, temple of Apollo, in Argolis, ii. 47.
+Dellius, ii. 263.
+Delos, isl. (
——, city of, ii. 207–210.
+Delphi, a city of Phocis (
Delphi, inhabitants of ii. 116, 120–123; iii. 22.
+——, temple at, ii. 114–123.
+Delphinium, t. and port of Bœotia, ii. 95.
+Delta, of the Nile, i. 47, 103; iii. 95, 221–223, 239, 242, 245, 266.
+——, of India, iii. 95.
+——, vill. of Egypt, iii. 223.
+Demaratus, father of Lucumo, i. 326; ii. 61.
+Dēmēter.
Demetrias, city of Assyria, iii. 144.
+——, city of Thessaly, ii. 130, 139, 140, 142, 146, 148.
+Demetrium, temple of Ceres, ii. 64, 138.
+Demetrius, watch-towers of, iii. 196.
+——, of Callatis, i. 94.
+——, grandson of Poliorcětes, i. 85, 345; ii. 139.
+——, of Pharos, i. 484; ii. 38.
+——, of Phalaris, i. 221; ii. 88.
+——, Ætolian, ii. 160.
+—— Lacōn, iii. 37.
+——, son of Rathenus, ii. 296.
+——, son of Seleucus, ii. 401.
+——, of Skepsis, i. 71, 74, 90, 502, 513, 518; ii. 10, 11, 17, 56, 142, 143, 168, 189, 190, 298–300, 355, 360, 364, 375, 377, 380, 383, 404, 405; iii. 66.
+——, son of Euthydemus, ii. 253.
+Demi, ii. 90.
+Dēmocles, historian, i. 91.
+Dēmŏcŏōn, son of Priam, ii. 344.
+Dēmocritus, i. 95, 102, 103; iii. 98.
+Demosthenes, i. 182; ii. 55, 56, 123, 152, 188.
+Dēmus, i. 460; ii. 374.
+Derbe, t. of Lycaonia, ii. 278, 322; iii. 64.
+Derbices, people of Margiana, i. 249, 258.
+Dercěto.
Derdæ, iii. 101.
+Derhis, a port of Marmara (
Derrhis, prom. of Macedonia, i. 511, 512.
+Derthon (
Dertōssa, t. of Spain (
Deucalion, king of Thessaly, i. 494; ii. 67, 125, 134, 139, 140, 149.
+——, island, ii. 139.
+Deudorix, the Sicambrian, i. 446.
+Deuriŏpes, people of Macedonia, i. 501.
+Deuriŏpus, district of Macedonia, i. 500.
+Dexia, or the right of Pontus, ii. 286.
+Dïa, temple of, at Sicyon, ii. 66.
+——, isl. near Crete (
——, in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 205.
+Diacŏpēne, district of Pontus, ii. 312.
+Diades.
Diagesbes, people of Sardinia, i. 333.
+Diana (Artemis), i. 270, 385; ii. 16, 73, 208, 348; iii. 146, 153, 162.
+——, of Ephesus, i. 268, 269.
+——, of Ephesus, temple of (the Ephesium), i. 238–240, 268, 275; iii. 11.
+—— Brauronia, ii. 90.
+—— Perasia, ii. 281.
+—— Astyrene, ii. 376, 386.
+—— Munychia, iii. 10.
+—— Leucophryēne, iii. 22.
+——, Pergæan, iii. 49.
+——, Sarpedŏnian, iii. 61.
Diana, Coloēne, ii. 403.
+—— Taurica, temple of, i. 355.
+——, Lindian, temple of, iii. 33.
+—— Daphnia, ii. 16.
+—— Elaphia, ii. 16.
+—— Amarynthia, ii. 155.
+—— Tauropola, ii. 90, 279, 281; iii. 186.
+——, temple of, ii. 16; iii. 10.
+—— Cyrrhestis, iii. 163.
+—— Nemydia (? Nemeæa), temple of, ii. 14.
+——, Eleian, ii. 24.
+—— in Limnæ (in the marshes), ii. 39.
+——, Limnæan (in Sparta), ii. 39.
+——, grove of the Ætolian, i. 320.
+—— Alpheiŏnia, Alpheiusa, ii. 16.
+—— Artemisium, Dianium.
Dianium, t. of Spain (
Dicæa, t. of Thrace, i. 515.
+Dicæarchia, city of Campania (
Dicæarchus, the geographer, i. 1, 157–159, 256.
+Dicte, mtn of Crete (
——, place near Scepsis, in the Troad, ii. 189.
+Dictynna,
Dictynnæan prom., ii. 207.
+Dictys, ii. 211.
+Dido, queen, iii. 286.
+Didyma, city of the Branchidæ, ii 120.
+——, isl. near Sicily, i. 419, 421.
+——, city of Spain, i. 254.
Didymæan mountains, iii. 22.
+Didymi, ii. 254; iii. 22.
+Diēgylis, king of the Cæni, ii. 401.
+Dindymene, mother of the gods, ii. 184, 186, 321, 331, 403; iii. 22.
+Dindymum, mtn near Pessinus, ii. 321.
+——, near Cyzicus, ii. 331.
+Diochares, gate of, at Athens, ii. 88.
+Diocles, ii. 46.
+Diodōrus, grammarian of Tarsus, iii. 59.
+——, leader of the Adramytteni, ii. 386.
+—— Zonas, the orator, ii. 405.
+——, junior, friend of Strabo, ii. 405.
+—— Cronus, the Dialectician, iii. 37, 294.
+Diodotus, the Sidonian, iii. 173.
+——, sculptor, ii. 87.
+—— Tryphōn, ii. 251; iii. 51, 165, 173.
+Diogenes, the Cynic, ii. 293; iii. 114.
+——, of Tarsus, iii. 59, 114.
+——, of Seleucia, the Babylonian Stoic, iii. 152.
+Diolcus, ii. 49, 63.
+Diomēdes, king of Argos, i. 26, 225, 320, 433, 434, 499, 515; ii. 122, 174.
+——, king of the Bistones, i. 515.
+——, plain of, i. 433.
+Diomede, islands of (
——, temple of, i. 319.
+Dion, the Syracusan, i. 380.
+——, the Academician, iii. 232.
+Dione, worshipped at Dodona, i. 503.
+Dionysides, tragic poet, iii. 59.
+Dionysius (the Elder), tyrant of Sicily, i. 316, 335, 357, 387, 392.
+—— (the Younger), i. 380, 387, 389.
+Dionysius, tyrant of Heraclæa, ii. 291.
+——, Bithynian, ii. 318.
+——, of Attica, ii. 402.
Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, the historian, iii. 35.
+——, the Thracian, iii. 34.
+——, the Syrian, iii. 163.
+Dionysocles, the orator, iii. 25.
+Dionysodorus, the mathematician, ii. 296.
+Dionysus.
Diophanes, the Mytilenæan, ii. 292.
+Diophantus, general of Mithridates, i. 471, 479.
+Dioscūri (
Dioscurias, city of Colchis (
Diospolis, city of Pontus, ii. 306.
+——, city of Egypt, iii. 240.
+——, same as Thebes, iii. 245, 261.
+——, Lesser (
Diotimus, son of Strombichus, i. 75.
+Diotrephes, the Sophist, of Antioch, ii. 409; iii. 38.
+Diphilus, comic poet, ii. 293.
+Dircæan Thebes, ii. 74.
+Dirce, ftn near Thebes, ii. 74, 103.
+——, near Phara, ii. 74.
+Ditiōnes, nation of Hungary, i. 483.
+Dium, t. of Macedonia, near Olympus, i. 507, 508, 512, 513.
+——, at Athone, i. 512, 513.
+——, t. of Eubœa, ii. 153.
+Dius, i. 399.
+——, father of Hesiod, ii. 104, 398.
+Dniester, r.
Dobera, mtn of Macedonia, i. 514.
+Docimia, t. of Phrygia, ii. 333.
+Dōdōna, city of Epirus, seat of an oracle, i. 441, 496, 501, 502, 504; ii. 42, 94, 145, 146; iii. 179.
+——, oak of, i. 504.
+Dodonæan Jove, i. 501.
+Dodone, ii. 145.
+Dcedalsus, ii. 315.
+Dolabella, Dolobella, iii. 20, 164
+Dolicha.
Doliŏnes, people of Mysia, ii. 316, 330; iii. 63, 67.
+Doliŏnis, district of Mysia, ii. 332; iii. 67.
+Dolomēnē, district of Assyria, iii. 142.
+Dolopes, Dolopians, i. 43; ii. 133, 135, 137, 141, 144, 158.
+Dolopia, ii. 132, 133, 135, 141.
+Domanītis, district of Paphlagonia, ii. 313.
+Domitius, Domētius Ænobarbus, i. 285; iii. 24.
+Domnecleius, tetrarch of Galatia, ii. 288.
+Doracta or Oaracta, an island in the Persian Gulf, iii. 188.
+Doria Baltea, r.
Doria Riparia, r.
Dorian Tetrapolis, ii. 195.
+Dorians, i. 96, 328, 404, 407; ii. 2, 3, 43, 58, 67, 81, 82, 114, 115, 125, 128, 131, 147; iii. 30, 31, 40, 43.
+Doric dialect, ii. 2, 3.
+Doricha, courtesan, iii. 250.
+Dōris, at Parnassus, ii. 55, 136.
+Doris, or Histiæotis, in Thessaly, ii. 141, 195.
+Doriscus, t. of Thrace, i. 5, 6.
+Dorium, in Messenia, ii. 23, 24.
+Dōrus, son of Hellen, ii. 67, 340.
+Dorylæum, t. of Phrygia (
Dorylaüs, the tactician, great-great-grandfather of Strabo, ii. 198, 307.
+——, son of Philetærus, ii. 198, 307.
+Dosci, a Mæotic race, ii. 223.
+Dotium, c. and plain of Thessaly, i. 96; ii. 147.
+Drabēscus, t. of Macedonia, i. 512.
+Drabus, t. of Thrace, i. 517.
Drabus (
Dracanum, t. of Icaria, iii. 36.
+Draco, companion of Ulysses, tomb of, i. 376.
+——, Python, ii. 120.
+Drangæ, people of Ariana, iii. 122, 124–126.
+Drangē, Drangianē, district of Ariana (
Drecanum, in the island of Cos, iii. 10, 36.
+Drepanum, prom. of Achaia, ii. 6.
+——, of Icaria, iii. 8, 10.
+——, of Marmara, iii. 235.
+Drilon, r. of Dalmatia (
Drium, hill in Daunia, i. 434.
+——, c. of Macedonia, i. 509.
+Dromi, iii. 245.
+Dromichætes, king of the Getæ, i. 464, 469.
+Dromos, iii. 245, 248.
+Druentia, i. 268.
+——, r. of Gaul (
Druids, Keltic priests, i. 294, 295.
+Drusus Germanicus, brother of Tiberius, i. 307, 444, 445.
+——, son of Tiberius, i. 441.
+Drymas, i. 493.
+Drymus, ii. 152.
+Drynemětum, in Galatia, ii. 320.
+Dryŏpes, people of Greece, i. 493; ii. 55, 136, 346.
+Dryopis, ii. 136.
+Dryops, ii. 55.
+Dubis, r. of Gaul (
Dulichium, island, ii. 5, 12, 162, 163, 166–170.
+Dunax, mtn of Thrace, i. 311.
+Duras, r. in the Norican Alps, i. 308.
+Durias, r. of Italy (
——, r. of Italy (
Duricortora, t. of Gaul, i. 290.
+Duris, the historian, i. 94.
+Durius, r. of Spain (
Dymæa, ii. 32.
+Dymæi, ii. 14, 74.
+Dymas, ii. 351.
+Dyme, city of Achæa, ii. 8, 12, 13– 15, 18, 19, 67, 69, 71, 74, 145, 158; iii. 46.
+Dyras, r. of Thessaly, ii. 129.
+Dyris, or Atlas, iii. 276.
+Dyrrachium, city of Illyria (
Dyspontium, city of Pisatis, ii. 32.
+Dyteutus, son of Adiatorix, ii. 308–310.
+Eastern Sea (
Ebrodunum, vill. of Gaul (
Ebura, t. of Spain, i. 211.
+Eburōnes, people of Gaul, i. 289, 290.
+Ebusus, isl. and t. (
Ecbatana (
Echedōrus, r. of Macedonia (
Echeiæ, t. of Laconia, ii. 37.
+Echinades, islands (
Echīnus, t. of Phthiotis (
Ecrēgma (mouth of the lake Sirbonis), i. 102; iii. 176.
+Edessa, city of Macedonia (
342
+Edessa, city of Syria, iii. 158.
Edōtani, people of Spain, i. 234, 235, 243.
Edōni, people of Thrace, i. 506, 514.
+Eētiōn, king of Thebes, ii. 313, 384, 394.
+Egelastæ, t. of Spain (
Egěria, ftn, i. 356.
+Egertius, founder of Chios, iii. 3.
+Egnatia, city and port of Apulia (
Egnatian Way, i. 495, 500, 506, 507, 509.
+Egra, city of Arabia, iii. 212.
+Egypt, i. 8, 15, 25, 46, 47, 49, 50, 52, 55–64, 67, 68, 79, 87, 88, 90, 91, 103, 129, 130, 134, 136, 143, 149, 150, 178, 183, 189, 197, 198, 201, 262, 274, 458, 467, 493; ii. 89, 92, 280; iii. 51, 67, 74, 81–84, 88, 90, 95, 102, 103, 190, 210, 211, 217–270, 272, 273, 275, 292–294.
+——, name of the Nile, i. 46, 56.
+——, Lower, i. 47, 103, 316; iii. 177.
+Egyptian screws, i. 221.
+—— exiles, island of the, i. 179.
+—— Sea, same as Mediterranean, i. 56, 91, 185, 189, 458; iii. 68, 142, 160, 224, 228, 266.
+Egyptians, i. 41, 49, 63–65, 155, 197, 233, 440, 456, 463; ii. 304, 308.
+——, priests of the, i. 35, 96, 154, 180, 196.
+——, island of the, i. 99.
+Eidomene, t. of Macedonia.
Eileithyia, city of Egypt, iii. 263.
+Eilesium, ii. 196.
+Eïones, vill. of Argolis, ii. 54, 55, 58.
+Eisadici, ii. 239.
+Ela.
Elæa, t. of Mysia (
——, port on the Arabian Gulf, iii. 196.
+Elæussa, isl. and t. of Cilicia (
Elaitic Gulf, ii. 339, 376, 387, 388, 397, 400.
+Elaïtis, ii. 326, 389.
+Elara, mother of Tityus, ii. 123.
+Elarium, cave in Eubœa, ii. ]23.
+Elateia, t. of Phocis (
Elatria, t. of the Cassopæi, i. 497.
+Elea, Velia, city of Lucania, i. 375; ii. 145, 155.
+Eleātis, i. 376.
+Electrides, islands, i. 320.
+Eleēs, r. of Lucania (
Eleia, ii. 7–9, 12, 13, 25–27, 30, 31, 33, 45, 74, 347.
+Eleian territory, ii. 7, 35, 45, 67, 74.
+Eleians, ii. 3, 8, 9, 12–14, 26–28, 30, 31, 34, 39, 176, 177.
+——, philosophers of, ii. 83.
+Eleithyia, temple of, ii. 196.
+Eleon, ii. 106, 143.
+Elephantina, isl., iii. 220, 243, 258, 263–266.
+Elephantophagi, iii. 197.
+Elephas, mtn of Mauritania, iii. 279.
+Elephas, mtn of Ethiopia (
Eleus, city of Thrace, i. 517, 518.
Eleusiniac Gulf, ii. 63.
+Eleusis, city and village of Attica, ii. 81, 83, 84, 86, 88.
+——, t. of Bœotia, ii. 101.
+——, t. of Egypt, iii. 237, 238.
+Eleüssa, or Elisa, isl. near Attica, ii. 89.
+——, near Rhodes (
Eleutheræ, city of Bœotia, ii. 57, 108.
+Eleutherius, the Eleutherian, ii. 108.
+Eleutherus, r. of Syria, iii. 167, 169.
+Elian district, ii. 74.
+Elimia, i. 500.
+Elimiotæ, ii. 137.
+Elis, i. 502; ii. 5, 7, 8–10, 12–15, 17–19, 25, 27, 28, 31–33, 45, 73, 77, 122, 126, 156, 162, 167, 169, 170, 176, 177.
+——, Cœlē,
Elisa, modern name of Eleüssa.
+Elisson, or Elissa, r., ii. 9.
+Elixus, ii. 210.
+Ellopia, ii. 152, 153.
+Ellopians, ii. 152, 153.
+Ellops, ii. 152.
+Elōne, t. of Thessaly, ii. 143, 145.
+Elpiæ, city of the Daunii, iii. 32.
+Elui, people of Gaul (
Elymæa, Elymaïs, district of Persis, ii. 264; iii. 153, 154.
+Elymæi, ii. 261, 264; iii. 135, 142, 146.
+Elymus, Trojan, ii. 378.
+Elysian Fields, in Spain, i. 3, 62, 225.
+Emathia, district of Macedonia, i. 41, 506.
+——, city of Macedonia, i. 506.
+Emathoeis, Emathois, same as Pylus, ii. 7, 11, 16.
+Emerita.
Emesēni, people of Syria, iii. 166.
+Emōdi mtns, ii. 245; iii. 91, 118.
+Emodus, iii. 78.
+Empodocles, philosopher, i. 414, 418; ii. 42.
+Emporicus, bay, on the Mauritanian shore, iii. 276, 277.
+Emporītæ, in Spain, i. 240.
+Emporium, t. of Spain (
——, of Alexandria, iii. 230.
+——, of Medma, i. 383.
+——, of the Segestani (
Enchelii, people of Epirus, i. 500.
+Enděra, city of Ethiopia, iii. 196.
+Endymiōn, father of Ætolus, ii. 176; iii. 6.
+Enea (
Eneta.
Eneti, people of Paphlagonia, i. 316.
Enicŏniæ, t. of Corsica, i. 333.
+Enienes, ii. 145.
+Enipeus, r. of Pisatis, ii. 32.
+——, r. of Thessaly (
Enispe, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.
+Enna, t. of Sicily (
Ennea-Hodoi, t. of Macedonia, i. 513.
+Ennius, the poet, i. 429.
+Enŏpe, t. of Messenia, ii. 35, 37.
+Enops, ii. 394.
+Enotocoitæ, iii. 107.
+Enydra, t. of Syria (
Enyus (Bellona), temple of, ii. 279.
+Eordi, people of Macedonia, i. 495, 500.
+Epacria, t. of Attica, ii. 88.
+Epaminondas, ii. 75, 92, 111.
+Epaphus, ii. 152.
Epeius, i. 397; ii. 122.
+Ephesians, ii. 284; iii. 3, 10.
+Ephesium, the.
Ephesus, city of Ionia, i. 268; ii. 73, 237, 298, 299, 333, 396; iii. 1–4, 10, 11, 14, 15, 21, 22, 43.
+Ephialtes, traitor, i. 17.
+——, i. 29.
+Ephorus, i. 1, 51, 52, 207, 296, 328, 329, 363, 388, 390, 394, 399, 402, 403, 407, 425, 449, 464, 465, 469, 499, 501; ii. 1, 3, 33, 38, 42, 44, 55, 58, 77, 92, 93, 120, 127, 162, 174, 176, 177, 196, 197, 200, 201, 204, 291, 298, 299, 341, 366, 398, 399; iii. 4, 62–65.
+Ephyra, t. of Elis, i. 502; ii. 9, 10, 52.
+——, t. of Epirus, i. 497.
+——, t. of Thesprotia, i. 502; ii. 9, 10, 149.
+——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 9, 10.
+——, t. of Perrhæbia, ii. 10.
+——, vill. of Ætolia, ii. 9, 10.
Ephyri, i. 507; ii. 10, 147.
+——, Thesprotic, ii. 10.
+Epicarus.
Epicharmus, poet, ii. 42.
+Epicnemidii.
Epicteti, in Phrygia, ii. 314, 330, 402.
+Epictetus, Ætolia, ii. 159, 172.
+——, Phrygia, ii. 277, 289, 315, 316, 332.
+Epicurus, philosopher, ii. 350; iii. 9.
+Epidamnus, city of Illyria (
Epidanus (
Epidaphne (
Epidaurian territory, ii. 47, 75.
+Epidaurii, Epidaurians, ii. 58.
+Epidaurus, city of Argolis (
——, Limēra, t. of Laconia, ii. 48.
+Epigoni, expedition of the, i. 499; ii. 93, 109, 111, 174.
+Epii, people of Elis, ii. 7–10, 12, 13, 15, 18, 25–28, 30, 33, 167, 176.
+Epimenides, of Crete, ii. 200.
+Epirōtæ, i. 493, 495, 498–500, 506; ii. 2, 128, 131, 137; iii. 297.
+Epirotic nations, i. 495, 496, 516; ii. 2, 3, 114, 131.
+Epirus, i. 186, 187, 194, 329, 429, 432, 481, 496, 497, 501, 506; ii. 161, 163, 164, 174, 183; iii. 297.
+Episarosis, a religious rite, ii. 82.
+Epistrophus, leader of the Halizoni, ii. 297–299, 343, 384, 394.
+Epitalium, t. of Triphylia, ii. 16, 23, 24.
+Epitimæus.
Epizephyrii, ii. 128.
+Epōmeus, Mount, i. 369.
+Eporědia (
Eræ, t. of Ionia (
Erana, t. of Messenia, ii. 22, 37.
+Erannoboas (
Erasīnus, Arsīnus, r. of Argolis, i. 416; ii. 52, 76.
+Erasistratus, physician of Ceos, ii. 210, 337.
+Erastus, the Scepsian, ii. 378.
+Eratosthenes, i. 1, 9, 12, 13, 22–26, 28, 29, 33–36, 38, 39, 42, 43, 45, 61, 70, 74, 77, 80, 84–88, 97, 98, 100, 103–110, 114, 117–120, 122–135, 138–142, 144, 147, 457, 158, 161, 163, 164, 171, 185, 189, 190, 199, 202, 203, 239, 255, 256, 332, 457, 460, 462, 487; ii. 70, 76, 195, 240, 243, 244, 248, 261, 271 iii. 44, 70, 71, 75, 78, 79, 84, 124, 130, 149–151, 156, 183, 186, 188, 189, 192, 208, 220, 276, 281, 293.
+Eratyra, t. of Macedonia, i. 50.
+Erechtheus, ii. 67.
+Erembi, i. 2, 41, 46, 60, 66, 67, iii. 215.
+Eremni, iii. 216.
Eressus t. of Lesbos (
Eretria, city of Eubœa (
——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 136, 154.
+——, vill. of Attica (
Eretrici, a sect of philosophers, ii. 82, 156.
+Eretrieis, Eretrians, i. 368; ii. 152, 155.
+Eretrieus, founder of Eretria, ii. 155.
+Erētum, t. of the Sabines, i. 338, 339, 354.
+Erginus, king of the Orchomenii, ii. 112.
+Ericthonius, ii. 374.
+Ericūssa, Ericōdes, one of the Æolian islands, i. 419, 421.
+Eridanus, r. of Attica, i. 320; ii. 88.
+Erigōn, r. of Macedonia, i. 501, 506, 508, 509.
+——, r. of Thrace, i. 516.
+Erineum, ii. 39, 195.
+Erineus, t. of Doris, ii. 128, 361, 363.
+——, of Phthiotis, ii. 136.
+Erōs, a work of Praxiteles, ii. 105.
+Erymanthus, r. of Arcadia, ii. 15, 33.
+Erymnæ, t. of Magnesia, ii. 148.
+Eryschæi, people of Ætolia, ii. 172.
+Erythia, isl., i. 222, 223, 254, 406.
+Erythīni, Erythrīni rocks, ii. 288, 291.
+Erythræ, t. of Bœotia, ii. 97, 104, 106.
+——, of Ionia (
Erythræan Sea (
—— Gulf, i. 87.
+Erythræans, ii. 349, 350, 386; iii. 17, 18.
+Erythras, iii. 187, 208.
+Eryx, mtn of Sicily, i. 378, 412, 413, 378.
+——, t. of Sicily, i. 412; ii. 378.
+Esioneis, Asioneis, ii. 405.
+Esōpis, mtn (
Esquiline hill, i. 348.
+—— plain, i. 352.
+—— gate, i. 348, 352.
+Estiōnes, people of the Vindelici, i. 307.
+Eteocles, king of Orchomenus, ii. 112.
+Eteocrētans, people of Crete, ii. 195, 199.
+Eteōnus, t. of Bœotia, i. 457; ii. 103, 104.
+Ethiopia, Æthiopia, i. 2, 4, 13, 15, 32, 46–54, 60, 64, 67, 68, 96, 97, 100, 111, 130, 142, 148, 153, 177, 178, 197, 274, 458; ii. 257, 304; iii. 81–86, 88, 190, 191, 207, 210, 217, 220, 222, 224, 233, 235, 250, 257, 263, 265, 269–275, 282, 290, 295.
+Ethiopian zone, i. 147.
+Ethiopians, i. 3, 16, 25, 41, 47–55, 60, 62–67, 143, 151, 155, 156, 181, 196, 197, 458, 462; iii. 296.
+——, Western, i. 3, 153, 236.
+——, Egyptian, i. 54, 156.
+——, of Libya, i. 155.
+Etrusci.
Euæmōn, son of Ormenus, ii. 142.
+Euanthes, leads a colony to Locris, i. 388.
+Eubœa, isl. (
——, t. of Eubœa, ii. 32.
+——, t. of Sicily, i. 404, 412; ii. 158.
Eubœa, t. of Macedonia, ii. 158.
+—— in Lemnos, ii. 158.
+—— in Corcyra, ii. 158.
+——, a hill in Argolis, ii. 158.
+Eubœan Sea, ii. 92, 124.
+—— talent, i. 221.
+Eucarpia, t. of Phrygia, ii. 332.
+Euclides, ii. 82.
+Eucratidas, king of the Bactrians, ii. 251, 253; iii. 74.
+Eucratidia, city of the Bactrians, ii. 253.
+Eudeielus,
Eudēmus, Rhodian, iii. 33.
+Eudorus, iii. 225, 226.
+Eudoxus of Cyzicus, i. 1, 149–153, 156, 180, 517; ii. 61, 78, 79.
+——, mathematician, of Cnidus, ii. 110, 177, 193, 298, 340, iii. 34, 246, 247.
+Euergetæ, people of Ariana, iii. 126.
+Euergetes.
Euhēmerus, Messenian, i. 74, 154, 157, 158, 459.
+Eulæus, r. of Susiana, iii. 131, 140.
+Eumæus, ii. 364.
+Eumēdes, founder of Ptolemaïs, iii. 194.
+Eumēlus, son of Admētus, i. 72; ii. 139, 143, 146, 148.
+Eumeneia, city of Phrygia (
Eumenes, brother of Philetaerus, ii. 400.
+——, son of Eumenes, ii. 400.
+——, son of Attalus, ii. 281, 333, 400; iii. 46, 55.
+——, grove of, iii. 197.
+——, harbour of, iii. 198.
+Eumolpus, Thracian, i. 493; ii. 67, 187.
+Eunēos, son of Jason, i. 66, 71, 73.
+Eunomia, elegy of Tyrtæus, ii. 39.
+Eunomus, i. 390, 391.
+Eunostus, harbour of, near Alexandria, iii. 227, 230.
+Eunus, i. 412, 413.
+Euōnymus, one of the Lipari islands, i. 420.
+Eupalium, ii. 128, 159.
+Eupator.
Eupatŏria, t. of Pontus,
Eupatŏrium, t. of the Tauric Chersonnesus, i. 479.
+Euphŏriōn, poet, ii. 42, 318; iii. 67.
+Euphrantas, tower, iii. 290.
+Euphrates(
Euphrŏnius, poet, ii. 66.
+Eureïs, r. of Mysia, ii. 190.
+Euripides, tragic poet, i. 52, 274, 329; ii. 32, 45, 52, 60, 62, 185, 189, 389, 390; iii. 20, 53, 75.
+Euripus, ii. 92, 96.
+——, Chalcidian, i. 17, 57, 94; ii. 96, 130, 148, 151, 154.
+——, Pyrrhæan, ii. 391.
+Eurōmus, t. of Caria, iii. 6, 37.
+Europe, i. 22, 52, 78, 88, 103, 140, 157–164, 183, 188, 191–194, 205, 206, 303, 442, 453, 464, 477, 480, 490, 505, 517; ii. 1, 4,
Europeans, ii. 240.
+Eurōpus, city of Media, ii. 264.
+——, same as Rhaga, ii. 284.
+——, city of Macedonia, i. 501.
+——, r. of Thessaly, i. 501, 507.
+Eurōtas, r. of Laconia (
Eurus (south-east wind), i. 45.
+Eurycleia, iii. 13.
+Eurycles, leader of the Lacedæmonians, ii. 41, 44.
+Eurycydeium, grove, in Elis, ii. 19.
+Eurydice, mother of Philip, i. 500.
+Eurylochus, ii. 83.
+——, Thessalian, ii. 116, 120.
+Eurymachus, ii. 173.
Eurymedōn, leader of the Athenians, ii. 35.
+——, r. of Pamphylia (
Eurypōn, son of Procles, ii. 44.
+Eurypōntidæ, ii. 44.
+Eurypylus, son of Euæmon, ii. 134, 136, 138, 142, 143.
+——, son of Telephus, ii. 343, 345, 389, 395.
+Eurysthenes, brother of Procles, ii. 42–44, 77.
+Eurysthěnidæ, ii. 44.
+Eurystheus, king of Mycenæ, ii. 59.
+Eurystheus's-head, ii. 59.
+Eurytānes, people of Ætolia, ii. 156, 160, 179.
+Eurytus, ii. 10, 11, 23, 24, 142; iii. 10.
+Eusebeia, ii. 281, 282.
Euthydēmus, king of the Bactrians, ii. 251, 253.
+——, orator, iii. 38, 39.
+Euthymus, i. 381.
+Eutresis, ii. 106.
+Euxine, i. 8, 31, 32, 68, 75, 76, 78 -81, 84, 86, 89, 95, 96, 102, 106, 113, 139, 163, 177, 183, 188–190, 193–195, 202, 245, 440, 442, 443, 451, 452, 467, 474, 476, 481, 491, 492, 496, 506; ii. 216, 218, 221, 226, 227, 231, 238, 240, 243, 246, 270, 273, 276, 277, 282, 286, 290, 295; iii. 1, 61, 63, 64, 142, 186.
Euxynthetus, ii. 199.
+Evander, i. 343.
+Evenus, r. of Ætolia (
—— r. of Mysia, ii. 387.
+Exitani, city of the, in Bætica, i. 235, 255.
+Exterior Sea.
Fabius, the historian, i. 339.
+—— Maximus, i. 424.
+Fabrateria (
Falerium (
Falernian wine, i. 347, 361.
+Falisci, i. 335.
+Faliscum, i. 335.
+Fanum Fortune (
Faustulus, i. 340.
+Faventia, c. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Ferentīnum, t. of Etruria, i. 335.
+——, t. of Latium (
Feronia, t. of Etruria, i. 336.
+Festi, i. 341.
+Fidēnæ, i. 335, 341.
+Fimbrias, ii. 356.
+Firmum Picenum (
Fiumesino. See Æsis.
+Flaminia Via, in Italy, i. 323, 336, 337.
+Flaminius, Caius, consul, i. 323.
+——, Titus, proprietor of Sicily, i. 421.
+Formiæ, t. of Latium (
Fortune, temple of, i. 354, 370.
+Fortunate Islands.
Foruli, i. 338.
+Forum Julium, t. of Gaul (
—— Vulcani (
—— Cornelium, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (
—— Flaminium, t. of Umbria, i. 337.
+—— Semprōnium, t. of Umbria (
Fregellæ, t. of Latium (
Fregēna, t. of Etruria (
Frentani, people of Italy, i. 358–360, 432, 436.
+Frozen Sea, i. 99.
+Frūsino, c. of Latium (
Fucinus, Lake, i. 356.
+Fugitives, t. of, i. 73.
+Fundi, t. of Latium, i. 347.
+Furies, the, i. 262.
+Gabæ, city of Persis, iii. 131.
+Gabala, city of Syria, iii. 167.
+Gabales, a people of Aquitania, i. 284.
+Gabianē, a province of Elymais, iii. 154.
+Gabii, t. of Latium (
Gabinius, historian, iii. 281.
+——, consul, ii. 308; iii. 232.
+Gabreta, forest of Germany, i. 448.
+Gadara, t. of Judæa, iii. 175.
+Gadaris (
Gades, Gadeira (
——, Gates of, i. 256, 258.
+Gadilōn (
Gadilonītis, ii. 294.
+Gaditanians, i. 212, 213, 255, 260.
+Gæsatæ, people of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 317, 322.
+Gætuli, people of Libya, i. 198; iii. 276, 282, 289, 294.
+Galabrii, people of Illyria, i. 485.
+Galactophagi, i. 453, 458, 461, 465, 479; ii. 304.
+Galatæ (
Cisalpine, i. 313.
+Galatæ, Scordisci, i. 482.
+——, Alabroges, iii. 184.
+Galatia, part of Phrygia, i. 195; ii. 310, 319–321.
+Galatians, ii. 282–284, 286, 290, 293, 294, 310, 319, 320, 329, 355; iii. 297.
+Galatic or Gallic race, i. 282, 283, 291, 443.
+—— or Celtic Gulf (
—— (
Galēpsus, t. of Macedonia, i. 512, 513, 515.
+Galilee, district of Judæa, iii. 177, 181.
+Gallesius, mtn of Ionia, iii. 15.
+Gallia Cispadana.
Gallicians, the, i. 228, 229, 233, 243, 246, 250; iii. 63, 65.
+Gallinarian Wood, in Campania (
Gallo-Græcia, i. 195.
+Gallus, r. of Phrygia, ii. 289.
Gamabrivi, people of Germany, i. 445.
+Gambarus, prince of Syria, iii. 167.
+Gandaris, district of India, iii. 92.
+Gandarītis, district of India, iii. 89.
+Ganges, r. of India, iii. 74, 79, 80, 90, 96, 97, 108, 117, 118.
+Gangitis, iii. 157.
+Gangra, ii. 314.
+Ganymede, ii. 347.
+Garamantes, a people of Libya, i. 198; iii. 289, 294, 295.
+Garescus, t. of Macedonia, i. 509, 514.
+Gargara, t. of the Troad, ii. 342, 375, 376, 382, 384.
+Garganum, mtn of Italy (
Gargareis, Gargarenses, inhabitants of the Gargari, ii.
+——, people of the Caucasus, ii. 235, 236.
+Gargaris, ii. 381.
+Gargarum, peak of Mount Ida, i. 64; ii. 342.
+Gargasus, son of Cypselus.
Gargettus, vill. of Attica, ii. 59.
+Garindæi, a people of Arabia, iii. 204.
+Garmānes, philosophers of India, iii. 109, 110.
+Garsaurītis, province of Cappadocia, ii. 278.
+Garsavira, vill. of Cappadocia (
Garuna (
Gasterocheires, ii. 54.
+Gasys, ii. 302.
+Gaudus, island (
Gaugamēla, village of Aturia (
Gaul, i. 192, 264–296, 439.
Gaul, Cisalpine, i. 287, 324, 357.
+——, Transalpine, i. 264.
+Gauls, the, i. 292–294.
+Gaza, city of Judæa, iii. 171, 176, 191.
+Gazaka, city of Media, ii. 263.
+Gazacene, district of Pontus, ii. 302.
+Gazæans, iii. 160.
+Gazaluītis, district of Pontus, ii. 302.
+Gazelonītis, ii. 311.
+Gaziūra, t. of Pontus (
Gedrosia, i. 196, 197; iii. 74, 121, 128, 156, 190.
+Gedrosia, Upper, i. 201.
+Gedrosii, Gedroseni, people of Ariana, iii. 124, 125.
+Geira,
Gěla, city of Sicily, i. 412.
+Gēlæ, ii. 235, 241, 245.
+Geloi, i. 411.
+Gelōn, tyrant of Syracuse, i. 149; ii. 158.
+Genabum (
Genauni, people of Illyria, i. 306.
+Genētes, prom. and river of Pontus (
Gennesarītis, lake and district of Judæa, iii. 169.
+Genoa, i. 300–302, 314, 322, 323.
+Georgi, i. 479; ii. 219.
+Gephyra, Gephyrismi, in Attica, ii. 91.
+Gephyræans, ii. 96.
Geræstus, t. and prom. of Eubœa (
Geranius, r. of Elis, ii. 11.
+Gerēna, Gerēnia, city of Messenia, i. 459; ii. 12, 28, 36, 37.
+Gerenius, epithet of Nestor, ii. 11, 36.
+Gerēnus, a place in Elis, ii. 11.
+Geres, a Bœotian, iii. 2.
+Gergitha, t. of the Troad, ii. 350, 390.
+——, vill. near the sources of the Caïcus, ii. 390.
+Gergitheis, t. of Cymæa, ii. 350.
+Gergithium, a place near Lampsacus, ii. 350.
+——, in Cymæa, ii. 350.
+Gergithius, Cephalon, the, ii. 350.
+Gergovia, city of the Arverni, i. 285.
+German tribes, i. 445.
+German war, i. 289.
+Germanicus, son of Tiberius, i. 441, 446.
+Germans, i. 18, 177, 287, 288, 292, 307, 439, 443, 451, 468, 470, 481.
+Germany, i. 22, 110, 141, 193, 292, 442, 443, 451, 452, 467, 471, 481.
Gerræi, iii. 191, 204, 207.
+Gerræidæ, port of the Teii, iii. 17.
+Gerrha, t. of Egypt, i. 79, 87; iii. 177.
+——, t. of Arabia, iii. 186, 187.
+Gerōn, r, of Elis, ii. 11.
+Gēryon, i. 33, 225, 254, 255, 313, 364.
+Gezatorix, prince of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.
+Getæ, i. 141, 177, 193, 445, 452–457, 461, 463, 464, 466–470, 481; iii. 180.
+——, desert of the, i. 468, 469.
+Gibraltar, Strait of, i. 62.
+——
Gigartus, a fortress of Syria, iii. 170.
+Gindarus, t. of Syria, iii. 163.
+Glaucias, tyrant, ii. 368.
+Glaucōpium, citadel of Athens, i. 460.
+Glaucus, the Anthedonian, ii. 98.
+—— Pontius, play of Æschylus, ii. 155.
+——, of Potniæ, ii. 103.
+——, r. of Colchis (
——, bay of Caria, iii. 28.
+Glechon, ii. 124.
+Glissas, t. of Bœotia, ii. 107, 108.
+Glycera, courtesan, ii. 105.
+Glycys-Limen, bay and port of Epirus, i. 497.
+Gōgarene, distr. of Armenia, ii. 268, 269.
+Gomphi, t. of Thessaly, ii. 141.
+Gonnus, t. of Thessaly, ii. 145.
+Gonoessa, ii. 59.
+Gorbeüs, t. of Phrygia, ii. 321.
+Gordium, t. of Phrygia (
Gordius, king of Phrygia, ii. 321.
+Gordus, place in the Troad, ii. 371.
+Gordyæa, Gordyene, a province of Armenia, i. 123; ii. 268; iii. 146, 156, 157, 162.
+Gordyæan mountains, i. 124; ii. 261.
+Gordyæi, people of Mesopotamia (
Gordyæus, prince of the Gordyæi, ii. 274.
+Gordys, son of Triptolemus, iii. 153, 162.
+Gorgipia, city of the Sindi, ii. 223, 224.
+Gorgons, Gorgo, i. 29, 33, 459; ii. 211.
+——, Gorgon's Head, the, ii. 62, 211.
+Gorgus, son of Cypselus, i. 498; ii. 161.
——, the miner, iii. 93.
+Gortyna, city of Crete (
Gortynii, ii. 197, 202.
+Gortynium, city of Macedonia, i 504.
+Gorys, t. of India, iii. 89.
+Gracchus, Tiberius, i. 244.
+Graces, temple of the, ii. 112.
+Græcia, Magna, i. 377.
+Græa, Graia, t. of Bœotia, ii. 58, 96, 106.
+Granicus, r. of Mysia (
Gras, son of Penthilus, ii. 340.
+Gravisci, t. of Etruria, i. 335.
+Grecian cities, i. 350.
+—— nations, i. 372; ii. 3.
+—— shore, the, i. 9.
+—— territories, i. 43.
+Grecians, i. 256, 282.
+Greece, i. 17, 24, 28, 40, 77, 90 94, 96, 103, 164, 188, 194, 311, 316, 328, 329, 345, 366, 431, 432,
Greek language, i. 149.
+—— tribes, ii. 2.
+—— cities, i. 393.
+—— states, i. 427.
+—— laws, i. 240.
+—— dialects, ii. 2.
+—— literature, i. 271.
+Greeks, i. 16, 49, 51, 54, 57, 67, 70, 73, 77, 102, 104, 191, 192, 194, 224, 232, 233, 237, 240, 249, 274, 296, 302, 317, 326, 328, 330, 345, 350, 360, 372, 377, 378, 392, 394–396, 403, 407, 408, 411, 422, 427, 439, 450, 453, 462, 463, 468, 478, 492, 496, 498, 505, 514; ii. 33, 43, 44, 50, 54, 55, 132, 134, 158, 169, 172, 174, 182–184; iii. 40–43, 110, 114.
+——, Italian, i. 376, 377, 433; ii. 68.
+Grium, mtn of Caria, iii. 6.
+Grūmentum, t. of Lucania, i. 379.
+Gryllus, ii. 95.
+Gryneus, name of Apollo, ii. 393.
+Grynium, city of Æolis, ii. 397.
+Guranii, a people of Armenia, ii. 273.
+Gutōnes, i. 444.
+Gyarus, island (
Gygæa, a lake of Lydia, afterwards Coloe, ii. 403.
+Gygas, prom. of the Troad, ii. 352.
+Gyges, king of the Lydians, ii. 119, 351; iii. 66.
+Gymnesian or Balearic islands (
Gymnetæ, iii. 117.
+Gymnosophists, Indian philosophers, iii. 180.
+Gynæcopolis, t. of Egypt, iii. 241.
+Gynæcopolite nome, iii. 241.
+Gyrtōn, Gyrtōne, city of Thessaly (
Gyrtōnii, Gyrtonians, i. 507; ii. 147.
+Gythium, t. of Laconia, ii. 15, 41.
+Hades, i. 31, 33, 223–225; ii. 17, 41, 51; iii. 110, 111.
+Hadylium, ii. 123, 124.
+Hæmon.
Hæmin, father of Thessalus, ii. 149.
+——, father of Oxylus, ii. 176.
+Hæmŏnia, ancient name of Thessaly, i. 73; ii. 149.
+Hæmus, mtn of Thrace (
Halæ, t. of Bœotia, ii. 98, 125.
+——, in Attica, ii. 98.
+——, Araphenides, ii. 90, 153.
+——, Æxoneis, ii. 89.
+Halesian plain, ii. 374.
+Halex, r. (
Haliacmon, r. in Macedonia (
Haliartia, ii. 107.
+Haliartus, city of Bœotia, i. 25, 457; ii. 101, 106–109.
+Halicarnassus, ii. 56, 374; iii. 5, 30, 34, 35.
+Halieis, ii. 54.
+Halimusii, ii. 89.
+Halisarna, iii. 36.
+Halius, ii. 135.
+Halizoni, Halizones, ii. 297, 299, 300, 371; iii. 63–66.
+Halonnesus, ii. 140, 393; iii. 18.
+Halys (
Halys, Phthiotic, ii. 135.
+Hamaxitus, ii. 145, 373–375, 385, 395.
+Hamaxœci, i. 191, 453, 461; ii. 219.
+Hannibal, i. 238, 239, 311, 321, 323, 336, 364, 370, 373, 374, 381,
+382, 428, 436, 439.
+Harma, vill. of Bœotia, ii. 97, 99, 106.
+——, t. of Attica, ii. 96, 97.
+Harmatus, prom. of Æolia, ii. 397.
+Harmonia, i. 73, 500.
+Harmozi, prom. of Carmania, iii. 186.
+Harpagīa, t. of Mysia, ii. 347.
+Harpagus, general of Cyrus, i. 376.
+Harpalus, iii. 292.
+Harpies, the, i. 465.
+Harpina, t. of Pisatis, ii. 32.
+Hebe, Dia, ii. 66.
+Hěbrus, r. of Thrace (
Hecatæus, the Milesian, i. 1, 12, 13, 28, 410, 459, 486, 492; ii. 13, 299, 300, 302; iii. 5, 6.
+——, of Teïos or Abdera, iii. 17.
+Hecate, ii. 183, 189; iii. 39.
+Hecaterus, ii. 188.
+Hecatomnus, king of Caria, iii. 35, 38.
+Hecatompolis, ii. 40.
+Hecatompylos, city of the Parthians, ii. 249, 250.
+Hecatonnesi,
Hecatos, name of Apollo, ii. 393.
+Hector, i. 64; ii. 344, 356, 357, 360, 363, 365, 394, 395.
+Hecuba, ii. 168, 351.
+Hecuba's monument i. 517.
+Hēdylus, poet, iii. 69
+Hēdyphōn, r. of Baby on, iii. 154.
+Hegesianax, historian, ii. 355.
+Hegesias, orator, ii. 86; iii. 23.
+Heilěsium, t. of Bœotia, ii. 100.
+Heilotæ.
Heleii, ii. 43; iii. 195.
+Helen, i. 65, 274; ii. 52, 86, 90, 360; iii. 238.
+—— Claimed, play of Sophocles, iii. 15.
+Helena (
Helēne, isl.
Heleōn, vill. of Tanagria, ii. 98–100, 143.
+Heliadæ, sons of the Sun, iii. 32.
+Heliades, drs of the Sun, i. 320.
+Helice, city of Achæa, i. 92; ii. 59, 69–73.
+——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 71.
+Helicon, mtn of B$eotia (
Helius, son of Perseus, ii. 41.
+Heliopolis, city of Syria, iii. 166.
+——, city of Egypt, iii. 241, 245–247.
+Heliopolītæ, iii. 21.
+Heliopolite nome, iii. 245.
+Hella, strait, i. 519.
+Hellanicus, historian of Lesbos, i. 69; ii. 44, 127, 167, 241, 298, 368, 382, 393.
+Hellas.
——, city of Phthiotis, ii. 133 134.
+——, Southern Thessaly, ii. 149.
+Hellen, son of Deucalion, ii. 67, 131, 149. Hellenes.
——, t. of Spain, i. 236.
+Hellespont (
——, mouth of, ii. 352
+Hellespontia, ii. 277.
+Hellespontiac Phrygia.
Helli, inhabitants of Dodona, i. 502.
+Hellŏpia, district adjacent to Dodona, i. 502.
+——, same as Eubœa, ii. 152.
+——, t. of Eubœa, ii. 152.
+Helos, t. of Laconia, ii. 15, 23, 24, 41, 43, 100
Hělos, in Triphylia or Messenia, ii. 23, 24, 100.
+Helots, ii. 43, 44, 287; iii. 96.
+Helvetii (
Hēmeroscopium, city of Spain (
Hemicynes, i. 68, 458.
+Heneta, ii. 289, 302.
+Henēti, people of Italy (
Henetian horses, i. 316.
+Henetica, the Venetian territory, i. 483; ii. 378.
+Hēniochi, people of Asia, i. 195; ii. 219, 224, 225, 238; iii. 296.
+Hēniochia, ii. 224.
+Heorta, t. of the Scordisci, i. 488.
+Hephæsteium, iii. 248.
+Hēphæstus.
Heptacōmētæ, people of Pontus, ii. 296, 297.
+Heptaporus, r. of Mysia, ii. 304, 341, 347, 357, 371.
+Heptastadium, on the Hellespont, ii. 352.
+——, between Alexandria and Pharus, iii. 227, 230.
+Hēra.
Heraclæa, city of Magna Grecia, i. 397, 398, 427, 428.
+——, city of Elis, ii. 32.
+——, city of Media, ii. 250, 264.
+——, city of Pontus (
——, city of the Mytilenæans, in the Troad, ii. 376.
+——, city of Ionia, iii. 6.
+——, city of Caria, iii. 37.
+——, city of Syria, iii. 163, 164
+——, city of Thessaly, i. 94; ii. 32, 77, 103, 129, 130, 136, 147.
+——, city of Spain,
Heraclæa, poem of Pisander, iii. 34, 78.
+Heraclæum (
Heracleia, i. 495, 514.
+Heracleidæ, i. 407; ii. 3, 30, 33, 35, 39, 42, 43, 45, 53, 56, 59, 68, 70, 77, 81, 82, 127, 128, 160, 340; iii. 31.
+Heracleides, of Pontus, philosopher, i. 149, 152; ii. 285, 374.
+——, physician, iii. 18.
+Heracleōn, father of Dionysius, iii. 163.
+Heracleotæ, in the Tauric Chersonnesus, i. 474, 490.
+——, in Egypt, iii. 257.
+Heracleōtic mouth, i. 130.
+—— nome, iii. 223, 253, 256.
+Heracleōtis, district of Ionia, iii. 15.
+Hēracles.
Heracleum, t. of Campania, i. 366.
+——, t. of Sicily, i. 401.
+——, t. on the Mæotis, ii. 222.
+——, t. of Syria, iii. 163, 167.
+——, t. of Cyrenæa, iii. 294.
+——, t. of Crete (
——, t. of Egypt, iii. 238, 256.
+——, prom. of Italy, i. 388.
+——, prom. of Pontus, ii. 296.
+Heraclitus, Ephesian philosopher, i. 5; iii. 14, 215.
+——, poet of Halicarnassus, iii. 35.
+Heræa, t. of Arcadia, ii. 8, 75.
+Heræum, temple of Juno at Mycenæ, ii. 48.
+—— at Samos, iii. 7.
+——, in the Lacinian promontory, i. 393.
+——, at Prosymnæ, ii. 54.
+——, Phaygis, ii. 12.
——Ipoctonus, ii. 386.
+——Cornŏpiōn, ii. 386.
+——, Macistian, ii. 22.
+——, work of Lysippus, i. 424; ii. 171.
+——, of Myron, iii. 8.
+——, picture of Aristides, ii. 64.
+——, labours of, i. 30, 40, 254; ii. 171; iii. 172.
+——, expedition of, i. 255, 256.
+——, children of, i. 333; ii. 59.
+——, descendants of, i. 326.
+——, companions of, ii. 315.
+——, Pillars of.
——, temple, i. 254, 256, 258, 261, 353; iii. 238.
+——, island, i. 255, 239.
+——, harbour and grove of, ii. 171.
+——, Colossus of, i. 424.
+——, altar, iii. 277.
+——,warm-baths, ii. 125, 129.
+——, city, iii. 256.
+——, port of, Herculis Portus (
Herculeum Promontorium, i. 388.
+Hercynia, forest of (
Herdōnia, t. of Apulia (
Hermæa, t. on the Carthaginian coast, iii. 288.
+——, prom. (
Hermagoras, rhetorician, ii. 397.
+Hermeia, images of Mercury, ii. 16.
+Hermeias, tyrant of the Atarnitæ, ii. 382, 387.
+Hermes, i. 67; iii. 119.
+Hermion, ii. 71.
+Hermione, city of Argolis (
Hermionenses, ii. 54.
+Hermionic Gulf (
—— promontory, ii. 207.
+Hermocreōn, architect, ii. 348.
+Hermodorus, Ephesian, iii. 14.
+Hermon, city of, ii. 55.
+Hermonassa, t. of Pontus (
——, on the lake Corocondametis, ii. 223.
+Hermōnax, vill. of (
Hermonduri, people of Germany, i. 445.
+Hermōnthis, city of Egypt, iii. 263.
+Hermopolis, in Egypt, iii. 239, 241, 257.
+Hermopolite castle, iii. 258.
+Hermus, r. of Lydia, (
——, plain of, ii. 402, 403; iii. 82.
+Hernici, people of Latium, i. 339, 343, 344, 353.
+Hero, tower of, ii. 352.
+Herod, king of Judæa, iii. 177, 184
+Herodotus of Halicarnassus, i. 47, 56, 69, 97, 148, 152, 430, 462, 517; ii. 155, 190, 211, 273, 275, 277, 280, 290, 298, 328, 393, 403, 405; iii. 35, 82.
+Heroopolis, city of Egypt, near Suez, i. 130, 131; iii. 176, 189, 191, 193, 203, 291.
+Herophilian school of medicine, ii. 336.
+Herostratus, of Ephesus, iii. 12.
+Hērpa, Hērphæ, city of Cappadocia, ii. 281, 283; iii. 44.
+Hesiod, i. 35, 45, 67, 68, 93, 329, 458, 462, 465, 494, 501, 502; ii. 14, 42, 50, 70, 83, 104, 110, 188, 241, 348; iii. 22.
+Hesione, daughter of Laomedon, ii. 359.
Hesperides, city of Cyrenæa (
——, of Nympha, i. 226, 273, 459.
+Hesperii.
Hesperitæ, Libyans, iii. 22.
+Hestia, goddess.
Hestiæa, ii. 364.
+Hestiæōtis, Histiæōtis, part of Thessaly, ii. 132, 137, 141, 142, 145, 152, 153, 195.
+——, in Eubœa, ii. 141, 153.
+Hicěsius, physician, ii. 337.
+Hicetaōn, Trojan, ii. 344.
+Hidrieus, son of Hecatomnus, iii. 35.
+Hiera,
Sacra, Sacred Promontory, prom. of Lycia, iii. 48.
+Hieracōnnēsos, or island of Hawks, in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 199.
+Hieraconpōlis, city of Egypt, iii. 263.
+Hierapolis, city of Syria, iii. 158.
+——, city of Phrygia (
Hierapytna, t. of Crete, ii. 144, 188, 189, 194, 199.
+Hierapytnii, ii. 199.
+Hiericus, in Judæa.
Hiero, king of Syracuse, i. 368, 405.
+——, of Laodiceia, ii. 334.
+Hieroccpia, Hierocepis, city of Cyprus (
Hierocles, iii. 40.
+Hieron, temple of Jupiter Urius, ii. 293, 296.
+Hieron-Oros, in Thrace, i. 518.
+Hierōnymus, Rhodian, ii. 61, 193; iii. 33.
+Himera, city of Sicily, i. 412, 415.
+——, r. of Sicily, i. 401.
+Hipparchus, astronomer, i. 2, 8, 13, 23, 26, 41, 86–88, 98–100, 106–111, 114, 116–120, 122, 124–127, 131, 132, 135, 137–39, 141, 142, 160, 171, 173, 199, 200, 203; ii. 271.
+Hippemolgi, i. 453, 454, 457, 458, 460–462; ii. 304.
+Hippo Regius, city of the Carthaginians (
Hippo Zaritus, c. of Numidia (
Hippobatæ, or Knights, government of the, ii. 154.
+Hippoboton, ii. 49.
+Hippobotus, meadow in Armenia, ii. 265.
+Hippocles, founder of Cumæe, i. 361.
+Hippocŏōn, king of Sparta, ii. 173.
+Hippocorona, t. of the Troad, ii. 189.
+Hippocoronium, t. of Crete, ii. 189.
+Hippocrates, physician, iii. 36.
+Hippocrene, horse-fountain, ii. 62, 105.
+Hippoï, isl., iii. 17.
+Hipponax, poet, ii. 12; iii. 3, 7, 14.
+Hipponiates Sinus, i. 380, 392.
+Hippōnium, t. of the Bruttii, i. 379, 383.
+Hippothous, i. 329; ii. 395.
+Hippus, r. of Colchis (
Hira, ii. 35, 37.
+Hirpïni, people of Samnium, i. 373.
+Hispalis, t. of Spain (
Hispania.
Hispellum (
Hispiratis, ii. 271.
+Histi, anchorage on the coast of the island of Icaria, iii. 10.
+Histiæa, c. of Eubœa,
Histiæans, Histiæeis, ii. 141, 152, 153.
+Holmi, t. of Phrygia, iii. 43.
+——, t. of Cilicia, iii. 53.
+Holmiæ, promontory, ii. 63, 105.
+Homer, i. 1, 2, 5–9, 11, 16, 19, 25–27, 32,
——, native land of, ii. 399; iii 16, 19, 20.
+Homēreium, iii. 20.
Homēridæ, in the island of Chios, iii. 19.
+Hŏmŏlē, Hŏmŏlium, t. of Magnesia, ii. 147, 148.
+Hŏmŏnadeis, people of Pisidia, ii. 323, 324; iii. 50, 64.
+Hormiæ, i. 347.
+Hormina, Hyrmina, prom. of Elis, ii. 13.
+Hortēnsius, ii. 250.
+Hya, same as Hyampolis.
+Hyacinthine games, i. 424.
+Hyameitis (Hyameia?), distr. or t. of Laconia, ii. 38.
+Hyampea, ii. 123.
+Hyampolis, c. of Bæotia (
——, c. of Phocis, ii. 93, 123.
+Hyantes, i. 493; ii. 93, 123, 177.
+Hyarōtis, r. of India (
Hybla (the Lesser), c. of Sicily, afterwards named Megara, i. 404; ii. 73.
+—— (the Greater), c. of Sicily, i. 405.
+Hyblæan honey, i. 404.
+Hyblæi Megarenses, ii. 73.
+Hybreas, ii. 409; iii. 38, 39.
+Hybriānes, an Illyrian race, i. 489.
+Hyda, c. of Lydia, ii. 102, 403, 404.
+Hydara, fortress of Armenia, ii. 304.
+Hydarnes, ii. 273.
+Hydaspēs, r. of India (
Hydatopotami, iii. 164.
+Hydra, prom. of Æolis, ii. 397.
+——, lake of Ætolia, afterwards Lysimachia, ii. 172.
+Hydracæ, al. Oxydracæ, people of India, iii. 75.
Hydrēlus, iii. 26.
+Hydromanteis, iii. 180.
+Hydrūs, c. of Caiabria (
Hydrūssa, isl. near Attica, ii. 89
+Hyěla, c. of Lucania, i. 375.
+Hyla, ii. 102.
+Hylæ, c. of Bœotia, ii. 102, 106.
+Hylas, companion of Hercules, ii 315, 316.
+Hylicus, lake in Bœotia (
Hyllus, son of Hercules, ii. 128.
+——, r. of Lydia, ii. 303, 403.
+Hylobii, iii. 110, 11.
+Hymettus, mtn of Attica, ii. 90, 93.
+Hypæpa, c. of Lydia, ii. 405.
+Hypæsia, distr. of Triphylia, ii. 21.
+Hypsæthrum, iii. 7.
+Hypana, c. of Triphylia, ii. 17.
+Hypanis, r. (
——, r. of Sarmatia (
——, r. of India (
——, same as Anticeites, ii. 222, 224.
+Hypasii, people of India, iii. 82, 90.
+Hypatus, mtn of Bœotia, ii. 108.
+Hypelæum, iii. 11.
+Hypelæus, ftn near Ephesus, iii. 3.
+Hyperboreans, i. 97, 452; ii. 240; iii. 108.
+Hypereia, ftn in Pharsalia, ii. 134.
+——, ftn in the city of the Pheræi, ii. 142, 143.
+Hyperēsia, c. of Achæa, ii. 59, 67.
+Hypernotii, i. 97.
+Hyphanteium, mtn near Orchomenus, ii. 124.
+Hyphochalcis, c. of Ætolia, ii. 160.
+Hypocrēmnus, vill. of Ionia, iii. 18, 20.
+Hypsicrates, i. 479; ii. 235.
+Hypsoeis, t. of Elis, ii. 24.
+Hyrcania (
Hyrcanian Sea, same as the Caspian, i. 106, 107, 113, 115, 142, 180, 183, 194, 195; ii. 218, 239, 244, 245, 256, 257, 262.
+—— plain, ii. 407.
+—— Gulf, ii. 247.
+Hyrcanians, i. 195; ii. 240, 245, 248–250.
+Hyrcanium, fortress of Judæa, iii. 181.
Hyrcanus, king of Judæa, iii. 180, 184.
+Hyria, c. of Iapygia, i. 430.
+——, c. of Bœotia, i. 16; ii. 58, 97, 103.
+Hyriæ, ii. 97.
+Hyrienses, ii. 97.
+Hyrieus, father of Orion, ii. 97.
+Hyrmina, Hormina, prom. of Elis, ii. 13.
+Hyrmine, c. of Elis, ii. 12, 13.
+Hyrtacus, ii. 344, 350.
+Hysiæ, c. of Bœotia, ii. 97.
+——, c. of Argolis, ii. 58.
+Hysiātæ, ii. 97.
+Hyspirātis, distr. of Armenia, ii. 271.
+Hystaspes, father of Darius, i. 468.
+Jaccetania, Jaccetani, in Spain, i. 242.
+lalmenus, leader of the Orchomenii, ii. 113.
+Ialysii, iii. 33.
+Ialysus, Iēlysus, city of Rhodes, iii. 33.
+——, painting of Protogenes, iii. 29, 31.
+lamblicus, prince of the Emiseni, iii. 166.
+Iamneia, t. of Judæa (
Iaones, ii. 134.
+lapodes, i. 300, 308, 482–484.
+lapyges, lapygians, i. 394, 425, 428.
+lapygia, i. 159, 164, 187, 314, 315, 388, 399, 400, 422, 428, 430, 435; ii. 98.
+Iapygian promontory (
Iapygum tria Promontoria (
Iapyx, son of Dædalus, i. 425, 430.
+Iardanes r. of Pisatis, ii. 15, 21.
+lardanua, tomb of, ii. 22.
+las.
Iasidæ, ii. 52.
+Iasion, brother of Dardanus, founder of Samothracia, i. 516.
+Jasōn, i. 8, 18, 31, 32, 71, 72–74, 76, 89, 224, 332, 333, 375; ii. 139, 224, 235, 266, 272, 273, 293.
+Jasonia, Jasonian Shrines, i. 72.
+——, monuments in Armenia, ii. 235, 266, 272.
+Jasonium, mtn of Media, ii. 266.
+——, prom. of Pontus (
Iasus, city and island of Caria, iii 37.
+Iaxartes, r. of Sogdiana (
Jazyges, i. 451, 470.
+Iberia.
—— Ulterior.
—— (
—— nations, i. 246.
+—— Sea, i. 185.
+Iberians, i. 7, 52, 101, 178, 180, 195, 206, 209, 210, 227, 237, 243–248, 256, 264, 269, 282, 292, 299, 407, 439, 440; ii. 260, 267, 269, 273, 229–235.
+——, Western, i. 95.
+Ibērus, r. of Spain (
Ibycus, poet, i. 92, 410.
+Icaria, Icarus, island (
Icarian Sea, i. 44, 187; ii. 212; iii. 10.
+Icarius, father of Penelope, ii, 162, 173.
+Icarus, son of Dædalus, iii. 10.
+——, island in the Persian Gulf (
Ichthyophagi, in Gedrosia, i. 145, 197, 201.
+—— in Carmania, iii. 12C, 127.
Ichthyophagi, on the Arabian Gulf, iii. 191, 194, 198–121, 127, 128.
+Ichnæ, t. of Thessaliotis, ii. 138.
+Ichthys, prom of Elis (
Icŏnii, people of Gaul, i. 276, 303.
+Icŏnium (
Ictimuli, vill. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Ictinus, architect, ii. 84, 86.
+Icus, isl. near Thessaly (
Ida, mtn in the Troad, i. 33, 64, 93, 494, 516; ii. 180, 184, 186, 189, 191, 317, 329, 332, 337, 341, 344, 346, 354, 361, 368, 369, 373–377, 384, 386, 390.
+——, mtn of Crete (
Idæan Dactyli, i. 516; ii. 30, 180, 191.
+—— Gulf, ii. 342, 374.
+—— Mother, name of Rhæa, i. 71; ii. 185.
+Idanthyrsus, Scythian, iii. 75.
+Ideonnus, land of, i. 303.
+Idessa, t. of Spain, ii. 229.
+Idomene, i. 514; ii. 77.
+Idomeneus, ii. 83, 110, 201, 305.
+——, Lampsacenian, ii. 305.
+Idrieis, people of Caria, iii. 63.
+Idubeda, mtns of Spain, i. 241, 243.
+Idumæans, people of Judæa, iii. 160, 177.
+Iēlysus.
Jericho, iii. 177, 181, 209.
+Ierna, (
Jerusalem, capital of Judæa, iii. 175, 177, 178, 180.
+Jews, iii. 142, 160, 175–185, 190, 210, 237, 274.
+Iglētes, i. 249.
+Iguvium, city of Umbria (
Ilasarus, iii. 212.
+Ilerda, t. of Spain (
Ilergetes, nation of Spain, i. 242.
+Ilethyia, i. 335.
+Iliad of Homer, ii. 364.
+Ilibirris, t. and r. of Gaul, i. 272.
+llieis, Ilienses, ii. 354–356, 359–362, 366–368.
+Iliocolōne, ii. 350.
+Ilipa, t. of Turditania (
Ilissus, r. of Attica, ii. 91.
+Ilium.
Illyria, i. 110, 159, 164, 186, 194, 308, 309, 317, 432, 435, 439, 443, 466, 481, 483, 487, 489, 495, 501; iii. 297.
+Illyrian nations, i. 482, 483, 489, 500; ii. 2.
+mountains, i. 492, 495, 499, 501.
+—— Sea (
—— coast, i. 483, 489.
+Illyrians, Illyrii, i. 306, 308, 319, 466, 468, 481, 482, 485, 488, 493, 506; ii. 2, 157.
+Ilus, founder of Ilium, ii. 354, 361.
+Imandes, iii. 256.
+Imaus, Imæan mtn, i. 195; ii. 245, 255, 256; iii. 78.
Imbrasius, i. 519.
+Imbrasus, r. of Samos, ii. 167; iii. 7.
+Imbros, island (
——, fortress of Caria, iii. 28.
+Inachus, c. of Argolis, i. 329.
+——, r. of Argolis (
Inachus, r. of Acarnania, i. 410, 486, 499, 501; ii. 51.
+Inachian Argos, ii. 74.
+India, i. 13, 63, 69, 100, 101, 105–108, 110–113, 115, 117–121, 124, 128, 129, 133, 149, 151, 152, 154, 156, 165, 175, 178–180, 196, 200, 201, 257, 332; ii. 216, 238–244, 248–256; iii. 44, 57, 73–120, 124, 126, 127, 133, 135, 190, 211, 213, 216, 283.
+—— mtns, i. 105; ii. 238.
+—— boundaries, i. 105–107.
+—— next the Caucasus, i. 202.
+Indian campaign of Alexander, i. 257.
+—— Ocean, i. 60, 68; iii. 73.
+—— markets, i. 111.
+—— pillars, i. 258.
+Indians, i. 16, 149, 152, 156, 194, 463; ii. 218; iii. 98, 101, 105, 106, 115, 117.
+——, land occupied by the, i. 7.
+Indica, ii. 218.
+Indicetæ, nation of Spain, i. 235, 240.
+Indies, i. 16, 178, 257.
+Indus, r. of India, i. 100, 121, 132, 133; ii. 250, 252; iii. 77, 79, 80, 84, 89, 90, 94–96, 102, 119, 120, 124, 125, 128.
+Ingauni, i. 300, 301.
+Innēsa, t. of Sicily, i. 405.
+Inōpus, r. of Delos, i. 410; ii. 208.
+Insūbri, i. 317, 322, 448.
+Intemělii, people of Liguria, i. 300, 301.
+Intemělium.
Interamna, t. of Umbria (
Interamnium, t. of Latium, i. 352.
+Intercatia, t. of the Celtiberi, i. 244.
+Interocrea, t. of the Sabines (
Io, mother of Epaphus, ii. 152; iii. 57, 162.
+Iōl, t. of the Masæsylii, iii. 284.
+Iolaenses, people of Sardinia, i. 333.
+lolaus, i. 333; ii. 59.
+Iolcius, same as Jason.
+Iolcus, c. of Magnesia (
Ioleia, iii. 10.
+Iōn, son of Xuthus, ii. 67, 87, 152.
+——, poet, i. 42, 94; iii. 19.
+——, tragedy of Euripides, ii. 32.
+——, river of Thessaly, i. 501.
+Ionæum, ii. 19.
+Iones, ii. 2, 5, 13, 53.
Ionia, in Asia, i. 9, 17, 91, 96, 172, 187, 190, 195, 224; ii. 42, 221, 339; iii. 1–9, 12–27, 43, 202.
+——, same as Attica, i. 257; ii. 67, 68, 81, 87.
+Ioniades, nymphs, ii. 32.
+Ionian colony, ii. 68.
+—— colonists, ii. 68.
+—— Gulf, Ionian Sea, i. 186, 388, 429, 486, 487, 495, 499, 500, 501, 507, 518.
+Ionians, i. 96, 102, 224, 256, 269, 397, 404, 458, 493; ii. 3, 43, 56, 67–71, 80–82, 181, 298, 303; iii. 34, 40, 41, 43.
+Ionius, i. 487.
+Joppa (
Ioras, mtn.
Jordan, r. of Judæa, iii. 169, 170.
+Ios (
Ioza.
Iphicrates, ii. 76; iii. 278.
+Iphidamas, son of Antenor, i. 509, 510.
+Iphigeneia, ii. 279.
+——, play of Euripides, ii. 60.
+Iphitus, ii. 34.
+—— Eurytides, ii. 46.
+Ipnus, t. of Magnesia, ii. 148.
+Ira, t. of Messenia, ii. 37.
+Iris, r. of Pontus (
Irra, daughter of Arrhabæus, i. 500.
+Isamus, r. of India, ii. 252.
+Isar, r. of Gaul, i. 276, 277, 288, 303.
+——, r. of Vindelicia, i. 308.
+Isaura, t. of Isauria, ii. 322; iii 46, 55.
Isauria Palæa, t. of Isauria, ii. 322.
+Isaurica, part of Lycaonia, ii. 322.
+Ischopolis, t. of Pontus, ii. 296.
+Isinda, t. of Pisidia, ii. 410.
+Isis, iii. 242, 260, 271.
+——, temple of, iii. 70.
+——, river, iii. 200.
+Ismandes.
Ismaris, lake of Thrace, i. 515.
+Ismarus, Ismara, t. of the Ciconi, i. 515.
+Ismēnus, r. by Thebes, ii. 103.
+Isocrates, ii. 398.
+Isodroma Mater, temple of, ii. 145.
+——
Issa, isl. of the Liburni (
——, same as Lesbos, i. 93.
+Isseans, i. 484.
+Issus, iii. 60, 62, 160, 164.
+——, Sea of, ii. 219; iii. 1.
+——, Gulf of (
Ister, r. (
——, sacred mouth of, i. 481, 489.
+——, town of Mœsia, i. 489, 490.
+Isthmian games, ii. 60, 63.
+Isthmus.
Istri, i. 321, 483.
+Istria, distr. of Italy, i. 89, 313, 321, 483.
+Isus, distr. of Bœotia, ii. 98, 99.
+Italian cities, i. 276.
+—— revolt, i. 371.
+—— headlands, i. 139
+—— coast, i. 184, 487,
+Italians, Italiotse, i. 250, 302, 310, 313, 358, 379; ii. 118.
+Italica, c. of Spain, i. 213.
+——, c. of the Peligni, i. 358.
+Italy, i. 9, 31, 33–36, 54, 72, 84, 141, 163, 164, 184, 185, 193, 194, 216, 224, 236, 240, 241, 264, 266–268, 270, 275, 279, 287, 291, 293, 300, 303–307, 309, 310, 313–315, 321, 323–325, 329, 337, 339, 345, 361, 371, 377, 379, 380, 383, 399, 400–403, 405, 411, 413, 422, 427, 435–439, 441, 442, 448, 450, 481, 482, 483, 487; ii. 60, 62, 68, 116, 154, 209, 290, 300, 333, 378; iii. 45, 278,
Ithaca, isl. and t. (
Ithacans, i. 33; ii. 173.
+Ithōme, mtn and t. of Messenia, i. 426; ii. 35, 38, 141.
+——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 141.
+Itium, t. and port of Gaul, i. 297.
+Itōnus, c. of Thessaly (
Itumon, ii. 26.
+Iturii or Ituræans, a people of Syria, iii. 166, 170, 171.
+Ityca, c. of the Carthaginians, iii. 284, 285.
+Juba, king of Numidia, i. 440; iii. 280, 282–284, 297.
+Judæa, part of Syria, iii. 160, 171–185, 189, 209, 241, 266.
+Jugurtha, king of Numidia, iii 284.
+Julia, i. 213.
+—— Ioza, t. of Bætica, i. 210.
+Juliopolis, t. of Phrygia, ii. 330.
+Iulis, c. of Ceos, ii. 210.
+Julius.
Iulus, son of Æneas, ii. 356.
+Junc Plain, in Spain, i. 240.
+Juno (Hēra), i. 5, 41, 393; ii. 29, 39, 341; iii. 11.
+——, Argive, temple of, i. 375; ii. 110, 127.
+——, named Cupra, by the Tyr- rheni, i. 357.
+—— Pharygæa, ii. 127.
+——, island of, i. 253, 255.
+——, Argian, grove of, i. 320.
+——, oracle of Acræan, ii. 63.
+Jupiter, i. 4, 274, 340, 465, 494, 502, 503; ii. 22, 25, 29, 30, 33, 39, 45, 61, 73, 118, 170, 180, 183, 184, 188, 189, 196, 204, 205, 353; iii. 33, 55, 113, 116, 117, 179, 259, 263.
+——, Olympian, ii. 3, 28.
+——, Dodonæan, i. 328, 329, 501.
+——, Pelasgic, i. 503.
+——, Larisian, ii. 145; iii. 24.
+—— Cenæus, ii. 155.
+—— Trophonius, ii. 111.
+—— Abrettenus, ii. 330.
+—— Sōsipolis, iii. 23.
+—— Ombrius, iii. 117.
+——, temple of, in Larisa, ii. 51.
+——, in Morimene, ii. 281.
+——, statue of, at Tuvium, ii. 320.
+——, Dictæan, ii. 195, 199.
+——, Olbe, temple at, iii. 55.
+——, Lycæan, ii. 75.
+—— Soter, ii. 85.
+—— Eleutherius, ii. 108.
+——, Ænēsian, ii. 167.
+——, Venasii, temple amongst the, ii. 281.
+—— Atabyrius, iii. 33.
+——, temple of, called Osogo, iii. 38.
+—— Labrandænus, iii. 38.
+——, Carian, iii. 38.
+—— Stratius, iii. 38.
+—— Chrysaoreus, iii. 39.
+—— Casius, iii. 176.
+—— Olympus, oracle of, ii. 28.
+—— colossus of, i. 423; ii. 320.
+—— Astrapius, ii. 97.
+Jupiter, Dacian priesthood of, ii, 280.
+——, work of Myron, iii. 8.
+Iura, Mount, i. 288, 310.
+Iurasius.
Ivrea.
Ixia, t. of Rhodes (
Ixiōn, king of the Lapithe, i. 507,
+Keltæ, Kelti.
Keltiberia, i. 222, 243—245.
+Keltiberians, i. 52, 214, 222, 228, 229, 238, 242—244, 246, 250.
+Keltic nations, i. 247, 291, 442, 443, 454, 481, 482.
+—— zone, i. 147.
+—— isthmus, i. 206.
+Keltica (
——, Transalpine, i. 264, 266, 296, 300, 309, 325.
+——, Cisalpine, i. 303, 315, 336, 337.
+——, Citerior, i 324.
+——, Gallia Cispadana, i. 325.
Keltici, people of Spain, i. 227, 230.
+Kelto-ligyes (
Keltoscythians, i. 52; ii. 240.
+Kelts, i. 18, 52, 116, 208, 232, 238, 241, 246, 264, 265, 277, 282, 296, 297, 299, 308, 316, 317, 438,439, 443, 449, 463, 466.
+——, Transalpine, i. 302, 316.
+Kemmenus, (
Kenæum (
Kent, i. 99, 288, 296.
+Kentrones.
Kerkina, isl. (
Kerne, isle of, i. 75.
+Kerretani, people of the Iberians, i. 243.
+Khersobleptes, i. 516.
+Kimbrians.
Kimmerians.
Labanæ, baths in Italy, i. 354.
+Labicum, i. 341.
+Labiēnus, prefect of Asia, ii. 330; iii. 39.
+Labŏtas, r. of Syria, iii. 164.
+Labranda, c. of Caria, iii. 38.
+Labyrinth, in Crete, ii. 197.
+——, near Nauplia, ii. 48.
+——, in Egypt, iii. 221, 255, 258.
+Lacaon, ii. 395.
+Lacænian land, ii. 45.
+Laccæa, i. 227.
+Lacedæmon, i. 398; ii. 18, 19, 21, 45—47, 67, 68, 77, 130, 153, 164, 173; iii. 26, 259.
+Lacedæmonian epistle, i. 58.
+—— code, i. 390.
+Lacedæmonians, i. 102, 155, 231, 347, 372, 385, 424—427, 430, 499; ii. 31, 34—36, 38. 39, 41, 43, 46, 55, 58, 59, 71, 72, 75, 85, 88, 90, 94, 111, 123, 129,
Lacēter, prom. in the island of Cos (
Lacinium, Cape, i. 393, 429.
+Lacmus, mtn of Ætolia, i. 410, 486.
+Laconia, i. 399; ii. 15, 18, 24, 28, 35—48, 53, 58, 153, 193, 200; iii. 292.
+Laconian Bay (
—— island,
Laconians, Lacones, i. 236, 504; ii. 43, 44, 47; iii. 69.
+—— Eleuthero, ii. 44.
+Ladē, isl. near Miletus, iii. 5.
+Ladon, r. of Arcadia (
Laërtes, i. 91; ii. 161, 166, 173; iii. 52.
+Læstrygonians, people of Sicily, i. 31, 33, 64.
+Lagaria, fortress near Thurii (
Lagaritan wine, i. 397.
Lagětas, great - grandfather of Strabo, ii. 198.
+Lagina, t. of Caria, iii. 39, 43.
+Lagus, father of Ptolemy, i. 463.
+Lagusa, isl. near Crete (
Laïus, iii. 18.
+Lamia, phantom, i. 29.
+——, c. of Thessaly (
Lamian war, ii. 136.
+Lampeia, mtn of Arcadia, ii. 14.
+Lampeis, t. of Crete, ii. 194.
+Lampesis, Lamptreis, t. of Attica, ii. 89.
+Lampōnia, t. of the Troad, ii. 382.
+Lampsacēnē, ii. 350.
+Lampsacēni, ii. 347, 349.
+Lampsacus, city of Mysia (
Lamus, r. and t. of Cilicia, iii. 54, 55.
+Landi, people of Germany, i. 447.
+Langobardi, nation of Germany, i. 445.
+Lanuvium (
Laodicēa, city of Lycaonia, iii. 43.
+——, c. of Cœle-Syria (
——, c. of Syria (
——, c. of Media, ii. 264.
+——, c. of Phrygia (
Laodiceia, mother of Seleucus, iii. 161.
+Laodiceians, ii. 334, 336.
+Laomedon, ii. 359.
+Laōthoë, ii. 395.
+Lapathus, t. of Cyprus (
Lapē, t. of Lesbos, ii. 127.
+Lapersæ, ii. 42.
+Lapithæ, people of Thessaly, i. 15, 507; ii. 144—148.
+Lapithēs,
Laranda. t. of Lycaonia (
Larisa, daughter of Piasus, ii. 397.
+——, Cremaste, city of Pelasgiotis, i. 94; ii. 138, 144, 373, 374, 395 —397.
+——, city of Phthiotis, ii. 145.
+——, c. of Thessaly, ii. 77, 272.
+——, c. of Attica, ii. 145.
+——, c. of Crete, ii. 144.
+——, c. on the confines of Elis and Achæa, ii. 145.
+——, Phriconis in Asia, ii. 145.
+——, c. of Syria, ii. 145, 165.
+——, c. of Pontus, ii. 145.
+——, c. of the Troad, i. 329; ii. 145, 374, 395.
+——, Ephěsia, ii. 145.
+——, Phricōnis, c. of Æolis, ii. 145, 397.
+——, citadel of the Argives, ii. 51, 144.
+Larisæan rocks, at Lesbos, ii. 145.
+Larisian plain, ii. 144.
+—— Jupiter, ii. 145.
+Larisus, r. of Achæa, ii. 74, 145.
+Larius (
Laroloni, i. 337.
+Lartolæētæ, people of Spain, i. 239.
+Larymna, t. of Bœotia, ii. 98, 100.
+——, Upper, t. of Locris, ii. 100.
+Lās, t. of Laconia, ii. 42.
+Lasion sea-coast, ii. 9.
+Lathōn, Lēthæus, r. of Cyrenaica, iii. 21, 291.
+Latin towns, i. 278.
+—— coast, i. 344.
+—— cities, i. 356.
+Latina, Via, i. 351, 352, 353, 356, 370.
+Latine.
Latini, Latins, i. 227, 325, 326, 340, 343—346, 349, 438.
+Latinus, i. 339.
+Latium, i. 325, 338, 339, 344, 345, 348, 351, 352, 360, 371, 378.
+Latmic Gulf, Ionia, iii. 6.
+Latmus, mtn of Caria, iii. 6.
Latmus, t. of Caria. iii. 6.
+Latomiæ, islands in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 194.
+Latona, ii. 208; iii. 11, 29.
+——, temple of, ii. 24, 207, 239.
+Latopolis, city of Egypt, iii. 257, 263.
+Latopolītæ, iii. 257, 263.
+Latus, iii. 263.
+Laurentum, t. of Latium, i. 339, 346.
+Laüs, city of Lucania, i. 376, 377.
+——, r. of Lucania (
——, gulf of Lucania, i. 376.
+Laviansene, ii. 278, 285, 310.
+Lavicana, Via, i. 352.
+Lavicum, t. of Latium, i. 352.
+Lavinia, daughter of Latmus, i. 339.
+Lavinium, city of Latium, i. 343, 345, 398; ii. 378.
+Leap, the, ii. 162.
+Lebadeia, city of Bœotia, ii. 111, 122.
+Lebedos, city of Ionia (
Lěbēn, t and port of Crete, ii. 199.
+Lebenii, ii. 199.
+Lebinthus, island (
Lecanomanteis, iii. 180.
+Lechæum, port of Corinth (
Lectum, prom. of the Troad (
Lēda, wife of Tyndareus, and daughter of Thestius, ii. 173.
+Lěētani, people of Spain, i. 239.
+Legæ, or Leges (
Leimōn, iii. 26.
+Leimōne, same as Elēnē, ii. 145.
+Lēlantum, plain of, i. 90; ii. 154, 178.
+Leleges, i. 493, 491; ii. 93, 327, 328, 343, 374—376, 381, 383, 394, 395; iii. 2, 4, 11, 40, 63, 65.
+Lelegia, i. 493.
+Lēmenna, lake (
Lēmnos, island (
Lemovices, people of Gaul (
Leōcorium, ii. 86, 87.
+Leon, rocks on the Ethiopian shore, iii. 201.
+Leōnidas, i. 17; ii. 130, 181.
+Leōnides, stoic, iii. 33.
+Leonnatus, friend of Alexander, ii. 136.
+Leonnorius, leader or the Galatæ, ii. 319.
+Leontes, ii. 350.
+Leontini, i. 31, 412, 414.
+Leontopolis, c. of Egypt, iii. 171, 240.
+Leontopolïtae, iii. 240, 257.
+Leontopolite nome, in Egypt, iii. 240.
+Leōsthenes, ii. 136.
+——,
Lepidum.
Lepidus, Marcus, i. 323.
+Lēpontii, Alpine race, i. 304, 306.
+Lepreātæ, ii. 18, 31, 45.
+Lepreātis, ii. 18.
+Leprcum, city of Triphylia, ii. 15, 17, 19, 21, 22, 31.
+Leptis, city of Africa (
Leria.
Lerians, ii. 212.
+Lerna, r. of Argolis, ii. 48.
+——, lake of Argolis, ii. 48, 52.
+Lērō (
Lesbia.
Lesbians, ii. 365.
+Lesboclēs, ii. 392.
Lesbos, island (
Lēthæus, r. of Crete (
——, r. of Magnesia, ii. 303; iii. 21.
+——, r. of Thessaly, iii. 21.
+——, r. of the Cyrenaic.
Lēthē, r. of Lusitania, i. 229, 230.
Lethus, ii. 395.
+Lēto, temple of.
Letopolite nome, in Egypt, iii. 247.
+Letoum, iii. 47.
+Leuca, t. of Calabria, i. 429.
+——, mtn of Crete (
——, Leuce, island of (
——, Leuce-Come, t. of the Na- batæi, iii. 211.
+——, Leuce-Acte,prom. ofEubœa, ii. 90.
+——, prom. of Libya, ii. 213; iii. 235.
+——, in Thrace, i. 518.
+——, Capo di.
Leucadian Sea, i. 505.
+Leucadians, i. 494; ii. 162.
+Leucadius, brother of Penelope, ii. 162.
+Leucæ, t. of Ionia (
Leucani, i. 315, 339, 373—380, 392, 397, 427, 431.
+Leucania, i. 374—376, 380.
+Leucas, isl. and t. (
Leucaspis, iii. 236.
+Leucatas, prom. of Leucas, ii. 161, 167, 173.
+Leuci, people of Gaul, i. 288.
+Leucimmē, prom. of Corcyra (
Leucippus, i. 399.
+Leuco, i. 463.
+Leucocomas, ii. 199.
+Leucolla, port of Cyprus, iii. 69.
+Leucōn, king of Bosporus, i. 476— 478.
+Leuconotus (name of a wind), i. 45; iii. 292.
+Leucopětra, prom. of Italy, i. 315, 388.
+Leucophryēne, Artemis, iii. 22.
+Leucophrys, same as Tenedos, ii. 373.
+Leucōsia, island, i. 185, 375, 387.
+Leucosyri, ii. 288.
+Leucothea, temple of, ii. 228.
+Leuctra (
——, battle of, ii. 68, 70.
+Leuctri, ii. 36.
+Leuctrum, t. of Laconia, ii. 36, 38, 39.
+——, vill. of Achæa, ii. 73.
+Leuternian coast of Calabria, i. 429.
+Leuternians, giants of Phlegra, i. 429.
+Lexovii, i. 281, 290.
+Libanus, mtn, iii. 149, 169—171.
+Libēs, priest of the Chatti, i. 447.
+Libēthra, Leibēthrum, city of Pieria, i. 508; ii. 105, 187.
+Libēthriades, ii. 105, 187.
+Libophœnices, people of Libya, iii. 289.
+Libs (S.W. wind), i. 45; ii. 303.
+Liburni, i. 407, 487.
+Liburnia, i. 484.
+Liburnian islands, i. 186, 484, 487.
+Libya, i. 2, 8, 15, 25, 41, 50, 51, 55, 56, 60, 63, 64, 76, 78, 88, 103, 148, 150, 154, 155, 159, 160— 164, 174, 180—187, 191, 197, 200, 206, 216-218, 226, 236, 255, 334, 400, 416, 422,439,440, 458, 459, 504; ii. 169, 303; iii. 219, 226, 247, 253, 266, 270.
+Libyan Sea, i. 185. 403, 496; ii. 5, 6, 35, 36; iii. 68.
+Libyans, i. 17, 256; iii. 271.
Libyans, Hesperītæ, iii. 22.
+Libyrnē,
Libyrnides.
Licattii, people of the Vindelici, i. 307.
+Licha, iii. 199.
+Licnades Islands (
Lichas, companion of Hercules, ii. 126, 155; iii. 201.
+Licymna, citadel of Tirynthes, ii. 54.
+Licymnius, iii. 31.
+Licyrna, ii. 171.
+Liger, r. (
Liguria, (
Ligurian headlands, i. 139.
+Ligurisci, i. 454.
+Ligyes, Ligurians, i. 193, 267, 269, 274, 275, 300—303, 322, 323, 331, 462.
+——, Oxybian, i. 276, 301, 314.
+Ligystica.
——, coast, i. 184, 185.
+——, nations, i. 193, 194.
+——, Sea of, (
Lilæa, c. of Phocis, i. 25; ii. 101, 123, 124, 128.
+Lilybæum, prom. of Sicily (
——, c. of Sicily (
Limæa, r. of Lusitania (
Limena, Limenera, ii. 48.
+Limenia, t. of Cyprus, iii. 70.
+Limnæ, t. of Messenia, i. 385; ii. 39, 40.
+——, t. of the Thracian Cherso- nese, i. 517; iii. 5.
+——, suburb of Sparta, ii. 40.
+Limnæum, suburb of Sparta, ii. 41.
+Limyra, t. of Lycia, iii. 47.
+Limyrus, r. of Lycia, iii. 47.
+Lincasii.
Lindii, Lindians, iii. 33.
+Lindus, c. of Rhodes (
Lingones, Lincasii, people of Gaul i. 278, 288, 310.
+Līnum, t. of Mysia, ii. 349.
+Linx, c. of Mauritania.
Liris, r. of Latium (
Lissus, t. of Dalmatia (
Liternum, t. of Campania (
Liternus, r. of Campania, i. 361.
+Lithrus, mtn of Pontus, ii. 306.
+Livia, piazza of, i. 351.
+Lixus, t. of Mauritania, iii. 279, 281.
+—— r. of Mauritania (
Lochias, prom. of Egypt, iii. 226, 230.
+Locri, people of Greece, i. 389— 392, 494; ii. 85, 113—115, 124 —130, 134, 135, 159, 365.
+——, Epizephyrii, in Italy, i. 168, 381, 383, 388; iii. 289.
+——, Epicnemidii, ii. 78, 113, 114, 124, 125, 128, 132.
+——, Ozolœ or Hesperii, ii. 2, 114—116, 125—128, 158.
+——, Opuntii, i. 389; ii. 114, 124 —126.
+Locria, ftn in Locris, i. 389.
+Locris, in Greece, ii. 6, 42, 114, 124—132, 137, 151, 171, 340.
+——, in Italy, i. 186, 388, 390.
+Locrus, i. 494.
+Lopadūssa, island (
Lōryma, mtn and shore of Caria, iii. 34.
+Lōtophagi, i. 37, 236, 237; iii. 281.
+Lōtophagitis, name of the Lesser Syrtis, iii. 288.
+Lucas, i. 494.
+Lucca, t. of the Ligyri, i. 323.
+Lucěria, t. of the Daunii (
Lucius Tarquinius Priscus.
—— Mummius, ii. 64, 65.
+Lūcotŏcia, city of the Parisii, i. 290.
+Lucrine Lake and Gulf (
Lucullus, ii. 278, 292, 294, 107, 320.
+——, Marcus, i. 490; ii. 65.
+Lūcūmo, son of Demaratus, i. 326.
+Lūdias, r. and lake of Macedonia, i. 508, 509.
+Luerion, i. 302.
+Luerius, i. 285.
+Lugdūnum, t. of Aquitania (
——, c. of the Segosiani, i. 265, 277, 284, 288, 289, 309, 310.
+Lūgeum, i. 482.
+Lūji, people of Germany, i. 444.
+Lūna, i. 323, 329, 330.
+Lūpiæ, t. of Calabria, i. 430.
+Lūpias, r. of Germany (
Lusitania, i. 181, 228—230, 250.
+Lusitanians, i. 209, 221, 228, 229, 231, 245, 250.
+Lūsōnes, people of Spain, i. 243.
+Lux Dubia, i. 211.
+Lycabēttus, mtn of Attica, ii. 90, 164.
+Lycæum, mtn of Arcadia (
Lycaōn, i. 329.
+——, son of Priam, i. 66; ii. 344, 346.
+Lycaonia, i. 202; ii. 276, 281, 284, 319, 321, 322, 332; iii. 44, 65.
+Lycaonians, i. 195; ii. 277, 304, 322; iii. 64.
+Lycastus, ii. 200.
+Lyceum, at Athens, ii. 87, 88, 90.
+Lychnidus, t. of Epirus (
Lycia, i. 8, 32, 38, 189, 195, 201; ii. 54, 259, 313, 317, 328, 329, 409; iii. 27, 28, 44—48, 54, 59, 68, 73,
——, in the Troad, ii. 317, 328, 329.
+Lycii, Lycians, ii. 277, 304, 327— 329, 344, 346, 353, 360, 362, 405, 410; iii. 1, 41, 49, 63.
+——, in the Troad, ii. 162, 327, 344, 346, 360, 362.
+——, Carian, ii. 327, 329.
+Lycomēdes, priest of the Comani, ii. 308.
+——, king of Scyrus, ii. 140.
+——, son of Pharnaces, ii. 311.
+Lycopolis, c. of Egypt, iii. 240,257, 258.
+Lycopolītæ, iii. 257.
+Lycōreia, t. of Phocis, ii. 116.
+Lycormas, ii. 160.
+Lyctii, ii. 194.
+Lyctus, c. of Crete (
Lycurgus, Lacedemonian, ii. 43, 44, 203, 204; iii. 179.
+——, king of the Edoni, ii. 187; iii. 76.
+——, orator, ii. 368.
+Lycus, ii. 334.
+——, son of Pandiones, ii. 81; iii. 49.
+——, r. of Assyria (
——, r. of Syria (
——, r. of Phrygia, ii. 334.
+——, r. of Armenia and Pontus, ii. 270, 295, 306.
+Lydia, i. 91, 96, 326; ii. 68, 102,
Lydian temples, ii. 185.
+—— gates, ii. 386.
+Lydians, i. 41, 328, 397, 453; ii. 277, 317, 326, 329, 332, 346, 384, 386, 396, 402, 403, 406, 407; iii. 24, 38, 63—65, 140, 141.
+Lydus, son of Atys, i. 326, 467.
+Lygæus, ii. 173.
+Lygdamis, leader of the Cimmerii, i. 96.
+Lyncēstæ, people of Macedonia, i. 495, 500, 501.
+Lyncestis, i. 500.
+Lynx, iii. 277, 278, 281, 282.
+Lyrceium, mtn of Argolis, ii. 51, 58, 124.
+——, vill. of Argolis, i. 410.
+Lyrnēssis, in the Troad, ii. 345.
+Lyrnēssus, t. of the Troad, ii. 343, 345, 377, 384.
+——, t. of Pamphylia (
Lysias, fortress of Judæa, iii. 181.
+——, t. of Syria, iii. 166.
+——, t. of Phrygia, ii. 332.
+Lysimachia, city of the Thracian Chersonese (
——, t. and lake of Ætolia, ii. 172.
+Lysimachus, son of Agathocles, i. 464, 469, 490, 517; ii. 315, 355, 301, 371, 377, 399, 400; iii. 11, 20, 22.
+Lysiœdi, iii. 23.
+Lysippus, sculptor, i. 424; ii. 171, 350.
+Lysis, iii. 23.
+Mä, temple of Enyus, ii. 279.
+Macæ, people of Arabia Felix, iii. 186, 187.
+Macar, ii. 32, 346.
+Macaria, part of Messenia, ii. 38.
+Macaria, ftn of Attica, ii. 59.
+Macaros-polis, same as Lesbos.
+Macedonia, i. 42, 187, 194, 425, 432, 466, 481, 493, 495, 496, 499, 500, 501, 504—516, 519; ii. 1—3, 10, 64, 92, 94, 129, 132, 140, 141, 147—154, 157; iii. 220, 297,
——, Upper, i. 500, 506.
+——, Lower, i. 506.
+——, Gulfs of (
Macedonian kings, ii. 44, 88.
+—— empire, i. 509.
+—— mtns, i. 488, 496, 507.
+—— nations, i. 485.
+—— city, ii. 56.
+Macedonians, i. 192, 257, 439, 485, 495, 496, 498, 500, 504; ii. 4, 55, 57, 68, 88, 105, 114, 128, 131, 132, 137, 147, 172; iii. 39, 115,
Machærus, fortress of Judæa, ii. 120; iii. 181.
+Macistia, ii. 16, 23, 24.
+Macistii, ii. 16, 17, 45.
+Macistum, Macistus, t. of Triphylia, i. 385; ii. 18, 19, 24, 155.
+Macra, r. of Etruria, i. 330.
+Macras, Macra, Syrian plain, iii. 170.
+Macri Campi, in Cisalpine Gaul, i. 322.
+Macris, same as Eubœa, ii. 151.
+Macrocephali, i. 68; ii. 258.
+Macron-Tichos, i. 518.
+Macrōnes, people of Pontus, ii. 296.
+Macronici.
Macropogones, ii. 219.
+Macynia, t. of Ætolia, ii. 160, 171.
+Madys, the Scythian, i. 96, 97.
+Madytus, c. of the Thracian Cher- sonese, i. 518.
+Mæander, r. of Phrygia and Caria (
Mæandrius, ii. 311.
+Mæcēnē, distr. of Arabia, iii. 189.
Mædi, people of Thrace, i. 485, 489, 514.
+Mædobithyni, Thracian race, i. 453.
+Mæmacca, t. of Bætica, i. 235.
+Mænalus, mtn of Arcadia, ii. 76.
+——, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.
+Mænoba, t. of Bætica, i. 215.
+Mæŏnes, Mēŏnes, or Mysi, ancient inhabitants of Lydia, ii. 298, 317, 326, 332, 346, 396, 402, 403; iii. 64, 65.
+Mæonia, same as Mysia, ii. 332, 346, 405, 406.
+Mæōtæ, i. 195; ii. 219, 221, 224.
+Mæōtis, Palus (
Magarsa, t. of Cilicia, iii. 60.
+Magi, Persian priests, i. 35, 149, 152; iii. 116, 136, 137, 140, 141, 180.
+Magnēsia, Magnētis, distr. of Thes- saly, i. 506, 510; ii. 132—135, 139—141, 146, 148.
+——, t. of Caria, ii. 299, 303, 335; iii. 6, 7, 21—24, 43.
+——, t. of Lydia (
Magnesian Sea, ii. 135.
+Magnētes, of Thessaly, i. 43; ii. 131, 140, 146—148; iii. 7.
+——, of Caria, ii. 333; iii. 22, 23.
+Magnētis, i. 507.
+Magnopolis, c. of Pontus, ii. 306.
+Magōdi, same as Lysiōdi, iii. 23.
+Malaca, c. of Bætica (
Malaus, ii. 340.
+Maleæ, prom. of Laconia (
Maleōs, i. 335.
+Malia, prom. of Lesbos (
Maliac Gulf (
—— war, ii. 153.
+Malians, Malienses, i. 43; ii. 2, 5, 135, 136, 147, 151.
+Malii, people of Mesopotamia, iii. 158.
+Malli, people of India, iii. 94.
+Mallus, city of Cilicia, ii. 283; iii. 59, 60.
+Malŏthas, c. of Arabia, iii. 212.
+Malūs, in the Troad, ii. 371.
+Mamaus, r. of Triphylia, ii. 16.
+Mamertīni, in the c. of Messana, i. 404, 405.
+Mamertium, t. of the Bruttii, i. 391.
+Mana.
Mandanis, iii. 113, 114, 116.
+Mandūbii, people of Gaul, i. 285.
+Manes, Phrygian name, ii. 467.
+——, Paphlagonian name, ii. 302.
+——, r. of Locris,
Manius Aquillius, iii. 21.
+Mantiane, lake of Armenia, ii 270
Mantineia, c. of Arcadia, ii. 8, 75; iii. 378.
+Manto, daughter of Tiresias, ii. 148; iii. 15, 59.
+Mantua, c. of Cisalpine Gaul, i 317.
+Maracanda, ii. 254.
+Maranītæ, people of Arabia, iii. 204.
+Marathēsium, t. of Ionia (
Marathon, vill. of Attica, ii. 57, 59, 67, 86, 90.
+——, Tetrapolis of, ii. 153.
+——, field of Spain, i. 240.
+Marathus, t. of Phocis, ii. 122.
+——, t. of Phœnicia, iii. 167.
+Marcellus, founder of Corduba, 212.
+——, Marcus, i. 244.
Marcecus, son of Octavia, iii. 59.
+Marcia, wife of Cato, ii. 250.
+Marcian water, i. 356.
+Marcina, c. of Campania (
Marcomanni, people of Germany, i. 444.
+Mardi, people of Persia and Ar- menia, ii. 240, 264.
+Mardonius, ii. 108.
+Mareōtis, Mareia, lake of Egypt, iii. 223, 228, 230, 236, 241, 247.
+Margala, Margalæ, t. of Triphylia, ii. 23, 24.
+Margiana, distr. of Asia, i. 112, 113.
+Margiani, ii. 245, 251, 252.
+Margus, r. of Margiana, ii. 252.
+——, r. of Illyria, i. 488.
+Mariaba, city of the Sabæans, iii. 190, 207.
+Mariandyni, people of Paphlagonia, i. 453; ii. 18, 286—288, 290, 314; iii. 63.
+Mariandynus, ii. 287.
+Marinum, i. 337.
+Marisus, r. of Dacia (
Marius, i. 274, 354.
+Marmaridæ, people of Africa, i. 198; iii. 275, 294.
+Marmarium, t. of Eubea, ii. 153.
+Marmōlītis, distr. of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.
+Marobodus, i. 444.
+Marōnia, t. of Thrace, i. 515, 516.
+Marrucina, i. 358, 359.
+Marrucini, people of Italy, i. 358, 359.
+Mars, i. 232, 277, 340, 357, 372; ii. 328, 362, 395, 409.
+Marsi, people of Italy, i. 326, 349, 351, 353, 356, 358.
+Marsi, people of Germany, i. 443.
+Marsiaba, city of Arabia, iii. 212.
+Marsian or Marsic war, i. 353, 358, 388.
+Marsyas, ii. 186, 334, 390.
+——, r. of Phrygia, ii. 303, 333, 334.
+Martius Campus, i. 350, 371.
+Marucini.
Maruvium, city of Italy, i. 359.
+Masæsylii, Masæsyli, people of Numidia, i. 198; iii. 279—282, 287, 289, 291.
+Masanasses, king of Numidia, iii. 282, 285, 286.
+Masēs, t. of Argolis, ii. 54, 58.
+Masiani, people of India, iii. 90.
+Masius, mtn of Armenia (
Massabatica, distr. of Media, ii. 264; iii. 154.
+Massaga, t. of India, iii. 90.
+Massagětæ, Scythian race, ii. 240, 245, 247, 248; iii. 75.
+Massalia, city of Gaul (
——, Gulf of, i. 271.
+Massilians, Massilienses (
Massyas, distr. of Syria, iii. 166, 170, 171.
+Mastaura (
Masthles, iii. 41.
+Masylies, people of Numidia, i. 198; iii. 282, 284, 285.
+Matalum, port of Gortyna, ii. 200.
+Mataurus, t. of Sicily, i. 416.
+Mater Isodroma, temple of, ii. 145.
+Matiana, distr. of Media, i. 78, 112, ii. 242, 262, 264, 270.
Matiani, Matiēnī, inhabitants of Matiana, ii. 249, 273.
+Matrīnum, port of Adria, i. 358.
+Matrīnus, r. of Picenum (
Mauretania.
Mauri, same as Maurusii, iii. 276.
+Maurusia (
Maurusians, i. 7, 198, 206; ii. 36; iii. 276.
+Mausōleium, of Halicarnassus, iii. 34.
+—— (
Mausōlus, king of Caria, ii. 383; iii. 34, 35.
+Maximus Æmilianus.
Mazaca (
Mazacēni, ii. 283.
+Mazæi, people of Pannonia, i. 483.
+Mazēnēs, king of the island Doracta, iii. 188.
+Mazūsia, prom. of the Thracian Chersonese, i. 517.
+Mecestus, r. of Phrygia (
Mecōne, same as Sicyon.
+Mecyberna, port of Olynthus, i. 511.
+Medea, i. 31, 72, 73, 321, 332, 484; ii. 266, 273.
+Mědeōn, t. of Phocis, ii. 106, 122.
+——, t. of Bœotia, ii. 106, 122.
+Medes, i. 41, 196; ii. 125, 216, 230, 239, 249, 264—270; iii. 239.
+Mēdia, i. 72, 76, 112, 115, 123; ii. 235, 238, 240, 242, 250, 259— 271, 273; iii. 109, 124, 125, 129 —134, 153, 154, 158.
+——, Atropatian, ii. 260,264, 267.
+——, the Greater, ii. 260, 264, 267.
+Mediolanium (
Mediolanum (
Mediomatrici, people of Gaul, i. 288, 289.
+Mediterranean Sea, i. 8, 56, 60, 62, 75, 78, 81, 82, 85, 87, 88, 105, 120, 128, 173, 174, 183, 184, 189, 190, 192, 206, 210, 216, 234, 241, 244, 245, 253, 264, 266,
Medius, historian, ii. 272.
+Medma, t. of Magna Grecia, ii. 383, 384.
+Medoaci, people of Italy, i. 321.
+Medoacus, r. of Italy, i. 318.
+——, port of Patavia, i. 318.
+Mědon, ii. 134.
+Medus, son of Medea, ii. 266; iii. 132.
+Medusa, ii. 62.
+Mědylli, people of Gaul, i. 276, 303.
+Megabari, people of Ethiopia, iii. 203, 219, 266.
+Megabates, leader of the Persians, ii. 96.
+Megabyzi, priests of the Ephesians, iii. 13.
+Megalagyrus, ii. 391.
+Megalocephali, i. 458.
+Megalopolis, city of Arcadia, ii. 37, 71, 75.
+——, city of Pontus, ii. 306, 310.
+Megalopolītæ, iii. 145.
+Megalopolītis, distr. of Arcadia, ii. 5, 15, 72.
+——, distr. of Pontus, ii. 306, 309.
+Megara, city of Greece, ii. 3, 48 57, 80—84, 108, 122; iii. 30.
+——, city of Sicily, i. 403, 404, 406, 407.
+——, city of Syria, iii. 165.
+Megaræans, Megareans, Megarians, i. 404, 412, 490, 494; ii. 2, 4, 63, 70, 81, 82, 84, 315.
+Megarenses, Hyblæi, ii. 73.
+Megarici, sect of philosophers, ii. 82.
+Megaris, i. 256, 506; ii. 4, 6, 62, 63, 78—81, 84, 91, 99.
+——, mountains of, ii. 99.
Megasthenes, of Chalcis, founder of Cumæ, i. 361.
+——, historian, i. 107—109, 117, 120; iii. 75, 79, 80, 84, 96, 97, 101, 103, 110, 116.
+Megēs, son of Phyleus, ii. 9, 143, 167, 170.
+Megillus, iii. 83.
+Megiste, island, iii. 47.
+Melæna, prom. of Ionia, iii. 18, 19.
+——, prom. of Chios, iii. 18, 19.
+Melæne, vill. of the Troad, ii. 371.
+——, Melania, city of Cilicia (
Melamphyllus, same as Samos, ii. 168; iii. 8.
+Melampus, ii. 20.
+Melanchus, tyrant of Lesbos, ii. 391.
Melanēis, same as Eretria, ii. 155.
+Melania, same as Melænæ.
+Melanippe, mother of Bœotus, i. 399.
+Melanippus, ii. 344.
+Melanthus, father of Codrus, ii. 35, 81, 82.
+Melantian rocks, in the Ægean (
Melas, prom. of Mysia, ii. 332.
+——, Gulf of (
——, r. of Bœotia (
——, r. of Thrace, i. 517.
+——, r. of Thessaly, ii. 129.
+——, r. of Pamphylia (
——, r. of Cappadocia (
Meldi, people of Gaul, i. 290.
+Meleager, son of Althea, i. 64; ii. 179.
+——, of Gedara, iii. 114, 175.
+Meleagrides (probably
Mělēs, r. near Smyrna, ii. 303; iii. 20.
+Mělia, ii. 109, 318; iii. 67.
+Melibœa, t. of Thessaly, i. 378; ii 140, 148.
+Meligūnis, same as Lipara, i. 417.
+Mēlinus, port of the Arabian Gulf, iii. 196.
+Melitæa, t. of Phthiotis, ii. 136
+Melitæeis, ii. 134.
+Melitē, vill. of Attica, i. 102, 103.
+——, lake belonging to the Oeni- adæ, ii. 171.
+——, island (
——, same as Samothrace, ii. 189.
+Mělitēnē, distr. of Cappadocia (
Meliteni, ii. 268, 278.
+Melius, ii. 386.
+Mellaria, i. 210.
+Mělōn, leader of the Sicambri, i. 446.
+Mēlos, island (
Melpis, r. of Latium (
Melsus, r. of Asturia, i. 250.
+Memnon, village of, in Mysia, ii. 347.
+——, sepulchre of, ii 347.
+——, son of Tithonus, iii. 130, 258.
+——, dithyramb of Simonides, iii. 130.
+——, Rhodian, ii. 382.
+Memnŏnium, in Egypt, iii. 258, 261, 262.
+——, of Abydos, iii. 258.
+——, citadel of the Susi, iii. 130.
+Memphis, city of Egypt, ii. 190; iii. 241, 243—248, 251, 253, 257 —259, 263
+Memphite nome, iii. 241.
+Mēn Ascæus, temple of, at Pisidia, ii. 307, 333.
+—— Carus, temple at Antioch, ii 307, 336.
+—— Pharnaci, temple in Pontus ii. 306, 307.
+Menander, comic poet, i. 455; ii. 162, 210; iii. 8, 9.
+——, king of the Bactrians, ii 252. 253.
Menapnii, people of Germany, i. 289, 290, 297, 298.
+Měnas, founder of Mesembria, i. 490.
+Mende, t. of Macedonia, i. 511.
+Mendes, c. of Egypt, iii. 240.
+Mendesian mouth of the Nile, iii. 239.
+—— nome, vill. of Egypt, iii. 240.
+Mendesians, iii. 257.
+Meněbria, same as Mesēmbria.
+Meněcles, iii. 34, 40.
+Měnēcrates, disciple of Xenocrates, ii. 299, 300, 326, 396.
+——, disciple of Aristarchus, iii. 26.
+Menedēmus, an Eretrian philoso- pher, ii. 82, 156.
+Menelaïte nome, iii. 239.
+Menelaüs, son of Atreus, i. 3, 15, 18, 47, 59—64, 67, 68, 72, 76, 225, 333; ii. 35, 43, 47, 53, 173, 186,
——, brother of Ptolemy I., iii. 238, 239.
+——, t. in the Delta of Egypt, iii. 242.
+——, t. and port of Cyrenæa, i. 64; iii. 238, 239, 294.
+Menestheus, i. 392; ii. 83, 398.
+——, port of (
——, son of Spercheus, ii. 136.
+——, oracle of, i. 211.
+Meninx, island (
Menippus, of Gadara, iii. 175.
+——, of Stratonice, iii. 40.
+Mennæus, iii. 166.
+Mēnŏdōrus, iii. 24.
+Mēnŏdŏtus, ii. 401.
+Menœtius, father of Patrocles, ii. 126.
+Měnōn, companion of Alexander, ii. 271. Mentes, king of the Taphii, ii. 166, 171.
+Mēŏnes, inhabitants of Lydia.
Mēčnia.
Mercury, i. 158; ii. 16; iii. 263.
+Mermadalis, r. in the land of the Amazons, ii. 235.
+Meroë, sister of Cambyses, iii. 225.
+——, island, i. 50; iii. 195, 217— 220, 270.
+——, metropolis of Ethiopia, i. 50, 98, 99, 106, 107, 110, 112, 119, 120, 144, 171, 172, 174, 199, 200, 203; iii. 84, 217—220, 270 —272, 275.
+Meropidæ, ii. 345.
+Meropis, name of the island of Cos, i. 459.
+Měrops, i. 52.
+——, of Percoté, ii. 345, 316.
+Mērus, mtn of India, iii. 687.
+Mesēmbria, t. of Thrace (
Mesēmbriani, i. 490.
+Měsēne, distr. of Babylon, i. 129.
+Mesēni, Arabians, iii. 146.
+Měsōgis, mtn of Lydia, ii. 145, 407, 408; iii. 7, 8, 24—26.
+—— wine of, iii. 26.
+Mesola, ii. 37.
+Mesopotamia, i. 66, 122, 124, 127, 134, 137, 196, 416; ii. 260, 261, 267, 271, 284; iii. 109, 142, 150, 154, 156, 157, 161, 166, 185.
+Messa, t. of Laconia, ii. 41.
+Messala, i. 305.
+Messapia, same as Iapygia, i. 422, 423, 430; ii. 98.
+Messapian language, i. 431.
+Messapii, i. 427, 428.
+Messapius, mtn (
Messapus, ii. 98.
+Messēis, ftn of Thessaly, ii. 134.
+Messēne, c. of Messenia, i. 186, 236, 425—427; ii. 5, 8, 14—18, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 31, 35, 37—40, 42, 45—47, 54, 77, 81.
Messēne, Messana, Messenia, in Sicily (
Messenian Gulf (
—— war, i. 385, 424—427; ii. 39.
+Messenians, i. 385, 404, 405, 425, 426; ii. 5, 7, 11, 31, 35, 36, 38, 39, 82; iii. 2.
+——, in Sicily, i. 376.
+Messina, Strait of, i. 37, 39, 69, 85, 86, 105, 110, 140, 158—160, 163, 173, 179, 180, 184, 193, 256, 313 —315, 360, 379, 383, 384, 386, 401—404; ii. 60.
+Messŏa, part of Sparta, ii. 41.
+Messŏla, t. of Messenia (
Metabum, same as Metapontium, i. 399.
+Metabus, i. 399.
+Metagonians, i. 255, 256.
+Metagōnium, prom. of Mauritania (
Metapontium, city of Magna Græcia (
Metapontus, i. 399.
+Metaurus, r. of Umbria, i. 337.
+——, r. of the Bruttii (
Metellus (Q. Metellus Pius), i. 244.
+——, surnamed Balearicus.
Methana, Methōne, t. and penins. near Trœzene, ii. 56.
+Methōnē, city of Messenia, i. 92; ii. 36, 37.
+——, c. of Macedonia, i. 508, 509.
+——, c. of Magnesia, ii. 140.
+——, of Thrace, ii. 140.
+Methydrium, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.
+Mēthymna, city of Lesbos (
Mēthymnæans, ii. 351, 382.
+Mētrodōrus, of Scepsis, ii. 235, 380; iii. 202.
+Mētrodōrus, disciple of Epicurus, ii. 350.
+Mētropolis, t. of Thessaly, ii. 141.
+——, t. of Magna Phrygia (
——, t. of Lydia, iii. 1.
+Mētropolītæ, ii. 141; iii. 8.
+Mētrōum, temple of the mother of the gods, iii. 20.
+Mětūlum, t. of the Iapodes, i. 309, 483.
+Mēvania, city of Umbria (
Micipsa, son of Masinissa, iii. 282, 285, 286.
+Micythus, i. 376.
+Midaeium, c. of Phrygia Epictetus, ii. 332.
+Midas, king of Magna Phrygia, i. 96; ii. 321, 326; iii. 66.
+——, Phrygian name, i. 467.
+Midea, t. of Bœotia, ii. 54.
+——, t. of Argolis, ii. 54.
+Mideia, t. of Bœotia, i. 92; ii. 110.
+Milesian territory, i. 493.
+Milesians, i. 470, 476, 490, 517; ii. 287, 291, 293, 294, 317, 349 —357, 377; iii. 1, 4, 5, 37, 239.
+Milētopolis, t. of Mysia, ii. 331, 382; iii. 67.
+Milētopolïtis, lake in Mysia (
Milētus, c. of Ionia, i. 492; ii. 303, 328, 333, 383; iii. 2, 4—6.
+——, in Crete, ii. 200, 328; iii. 4.
+Milo, i. 395.
+Miltiades, ii. 90.
+Milya, Milyas, distr. near Pisidia, ii. 324, 409, 410; iii. 48.
+Milyæ, ii. 304, 328; iii. 49, 63.
+Mimallŏnes, ii. 183.
+Mimas (
Mimnermus, i. 74; iii. 2, 316.
+Minæa, distr. of Arabia Felix, iii 191.
+Minæi, people or Arabia, iii. 190 204.
Mincius, r. of Gaul (
Minerva, i. 66, 224, 235, 346; ii. 9, 14—16, 19, 27, 84, 108; iii. 33.
+——, temple of, i. 368, 428, 433; ii. 110, 138, 142, 186,189, 355, 367, 368,383, 389; iii. 153, 239, 263.
+——, Alæan, ii. 75.
+——, Scilluntian, ii. 16.
+——, Alalcomenian, ii. 110.
+——, Trojan, i. 398.
+——, Itonian, ii, 107, 138, 142.
+——, Nedusian, ii. 37, 210.
+——, Polias, ii. 84, 86.
+——, Glaucopis, ii. 366.
+Minius, r. (
Minōa, t. of Argolis, ii. 48.
+——, t. of Crete (
——, prom. of Megaris, ii. 80.
+Minōs, king of Crete, i. 76, 225, 413, 425, 430; ii. 55, 196—200, 204, 328; iii. 40, 179.
+Minōtaur, ii. 197.
+Minteius, same as Minyeïus.
+Minthe, mtn near Pylus, ii. 17.
+Minturnæ, city of Latium, i. 347, 352, 353.
+Minyæ, in Triphylia, ii. 8, 21, 93, 111.
+Minyeians, ii. 111.
+Minyeius, Minyeïus, r. of Triphylia, ii. 10, 20, 27, 55.
+Misēnum, prom. and port of Cam- pania (
Misēnus, companion of Ulysses, i. 39, 364.
+Mithracina, ii. 271.
+Mithras, god of the Persians, the Sun, iii. 136.
+Mithridates, of Pergamus, ii. 401.
+—— Ctistes, king of Pontus, ii. 314.
+—— Euergetes, king of Pontus, ii. 197, 198.
+—— Eupator, king of Pon- tus, i. 22, 114, 440, 471, 472, 475—479; ii. 198, 209, 285, 286, 290, 292, 294, 304—307, 313, 314, 356, 357, 380, 387, 401,405; iii. 13, 232.
+Mithridatic war, ii. 89, 305—307, 312, 356, 386; iii. 25.
+Mithridatium, citadel of the Galatæ, ii. 320.
+Mithropastes, iii. 188.
+Mitylenæans, i. 5, 16; ii. 366,374, 376, 392.
+Mitylene, c. of the island of Les- bos, ii. 145, 220, 365, 366, 391, 392.
+Mnasalces, ii. 108.
+Mnasyrium, iii. 33.
+Mneyis, god of the Egyptians, iii. 241, 245.
+Mnōans, ii. 287.
+Moagetes, tyrant of Cibyra, ii. 410.
+Moaphernes, ii. 228, 307.
+Moasada, fortress of Judæa, iii. 183.
+Mōchus, philosopher, iii. 173.
+Modra, t. of Phrygia, ii. 289.
+Mœris, lake in Egypt, i. 79; iii. 223, 253, 255, 257, 258.
+Mœsi, people of Thrace, i. 453, 454, 466; ii. 287.
+Mŏlō, iii. 34, 40.
+Molochath, r. of Mauritania (
Molossi, Molotti, nation of Epirus, i. 427, 493, 495, 496, 499, 500, 502, 504; ii. 131, 137, 356.
+Molycreia, t. of Etolia (
Molycrium, Rhium, same as Antir- rhium, ii. 6.
+Mōmemphis, city of Egypt, iii. 241, 242.
+Mōmemphitæ, iii. 241.
+Momemphite nome, iii. 241.
+Monarites wine, ii. 278.
+Monētium, t. of the Iapodes, i. 309, 483.
Monœci Portus, in Liguria (
Monœcus, Hercules, temple of, i. 301.
+Monommati, i. 68, 458; iii. 108.
+Moon, temple to the, ii. 234.
+Mopsium, t. of Thessaly, ii. 146, 148.
+Mopsŏpia, ancient name of Attica, ii. 87, 148.
+Mopsopus, ii. 87, 148.
+Mopsuhestia, t. of Cilicia, iii. 61.
+Mopsus, one of the Lapithæ, ii. 148.
+——, son of Mantus, ii. 148; iii. 15, 50, 59, 60.
+Mōrēna, distr. of Mysia, ii. 330.
+Morgantium, t. of Sicily, i. 386, 408.
+Morgētes, the, emigrate to Sicily, i. 385, 386, 407, 408.
+Morimēnē, distr. of Cappadocia, ii. 278, 281, 284, 321.
+Morimēni, ii. 321.
+Morini, people of Gaul, i. 289, 290, 297, 298.
+Mormolyca, i. 29.
+Moro, t. of Lusitania (
Morys, ii. 317.
+Morzeus, king of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.
+Moschi, ii. 225.
+Moschic mountains, i. 96; ii. 219, 226, 260, 267, 296.
+Moschice, distr. of Colchis, ii. 228, 229.
+Mōsēs, iii. 177, 178.
+Mosynœci, people of Pontus, ii. 269, 297.
+Mūgilōnes, people of Germany, i. 445.
+Mulius, ii. 10.
+Mūnda, metropolis of Turdetania (
Mundas, r. of Lusitania (
Mūnychia, port of the Athenians, ii. 85.
+Murēna, ii. 410; iii. 53.
+Mūsæus, ii. 187; iii. 180.
+Muses, the, i. 66; ii. 11, 23, 24, 183, 187.
+Mūseum of Alexandria, iii. 229.
+Mūisicanus, distr. in India, iii. 85, 86, 95, 106.
+Mūtina, t. of Italy (
Mycale, prom. of Ionia (
Mycalessus, vill. of Bœotia, ii. 96, 99, 106.
+Mycēnæ, c. of Argolis, i. 329; ii. 48, 53, 54, 59, 60.
+Mycēnæa, ii. 53.
+Mycenæans, ii. 53, 55.
+Mychus (
Mycŏnus, island (
Mygdones, i. 453, 506, 514; ii. 316, 330.
+——, people of Mesopotamia, ii. 268; iii. 142, 157.
+Mygdonia, Mygdonis, part of Mysia, i. 515; ii. 299, 332, 348.
+——, part of Mesopotamia, iii. 157.
+Mylæ, t. of Sicily (
Mylasa, c. of Caria, iii. 37—40.
+Mylasians, iii. 38.
+Myndia, iii. 37.
+Myndii, Myndians, ii. 383; iii. 36.
+Myndus, c. of Caria, ii. 383; iii. 37.
+Mynēs, king of Lyrnessus, ii. 343, 384, 394.
+Myonnesus, island, ii. 138, 393.
+——, t. of lonia, iii. 16, 17.
+Myra, t. of Lycia, iii. 45, 47.
+Myrcinus, t. of Macedonia, i. 512.
+Myriandrus, t. of Syria, iii. 61.
+Myrina, Amazon, ii. 298, 328, 399.
+——, c. of Æolis, ii. 237, 298, 397, 399.
+Myrinæans, ii. 397.
Myrleani (
Myrleātis, ii. 299.
+Myrleia, c. of Bithynia (
Myrmēcium, c. of the Tauri (
Myrmidons, ii. 50, 57, 132, 136.
+——, tragedy of Æschylus, ii. 390.
+Myrōn, statuary, iii. 7.
+Myrrinūs, vill. of Attica, ii. 90.
+Myrsilus, historian, i. 93; ii. 382.
+——, tyrant of Mitylene, ii. 391.
+Myrsinus, t. of Elis, ii. 12, 13.
+Myrtōan Sea, i. 187,496, 518, 519; ii. 6, 49, 57.
+Myrtūntium, t. of Elis, ii. 13.
+——, estuary near Leucada, ii. 171.
+Myscellus, Achæan, founder of Crotona, i. 394, 406, 407; ii. 73.
+Mysi, or Mysians, i. 9, 195, 453, 454, 457,460, 461, 466, 468, 488; ii. 277, 287, 302, 316—319, 389, 402, 407; iii. 27, 38, 63, 67,
——, around Olympus, ii. 319, 326, 330.
+——, tragedy of Sophocles, ii. 32.
+Mysia (
—— Abrettēnē,
—— Olympii, ii. 326.
+Mysian Bosporus, ii. 318.
+—— Olympus, iii. 30.
+Mysius, r. of Mysia, ii. 390.
+Mysos, the beech tree, ii. 326, 327.
+Mylūs, c. of Caria (
—— Hormus, port of Egypt on the Arabian Gulf (
Nabatæa, distr. of Arabia, iii. 204.
+Nabatæans, iii. 177, 189, 204, 209 —211, 214.
+Nabiani, people inhabiting the Caucasus, ii. 239.
+Nabocodrŏsor, iii. 75.
+Nabrissa, city of Bætica.
Nabūrianus, mathematician, iii. 146.
+Nacoleia, t. of Phrygia Epictetus, ii. 332.
+Nagidus, t. of Cilicia, iii. 52, 69.
+Naïs, ii. 375.
+Namnetæ, people of Aquitania (capital Nantes), i. 283.
+Nanno, poem of Mimnermus, iii. 2,3.
+Nantuātæ, an Alpine race, i. 303.
+Napata, city of Ethiopia, iii. 268.
+Napē, t. near Methymna, ii. 127.
+Napitinus, Gulf of, i. 379.
+——, Bay of.
Nar, r. of Umbria (
Narbōn, the Narbonnaise (
Narcissus, ii. 96.
+Narnia, r. of Dalmatia (
Narōn, c. of Umbria (
Narthacium, t. of Thessaly, ii. 136.
+Narthēcis, island, iii. 7.
+Narycus, t. of the Opuntian Locri- ans, ii. 126.
+Nasamōnes, race of Africa, i. 198; iii. 291, 294.
+Nasica, Cornelius Scipio, i. 484.
+Natison, r. near Aquileia, i. 319.
+Nauclus, son of Codrus, iii. 2.
+Naucratis, c. of Egypt, iii. 239, 242, 250, 252.
+Naulochus, t. of Mœsia, i. 490; ii. 145.
+Naupactus, c. of the Ozolean Lo crians (
Nauplia, c. of Argolis, ii. 48, 54, 55.
+Nauplius, son of Neptune, ii. 48.
+Nauportus, c. of the Taurisci.
Naustathmus, ii. 360, 363, 364, 385.
+——, port of the Cyrenaic, iii. 294.
+Naxos, island (
——, c. of Sicily, i. 403—406, 412, 414.
+Nea, vill. (
Neæthus, r. of Magna Grecia (
Neandria, t. of the Troad, ii. 373, 375.
+Neandris, ii. 189.
+Neanthēs, of Cyzicus, i. 71.
+Neapolis, c. of the Tauric Cher- sonese, i. 479.
+——, c. of Macedonia (
——, c. of the Samians on the coast of Ephesus, iii. 10.
+——, c. of Pontus (
——, c. of the Carthaginians, iii. 288, 289.
+——, c. of Campania (
——, same as Leptis, iii. 289.
+Neapolitans, i. 39, 368, 369.
+Neapolitis, same as the Halys, ii. 311.
+Nearchus, i. 109, 119; iii. 74, 80— 85, 88, 100, 101, 114, 115, 120, 122, 127—129, 132, 187, 188.
+Nebrissa (
Nebrodes, mtns, i. 415.
+Necropolis, suburb of Alexandria, iii. 230, 231, 236.
+Necyomantels, iii. 180.
+Něda, r. of Peloponnesus, ii. 17, 22, 24, 26, 37.
+Nědōn, r. of Laconia, ii. 28, 37.
+——, vill. of Messenia, razed by Teleclus, ii. 37.
+Nedūsian Minerva, temple of, iii. 37.
+Negra, iii. 218.
+Negrana, c. of Arabia, iii. 212.
+Negrani, iii. 212.
+Neis, ii. 394.
+Nēïum, in the isl. of Ithaca, ii. 164.
+Neleïdæ, i. 398; ii. 35.
+Nēleus, father of Nestor, ii. 7, 17, 26, 27.
+——, founder of Miletus, iii. 2, 4.
+——, son of Coriscus, ii. 378, 379.
+——, r. of Eubœa, ii. 157.
+Nēlia, t. of Magnesia, ii. 139.
+Nemausus, city of Gaul (
Něměa, r. near Corinth, ii. 66.
+——, t. of Argolis, ii. 60.
+Nemean games, ii. 60.
+—— lion, ii. 60.
+Nemesis, statue of, at Rhamnusia, ii. 87, 90.
+—— Adrastea, temple of, ii. 348.
+Nemōssus, head of the Arverni, i. 284.
+Němus, temple of Diana near Aricia, i. 355.
+Nemydia, cognomen of Diana, ii. 14.
+Neoclēs, father of Epicurus, iii. 9. Neocōmïtæ, i. 317.
+Neōn, t. in the vicinity of Parnas- sus, ii. 143.
+Neon-teichos, ii. 396.
+Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, ii. 119, 120, 140, 343.
+——, general of Mithri- dates, i. 472.
+——, writer of glosses, ii. 350.
+——, tower of, i. 469.
+Nepheris, fortress of the Cartha- ginians, iii. 287.
+Něpita, t. of Etruria (
Neptune, i. 32, 53, 69, 342; ii. 6, 17, 48, 70, 72, 211, 335, 367.
+——, temples of, ii. 16, 40, 55, 69, 71, 109, 154, 213; iii. 7, 230
+——, Asphalian, i. 90.
Neptune, Heliconian, ii. 69; iii. 10.
+——, Isthmian, ii. 49, 63.
+——, Samian, ii. 16—19.
+——, Ægæan, temple of, ii. 98.
Nēritum, mtn of Ithaca, ii. 162— 164.
+Nēritus, t. of Leucas, i. 92; ii. 161.
+Něrium, Cape, prom. of Spain (
Nēroassus, fortress of Cappadocia, ii. 281.
+Nervii, people of Germany, i. 289.
+Nēsæa, distr. of Hyrcania, ii. 243, 246, 271.
+Nēsæan horses, ii. 265.
+Nessōn, Thessalian, ii. 149.
+——, harbour of, in Thessaly, ii. 131, 144, 146, 149.
+Nessus, centaur, ii. 127, 160.
+Nestor, son of Neleus, i. 14, 61, 330, 398; ii. 7, 8, 10, 11, 14,16, 18—20, 22—28, 30, 31, 36, 47, 132, 155, 210; iii. 2.
+——, Stoic, iii. 58.
+——, Academician, the preceptor of Marcellus, iii. 59.
+Nestus, r. of Thrace (
Netium (
Nibarus, mtn of Armenia, ii. 268, 273.
+Nicæa, c. ofBithynia (
——, c. of the Massilians (
——, c. of Locris, ii. 127, 129.
+——, c. of India, iii. 92.
+——, daughter of Antipater, the wife of Lysimachus, ii. 318.
+Nicander, iii. 273.
+Nicator.
Nicatorium, mtn of Assyria, iii. 144.
+Nicēphorium, grove of Pergamus, ii. 400.
+Nicēphorium, t. of the Mygdoni of Mesopotamia (
Nicias, tyrant of Cos, iii. 36.
+Nicium, c. of Egypt, iii. 236.
+Nicolaus, of Damascus, iii. 118.
+Nicomēdēs, king of Bithynia, ii. 313; iii. 21.
+——, son of Prusias, ii. 401.
+Nicomēdia, c. of Bithynia (
Niconia, t. of the Tyregetæ, i. 469.
+Nicopolis, c. of Epirus, i. 497— 499; ii. 159.
+——, c. of Lesser Armenia, ii. 305.
+——, c. of Cilicia, iii. 61.
+——, c. of Egypt, iii. 230, 231, 237, 238.
+Nicostrata, mother of Evander, i. 343.
+Nicyrus, iii. 36.
+Nigrētes, Nigrïtæ, people of Africa, i. 198; iii. 277, 280.
+Nile, r. of Egypt, i. 36, 45—47, 50, 56—58, 60, 82, 101, 102, 129, 130, 137, 148, 149, 163,171, 172, 178, 179, 191, 196, 410, 416, 458; ii. 219, 220, 255; iii. 73, 74, 82, 84, 86—88, 96, 173, 174, 177, 189, 194, 195, 210, 211, 217— 226, 228, 241—248, 257, 263, 266, 270—276,
——, cataracts of, i. 60.
+——, mouths, i. 190.
+——, Canopic mouth, i. 101, 129, 130, 137; iii. 237, 238.
+——, Pelusiac mouth, iii. 53, 177, 220, 223, 226, 239, 240.
+Nilus, tract of Ethiopia, iii. 200.
+Nineveh, iii. 142, 143.
+Ninias, t. of Dalmatia, i. 484.
+Ninus, king of Assyria, i. 129; iii. 143.
+——, c. of Assyria, i. 129; ii. 274; iii. 140, 143.
+Niobē, wife of Amphion, ii. 36, 326, 337.
Niobē, tragedy of Æsehylus, ii. 337.
+Niphates, mtn of Armenia (
Nisa, t. of Bœotia, ii. 98, 99.
+——, of Megaris, ii. 99.
+Nisæa, port of Megara, ii. 4, 55, 80 —82, 84.
+Nisibis, c. of the Mygdonians of Mesopotamia, ii. 261, 268; iii. 142, 157.
+Nisus, father of Scylla, ii. 55, 81.
+Nisyrus, island, ii. 212—214; iii. 34.
+——, t. of the island of, ii. 213.
+——, t. of Carpathus, ii. 214.
+Nitiobriges, people of Aquitania (
Nitriote nome, iii. 242.
+Noarus, r. of Illyria, i. 483, 488.
+——
Noiga, t. of the Asturi, i. 250.
+Nola, i. 367, 370.
+Nomades, Numide (Wanderers), i. 51, 198, 441, 461; ii. 231, 233, 240, 299, 302, 352; iii. 166, 194, 197, 198, 205, 212.
+Nomentana Via, i. 339, 354.
+Nomentum, i. 338.
+Nora, ii. 281.
+Noreia, c. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Norici, Taurisci Norici, i. 306, 307, 310, 448.
+Northern Ocean, i. 451, 452.
+Nŏtium, coast and promontory of Chios, iii. 18.
+Notu-ceras, promontory of Ethiopia, iii. 200.
+Nŏtus, wind, i. 45, 97.
+Novum- comum, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 317.
+Nūbæ, people inhabiting the Nile, iii 219, 266.
+Nūcěria, c. of Umbria (
——, c. of Campania (
Numa Pompilius, i. 338, 339.
+Numantia, c. of Spain, i. 229, 243, 244, 439.
+Numantians, the, i. 243.
+Numitor, king of Alba-longa, i. 340.
+Nycteus, father of Antiopa, ii. 97.
+——, cave, iii. 164.
+Nymphæum, c. of the Tauric Cher- sonese, i. 476.
+——, prom. of Mt Athos (
——, rock near Apollonia., i. 486.
+Nysa, vill. of Bœotia, ii. 99.
+Nysa or Nysais, distr. of Lydia, ii. 345, 408.
+——, c. of Caria, iii. 24—27, 43.
+——, c. and mtn of India, iii. 76.
+——, mtn of Thrace, iii. 76.
+Nysæi or Nysæans, people of India, iii. 76, 90.
+Nysaeis, in Caria, ii. 335.
+Nysaïs, distr. of Lydia.
Obelisks, iii. 245, 262.
+Obidiacēni, a Mæotic race, ii. 223.
+Obodas, king of the Nabatæi, iii. 211—213.
+Obulco (
Ocalea, t. of Bœotia, ii. 106, 107.
+Ocean, i. 4—6, 33, 38, 39, 53, 68, 73, 74, 111, 143,
——, Northern, i. 115.
+——, Western (
——, Eastern (
Ocelum, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Ochē, name of Eubœa, ii. 152.
+Ochē, mtn of Eubœa (
Ochus, r. of Bactriana and Hyr- cania, ii. 243—245, 251, 254, 255.
+Ochyrōma, citadel of Ialysus, iii. 33.
+Ocra, mtn, i. 300, 308, 309, 314, 482
Ocricli, t. of Umbria (
Octavia, sister of Augustus, iii. 59.
+Ocypodæ, iii. 108.
+Odeium, theatre of Pericles at Athens, ii. 87.
+Odēssus, t. of Mœsia (
Odius, leader of the Halizoni, ii. 297—299.
+Odomantes, people of Macedonia, i. 514.
+Odomantis, district of Armenia, ii. 269.
+Odrysæ, people of Thrace, i. 5, 16.
+Odryssēs, r. of Mysia, ii. 299.
+Odysseia.
Odysseus.
Œantheia, t. of the Ozolian Locri- ans, ii. 128.
+Œaso, i. 242.
+$Oechalia, c. of Eubœa, ii. 156.
+——, c. of Ætolia, ii. 156.
+——, c. of Arcadia, afterwards Andania, ii. 10, 11, 23, 24, 37, 156.
+——, two cities of Thessaly, ii. 142, 156.
+——, the taking of, poem of Homer, iii. 9.
+Œdanēs, r. of India, iii. 118.
+Œdipus, ii. 64.
+Œneiadæ, city of Thessaly, ii. 137.
+Œneus, father of Deianira, i. 64; ii. 170, 174, 175.
+Œniadæ, c. of Ætolia, ii. 137,159, 169, 171.
+——, lake of the, in Ætolia, ii. 171.
+Œnoa, fortress of the Corinthians, ii. 63, 105.
+Œnoanda, c. of Lycia (
Œnoë, t. of Attica, ii. 57, 67.
+——, t. of Elis, ii. 9.
+——, t. in the isl. of Icaria, iii. 10.
+Œnomaus, king of Elis, ii. 31.
+Œnōnē, wife of Paris, ii. 360.
+Œnōnē, ancient name of Ægina, ii. 57.
+——, two demi of Attica, ii. 57.
+Œnoparas, r. of Syria (
Œnops, ii. 375.
+Œnōtri, Œnotrians, Œnotrides, an- cient inhabitants of Lucania, i. 376, 377, 379, 380, 386, 399.
+Œnōtria, i. 313, 379. 400.
+Œnōtrian kings, i. 383.
+Œnōtrides, islands, i. 376, 387.
+Œta, mtn, i. 505; ii. 4, 114—116, 128—132, 135, 147, 158, 160.
+Œtæa, distr. of Thessaly, ii. 123, 132, 136, 160.
+Œtæan hellebore, ii. 116.
+Œtæi, people of Greece, ii. 114, 158, 386.
+Œtylus, t. of Laconia, ii. 35, 36.
+Œum, castle of, i. 95.
+Ogyges, ii. 68.
+Ogygia, ancient name of Bœotia, i. 38; ii. 101.
+Ogyium, mtn, i. 459.
+Ogyris, isl. of the Red Sea, iii. 187, 188.
+Oïsci.
Olane, citadel of Armenia, ii. 270.
+Olba, t. of Cilicia, iii. 55.
+Olbia, city of the Massilians (
——, c. of Pamphylia (
——, c. situated on the Borys- thenes, i. 470.
+Oleastrum, t. of Spain, i. 239.
+Olěnian rock, mtn of Elis, ii. 12— 14, 27, 74.
+Olenii, ii. 71.
+Olěnus (
——, c. of Ætolia, ii. 72, 160, 172.
+Olgassys, mtn of Paphlagonia, ii. 313, 314.
+Oliarus, one of the Cyclades (
Oligasys, name of the Paphlago- nians, ii. 302.
+Olizōn, t. of Magnesia, ii. 139, 142.
Olmeius, r. of Bœotia, ii. 101, 108.
+Olmiæ, prom. of the Bay of Cor- inth, ii. 63, 105.
+Oloossōn, t. of Thessaly, ii. 143, 145.
+Olophyxis, t. of Macedonia, i. 512, 513.
+Olūris, Olūra, t. of Messenia, ii. 24.
+Olympēne, distr. of Mysia, ii. 332.
+Olympēni, ii. 319.
+Olympia, i. 409; ii. 5, 8, 14—16, 28, 30—33, 45, 61, 76, 176.
+Olympic Games, i. 391, 395, 498; ii. 29—31, 34, 365; iii. 32.
+Olympium, temple of Jupiter at Athens, ii. 87, 97.
+Olympus, inventor of the flute, ii. 186, 334.
+——, c. of Lycia (
——, mtn of Lycia, i, 40, 41.
+——, mtn and fortress of Cilicia, iii. 54.
+——, of Crete, ii. 186.
+——, mtn of Cyprus, iii. 69.
+——, mtn of Pisatis, ii. 32.
+——, mtn of Thessaly, i. 94, 311, 506—508; ii. 29, 32, 131, 145—147, 186, 272.
+——, mtn of Macedonia, ii. 378.
+——, mtn of Mysia (
Olynthus, c. of Macedonia, i. 182, 506, 511; ii. 103, 154.
+Olysipo, c. of Lusitania, i. 228.
+Olyssa, t. of Crete, ii. 200.
+Omanus, god of the Persians, ii. 246; iii. 137.
+Ombrica (
Ombrici, Ombri, people of Italy (
Omphale, wife of Hercules, i. 326.
+——, tragedy of Ion, i. 94.
+Omphaliōn, ii. 39.
+Onchēsmus, port of Epirus (
Onchēstus, t. of Bœotia, ii. 106, 107, 109.
+Oneia, mtns in Megaris, ii. 62, 82.
+Onēsicritus, i. 109; ii. 253; iii. 80—87, 93, 95, 100, 102, 106, 112—114, 133.
+Onesii, hot-springs of the, in Aqui- tania, i. 284.
+Onŏba, t. of Bætica (
Onomarchus, leader of the Phocæ- ans, ii. 119.
+Onugnathus, peninsula of Laconia, ii. 41.
+Ophelas (
Ophienses, people of Ætolia, ii. 160, 179.
+Ophiōdēs, isl. in the Arabian Gulf (
Ophiogeneis, ii. 348.
+Ophiūssa, same as the isl. of Rhodes, iii. 31.
+——, t. of the Tyregetæ, i. 469.
+——, isl. near Spain, i. 251.
+Ophlimus, mtn of Pontus, ii. 306.
+Ophrynium, t. of the Troad, ii. 357.
+Opici, people of Campania, i. 360, 372; iii. 32.
+Opis, c. of Assyria, i. 124; ii. 271; iii. 146, 147.
+Opistholepria, part of Ephesus, iii. 3.
+Opitergium, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Opoeis, same as Opus, ii. 125.
+Opsicella (Ocella?), t. of Cantabria, i. 236.
+Opuntii.
Opuntian Gulf, ii. 114, 125, 126.
+Opūs, c. of the Locrians, i. 95; ii. 125, 126.
+Orbēlus, mtn of Macedonia (
Orbis, r. of Gaul (
Orcaorci, ii. 320, 321, 332.
+Orchēni, sect of the Chaldæan as- tronomers, iii. 146.
+Orchistēnē, distr. of Armenia, ii. 268.
+Orchoměnia, ii. 93, 101.
Orchoměnii, ii. 93, 111—113.
+Orchomenus, c. of Bœotia (
——, Minyeian, ii. 20, 55, 111.
+——, c. of Arcadia, ii. 10, 39, 75.
+——, c. of Eubœa, ii. 113.
+Oreitæ, ii. 152; iii. 120, 124.
+Orestæ, people of Epirus, i. 499; ii. 137.
+——, in Macedonia, i. 505, 508.
+Orestes, i. 499; ii. 68, 93, 279, 281, 339.
+——, tragedy of Euripides, ii. 60.
+Orestia, part of Macedonia, i. 514.
+Orestias, distr. of Epirus, i. 499, 500.
+Orestis, distr. of Macedonia, i. 505.
+Oretani, people of Spain, i. 209, 212, 228, 234, 235, 243, 245.
+Orētania, i. 210, 228, 243.
+Oreus, c. of Eubœa (
Oreus-Histiæa, ii. 152.
+Orgäs, r. of Phrygia, ii. 333.
+Oria, c. of Spain (
——, vill. of Eubœa, ii. 152.
+Orīcum, t. of Illyria, i. 486.
+Oriōn, ii. 97, 152.
+——, constellation, i. 5.
+Orithyia, i. 452.
+Ormenium, Orminium, t. of Thes- saly, ii. 134, 139, 142, 143, 146.
+Ormenus, Ormenides, ii. 142, 143.
+Orminium.
Orněæ, t. near Corinth, ii. 58, 59, 66, 347.
+——, vill. of Argolis, ii. 58, 59.
+Orněates, Priapus, ii. 66.
+Ornithōpŏlis, in Phœnicia, iii. 173.
+Oroatis, r. of Persia (the
Orobiæ, t. of Eubœa, ii. 98, 152.
+Orōdes, king of the Parthians, iii. 97.
+Orontēs, r. of Syria (
——, king of Armenia, ii. 273.
+Orōpia, ii. 79.
+Orōpii, ii. 90.
+Orōpus, c. of Bœotia, i. 102 103; ii. 79, 90, 92, 96.
+Orospeda, mtns of Spain (
Orpheus, Thracian, i. 508, 513, iii. 187; iii. 180.
+Orphic ceremonies, ii. 187.
+—— arts, ii. 192.
+Orthagoras, iii. 187.
+Orthagŏria, c. of Thrace, i. 516.
+Orthanēs, god of the Athenians, ii. 348.
+Orthē, citadel of Thessaly, ii. 143, 144.
+Orthopolis, t. of Macedonia, i. 514.
+Orthōsia, c. of Syria (
——, c. of Caria, iii. 26.
+Ortilochus, father of Diocles, ii. 46.
+Ortōn, port of the Frentani (
Ortōnium, i. 359.
+Ortospana, c. of the Paropamisadæ (
Ortygia, nurse of Latona, iii. 11.
+——, grove near Ephesus, iii. 11.
+——, same as Delos, ii. 210, 211.
+——, isl. and part of the city of Syracuse (
Osca, c. of Spain (
Osci, people of Campania, i. 346, 352, 360, 367.
+Osiris, iii. 242, 243, 247, 253, 259.
+Osismii, people of Gaul, i. 291.
+Ossa, mtn of Thessaly, i. 40, 94, 96, 311, 507; ii. 130, 131, 1.39 146—148, 272.
+Ossa, mtn of Pisatis, ii. 32.
+Ossŏnŏba, c. of Spain, i. 215.
+Ostia, c. of Latium, i. 218, 325, 329, 334, 335, 339, 344, 345, 348.
+Ostimii (
Othia, ii. 12.
+Othryadas, a Lacedæmonian, ii. 58.
+Othryoneus, ii. 367.
+Othrys, mtn of Thessaly (
Otreus, ii. 318.
+Otrœa, t. of Bithynia, ii. 318.
+Otus, Cyllenian, ii. 9, 167.
+Oxeiæ islands, ii. 169, 170.
+Oxus, r. of Bactriana (
Oxyartes, ii. 254.
+Oxyathrēs, brother of Darius Codo- mannus, ii. 291.
+Oxybii, or Oxybian Ligurians, i. 276, 301.
+Oxybius, port in Liguria, i. 276.
+Oxylus, king of the Ætolians, ii. 3, 30, 33, 77, 176.
+Oxynia, t. of Thessaly, i. 501.
+Oxyrynchus, city of Egypt (
Ozolæ.
Paches, Athenian commander, ii. 366.
+Pachynus, prom. of Sicily (
Pacorus, leader of the Parthians, iii. 159, 163.
+Pactōlus, r. of Lydia, ii. 303, 353, 403.
+Pactya, c. of the Thracian Cherso- nese, i. 517, 518.
+Pactyas, mtn, iii. 7, 21.
+Padus.
Pæŏnia, i. 488, 489, 504, 505, 509, 512—514; ii. 131.
+——, mtns, i. 43, 481, 496.
+——, nations, i. 485.
+Pæŏnians, Pæones, people of Mace- donia, i. 9, 489, 495, 496, 506, 508, 514, 515; ii. 383, 394.
+Pæsēni, ii. 349.
+Pæstum, Gulf of, i. 373.
+Pæstus, c. of Lucania, i. 373.
+Pæsus, t. of the Troad, ii. 349; iii. 5.
+——, r. of the Troad (
Pagæ, Pēgæ, t. of Megaris (
Pagasæ, t. of Magnesia, ii. 139.
+Pagasitic Gulf, in Thessaly, ii. 140, 142
+Pagræ, fortress of Syria (
Palacium, t. of the Tauric Cherso- nese, i. 479.
+Palacus, i. 471, 475.
+Palæa, t. of Mysia, ii. 387.
+——, t. of Cyprus, iii. 69.
+Palæbyblus, c. of Phœnicia, iii. 170.
+Palæopolis, the old city where the Emporitæ dwelt, i. 240.
+Palæpaphus, c. of Cyprus, iii. 70.
+Palæpharsalus, t. of Thessaly, ii. 133; iii. 233.
+Palæphatus, ii. 299, 300.
+Palærus, t. of Acarnania (
Palæscēpsis, t. of the Troad, ii. 371, 372, 375, 376.
+Palætyrus, t. of Phœnicia, iii. 173.
+Palamēdēs, son of Nauplius, ii. 48.
+——, tragedy of Euripides, ii. 186.
+Palatium, hill of Rome, i. 348, 351.
+Paleis, t. of Cephallenia, ii. 166, 167.
+Palestine, iii. 204.
+Palibothra, Palimbothra, c. of India (
Palibothrus, iii. 97.
+Palici, in Sicily, i. 416.
+Palinthus, sepulchre of Danaus, ii. 52.
+Palinurus, prom. of Lucania, i. 376
Paliurus, t. of the Cyrenaic, iii. 294.
+Pallantia, t. of Spain (
Pallas, son of Pandion, ii. 81.
+Pallēne, peninsula of Macedonia, i. 510—512; ii. 154, 299.
+Palma, t. of the Baleares, i. 251.
+Palmys, son of Hippotion, ii. 317.
+Paltus, t. of Syria, iii. 130, 167.
+Palus.
Pambœotia, festival, ii. 108.
+Pamisus, r. of Messenia (
——, r. of Laconia, ii. 38.
+——, r. of Elis, ii. 7, 16, 38.
+Pamphylia (
——, cities, ii. 324.
+——, Sea of, i. 183, 189; ii. 325; iii. 68.
+——, Gulf of, i. 189.
+Pamphylians, i. 196; ii. 304; iii. 63.
+Pamportus, t. of the Taurisci.
Pan, worshipped by the Mendesii, iii. 240.
+——, in Meroë, iii. 271.
+Panænus, ii. 29.
+Panætius, Stoic, iii. 33, 60.
+Panchæa, i. 58, 459.
+Pandarus, king of the Lycians, ii. 317, 344, 346.
+——, worshipped at Pinara, iii. 46, 47.
+Pandataria, island (
Pandiōn, father of Lycus, ii. 328.
+——, king of India, iii. 49, 74.
+Pandionidæ, ii. 81.
+Pandōra, mother of Deucalion, ii. 149.
+——-, name of Southern Thessaly, ii. 149.
+Pandosia, c. of the Bruttii, i. 382.
+——, c. of Thesprotia, i. 382, 497.
+Paneium, temple of Pan, at Ana- phlystus, ii. 89.
+——, at Alexandria, iii. 231.
+Pangæum, mtn of Macedonia, i. 512, 515; iii. 66.
+Pangani, ii. 239.
+Panhellenes, ii. 50.
+Panionian festival, sacrifices, ii. 69.
+Paniōnium (
Panna, t. of Samnium, i. 371.
+Pannōnia, i. 483; iii. 10.
+Pannonii, Pannonians, i. 309, 448, 482, 483, 487.
+Panŏpeis, ii. 121, 123.
+Panŏpeus, t. of Phocis, ii. 113, 122, 123, 124.
+Panōpolis, t. of Egypt, iii. 258.
+Panormus, t. of Sicily (
——, t. of Epirus (
——, port of Ephesus, iii. 11.
+Pans, with wedge-shaped heads, i. 109; ii. 186.
+Pantaleōn, son of Omphalion, ii. 39.
+Panticapæans, ii. 222.
+Panticapæum (
——, temple of Æsculapius at, i. 114; ii. 221.
+Panxani.
Paphlagonia, i. 96, 202, 475; ii. 18, 285, 287, 289, 290, 297, 301, 314, 319, 329.
+Paphlagonian names, ii. 301.
+Paphlagonians, i. 195, 279, 291, 440, 458, 476; ii. 18, 302, 304, 310, 313, 314.
+Paphos, c. of Cyprus, i. 65; ii. 13; iii. 68, 70, 71.
+——, Palæpaphos, iii. 70, 71.
+Parachelōïtæ, in Thessaly, ii. 136.
+——, in Ætolia, ii. 136.
+Parachelōïtis, distr. of Ætolia, ii. 169.
+Parachoathras, mtn of Media, ii. 245, 249, 260, 267.
Paradeisus, t. of Cœie-Syria, iii. 170.
+Parætaæ, Parætacēni, a people of Media, ii. 261, 264; iii. 135, 142, 146, 153.
+Parætacēne, i. 123; iii. 124, 132, 152
+Parætacium, port of Marmara (
Paralus, founder of Clazomenæ, iii. 3.
+Parapomisus, ii. 245, 248; iii. 78, 89, 121—126.
+Parapotamia, Parapotamii, t. of Phocis, ii. 101, 113, 123, 124.
+——, distr. of Syria, iii. 166.
+Parasōpia, distr. of Bœotia, ii. 97, 103.
+Parasōpias, in Thessaly, ii. 136.
+Parasōpii, in Bœotia, ii. 103.
+——, vill. of Thessaly, ii. 66.
+Parati, people of Sardinia, i. 334.
+Pareisactus, iii. 230.
+Parianē, ii. 350.
+Pariani, ii. 347, 348, 374.
+Parii, Parians, inhabitants of the island of Paros, i. 484; ii. 210, 349.
+Paris (Alexander), i. 65, 274; ii. 360, 376.
+Parisa, ii. 235.
+Parisades, i. 476, 477.
+Parisii, people of Gaul, i. 290.
+Parisus, r. of Pannonia, i. 482.
+Parium, c. of Mysia (
——, in the Propontis, ii. 210.
+Parma, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 322.
+Parměnides, i. 143, 375.
+Parmenio, ii. 272; iii. 125.
+Parmesans, i. 323.
+Pannesus, ii. 108.
+Parnassii, ii. 121.
+Parnassus, i. 40, 311, 505; ii. 2, 62, 67, 93, 105, 114—116, 121, 123, 125, 129, 143, 158, 195.
+Parnēs, mtn of Attica, ii. 90.
+Parni, Aparni, ii. 241, 244, 248.
+Paropamisadæ, iii. 77, 82, 124— 128.
+Paropamisus.
Parōræa, distr. of Epirus, i. 498.
+Parōræi, people of Epirus, i. 499.
+Parorbelia, distr. of Macedonia, i. 514.
+Parōreatæ, people of Triphylia, ii. 19.
+Parōreius.
Paros (
Parrhasii, people of Arcadia, ii. 7, 75, 241.
+Parrhasius, the painter, iii. 14.
+Parsii, same as Parrhasii.
+Parthenia, same as Samos, ii. 168; iii. 8.
+Partheniæ, i. 424—426.
+Parthenias, r. of Elis, ii. 32.
+Parthěnium, mtn of Arcadia (
——, prom. of the Tauric Chersonese, i. 474.
+——, vill. of the Cimmerian Bosporus, i. 474, 477; ii. 222.
+——, temple of Diana in the Tauric Chersonese, i. 474.
+Parthenius, r. of Samos,
——, r. ii. 287—290, 351.
+——, mtn, ii. 58, 76.
+Parthenōn, temple of Minerva, in the Acropolis, ii. 84, 86.
+Parthenopē, t. of Campania, iii. 32.
+——, one of the Sirens, i. 34, 39.
+——, tomb of, i. 365.
+Parthi, Parthyæi, Parthians, i. 18, 22, 195, 196, 441; ii. 216, 241— 245, 250—255, 263—277; iii. 97, 124—126, 131, 135, 136, 152, 159,
Parthi, Histories of, i. 178; iii. 73.
+Parthia, ii. 246, 250, 251, 262, 264 —274; iii. 124, 128, 131, 141 152, 153.
+Parthian autocrat, Labienus, iii. 39.
+Parthiene, ii. 250.
+Parthini, people of Illyria, i. 500.
Parus, one of the Liburnian islands.
Paryadrēs, mtn of Armenia (
Parysatis, iii. 216.
+Pasargadæ, c. of Persia (
Pasiani, Scythian race, ii. 245.
+Pasitigris, iii. 131, 132.
+Patala, c. of India, iii. 95.
+Patalēne, distr. of India (
Patara, c. of Lycia (
Patarus, iii. 47.
+Patavini, city of the (
Patavium (
Pateischŏreis, Persian nation, iii. 130.
+Patmos, one of the Sporades (
Patræ, Patreis, c. of Achæa (
Patraeus, t. of the Bosporus (
Patrŏclēs, i. 106—108, 115; ii. 242, 243, 255; iii. 79.
+Patrŏclus, leader of the Myrmidons, ii. 26, 89, 126, 136, 343, 395.
+——, rampart of, isl., ii. 89.
+Paulus Æmilius, i. 495, 516.
+Paunitis, ii. 269.
+Pax Augusta, t. of Spain (
Pēdalium, prom. of Cyprus, iii. 69.
+Pēdasa, t. of Caria, ii. 383.
+Pēdaseis, ii. 383.
+Pēdasis, ii. 383.
+Pēdasum, t. of Caria, ii. 383.
+Pēdasus, t. of the Leleges, near Troy (
——, t. of Messenia, ii. 35—37. Pegasitic Gulf (
Pēgasus, ii. 62.
+Peiræeus, port of Athens.
Peirēne, ftn of the Acrocorinthi, ii. 62.
+Peirithous, son of Ixion, ii. 137, 144.
+Peirōssus, c. of Mysia, ii. 349.
+Peirus, r. of Achæa, ii. 14, 71.
+Peirustæ, nation of Pannonia, i. 483.
+Peisander, poet, iii. 34, 78.
+——, son of Bellerophon, ii. 328, 409.
+Peisistratus, son of Nestor.
Pēïum, citadel of the Tolistobogii, ii. 320.
+Pelagonia, part of Macedonia, i. 500, 508, 514, 516.
+——, Tripolitis, i. 500, 501.
+Pelagonians, Pelagones, people of Macedonia, i. 501, 514; ii. 137.
+——, same as Titans, i. 514.
+Pělana, t. of Messenia, ii. 37.
+Pelargi, same as Pelasgi, ii. 87.
+Pelasgi, Pelasgians, i. 328, 329, 335, 367, 493, 501, 502, 513; ii. 18, 87, 93, 105, 148, 288, 395— 397; iii. 40.
+Pelasgia, Peloponnesus, i. 329.
+Pelasgian Zeus, i. 328, 329.
+—— Argos, i. 329; ii. 49, 133.
+—— temple, ii. 93.
+—— plain, ii. 139, 148.
+Pelasgicum, part of Athens, ii. 49.
+Pelasgitæ, same as Hellenes, i. 329; ii. 52, 132, 146.
+Pelasgiōtis, part of Thessaly, i. 503, 504; ii. 132, 139.
+Pelasgus, i. 329.
+Pēlěgōn, father of Asteropæus, i. 514.
+Pělethrŏnium, i. 460.
+Pēleus, ii. 115, 126,135—137,142.
+Pělias, i. 72, 74; ii. 139.
+——, daughters of, i. 72.
+Pěligni, people of Italy, i. 326, 344, 353, 358—360.
+Pelinæum, mtn, iii. 19.
Polinnæum, t. of Histiæotis, ii. 141, 142.
+Pēliŏn, mtn of Thessaly, i. 33, 40, 311, 460, 507; ii. 130, 131, 139, 142, 144—148, 157.
+Pella, c. of Macedonia, i. 495, 508, 509, 516.
+——, c. of Syria, iii. 165.
+Pellæan country (
Pellana, t. of Laconia, ii. 72.
+Pellene, t. of Achæa, ii. 59, 71, 72.
+——, vill. of Achæa, ii. 72.
+Pēlōdes, lake, in Epirus, i. 497.
+Pelopidæ, ii. 51, 53, 59; iii. 66.
+Peloponnesian war, ii. 366; iii. 32.
+Peloponnesians, ii. 50, 175.
+Peloponnesus, i. 40, 105, 140, 158, 159, 186, 201, 256, 257, 329, 330, 385, 400,404, 408, 478,492, 496; ii. 2—11, 33, 34, 38, 43, 49— 51, 57, 59, 60, 68, 71, 77, 78, 80, 128, 140, 142,
——, figure of, i. 128; ii. 5.
+——, islands, ii. 192.
+——, promontories of, i. 139; iii. 291.
+Pelops, i. 492; ii. 31, 36, 39, 43, 56, 326.
+Pelorias, i. 400—404.
+Pelorus, monument of, i. 17.
+——, tower, i. 256.
+——, Cape (
Peltæ, t. of Phrygia, ii. 332.
+Peltinian plain, in Phrygia, ii. 407.
+Pelūsiac mouth of the Nile.
Pelūsium, c. of Egypt (
Pēneius, r. of Peloponnesus, ii. 8, 9, 11.
+——, r. of Thessaly (
Penelope, Penelopeia, i. 328 ii. 50, 162, 173, 300.
+Penestæ, slaves of the Thessalians, ii. 287.
+Penta Dactylon.
Pentelic marble, ii. 90.
+Pentheus, ii. 103.
+Penthilus, son of Orestes, ii. 94, 154, 339, 340.
+Peparēthus, isl. (
Perasia.
Percope, ii. 351.
+Percōtē, t. of Mysia (
Perdiccas, ii. 394; iii. 229.
+Pergamēnē, ii. 326, 332.
+Pergamum, c. of Mysia, ii. 387, 389—402; iii. 66.
+Pergamus, ii. 379; iii. 46.
+Pergē, t. of Pamphylia (
Periander, tyrant of Corinth, ii. 366.
+Perias, t. of Eubœa, ii. 152.
+Pericles, ii. 84, 152; iii. 9.
+Perinthus, c. of Thrace, i. 515, 518.
+Perisadyes, people of Epirus, i. 500.
+Periscii, i. 146.
+Permēssus, r. of Bœotia, ii. 101, 108.
+Perperēna, t. of Mysia, ii. 376.
+Perperna, iii. 21.
+Perrhæbi, people of Thessaly, i. 96, 410, 507; ii. 10, 137, 141, 143— 147, 153, 158.
+Perrhæbia, ii. 144—147.
+Perrhæbic cities, ii. 145.
+Perrhæbis, ii. 144.
+Persepolis, i. 122, 123; iii. 130— 133.
+Perseus, i. 202, 439, 495, 509, 516; ii. 41, 59, 108, 211, 315, 400; iii. 208, 239, 259.
+Persia, i. 117, 122—126, 131, 132, 201; ii. 240, 254—274, 293; iii, 34, 109, 113, 120, 124, 125, 128 —142, 188, 208, 213.
Persian Sea, ii. 219, 257; iii. 146, 149, 186, 188.
+—— gates, iii. 132.
+—— palaces, i. 331.
+—— war, i. 518; ii. 7, 57.
+—— Gulf, i. 68, 121, 123, 124, 129, 183, 196, 261; ii. 266, 267, 270, 271; iii. 88, 120, 125—129, 132, 146, 185, 186, 188, 215.
+Persians, i. 17, 41, 96, 196, 463; ii. 84, 87, 94, 96, 108, 130, 155, 181; iii, 35.
+Perūsia, c. of Etruria (
Pessinuntis, cognomen of Rhea, ii. 184.
+—— (
Pessinūs, c. of Phrygia (
Petalia, isl., ii. 151.
+Peteon, vill. of Bœotia, ii. 106.
+Peteus, ii. 83.
+Petilia, t. of the Lucani, i. 378.
+Petnēlissus, t. of Pisidia (
Pětra Nabatæōn, c. of Arabia, iii. 189, 204, 209, 211.
Pětrēius, legate of Pompey, i. 242.
+Pětrocorii, people of Aquitania (
Petronius, prefect of Egypt, iii. 222; 267—269.
+Peucē, isl. of the Danube (
Peucětii, people of Italy, i. 315, 422, 423, 428, 431, 432, 436.
+Peucini, people of the Bastarni, i. 469, 470.
+Peucolaïtis, c. of India, iii. 90.
+Phabda, t. of Pontus, ii. 296.
+Phabra, isl. near Attica, ii. 89.
+Phabrateria, t. of Latium.
Phaccūssa, c. of Egypt, iii. 245.
+Phæaces, Phæeces, Phæacians, i. 39; ii. 122, 190.
+Phædimus, i. 65.
+Phædon, ii. 82.
+Phædrus, leader of the Athenians, ii. 153.
+——, dialogue of Plato, i. 452; ii. 91.
+Phæstus, c. of Crete (
Phaetōn, son of the Sun, i. 320.
+—— tragedy of Euripides, i. 52.
+Phagres, t. of Macedonia, i. 512.
+Phagroriopolis, c. of Egypt, iii. 245.
+Phagroriopolite nome, iii. 245.
+Phalacrum, prom. of Corcyra, i. 497.
+Phalanna, t. of Thessaly, ii. 144.
+Phalannæi, ii. 144.
+Phalanthus, i. 424, 425, 430.
+Phalara, t. of Thessaly (
Phalasarna, t. of Crete, ii. 193, 200.
+Phalces, ii. 77.
+Phalēreis, demus of Attica, ii. 89.
+Phalericum, ii. 91.
+Phalerii, people of Etruria, i. 335.
+Phalērus, iii. 70.
+Phalisci, people and city of Etruria, i. 335.
+Phaliscum, c. of Etruria, i. 335.
+Phanæ, port of the island of Chios (
Phanagŏria, Phanagoreia, Phana- goreium, c. of the Bosporani, i. 472, 477; ii. 223.
+Phanarœa, distr. of Pontus, i. 113; ii. 295, 305, 309, 311.
+Phanias, ii. 210, 392.
+Phanŏteis, ii. 101.
+Phanŏteus, c. of Phocis, ii. 122, 123.
+Phaon, ii. 162.
+Phara, c. of Achæa, ii. 71, 74.
+——, c. of Messenia,
——, t. of the Carthaginians, iii. 285.
+Pharæ, village near Tanagra, ii. 99.
+——, c. of Thessaly.
Pharätæ, in Messenia, ii. 74.
+Pharbetite nome, iii. 240.
Pharcadōn, c. of Thessaly, ii. 142.
+Phareis, Pharieis (Pharæeis?), in Achæa, ii. 73.
+Pharenses, inhabitants of Phara, ii. 74.
+Pharis, c. of Laconia, ii. 40.
+Pharmacussæ, islands near Salamis, ii. 85.
+Pharnaces, king of the Bosporani, ii. 224, 239, 292, 294, 306, 311, 401.
+Pharnacia, c. of Pontus, i. 190, 491; ii. 294, 296, 297, 304, 305; iii. 61.
+Pharos, isl. of Egypt, i. 46, 47, 58, 59, 88, 91, 211; iii. 226, 227, 238, 240.
+——, tower or lighthouse on the island, ii. 280; iii. 230.
+——, one of the Liburnian islands (
Pharsalia, ii. 132; iii. 233.
+Pharsalii, ii. 134, 135.
+Pharsalus, mtn, ii. 32.
+——, c. of Thessaly, anciently Palæpharsalus, now Satalda, ii. 133—136; iii. 233.
+——, New, on the Enipeus, ii. 133—136, 155.
+Pharusii, people of Libya, i. 198; iii. 277, 280.
+Pharygæ, c. of Locris, ii. 127.
+——, c. of Argolis, ii. 127.
+Pharygæa Juno, ii. 127.
+Pharygium, prom. of Phocis, ii. 122.
+Pharziris, same as Parysatis, iii. 216.
+Phasēlis, t. of Lycia (
Phāsis, c. of Colchis, i. 440; ii. 225, 227, 230.
+——, r. of Colchis (
Phatnitic mouth of the Nile, iii. 239, 240.
+Phauēne (? Phasiane), distr. of Armenia, ii. 268.
+Phaunitis, distr. of Armenia, ii. 269.
+Phayllus, ii. 119.
+Phazēmon, c. of Pontus, ii. 311.
+Phazēmonitæ, ii. 311.
+Phazēmonitis, ii. 310, 311.
+Phea, Pheæ, Pheia, c. of Pisatis, ii. 16, 22, 25, 26.
+——, prom. of Pisatis, ii. 15.
+Pheidippus, iii. 31.
+Pheidōn, ii. 34, 58.
+Phellōn, r. of Triphylia, ii. 16.
+Phellos, stronghold of Lycia, iii. 47.
+Phēmŏnoē, ii. 117.
+Phěněus, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75, 76.
+Phēræ, Phēra, c. of Messenia.
Phěræ, c. of Thessaly (
Phēræa (Heræa?), c. of Arcadia, ii. 32, 42.
+Phěræi, ii. 143.
+Phěrěcydes, Syrian, i. 28, 254; ii. 167, 190, 211; iii. 2, 15.
+——, Athenian, ii. 211.
+Phēsti or Festi, t. of Latium, i. 341.
+Phidēnæ or Fidenæ, t. of Latium, i. 335, 341.
+Phidias, of Athens, ii. 29, 53, 86, 87.
+Phigalia, t. of Arcadia, ii. 22.
+Philadelpheia, t. of Lydia. (
Philadelphia, t. of Judæa, iii. 177, 181.
+Philadelphus.
Philæ, isl. and c. of Upper Egypt, i. 64; iii. 243, 265, 267.
+Philæni, altars of the, i. 256, 257; iii. 290, 291.
+Philalēthēs, ii. 336.
+Philēmōn, comic poet, iii. 55.
+Philětærus, ii. 198, 307.
+——, founder of the Attali, ii. 289, 399, 400.
+——, son of Attalus, ii. 400.
+Philētes, poet, ii. 42; iii. 36.
+Philip, son of Amyntas, i. 463, 492, 508, 509, 512, 513; ii. 38, 39, 56, 64, 111; iii. 165,
——, city of, i. 512.
Philip, father of Perseus, i. 439; ii. 38, 146, 315.
+——, tyrant of the Areitæ, ii. 152.
+——, Pseudo, ii. 401.
+——, isl. of, in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 199.
+Philipopolis, c. of Macedonia, i. 514.
+Philippi, c. of Macedonia, i. 515.
+——, battle of, iii. 58.
+Philippus, historian, iii. 41.
+Philisteides, tyrant of Eubœa, ii. 152.
+Philo, historian, i. 119.
+——, architect, ii. 85.
+Philochorus, i. 502; ii. 39, 81, 88, 97.
+Philoctētēs, i. 378, 411; ii. 134, 140, 148.
+Philodēmus, of Gadara, Epicurean, iii. 175.
+Philŏgěnes, founder of Phocæa, iii. 3.
+Philomela, sister of Procne, ii. 122.
+Philomēlium, t. of Phrygia (
Philōn, in Egypt, iii. 245.
+Philonomus, ii. 43.
+Philopœmen, ii. 71.
+Philōtas, founder of Priene, iii. 2, 7.
+——, son of Parmenio, iii. 60, 125.
+Philōtěra, c. of Egypt (
——, sister of Ptolemy II., iii. 193.
+Phineus, i. 465.
+Phinŏpolis, t. of Thrace, i. 490.
+Phirmum, or Firmum Picenum, t. of Picenus, i. 357.
+Phlegra, i. 364, 511.
+——, ancient name of Pallene, i. 510, 511.
+Phlegræan plain, i. 361.
+Phlegyæ, people of Thessaly, i. 507; ii. 147.
+Phlegyas, brother of Ixion, ii. 147.
+Phliasia, ii. 66.
+Phligadia, mtn, i. 308.
+Phliūs, c. of Argolis, ii. 60, 66, 71.
+Phōcæ, island of, iii. 204.
+Phōcæa, c. of Ionia (
Phōcæi, Phocæans, Phocæïs, Pho- cæenses, and Phocenses, i. 235, 268, 280, 375, 397; ii. 2, 101.
+Phocian mtns, ii. 101.
+—— towns, ii. 101.
+Phocis, i. 95; ii. 4, 6, 62, 78, 93, 99, 104, 106, 113—124, 350.
+Phōcōn-nesoi or Seals' Island, in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 199, 204.
+Phocylides, ii. 212.
+Phœbia, same as Rhegium, i. 387.
+Phœbus.
Phœnice, c. of Epirus, i. 497.
+Phœnicia, Phœnïce, i. 8, 15, 41, 59 —61, 63—65, 68, 90, 91, 189, 235, 256; iii. 50, 52, 56, 67, 140, 148, 160, 167, 171—173, 177.
+Phœnician expenditure, i. 258.
+Phœnicians, i. 3, 4, 65, 66, 68, 76, 224—226, 252, 259, 262, 334, 493; ii. 93, 304; iii. 289.
+——, islands of the, i. 194.
+Phœnicis, c. of Bœotia, same as Měděōn, ii. 106, 107.
+Phœnicium, mtn of Bœotia, ii. 106.
+Phœnicodes, i. 421.
+Phœnicon, iii. 209.
+Phœnicus, mtn of Lycia (
——, c. and port of Marmara, iii. 235.
+Phœnicussa, one of the Lipari Is- lands, i. 420.
+Phœnix, king of the Dolopes, ii. 132, 133, 142, 143.
+——, mtn of Caria, iii. 28, 29.
+——, fortress of Caria, iii. 29.
+——, t. of Crete (
——, r. of Phthiotis, ii. 129.
+Pholegandrus, one of the Cyclades (
Phŏloe, mtn of Arcadia (
Phorcys, iii. 66.
+Phōrōn, port of Attica, ii. 85.
Phorōneus, ii. 188.
+Phorōnis, ii. 188.
+Phosphorus, temple of, i. 211.
+Phraates, i. 441; iii. 97, 159, 160.
+Phranicatēs, iii. 164.
+Phrentani, i. 432.
+Phricius, mtn of Locris, ii. 340, 396.
+Phricōnis, Cume, ii. 340.
+——, Larisa, ii. 397.
+Phrixa, t. of Triphylia, ii. 15.
+Phrixeium, temple of Phrixus, i. 72.
+Phrixus, i. 72, 228, 229; ii. 291.
+Phryges, Briges, or Brygi,
Phrygia, i. 96, 195, 279, 410, 492; ii. 180, 185, 188, 191, 276, 283, 284, 289, 307, 314, 326—337, 345, 351, 407, 409; iii. 43, 60, 66, 188.
+——, the Greater, ii. 319—321, 326, 332.
+——,the Less, ii. 315, 326.
+——, Lower, i. 78.
+—— Epictetus, i. 195; ii. 289, 314, 315, 320, 326, 332.
+——-, the goddess, ii. 184.
+Phrygian hare, i. 58.
+Phrygians, i. 41, 452, 510, 514; ii. 180, 184—188, 191, 277, 290, 298, 301, 304, 316—334; iii. 63, 66, 67.
+Phrygius, r. of Lydia and Ionia, ii. 403.
+Phrynæ, people of India, ii. 253.
+Phrynichus, tragic poet, iii. 5.
+Phryno, ii. 365, 366.
+Phtheirophagi, ii. 219, 225.
+Phtheiron, mtn, iii. 6.
+Phthia, part of Thessaly, ii. 67, 132 —137, 142, 143.
+Phthii, ii. 134.
+Phthiōtæ, ii. 43, 68, 131, 136, 137.
+Phthiotides Thēbæ, ii. 133—138.
+Phthiōtis, part of Thessaly, ii. 128, 132—139.
+——, Achæan, i. 71.
+Phycūs, prom. of Cyrenea (
Phycūs, t. of Cyrenæa, iii. 292.
+Phylacē, c. of Phthiotis, ii. 135, 138.
+Phylarchi, i. 196.
+Phyleides, vill. of Attica, ii. 87.
+——, ii. 167.
+Phyleus, ii. 170.
+Phyllus, c. of Thessaly, ii. 138.
+Physee, ii. 406.
+Physcon.
Physcus, c. of Caria (
Piasus, ii. 397.
+Picentes, people bordering on Cam- pania, i. 374.
+Picentia, i. 374.
+Picentine boundary, i. 359.
+Picentini, i. 339, 357, 373.
+Picenum, i. 338, 357, 358, 360.
+Pictæ, i. 351, 352.
+Pictones (capital Poictiers), i. 283, 284.
+Pieres, Pieriōtæ, people of Macedo- nia, i. 506; ii. 105, 147.
+Piěria, Pieris, distr. of Macedonia, i. 41, 506—509, 514; ii. 105.
+——, mtn in Thrace, ii. 187.
+——, distr. of Syria, iii. 61, 161.
+——, mtn of Syria, iii. 164.
+Pillars of Hercules (
Pimōlisa, t. of Pontus, ii. 313.
+Pimolisēne, Pimolitis, distr. of Pontus, ii. 302, 312, 313.
+Pimpla, Pimpleia, t. of Macedonia, i. 508; ii. 105, 187.
+Pinaca, t. of Mesopotamia, iii. 157.
+Pinara, t. of Lycia (
Pinarus, r. of Cilicia, iii. 60.
+Pindar, poet, i. 232, 256, 369, 405
Pindus, mtn of Thessaly, i. 410, 501, 505, 507; ii. 128—135, 137, 141—147, 158.
+——, t. of Locris, ii. 128, 137.
+——, r. of Locris, ii. 128.
+Pionia, t. of the Leleges in Mysia, ii. 381.
+Piræeus, same as Amisus, ii. 294.
+Piræus, i. 91; ii. 79, 85, 87, 89, 91; iii. 32.
+Pirithous, i. 76, 507.
+Pisa, tract of country, ii. 32.
+——, c. of Elis, ii. 31, 32.
+——, ftn, ii. 31, 32.
+——, c. of Etruria, i. 315, 323, 329, 330, 334.
+Pisātæ, in Elis, i. 330; ii. 9, 15, 28, 30, 31, 33, 39.
+——, in Etruria, i. 331, 334.
+Pisātis, distr. of Elis, i. 330; ii. 8, 11. 13—16. 28. 30—34. 45 53, 56, 59.
+——, territory of Pisa, i. 315, 330.
+Pisidia, land of Asia, i. 32, 54; ii. 307, 322—326, 332, 383, 409; iii. 48, 54, 63.
+——, mtns, iii. 47, 48.
+——, cities, ii, 324—326.
+——, Taurus, i. 195; ii. 319.
+Pisidians, i. 195; ii. 216, 304, 322 —324, 407, 409.
+Pisilis, t. of Caria, iii. 28.
+Pisistratus, son of Nestor, ii. 25, 46.
+——, tyrant of Athens, ii. 83, 88
+Piso, Cnæus, praefect of Libya, i. 197.
+——, Carbo, i. 319.
+——, Ahenobarbus, i. 277.
+——, son of Pompey, i. 213.
+Pissūri, ii. 245.
+Pitanæi, ii. 383.
+Pitanātæ, in Samnium, i. 372.
+Pitane, t. of Mysia (
Pithecūssa, Pithecūssæ, isl. (
Pithecussæans, i. 365.
+Pitnisus, t. of Lycaonia, ii. 321.
+Pittacus, ii. 366, 391, 392.
+Pittheus, son of Pelops, ii. 56.
+Pitya, Pityeia, t. of Mysia, ii. 317, 346, 349, 371.
+Pityassus, t. of Pisidia, ii. 324.
+Pityocamptēs, ii. 80.
+Pityūs, vill. of the Troad, ii. 349.
+—— the Great, part of the coast of Colchis, ii. 225, 226.
+Pityūssa, ancient name of Lampsa- cus, Salamis, and Chios, q. v. ii. 83.
+Pityūssæ, islands, i. 251.
+Pixōdarus, king of Caria, iii. 35.
+Placentia, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 322—325.
+—— (
Placus, mtn, ii. 343, 386.
+Planasia (
Planctæ, or Wandering Rocks, i. 32, 224, 256.
+Platææ, c. of Boeotia, ii. 66, 94, 100, 104, 107, 108, 111.
+——, vill. of Sicyon, ii. 108.
+Platæans, ii. 100.
+Platamōdes, prom. of Messenia, ii. 22.
+Platanistus, shore of Cilicia, iii. 52.
+——-, same as Macistus, ii. 18.
+Plato, i. 154, 390, 452, 462, 464; ii. 91, 183, 188, 197, 353, 354, 382; iii. 34, 110, 179, 222, 240.
+Plax, ii. 386.
+Pleias, Plēïas, Plēïades, constel- lation, iii. 59, 82, 83, 126, 274.
+Pleistus, r. of Phocis, ii. 116.
+Plēmyrium, c. of India, iii. 89.
Pleræi, people of Dalmatia, i. 484, 485.
+Pleurōn, c. of Ætolia, Old and New, ii. 72, 159, 160, 171, 172, 175, 178, 179.
+Pleurōnia, ii. 160, 178, 179.
+Pleurōnii, ii. 160, 173, 176.
+Pleutauri, people of Spain, i. 233.
+Plinthinē, c. of Egypt, iii. 236.
+Plumbaria, isl. (
Plūtiadēs, iii. 59.
+Plūto, i. 220; iii. 25.
+Plutonium, i. 363; ii. 408; iii. 25.
+Plutus, i. 220, 221.
+Plynos, port of Marmara, iii. 294.
+Pneuentia, t. of the Piceni (Pol- lentia?), i. 357.
+Pnigeus, t. of Marmara, iii. 235.
+Po, r. of Italy, i. 287, 303, 312, 316, 317, 320, 322, 323, 360, 438, 439; ii. 71.
+Podalirius, heroum or shrine of, i. 434.
+Podarcēs, brother of Protesilaus, ii. 134.
+Pœaessa, t. of Laconia, ii. 37.
+Pœcile, iii. 54.
+Pœdicli, same as Peucětii, i. 423, 431.
+Pœeïssa, t. of the isl. of Ceos, ii. 210.
+Pœmandris, same as Tanagra, ii. 96.
+Pœum.
Pœus, mtn of Thessaly, i. 501.
+Pōgōn, port of Trœzen, ii. 55.
+Pŏla, t. of Istria,i. 73, 313, 321, 483.
+Pŏlěmōn, son of Pharnaces, king of Pontus, ii. 220, 223, 224, 305, 322.
+——,of Laodicea, son of Zeno, ii. 334.
+——, philosopher, ii. 387.
+——, Periēgētēs, i. 23; ii. 86.
+Polentia, t. of the largest of the Balearic Islands (
Polichna, ii. 84, 371, 376.
+Pŏlieum, t of Lucania, i. 397.
+Pŏlisma, Polium, t. of the Troad, ii. 368.
+Polites, companion of Ulysses, i. 380.
+——, son of Priam, ii. 364.
+Polium, ii. 368.
+Pollentia.
Poltyŏbria, t. of Thrace, i. 490.
+Polyanus, mtn of Epirus, i. 501.
+Polybius, historian, i. 1, 23, 31, 35, 36, 38, 39, 145, 147, 148, 156— 164, 209, 222, 226, 244, 256, 258, 259, 274, 283, 301, 309, 310, 315, 319, 330, 360, 393, 418, 435, 438, 481, 487, 495, 518; ii. 1, 51, 64, 77, 120, 251; iii. 234,
Polybōtēs, ii. 213.
+Polybus, ii. 64.
+Pŏlycasta, mother of Penelope, ii. 173.
+Polycles, ii. 288.
+Polycletus, historian, ii. 243, 244; iii. 130, 139, 150.
+——, statuary, ii. 53.
+Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, iii. 8, 9.
+Polydamas, Trojan, ii. 364.
+Polydamna, iii. 238.
+Polydectēs, brother of Lycurgus, ii. 203, 204.
+——, king of the Seriphii, ii. 211.
+Polydōrus, son of Priam, ii. 344.
+Polymēdium, t. of the Troad, ii. 376, 390.
+Polymnastus, iii. 16.
+Polynices, ii. 21.
+Polyphagi, i. 299; ii. 239.
+Polypœtēs, king of the Lapithæ, ii. 143, 145.
+Polypŏrus, r. of the Troad.
Polyrrhēnii, in the island of Crete, ii. 200.
+Polystephanus, same as Præneste, i. 354.
+Polytimētus, r. of Sogdiana, ii. 254.
+Polyxěna, tragedy of Sophocles, ii. 186.
Pomentïne plain in Latium, i. 344, 346.
+Pometia, i. 344.
+Pompædius, leader of the Marsi (
Pompēia, Pompæa, t. of Campania (
Pompeiopolis, c. of Paphlagonia (
Pompēiopŏlis, same as Pompělōn; same as Sŏli, iii. 45, 46, 55.
+Pompělōn, Pompēiopŏlis, t. of Spain (
Pompey the Great, i. 242, 317,350; ii. 74, 217, 218, 231, 233, 235, 246, 271, 286, 294, 305—310, 320, 392; iii. 24, 27, 55, 164, 170, 176, 180, 181, 232, 233.
+——, sons of (Cnæus and Sex- tus), i. 213, 242; iii. 27.
+——, trophies of, i. 234, 239, 240, 267.
+Pompeius Sextus.
—— Cnæus.
——, Mark, ii. 392.
+—— Strabo, father of Pompey the Great, i. 317.
+Pontia, island (
Pontic Sea, i. 480.
+—— coasts, i. 489.
+—— castor, i. 245.
+Pontica, same as Pontus.
+Pontici, ii. 246.
+Pontius, Glaucus, tragedy of Æschylus, ii. 155.
+Pontus, i. 54, 149, 216, 489, 490; ii. 113, 145, 285—320, 386; iii. 75, 77, 142, 297,
Pontus, part of Cappadocia, ii. 278, 302, 305.
+——, Gulf of the, i. 189.
+—— Axenus, i, 458, 461.
+—— Euxinus, i. 458; ii. 145.
——, mouth of, at Byzantium, i. 489, 496; ii. 315.
+——, the right shore, i. 95; ii. 221, 226.
+——, the left shore, ii. 145.
+Poplōnium, c. of Etruria, i. 329— 332, 334.
+Pordalis, ii. 393.
+Pordoselēnē, Poroselēnē, isl.,ii. 393.
+Pornopiōn, name of Apollo, ii. 386.
+——, month, ii. 386.
+Porsena, king of Clusium i. 327.
+Porthaon, ii. 175.
+Porthaŏnidæ, kings of the Ætolians, ii. 179.
+Porticanus, king of India, iii. 95.
+Pōrus, iii. 74, 82, 91, 92.
+——, r. of Achaia, ii. 14.
+Poseidium, grove, ii. 21.
+——, Samian, ii. 26.
+——, in Alexandria, iii. 230.
+——, prom. and c. of Epirus, i. 4 7.
+——, prom. of Thessaly (
——, of Chios, iii. 18.
+——, of the Milesians (
——, of Lucania, i. 375, 376.
+——, Bay of Lucania, i. 375.
+——, of Samos, with temple, ii. 16, 17.
+——, of Arabia, iii. 203.
+——, t. of Syria, iii. 164, 167.
+——, temple of Neptune, in Elis, ii. 16, 17, 21, 26.
+Poseidōn.
Poseidonia, in the isl. Tenos, ii. 211.
+Poseidonia, or Trœzen, ii. 55.
+Poseidōnia, c. of Lucania (
Posidonium, Posidonian Gulf, Po- sidoniate Gulf (
——, near Rhegium, i. 384.
+Posidonius, the Stoic, i. 1, 6, 8, 23, 44, 66, 84, 86, 90, 143, 144, 146, 148, 152, 154—156, 158, 203,
Potamia, distr. of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.
+Potamii, ii. 89.
+Potamō, of Mitylene, ii. 392.
+Potamus, vill. of Attica, ii. 89.
+Potentia, c. of Picenum, i. 357.
+Potidæa, c. of Macedonia, i. 511.
+Potniæ, c. of Beotia, ii. 103, 109.
+Practius, r. of Mysia, ii. 340, 344, 346, 350, 351.
+Prænestina, Via, i. 352, 353.
+Præneste, c. of Latium, i. 353, 354, 370.
+Pramnæ, iii. 117, 118.
+Prasia, vill. of Attica (
Prasiæ, c. of Argolis, ii. 48, 55.
+Prasii, people of India, iii. 97.
+——, inhabitants of the city of Prasus, ii. 189, 199.
+Prasus, c. of Crete, ii. 195, 199.
+Prausi, Gallic nation, of whom Brennus was king, i. 280.
+Praxander, iii. 69.
+Praxiphanes, iii. 33.
+Praxitělēs, ii. 105; iii. 13.
+Preferni, i. 344.
+Prēmnis, t. of Ethiopia, iii. 268.
+Prepesinthus, one of the Cyclades (
Priam, ii. 169, 301, 342, 344, 345, 360, 367, 377.
+Priamidæ, ii. 378.
+Priamōn (?Prōmōn), c. of the Dal- matæ, i. 484.
+Priapeia, songs of Euphronius, ii. 66.
+Priapēnē, distr. of Mysia, ii. 347.
+Priapēni, ii. 347.
+Priāpus, son of Bacchus, temple of, ii. 66, 348.
+Priāpus, t. of Mysia, i. 518; ii. 317, 332, 340, 347—349.
+Priēnē, c. of Ionia (
Priēnians, ii. 69; iii. 10.
+Priōn, mtn near Ephesus, iii. 3.
+Privernum, t. of Latium, i. 352.
+Probalinthus, t. of Attica, ii. 67, 90.
+Prochyta, isl. (
Procleïdæ, ii. 44.
+Prŏclēs, brother of Eurysthenes, ii. 42, 44, 77, 203, 212.
+——, founder of Samos, iii. 3.
+Procnē, sister of Philomela, ii. 122.
+Proconnēsus, isl. of the Propontis (
Proerna, t. of Phthiotis, ii. 136.
+Prœtides, ii. 50.
+Prœtus, king of Tiryns, ii. 54.
+Promētheus, i. 273, 458; ii. 238; iii. 77.
+—— Loosed, a play of Æschylus, i. 52.
+Prōnēsus, t. of Cephallenia, ii. 166.
+Prophthasia, c. of Drangiana (
Propontis (
Proschium, t. of Ætolia, ii. 160.
+Proseleni, ii. 75.
+Proserpine, i. 295, 383; ii. 17; iii. 25, 180.
+Prosōpite nome, vill. of Egypt, iii. 240.
+Prosymna, t. of Argolis, ii. 54.
+Prōtarchus, iii. 37.
+Proté, island, ii. 23, 35.
+Prōtesilaeium, in the Thracian Chersonese, i. 517; ii. 358.
+Prōtesilaus, king of the Thessalians, i. 454; ii. 83, 134—138.
+Prōteus, father of Cabira, i. 59, 62, 225.
+Prōtogenes, iii. 29, 30.
Prusa, c. of Mysia, ii. 315, 316, 318.
+Prusias, c. of Bithynia (
——, king of Bithynia, ii. 315, 407.
+Prusienses, inhabitants of Prusias, ii. 316.
+Prytaneis, ii. 123.
+Psammetichus, king of Egypt, i. 96; iii. 195, 219, 239, 244.
+Psaphis, vill. of the Oropii, ii. 90.
+Psěbo, lake of Ethiopia (
Pselchis, c. of Ethiopia, iii. 268.
+Pseudopenias, prom. in the Greater Syrtis, iii. 291.
+Pseudophilip, i. 516.
+Psillis, r. of Bithynia, ii. 288.
+Psygmus, on the coast of Ethiopia, iii. 200.
+Psylli or Psyllians, people of Libya, i. 198; ii. 348; iii. 260, 294.
+Psyra (
Psyttalia, isl. near Salamis, ii. 85.
+Pteleasimum, distr. of Triphylia, ii. 24.
+Ptělěōs, ii. 357.
+Ptělěum, mtn of Epirus, i. 505.
+——, c. of Triphylia, ii. 23, 24.
+——, c. of Thessaly, ii. 24, 135, 139.
+Pterelas, ii. 162.
+Ptolemaïs, t. of Phœnicia, i. 201.
+——, t. of Pamphylia (
——, t. of the Cyrenaic, iii. 292.
+——, t. of the Troglodytic, i. 200; iii. 191, 194, 204.
+——, t. of the Thebais, iii. 258.
+Ptolemies, i. 178.
+Ptolemy Aultes, ii. 308; iii. 231, 232, 234.
+—— Ceraunus, ii. 400.
+——, Cocce's son, iii. 230.
+—— Epiphanes, iii. 231.
+Ptolemy Euergētes, iii. 231.
+—— Euergētes II. or Physcon, i. 149, 152, 156; ii. 124, 172; iii. 231, 234.
+—— Lathūrus, iii. 231.
+—— Philadelphus, ii. 120, 172; iii. 47, 193, 194, 224, 231, 260.
+—— Philomētor, iii. 164, 231.
+—— Philopator, ii. 199; iii. 176, 231.
+—— Sōter, iii. 290.
+——, king of Cyprus, iii. 71.
+——, son of Aulētes, iii. 234.
+——, son of Juba, iii. 281, 283, 297.
+——, son of Lagus, i. 463; iii 123, 229, 231, 239.
+——, son of Mennæus, iii. 166
+Ptōum, mtn of Bœotia, ii. 109.
+Publius Crassus.
—— Claudius Pulcher.
—— Servilius, ii. 322.
+Pulcher, Publius Claudius, iii. 71.
+Punic War, Second, i. 239.
+Puteoli (
Putrid Lake.
Pydna, c. of Macedonia, i. 508, 509, 513.
+Pygalgeis, iii. 11.
+Pygěla, c. of Ionia, ii. 299; iii. 10, 11.
+Pygmies, i. 54, 55, 59, 67, 68, 109, 458; iii. 107, 270.
+Pylæ, Thermopylæ, i. 17; ii. 118, 129, 130, 137.
+Pylæan convention of Amphyctyons, ii. 118, 130.
+Pylæměnēs, ii. 286, 289.
+Pylæum, mtn of Lesbos, ii. 396.
+Pylæus, king of the Pelasgi, ii. 395, 396.
+Pylagŏræ, Pylagŏri, ii. 118.
+Pylaïc Assembly, ii. 140.
+—— Gulf (
Pylēnē, t. of Ætolia, ii. 160, 172.
+Pylian Sea, ii. 22.
+Pylii, Pylians, inhabitants of Pylus,
Pylōn, t. of Illyria, i. 495.
+Pylus, part of Elis, ii. 11, 17, 18.
+——, c. of Nestor, ii. 7, 25, 46; iii. 4.
+——, Eleian, ii. 25, 26.
+——, Triphylian, Lepreatic, or Arcadian, ii. 8, 11, 16, 18, 19, 25, 26.
+——, Messenian, ii. 11, 18—22, 26—28, 35—38.
+——, Ematheeis, ii. 31.
+Pyræchmēs, ii. 33.
+Pyrætheia, iii. 137.
+Pyræthi, in Cappadocia, iii. 137.
+Pyramids, the, in Egypt, iii. 249— 252, 255.
+Pyramus, r. of Cilicia (
Pyrasus, t. of Phthiotis, ii. 138, 139.
+Pyrēnæan Venus, i 267, 272.
+Pyrenees, i. 110, 161, 181,192, 193, 206, 219, 233, 234, 239—242, 249, 250, 264—267, 271, 272, 275, 278, 279, 282, 284, 285, 292, 296.
+Pyrgi, t. of Triphylia, ii. 22.
+——, t. of Etruria, i. 335.
+Pyrgïtæ, in Triphylia, ii. 22.
+Pyriphlegethōn, r. near Dicæarchia, i. 39, 363.
+Pyrrha, wife of Deucalion, ii. 125, 134, 149.
+——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 134.
+——, t. of Ionia, iii. 6.
+——, t. of Lesbos (
——, isl., ii. 139.
+——, prom. of Thessaly, ii. 139.
+——, prom. of Mysia, ii. 376.
+Pyrrhæa, name of Thessaly, ii. 149.
+Pyrrhæan Euripus, in the island of Lesbos (
Pyrrhic dance, ii. 182.
+Pyrrhichus, ii. 182, 202.
+Pyrrhon, ii. 82.
+Pyrrhus Neoptolemus, son of A- chiles, i. 500.
+——, king of Epirus, i. 387, 427, 438, 498; ii. 59, 68.
+Pythagoras, i. 395, 456; iii. 9, 114.
+Pythagoreans, i. 25, 375, 395; ii. 68, 183; iii. 180.
+——, philosophy of the, i. 427, 457; iii. 114.
+Pythaïstæ, ii. 97.
+Pythangelus, harbour, altars, iii. 199 —201.
+Pytheas, i. 99—101, 110, 116, 154, 157, 158, 173, 204, 223, 237, 283, 291, 299, 452.
+Pythian games, i. 390; ii. 117, 120.
+—— priestess, ii. 117; iii. 179.
+Pythias, the, ii. 121.
+Pythium, temple of Apollo, ii. 97.
+——, vill. of Attica, ii. 81.
+Pytho, t. of Phocis, ii. 55, 115, 119.
+Pythŏdōris, ii. 305, 306, 309, 310.
+Pythŏdōrus, ii. 305; iii. 24.
+Pythŏlaus, prom. of Ethiopia, iii. 199, 201.
+Pythōn, ii. 120, 121.
+Pytia, ii. 349.
+Pytius, ii. 349.
+Pytna, part of Mt Ida, ii. 189.
+——, in Crete, ii. 189.
+Pyxūs, prom., r., and t. of Lucania, i. 376.
+Quadi, i. 444.
+Querci.
Quintius Titus, ii. 146.
+Quintus Fabius Maximus Æmilia- nus, i. 277.
+Quirïnalis Collis, Mount Quirinus, at Rome, i. 348.
+Quirites, i. 342—344
+Ram's Head.
Raphia (
Rapti, modem name of Prasia.
+Rauraris, i. 272.
+Ravenna, i. 314, 318, 319, 322, 323, 326, 337.
+Reatě, c. of the Sabines (
Red Sea,
Reggio, i. 315, 317.
+——, in Modena.
Regis-Villa, c. of Etruria, i. 335.
+Rēmi, people of Gaul, i. 289, 290.
+Rěmus, brother of Romulus, i. 340, 343.
+Reneia, isl. (
Rhacōtis, part of Alexandria, iii. 227.
+Rhadamanthus, Cretan lawgiver, ii. 196, 204.
+——, brother of Minos, i. 3, 225; ii. 122, 196, 328.
+——, tragedy of Euri- pides, ii. 32.
+Rhadinē, song of Stesichorus, ii. 21.
+Rhæci, i. 343.
+Rhæti, i. 287, 304, 306, 307, 311, 317, 447, 448, 482.
+Rhætian wine, i. 306.
+Rhætica, Rhetia, i. 482.
+Rhaga, ii. 264.
+Rhagæ, Rhages, c. of Media, i. 94; ii. 250, 264.
+Rhamanïtæ, people of Arabia, iii. 212.
+Rhambæi, people of Syria, iii. 166.
+Rhamis, i. 446.
+Rhamnūs, t. of Attica, ii. 90.
+Rhathēnus, ii. 296.
+Rhatōtes, name of the Paphlagoni- ans, ii. 302.
+Rhea, mother of the gods, ii. 22, 183—189.
+—— (Agdistis, Idæa, Dindymēnē, Sipylēnē, Pessinūntis, Cybělē, Cybēbē), ii. 184—186.
+——, Silvia, daughter of Numitor, i. 340.
+Rhecas, ii. 224.
+Rhegians, i. 391.
+Rhegīni, i. 385, 386.
+Rhegium (
——, c. of the Bruttii, i. 77, 384—386, 388—390, 404, 431.
+——, t. of Gaul, beyond the Po (
—— Lepidum, t. of Gaul, this side the Po (
Rhēgma, at the mouths of the Cydnus, iii. 56.
+Rhenus, r. (
——, sources of the, i. 265, 289, 304, 317.
+——, mouths of the, i. 99, 265, 288, 289, 296, 447, 451.
+Rhesus, king of Thrace, i. 514; ii. 351.
+——, r. of the Troad, ii. 304, 341, 351, 357, 371.
+Rhetia, mother of the Corybantes, ii. 190.
+Rhiginia, r. of Thrace, i. 516.
+Rhinocolūra, Rhincocorura, t. of Phœnicia (
Rhipē, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.
+Rhium, prom. of Achaia (
——, t. of Messenia, ii. 37, 38.
+Rhizæi, Bay of the, i. 485.
+Rhizōn, t. on the coast of Illyria (
Rhizonic Gulf (
Rhizophagi, people of Ethiopia, iii. 195.
+Rhizūs, t. ofThessaly, ii. 139, 148.
+Rhoa, i. 269.
+Rhodanus,
Rhodaspes, son of Phraates, iii. 160.
+Rhodes, i. 38, 105, 109, 123, 131, 133, 160, 172—175, 179, 180, 184, 187, 189, 201, 202, 332, 423, 486; ii. 164, 188, 189, 212, 213
Rhodians, Rhodii, i. 90, 240, 398; ii. 85, 194; iii. 33, 34.
+Rhodius, r. of the Troad, ii. 304, 357, 371.
+Rhodŏpē (Rhodos, Rhode ?), t. of Spain, i. 240; iii. 32.
+——, mtn of Thrace (
Rhodōpis, iii. 250.
+Rhodos.
Rhoduntia, citadel near Thermo- pylæ, ii. 129.
+Rhoeitēs, r. of the Troad, ii. 371.
+Rhœtaces, r. of Albania, ii. 230.
+Rhœtium, t. of the Troad, ii. 357, 358, 361, 368.
+Rhombites, the Greater, Bay of Mæotis, ii. 221.
+——, the Lesser, ii. 221
+Rhōsus, r. of Syria, iii. 164.
+Rlundacus, r. of Mysia (
Rhypes, c. of Achæa, ii. 71, 73, 75.
+Rhypis, ii. 73.
+Rhytium, t. of Crete, ii. 200.
+Riphæan mtns, i. 452, 459.
+Romans, i. 3, 16, 18, 22, 104, 153, 175, 191, 192, 209, 210, 212, 217, 222, 226—228,231,234,238,239, 243, 247, 249, 250, 253, 262, 263, 270, 271, 284, 286, 287,290—295, 298, 302, 305, 306, 310, 313, 317, 319, 321, 322, 324, 326, 327, 331, 333—335, 338—356, 358, 360, 361, 364, 366, 371, 373, 374, 377, 378, 381, 383, 387, 397, 404, 405, 408, 412, 413, 424, 427, 437— 441, 443, 446, 447, 450, 451, 466 —468, 475, 477, 480, 484, 485, 488, 491, 494, 498, 500, 505, 509, 516; ii. 38, 43, 44, 46, 59, 61, 63, 64, 71, 73, 85, 88, 89, 92, 100, 108, 111, 128, 172, 174,
Roman army, i. 178.
+—— camp, i. 246.
+—— cavalry, i. 292.
+—— citizens, i. 342, 366.
+—— colonists, i. 252, 373.
+—— colony, i. 212, 322, 323.
+—— ustoms, i. 278.
+—— Empire, view of the, iii. 295—297.
+—— garrison, i. 270.
+—— historians, i. 249.
+—— polity, i. 278.
+—— prefects, i. 286.
+—— territory, i. 151, 341.
+Rome, i. 140, 202, 216, 253, 278, 293, 297, 317, 322—327, 330, 331, 333, 336—356, 358, 366, 370, 371, 398, 412, 413, 431, 441, 444; ii. 64, 65, 140, 171, 368; iii. 172, 295—297.
+Rōmulus, i. 340, 342, 343.
+Rōxana, wife of Alexander, ii. 254; iii. 229.
+Rōxolani, Scythian nation, i. 172, 451, 470, 471.
+Rūbicōn, r. of Italy (
Rūcantii, i. 307.
+Rudiæ, c. of Calabria, i. 429, 430.
+Rūscino, r. and t. of Gaul (
Rūspinum, t. of Numidia, iii. 284.
+Rūtēni, people of Aquitania, i. 284.
+Rūtūli, people of Latium, i. 339, 343, 346.
+Saba, port in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 195.
+Sabæ (
Sabæans, people of Arabia Felix, iii. 190, 206, 207, 209.
+Sabata, c. of Arabia, iii. 190.
+—— (
Sabatorum Vada, t. of Liguria (
Sabazius, god of the Phrygians, ii. 186, 188.
+Sabelli, i. 372.
+Sabina, i. 338, 339, 351.
Sabini, Sabines, people of Italy, i. 325—327, 338,339,342, 357, 371, 438.
+Sabos, king of Arabia, iii. 212.
+——, king of India, iii. 95.
+Sacæ, Scythian race, i. 465; ii. 245 —250.
+Sacæa, ii. 246.
+Sacarauli, Scythian race, ii. 245.
+Sacasēne, distr. of Armenia, i. 112; ii. 242, 246, 268.
+Saccopodes, Adiabeni, iii. 154.
+Sacred Promontory, Promontory of Spain (
Sadacora, t. of Cappadocia, iii. 44.
+Sadracæ, palace of Darius, near Arbela, iii. 144.
+Sætabis, t. of Spain (
Sagalasseis, ii. 324.
+Sagalassus, ii. 323, 410.
+Sagapēni, iii. 154.
+Sagra, Sagras, r. i. 391, 392.
+——, battle of the, i. 395
+Sagrus, r., i. 360.
+Sagūntum, c. of Spain (
Sagylium, citadel of Pontus (
Saii, a Thracian tribe, ii. 169, 298.
Sais, c. of Egypt, iii. 239, 242.
+Saïtæ, iii. 257.
+Saïtic mouth of the Nile (
—— nome, in Egypt, iii. 239, 240.
+Salaminiac Bay, ii. 6.
+Salaminii, ii. 83.
+Salamis, c. of Cyprus, iii. 69.
+Salamis, isl. (
——, t. of the isl., ii. 83.
+——, Gulf of, ii. 82, 83, 89.
+Salapia, c. of Apulia, i. 433, 434
+Salaria Via, i. 339.
+Salas, r. of Germany, i. 445.
+Salassi, people of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 303—306, 309, 311, 314.
+Salda, port of Mauritania (
Salentine territory, i. 429.
+Salentini, people of lapygia, i. 422, 428.
+Salentinum, i. 430.
+Salernum, c. of Campania, i. 374.
+Salganeus, Bœotian, i. 17; ii. 96.
+——, c. of Bœotia, ii. 92, 98.
+Salmacis, ftn near Halicarnassus, iii. 35.
+Salmōnē, c. of Pisatis, ii. 31, 32.
+——, ftn of Enipeus, ii. 31, 32.
+Salmōneus, king of Elis, ii. 31—33.
+Salmōnium, prom. of Crete (
Salmydēssus, c. and coast of Thrace (
Salōmē, sister of Herod, iii. 184.
+Salōn, t. of the Dalmatæ, i. 484.
+Salōn, t. of Bithynia, ii. 317, 318.
+——, cheese of, ii. 318.
+Saltiātæ (Saltigetæ?), in Lusitania, i. 217.
+Salyes, people of Transalpine Gaul, i. 267, 269—271, 275, 276, 278, 301, 302.
+Samæi, in Cephallenia, ii. 166.
+Samaria, same as Sebaste, c. of Judæa, iii. 177.
+Samarianē, c. of Hyrcania, ii. 242.
+Samē, t. of Cephallenia, ii. 163, 166, 167.
+Sami, heights, ii. 169.
Samia, Samos, ii. 212, 213; iii. 10.
+Samian strait, iii. 10.
+Samians, inhabitants of Samos, i. 518; ii. 168, 212; iii. 9, 10.
+Samicum, citadel of Triphylia, ii. 16, 17, 19, 21, 26.
+Samicus, plain, ii. 21.
+Samnīte, Samnites, Saunītæ, i. 339, 344, 346, 357, 360, 367, 371—374, 377, 378, 380, 387, 399, 431, 438.
+Samnites, c. of the, i. 353.
+——, women of the, in an island of Gaul, i. 295.
+Samnitic mtns, i. 326.
+Samnium, i. 360.
+Samōnium, prom. of Crete.
——, in the Neandris, ii. 189.
+——, Alexandrian, ii. 189.
+Samos, isl. in the Icarian Sea (
——, Thracian, ii. 10.
+——, Ionian, ii. 10, 21.
+——, c. of the island of, iii. 3.
+——, c. of Triphylia, ii. 19, 21, 25.
+——, and Samē, same as Cephal- lenia, and c. of this isl., ii. 163, 166, 167.
+——, Threïcian, same as Samo- thrace, i. 516; ii. 168.
+Samosata, c. of Syria, iii. 44, 161.
+Samothracē, Samothracia, isl. (
Samothracians, i. 516; ii. 180.
+Sampsiceramus, prince of the Emi- seni, iii. 166, 167.
+Sanā, t. of Pallene, i. 511.
+Sanaus, c. of Phrygia, ii. 332.
+Sandalium, citadel of Pisidia, ii. 323.
+Sandaracurgium, mtn of Pontus, ii. 313.
+Sandobanes, r. of Albania, ii. 230.
+Sandōn, father of Athenodorus, iii. 58.
+Sandrocottus, king of the Prasii, i. 109; iii. 97, 105, 107, 125.
+Sandyx, ii. 271.
+Sangarius, r. of the Troad (
Sangias, vill. of Phrygia, ii. 288.
+Sanisēnē, distr. of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.
+Sanni, people of Pontus, ii. 296.
+Santoni (
Saōcondarius, ii. 321.
+Saos, r.
Sapæ, Sapæi, people of Thrace, i. 515, 516; ii. 169, 298, 305.
+Saperdes, ii. 393.
+Saphnioeis.
Sapis, r. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Sappho, i. 65; ii. 162, 388, 391, 393; iii. 250.
+Sapra limnē (
——, in the Troad, ii. 387.
+Saraastus, king of India, ii. 253.
+Saramēnē, ii. 294.
+Sarapana, fortress of Colchis (
Saraparæ, people dwelling beyond Armenia, ii. 273.
+Sarapis, god of the Egyptians, iii. 242, 248.
+Sarapium, temple of Sarapis, iii. 230, 248.
+Saravēnē, prefecture of Cappa- docia, ii. 278.
+Sardanapalus, king of Assyria, iii 55, 143.
Sardinia, i. 78, 160, 177, 185, 216, 330—331; iii. 32, 240, 297.
+——, Sea of, i. 78, 84, 159, 185, 216, 325.
+Sardinian Gulf, i. 216.
+Sardis, Sardeis, c. of Lydia (
Sardō, Sardōn, isl., i. 219, same as Sardinia.
+Sareisa, c. of the Gordyenes, iii. 157.
+Sargarausēnē, prefecture of Cappa- docia, ii. 278, 281.
+Sarmatians, Sauromatæ, i. 453, 468, 470, 480; ii. 219, 226, 227, 230, 240, 302.
+Sarnius, r. of Hyrcania, ii. 245.
+Sarnus, r. of Campania (
Sarōnic Gulf, ii. 6, 49, 56, 63.
+—— Sea (
Sarpēdōn, prom. of Cilicia, ii. 405; iii. 53, 69.
+——, prom. of Thrace, i. 516.
+——, brother of Minos, founder of Miletus, ii. 328, 347; iii. 49.
+——, leader of the Syrians, iii. 174.
+Sarsina, t. of Umbria, i. 337.
+Sarus, r. of Cappadocia and Cilicia, ii. 279.
+Sasō, isl. (
Satalca, t. of Mesopotamia, iii. 157.
+Satnioeis, or Saphnioeis, r. of the Troad, i. 494; ii. 375, 379, 394.
+Satnius, ii. 375, 394.
+Saturn, i. 494; ii. 39, 183,184, 189, 378.
+——, temple of, i. 254.
+Satyr, painted by Protogenes, iii. 29, 30.
+Satyri, ii. 180, 184, 186.
+Satyrium, near Tarentum, i. 425.
+Satyrus, king of Bosporus, i. 462, 476.
+——, monument of, ii. 222.
+——, founder of the city of Phi- lotera, iii 193.
+Saunitæ,
Sauromatæ, i. 172, 194, 195, 452, 464; ii. 240, 302.
Saus, Sauus, r. of Hungary.
Scæan gates, in the city of Troy, ii. 351, 363.
+—— wall, ii. 351.
+Scæi, ii. 351.
+Scæus, r. in the Troad, ii. 351.
+Scamander, r. i. 90; ii. 358, 360, 361, 363, 369, 370, 378.
+——, plain of, ii. 361, 362.
+Scamandrius, son of Hector, ii. 377, 378; iii. 66.
+Scandaria, Scandarium, prom. of the island of Cos, iii. 36.
+Scardon, a Liburnian city (
——, in Elis, ii. 347.
+Scardus, mtn of Macedonia (
Scarphē, c. of Bœotia, i. 95; ii. 103.
+Scarpheia, Scarphē, c. of the Epicnemidian Locrians (
Scaurus, M. Æmilius, i. 323.
+Scēnæ, c. of Mesopotamia, iii. 159.
+Scēnītæ, Scenites, in Arabia, Meso- potamia, Syria, etc., i. 63, 196, 441; ii. 219, 252; iii. 160, 166, 185, 190, 204.
+Scepsia, ii. 361, 375.
+Scēpsian territory, ii. 190.
+Scēpsians, ii. 361, 377.
+Scēpsis, ii. 300, 360, 369, 375— 381; iii. 5.
+Scēpsius, Demetrius.
Scēptūchiæ, Scēptūchi, ii. 225.
+Schědia, t. of Egypt, iii. 237—241.
Schědieium, ii. 124
+Schedius, ii. 124.
+Scheria, same as Corcyra, i. 459.
+Schœnus, c. of Bœotia (
Schœnus, r. of Bœotia, ii. 103.
+——, port of Corinth, ii. 49, 63, 79.
+——, clans of, i. 16.
+Sciathus (
Scillūs, t. of Triphylia, ii. 16.
+Scilūrus, king of the Scythians, i. 471, 475, 479.
+Scingomagum, t. in the Alps, i. 268.
+Sciōnē, c. of Pallene, i. 511.
+Scipio, Metellus, iii. 281, 284, 285.
+—— Æmilianus, i. 283; iii. 51, 286.
+—— Africanus, i. 361.
+—— Caius, i. 317.
+—— Nasica, i. 484.
+Scira, vill. of Attica, ii. 82.
+Sciras, same as Salamis, ii. 82.
+—— Athene, ii. 82.
+Sciron, ii. 80, 81.
+Scirones (N.W. wind), i. 43.
+Scironides rocks, ii. 80, 82.
+Scirophoriōn, ii. 82.
+Sciros, rocks of, i. 43.
+Scollis, mtn of Elis, ii. 11, 13, 14, 74.
+Scōlus, c. of Bœotia (
Scombraria, isl. near Spain (
Scombrus, iii. 25.
+Scŏpas, the sculptor, ii. 373; iii. 11.
+Scordistæ, Scordisci, i. 450, 454, 482, 483, 485, 488, 489.
+——, Great, i. 488.
+——, Little, i. 488.
+Scotūssa, c. of Pelasgiotis, i. 503, 504, 514; ii. 146.
+Scūltanna, r. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Scydisēs, mtn of Armenia (
Scylacium.
Scylax, ii. 318, 340; iii. 37.
+——, r. of Pontus (
Scylla, i. 31—33, 36, 37, 39.
+——, daughter of Nisus, ii. 55.
+Scyllæum, prom. and port of Italy, i. 35—37, 384.
+——, prom. of Argolis (
Scyllēticus Sinus, Gulf of Scylle- tium (
Scyllētium, Scylacium, t. of the Bruttii (
Scyrus, isl. (
Scythia (
——, desert of, i. 79, 82.
+——, Little (or Tauric), i. 478, 489; ii. 279.
+Scythian nations, i. 247, 480, 481; ii. 235.
+—— bow, i. 188.
+—— history, i. 32.
+—— zone, i. 147; ii. 247.
+—— custom, i. 299.
+Scythians, i. 23, 51, 52, 106, 115, 172, 179, 180, 194, 195, 458, 461, 462, 464, 467, 468, 475, 480; ii. 218, 219, 221, 230, 240, 244, 245, 248, 273, 288, 302,
Scythians of the East, i. 172.
+Scythopolis, c, of Galilee, iii. 181.
+Sebastē, c. of Pontus, ii. 300.
+——, same as Samaria, iii, 177.
+Sebennytic nome, iii. 240.
+—— mouth of the Nile, iii. 239, 240.
+Sebennytice, c. of Egypt, iii. 239.
+Secinus (
Segeda.
Segesama, t. of the Vaccæi (
Segesta (
Segestes, father of Segimuntus, i. 446.
+Segestica (
Segida, t. of the Aruaci, i. 243.
+Segimūntus, prince of the Cherusci, i. 446.
+Segobriga, t. of the Celtiberi, i. 243.
+Segusii, or Segusiani, people of Gaul, i. 277, 286.
+Seiris, r. of Lucania, i. 397.
Sělēnē, or the Moon, goddess wor- shipped by the Albani, ii. 234.
+——, by the people of Memphis, iii. 248.
+——, cognomen of Cleopatra, iii. 161.
+——, Greek name for Luna, c. and port of Etruria, i. 330.
+Seleuceia, c. of Susiana, iii. 154.
+——, c. of Assyria, on the Ti- gris, ii. 262, 271; iii. 145, 146, 152, 156, 162.
+——, Pierian, c. of Syria (
——, fortress of Mesopotamia, iii. 161.
+——, c. of Cilicia, iii. 53, 54.
+Seleucis, part of Syria, iii. 160, 161, 167, 171.
+Seleucus, the Babylonian, i. 8, 261.
+—— Nicator, king of Syria, ii. 334, 400; iii. 51, 74, 125, 145, 146, 161, 162, 165.
+—— Callinicus, king of Syria, ii. 248; iii. 162, 168.
+Selgē, c. of Pisidia (
Selgeis, ii. 323—325.
+Selgessus, same as Sagalassus, ii. 323.
+Selgic mountains, ii. 325.
+Sēlinūntia, hot springs in Sicily (
Sēlinūntius Apollo, worshipped by the Orobii, ii. 152.
+Sēlinūs, c. of Sicily, i. 412.
+——, c. of Cilicia, iii. 52.
+——, r. of Sicily, ii. 73; iii. 68.
+——, r. near Ephesus, ii. 73.
+——, r. of Elis, ii. 73.
+——, r. of Achæa, ii. 73.
+Selinüsia, lake near Ephesus, iii. 14.
+Sellēis, r. near Sicyon, ii. 9.
+——, r. of Elis, i. 502; ii. 9—11.
+——, r. of the Troad, ii. 351.
+Selli, people of Epirus, i. 44, 502.
+Selūrus, i. 413.
+Sēlybria, c. of Thrace, i. 490, 518.
+Selys, i. 490.
+Sembritæ, Egyptians driven into exile by Psammitichus, iii. 195, 219.
+Semiramis, wife of Ninus, i. 129; ii. 271, 281, 309, 310; iii. 74, 75, 122, 143.
+——, rampart of, i. 124.
+Semnōnes, people of Germany, i. 445.
+Sēna, t. of Umbria (
Sěnŏnes, people of Gaul, i. 289.
+——, people of Italy, i. 291, 317, 322.
+Sentīnum, t. of Umbria (
Sēpias, prom. and coast of Thessaly (
——, c. of Magnesia, ii. 139.
+Sepius, same as Sipus.
+Septempěda, t. of Picenum (
Sēquana, r. (
Sēquani, people of Gaul, i. 278, 286—288, 291, 307, 310.
+Serapis.
Seraspadanes, son of Phraates, iii, 160.
+Sērěs, people of India, ii. 253; iii 95, 97.
+Serguntia, t. of Celtiberia, i. 243
+Seriphians, ii. 211.
Seriphos, one of the Cyclades (
Serrium, prom. of Thrace, i. 516.
+Sertōrius, i. 238, 242, 244, 439; iii. 281.
+Servilius, P. Isauricus, ii. 322; iii. 46, 55.
+Servius, king of the Romans, i. 348.
+Sesamum (
Sesamus, t. of Paphlagonia, ii. 291.
+Sesarēthii, people of Epirus, i. 500.
+Sesithacus, leader of the Cherusci, i. 446.
+Sesōstris, king of Egypt, i. 61, 96; iii. 74, 191, 194, 224, 244.
+Sēstia, prom. of, in the Thracian Chersonese, i. 518.
+Sēstos, t. of the Thracian Cherson- ese, i. 164, 188, 518; ii. 350, 352—354.
+——, strait of, i. 517.
+Setabis (
Sethroite nome, iii. 243.
+Sētia, t. of Latium (
——, wine of, i. 347.
+Sētium, prom. of Gallia Narbonen- sis (
Seusamora, c. of Iberia Caucasia, ii. 231.
+Seuthēs, king of the Odryse, i. 5, 6.
+Seven Brothers, monuments of the, iii. 278.
+Sextiæ, hot-baths near Marseilles, i. 267, 270.
+Sextius, i. 270.
+Sextus Pompeius, i. 213, 362, 386, 388, 404, 408, 411.
+Sibæ, people of India, iii. 77, 94.
+Sibini, people of Germany, i. 445.
+Sibyl, Erythræan, ii. 321; iii. 18, 258, 259.
+Sicambri, i. 289, 444—446, 451.
+Sicani, people of Sicily, i. 407.
+Sicenus (
Sicilians, i. 9, 336, '385, 407; ii. 118.
+Sicily, i. 33—78, 84, 89, 93, 128, 164, 184—186, 194, 213, 224, 334, 361, 362, 369, 376—378, 383—386, 388, 389, 392, 400 —404, 407—409, 411, 412, 414, 417—422, 425, 430. 437, 438, 459; ii. 4, 35, 41, 71, 92, 116, 154, 158, 378, 404; iii. 32, 59.
+——, Sea of, i. 85, 185—187, 315, 346, 379, 380, 400, 495; ii. 5, 16, 287, 288, 297.
+——, Strait of.
Sicyōn, c. of Peloponnesus (
Sicyōnia, ii. 5, 62, 66, 103.
+Sicyōnii, Sicyonians, ii. 64, 66.
+Sidē, c. of Pontus, ii. 295.
+——, c. of Pamphylia (
Sidēnē, distr. of Pontus (
——, c. and distr. of Mysia, ii. 347, 368.
+Sidētani, in Spain, i. 245.
+Sidicīni, people of Italy, i. 352, 436.
+Sidicīnum.
Sidōn, c. of Phoenicia (
Sidŏnes, people of the Bastarnæ, i. 470.
+Sidōnia (Pēdōnia ?), isl. on the coast of Egypt, iii. 235.
+Sidonian women, i. 65.
+Sidŏnii, Sidonians, i. 2, 41, 60, 65, 66, 68, 458; iii. 173, 174, 215, 216.
+Siga, c. of the Masæsylii (
Sigeia, prom. in the Troad, ii. 358, 372.
+Sigēlus, monument of Narcissus, ii. 96.
+Sigertis, king of India, ii. 253.
+Sigeum, t. of the Troad (
Sigia, ii. 373.
+Sigimērus, Segimerus, prince of the Cherusci, i. 446.
+Siginni, people inhabiting the Cas- pian, ii. 258.
+Signia, t. of Latium (
Signium (wine), i. 352.
+Sigriana, distr. of Media, ii. 265.
+Sigrium, prom. of Lesbos (
Sila, forest of the Bruttii, i. 391.
+——, r. of India, iii. 98.
+——, t., i. 435.
+Silacēni, people of Assyria, iii. 154.
+Silanus, i. 258.
+Silaris, r. of Campania (
Silēni, servants of Bacchus, i. 286, 288, 290, 291, 297.
+Silenus, ii. 186, 318.
+Silli, people of Ethiopia, iii. 16.
+Silphium (
Silta, in Thrace, i. 518.
+Silvium, t. of the Peucetii, i. 432.
+Simi, iii. 197.
+Simmias, Rhodian, ii. 42; iii. 34.
+Simodia, iii. 23.
+Simoeis, r. of the Troad, ii. 358, 361, 362, 368.
+——,r. of Sicily, ii. 378.
+——, plain of, in the Troad, ii. 361.
+Simōnides, lyric poet, ii. 146, 210, 394; iii. 108.
+—— Amorginus, ii. 212; iii. 130.
+Simuntis, cognomen of Troy, ii. 74.
+Simus, physician, iii. 36.
+——, lyric poet, iii. 23.
+Simyra, c. of Syria (
Sinda, c. of Pisidia (
Sindi, Mæotic race. ii. 223.
+Sindic harbour, ii. 225
+Sindica, distr. by the Cimmerian Bosporus, i. 478; ii. 219, 224, 305.
+—— Sea, ii. 219.
+Sindomana, c. of India, iii. 95.
+Singitic Gulf, Bay of Macedonia (
Singus, c. of Macedonia, i. 511.
+Sinna, citadel of, iii. 170.
+Sinōpe, c. of Pontus, colony of the Milesians, i. 72, 106, 113, 114, 202, 216, 491; ii. 198, 225, 227, 284, 291—294, 302, 310; iii. 44, 61—63.
+Sinopenses, ii. 291.
+Sinōpis, Sinopītis, Sinopic district, ii. 313.
+Sinŏria, fortress of Armenia, ii. 305.
+Sinōtium, t. of the Dalmatians, i. 484.
+Sinti, Sinties, or Saii, people of Thrace, i. 514, 515; ii. 169, 298.
+Sinuessa, Sinoessa, t. of Latium (
Siphnian bone, ii. 207.
+Siphnus, isl. (
Sipūs, c. of Apulia (
Sipylēnē, cognomen of Rhea, ii. 184.
+—— (
Sipylus, mtn of Lydia, i. 91; ii. 326, 335, 337; iii. 66.
+——, c. of Lydia, i. 91; ii. 326.
+Siraces, Siraci, inhabitants of the Caucasus, ii. 219, 238, 239.
+Siracēnē, ii. 236.
+Sirbis, r. of Lycia (
Sirbōnis, Sirbōnitis, lake in Egypt (
Sirens, i. 34, 35, 375, 387.
Sirenusæ, Sirenussæ, prom. (
Siris, c., i. 397—399.
+——, r. Sinno, i. 397.
+Siritis, i. 380.
+Sirmium, c. of Pannonia, i. 483.
+Sisapō, c. of Spain, i. 214.
+Siscia, t. of Pannonia, i. 483.
+Sisimythres, stronghold of, in Bac- triana, ii. 254.
+Sisinus, treasure-hold of, ii. 281.
+Sisis, ii. 304.
+Sisypheium, in the Acrocorinthus, ii. 62.
+Sisyrba, an Amazon, iii. 3.
+Sisyrbītæ, iii. 3.
+Sitacēnē, distr. of Babylon, of Apol- lōniātis (
Sitacēni, ii. 223.
+Sithōnes, people of Macedonia, i. 506.
+Smintheas.
Sminthia, ii. 374.
+Sminthium, temple of Apollo, near Hamaxitus, ii. 190, 374.
+Smyrna, c. of Ionia, ii. 237, 298, 303, 336; iii. 1, 4, 8, 20, 43.
+——, part of Ephesus, iii. 3.
+——, Bay of, iii. 20, 21.
+——, an Amazon, iii. 3.
+Smyrnæans, iii. 3, 20.
+Soandus, t. of Cappadocia, iii. 44.
+Soanes, people bordering on the Caucasus, ii. 225, 229.
+Soatra, t. of Lycaonia, ii. 321.
+Sōcrates, i. 452; ii. 95; iii. 114.
+Sodom, c. of Judæa, iii. 183.
+Sogdiana, i. 113; ii. 245, 248, 253 —255; iii. 125, 126.
+Sogdiani, Sogdii, Sogdians, i. 112, 195; ii. 245, 248, 253.
+Soli, c. of Cilicia (
Soli, c. of Cyprus, iii 70.
+Solii, iii. 70.
+Solmissus, mtn near Ephesus, iii. 11.
+Solŏcē, iii. 154.
+Sŏlōn, i. 154; ii. 83.
+Solyme, mtns of Lycia, i. 53; iii. 48.
+Solymi, people of Lycia, i. 8, 32, 54; ii. 328, 409, 410; iii. 48, 49, 63, 65.
+Solymus, mtn of Pisidia, iii. 409.
+Somnus, ii. 341.
+Sōpeithēs, king of the Indians, iii 92, 93.
+Sōphēnē, distr. of Armenia (
——, prince of, ii. 278.
+Sōphēni, ii. 272, 273, 278.
+Sophoclēs, i. 410; ii. 32, 42, 51, 81, 90, 135, 170, 186, 191, 377; iii. 9, 15, 59, 60, 76.
+Sōra, t. of Latium, i. 353.
+Soracte, mtn of Latium (
Sosicrates, ii. 193.
+Sōsipŏlis, Jupiter, worshipped at Magnesia, iii. 23.
+Sōssinati, people of Sardinia, i. 334.
+Sōstratus, tomb of, ii. 74.
+——, grammarian, iii. 26.
+—— of Cnidus, iii. 227.
+Sōtades, ii. 19.
+——, poet, iii. 23.
+Sōteira, harbour in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 194.
+Sōtēres, or Saviours, cognomen of the Dioscuri i. 345.
+Southern Sea, i. 183.
+Spadines, ii. 239.
+Spain, i. 3, 9, 13, 33, 43, 54, 72, 100, 101, 128, 141,151,152, 157, 160, 161, 163, 165, 175, 180, 184, 192, 205, 206, 208, 210, 213,215 —219, 222—226, 228, 229, 283, 234, 236, 240—242, 244, 245, 249, 251, 252, 255, 263, 264, 267,
Spain, Citerior, i. 249, 250.
+——, Ulterior, i. 240, 245; iii. 297.
+Sparta, i. 274; ii. 15, 25, 36, 40 —44, 47, 49, 59, 153, 203.
Spartans, i. 385; ii. 42, 202, 203.
+Spartarium, plain of, 241.
+Spauta (Capauta ? ), marsh in Me- dia (
Spedon, ii. 113.
+Spercheius, r. of Thessaly (
Spermophagi, people of Ethiopia, iii. 195.
+Sphagia, Sphactēria, island, ii. 22, 36.
+Sphēttus, t. of Attica, ii. 88.
+Spina, c. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Spinītæ, i. 318; ii. 119.
+Spitamenes, ii. 248, 255.
+Spŏlētium, c. of Umbria (
Sporades, islands, i. 187; ii. 192. 207, 211—213; iii. 33.
+Stadia, ancient name of Rhodes, iii. 31.
+Stagirus, Stagira, t. of Macedonia, i. 512, 513.
+Staphylus, ii. 195.
+Stasanōr, iii. 70.
+Statanian wine, i. 347, 361.
+Statōnia, t. of Etruria, i. 335.
+Steganopodes, i. 68, 458.
+Steiria, vill. of Attica, ii. 89.
+Stēlæ.
Stenyclarus, c. of Messenia, ii. 38.
+Sterophthalmi, i. 68, 458.
+Stērŏpa, ii. 198.
+Stēsichorus, i. 67; ii. 21, 32.
+Stēsimbrŏtus, ii. 189.
+Sthěnělus, king of the Mycenæ, ii. 59.
+Sthěnis, ii. 293.
+Stiphane (
Stoa Pœcile, ii. 87.
+Stŏbi, t. of Macedonia, i. 504; ii. 77.
+Stœchades, islands, i. 276.
+Stoics, i. 24, 156.
+Stŏmalimnē, a salt lake, i. 275; ii. 358, 361.
+——, village, iii. 36.
+Stŏni (
Stony Plain, the, i. 273.
+Stŏras, r. of Latium, i. 346.
+Strabo, geographer, i. 505, 507, 516, 517: his country, ii. 195, 197, 311: his ancestry, ii. 307: his masters, iii. 26, 27, 53, 173: his friends, i. 178, 209, 262: his age, 439: his travels, i. 91, 178, 332; ii. 61, 208, 255; iii. 102, 247, 262, 265; his History, i. 21; ii. 251.
+——, Pompey, i. 317.
+Straits.
Stratarchas, ii. 198.
+Stratia, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.
+Stratius, priest, i. 114.
+——.
Strato, isl. of, in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 195.
+—— tower, in Judæa, iii. 174.
+——, tyrant, ii. 294.
+——, natural philosopher, i. 78 80—82.
+Stratocles, Athenian, ii. 35.
+——, Rhodian, iii. 33.
+Stratonice, ii. 401.
+Stratoniceia, c. of Caria (
——, by the Taurus, iii. 40.
+Stratoniceians, ii. 383; iii. 39, 40.
+Stratonicus, ii. 381; iii. 28.
+Stratus, c. of Acarnania, ii. 159.
+——, c. of Achaia, afterwards Dyme, ii. 74.
+Strongyla, one of the Lipari islands (
Strophades, islands (
Strūthophagi, in Ethiopia, iii. 197.
+Strymōn, r. of Thrace (
Strymonic Gulf (G.
Stygian stream.
Stymbara, t. of the Deuriopes, i. 501.
+Stymphalian lake, ii. 52, 76.
+Stymphalides, ii. 52.
+Stymphalii, ii. 76.
+Stymphalus, t. of Arcadia, i. 416; ii. 52, 66, 75, 76.
+Styra (
Styrieis, ii. 153.
+Styx, at Lake Avernus, i. 363.
+——, near Pheneus, ii. 76.
+——, at Telchinas, iii. 31.
+Suangela, c. of Caria, ii. 383.
+Sūchus, the sacred crocodile, iii. 195.
+Sūcro, r. of Spain (
——, t. of Spain, i. 238.
+Sudinus, iii. 146.
+Suessa, c. of the Volsci, i. 344, 352.
+Suessiones, people of Gaul, i. 289, 293.
+Suessūla, t. of Campania (
Suevi, i. 289, 308, 444, 445, 448, 452.
+Sūgambri, people of Germany.
Suidas, i. 503.
+Sulchi, t. of Sardinia, i. 333.
+Sūlgas, r. of Gaul (
Sulmō, c. of the Peligni (
Sun, Colossus of the, iii. 29.
+Sūnium, prom. of Attica (
Sūnium, demus of Attica, ii. 89.
+Sūrena, iii. 31.
+Surrentum, c. of Campania (
Sūsa, c. of Susiana (
Sūsiana, distr. (
Sūsians, i. 196; ii. 264, 266.
+Sūsis, Sūsias, same as Susiana.
+Suspiritis, ii. 235.
+Sūtrium, c. of Etruria (
Sybaris, c. of Lucania, i. 394—396; ii. 73.
+——, c. of the Bruttii, a colony of the Rhodians, i. 398, 399; iii. 33.
+——, r. of Lucania, i. 394—397; ii. 73.
+——, ftn of Achaia, ii. 73.
+Sybaritæ, Sybarites, i. 373, 376, 399; ii. 119.
+Sybota, islands (
Sycaminopolis, c. of Judæa, iii. 175.
+Sydracæ (al. Oxydraceæ), people of India, iii. 76, 94, 95.
+Syedra, t. of Cilicia, iii. 52.
+Syēnē, c. of Egypt (
Sylla, L. Cornelius, i. 331, 371; ii. 85, 89, 154, 308, 356, 357, 380; iii. 32, 232.
+Syllæus, iii. 210—213, 267.
+Sylŏsōn, iii. 8, 9.
+Symæthus, r. of Sicily (
Symbace, c. of Armenia or Media, ii. 263.
+Symbŏlōn limen, or Signal harbour, in the Tauric Chersonesus, i. 474, 475.
Symbri, Symbrii (
Symē, isl. of Caria, iii. 34.
+Symplēgaděs, by the Thracian Bos- porus, same as the Cyaneæ, i. 32, 224, 256.
+Synnada, t. of Phrygia (
Synnadic marble, ii. 140, 333.
+Synoria.
Syphax, iii. 282.
+Syracuse (
Syracūsans, i. 357, 389, 394, 407, 408; ii. 158.
+Syria, i. 63, 76, 90, 129, 189, 196, 416; ii. 145, 211, 240, 250, 262, 264, 267, 273, 274, 281, 308, 404; iii. 50, 51, 60, 61, 130, 140, 150, 158, 160—176, 179, 185, 207, 209, 216, 230, 232.
+——, Upper, i. 201.
+——, Lower, iii. 83, 150.
+——, Cœle-Syria, i. 201; iii. 160, 161, 167, 169, 171, 185, 189.
+——, Sea of, i. 129; ii. 279; iii. 160.
+Syrians, i. 66, 196, 440; ii. 290, 301, 304.
+——, Leuco, ii. 301, 302, 304.
+Syriē, same as Syros.
+Syrmūs, king of the Triballi, i. 463.
+Syros (
Syrtis, on the coast of Africa, i. 185, 197, 198, 256, 403; iii. 275, 282, 285, 288—291.
+——, Greater (
——, Lesser (
—— Lotophagitis, iii. 288.
+Syrus, i. 467.
+Syspirītis, distr. of Armenia, ii. 272.
+Tabæ, c. of Phrygia (
Tabēnian plain, ii. 407.
+Tænarum, prom. of Laconia (
——, t. of Laconia, ii. 36, 37.
+Tagus, r. of Spain, i. 161, 208, 209, 214, 227—231, 243.
+Talabrŏcē, t. of Hyrcania, ii. 242.
+Talæmenes, ii. 403.
+Talares, people of Epirus, ii. 137.
+Tamarus, prom. of India, ii. 257.
+Tamassus, t. of Cyprus (
Tamna, t. of Arabia Felix, iii. 190.
+Tamynæ, t. of Eubœa, ii. 155.
+Tamyracas, or Corcinitic Gulf, in the Tauric Chersonese, i. 471, 473.
+——, promontory, i. 473.
+Tamyras, r. of Phœnicia (
Tanagra, c. of Bœotia, ii. 66, 95— 97, 99, 104, 105.
+Tanagræa, Tanagricē, ii. 92, 95, 96, 143.
+Tanaïs, c., situated on the river of that name, ii. 239, 224.
+——, river (
Tanis, c. of Egypt on the Delta, iii. 240.
+——, c. of the Thebaid, iii. 258.
+Tanitic nome, iii. 240.
+—— mouth of the Nile, iii. 239, 240.
+Tantalus, i. 91; ii. 326, 337; iii. 66.
+Taŏcē, c. of Persia (
Tapē, c. of Hyrcania, ii. 242.
+Taphiassus, mtn of Ætolia (
Taphii, Taphians, ii. 166, 170, 173.
Taphītis, prom. on the Carthaginian coast (
Taphos, Taphiūs, island near Acar- nania, ii. 166, 167, 170, 173.
+Taphrii, in the Tauric Chersonesus, i. 473.
+Tapŏseiris, c. of Egypt, iii. 236.
+—— the Less, c. of Egypt, iii. 236, 238.
+Taprŏbanē, isl. (
Tapyri, people of Asia, ii. 248, 250, 258, 263.
+Taracōn, c. of Spain.
Taranto, Gulf of.
Taras.
Tarbassus, c. of Pisidia, ii. 324.
+Tarbelli, people of Gaul, i. 283.
+Tarcon (Tarquin), governor of Tar- quinia, i. 326.
+Tarcondimŏtus, king of Cilicia, iii. 60.
+Tarentini, Tarentines, i. 372, 389, 397—399, 427, 430, 438.
+Tarentum, i. 347, 377, 379, 393, 399, 400, 423, 425, 427—434, 497.
+——, Gulf of, i. 313, 315, 377, 378, 393, 423, 429.
+Taricheæ, c. of Judæa, iii. 183.
+Taricheiæ, islands near Carthage, iii. 288.
+Tarnē, t. of Bœotia, ii. 110.
+——, t. of Lydia, ii. 110.
+Taronitis, ii. 268, 269.
+Tarpētěs, ii. 223.
+Tarphē, c. of the Locrians, ii. 110, 127.
+Tarquin.
Tarquinia, c. of Etruria, i. 326.
+Tarquinii, the, i. 327.
+Tarquinius Priscus, Lucius, i. 327, 344.
+—— Superbus, i. 327, 344, 438.
+Tarracina, t. of Latium, i. 344, 346, 347.
+Tarraco (
Tarsius, r. of Mysia (
Tarsus, c. of Cilicia (
Tartarus, i. 223, 224.
+Tartēssians, i. 51.
+Tartēssis, i. 223.
+Tartēssus, c. of Spain, i. 224, 226.
+——, r. of Spain (
Tarūsco, t. of Gaul, i. 267, 268, 279.
+Tasius, leader of the Roxolani, i. 471.
+Tatta, marsh in Phrygia (
Taucheira (
Taulantii, people of Epirus, i. 500.
+Tauri, Scythian race, i. 476, 478.
+——, Troglodytic mountains, iii. 194.
+Tauriana, distr. of the Bruttii, i. 379.
+Tauric Chersonesus.
—— coasts, i. 475.
+Taurīni, people of Liguria, i. 303, 311.
+Taurisci, Tauristæ, a people of Gaul, i. 307, 309, 310, 317, 450, 454, 466, 482.
+Taurisci Norici, i. 310.
+Tauroentium, t. of Gaul (
Tauroměnia (Taormina), i. 404.
+Tauroměnitæ, i. 412.
+Tauroměnium, c. of Sicily (
Tauropŏlium, temple of Diana, iii. 10, 186.
+Taurus, fortress of Judæa, iii. 181.
+——, mtn of Asia, i. 32, 82, 105, 106, 113, 120, 125, 126, 128, 131, 136, 139, 179, 184, 194, 195, 439; ii. 215, 216, 218, 226, 244, 250, 255, 256, 259—262, 267, 277—279, 281, 284, 290, 314, 321—325, 329, 333, 347, 355,
Taurus, Pisidian, i. 195; ii. 319.
+——, Cilician, ii. 276, 278, 319.
+——, Anti-, ii. 259, 260, 278, 279.
+Tavium, ii. 320.
+Taxila, c. of India, iii. 82, 90, 111, 112.
+Taxiles, king of the Taxili, iii. 90, 92, 114.
+Taÿgětum, mtn of Laconia (
Teanum, Sidicinum, c. of Campania (
——, Apulian, i. 359, 436.
+Tearco, Ethiopian, i. 96; iii. 74.
+Teatea, c. of the Marrucini (
Tectosages, people of Gallia Nar- bonensis, i. 279, 280, 282.
+——, people of Galatia, ii. 319, 320.
+Těgěa, c. of Arcadia, ii. 8, 54, 58, 64, 75, 76.
+——, territory of, ii. 76.
+Tegeatæ, ii. 60.
+Teichiūs, fortress near Thermopylæ, ii. 129.
+Teirěsias, ii. 107, 111; iii. 15, 180.
+Telamōn, ii. 83; iii. 69.
+Telchïnes, inhabitants of Rhodes, ii. 180, 188; iii. 31, 32.
+Telchīnis, name of the island of Rhodes, iii. 31, 32.
+Tēlěboæ, i. 494; ii. 166, 170—173.
+Tēlěboas, i. 494.
+Tēlěclus, i. 425; ii. 37.
+Tēlemachus, i. 59, 62, 65, 503; ii. 9, 14, 17—19, 25, 46, 47, 155, 173.
+Tēlephus, father of Eurypelus, ii. 327, 343, 346, 389.
+Tělěsia, t. of the Samnites, i. 371.
+Telethrius, mtn of Eubœa (
Tellēnæ, t. of Latium, i. 344.
+Telmēssis, prom. of, in Lycia, iii. 46.
+Telmēssus, t. of Lycia, iii. 46.
+Tēlos, one of the Sporades (
Tembriōn, founder of Samos, ii. 168; iii. 3.
+Tēměnium, t. of Argolis, ii. 48.
+Tēměnus, leader of the Heraclidæ, ii. 33, 34, 48, 77.
+Těměsa, c. of Magna Grecia, after- wards named Temsa, i. 9, 381.
+——, in Italy, ii. 300.
+Temmices, occupy Bœotia, i. 493; ii. 93.
+Tēmnum, mtn in Mysia, ii. 390.
+Tēmnus, c. of Mysia, ii. 397.
+Tempē, vill. of Thessaly, i. 505, 507; ii. 77, 130, 131, 139—147, 272.
+Tempyra, c. of Thrace, i. 516.
+Těněa, t. of the Corinthians, ii. 63.
+Těněas, r. of Umbria, i. 337, 349.
+Těnědii, ii. 64.
+Těnědos, isl. and t. (
Tēněric plain, in Bœotia, ii. 109.
+Tēnerus, son of Apollo, ii. 109.
+Tēnessis, distr. of Ethiopia, iii. 195.
+Tennes, son of Cycnus, ii. 64, 373.
+Tēnos, one of the Cyclades (
Tentyra, c. of Egypt, iii. 260.
+Tentyrïtae, iii. 260.
+Těōs, c. of Ionia, iii. 2, 16, 17.
+Těrēdōn, c. of Babylon, i. 123; iii. 186, 187.
+Tereia, Tereiē, c. of Mysia, ii. 317, 346, 349.
+——, mtn, ii. 349.
+Terentius Varro, i. 306.
+Tēreus, the Thracian, i. 493; ii. 122.
+Tergestě (
Terina, c. of the Bruttii (
Terměrium, prom. of Caria, iii. 36.
+Termerum, c. of Caria, iii. 36.
Termēssians, ii. 409.
+Termēssus, c. of Pisidia, ii. 409, 410; iii. 48.
+Termilæ, inhabit Lycia, ii. 328; iii. 49, 63.
+Terpander, ii. 393.
+Tetrapolis, Athenian, ii. 56, 57, 67, 88.
+——, the Dorian, ii. 114, 115, 125, 128, 195.
+——, of Marathon, ii. 153.
+Tetrapyrgia, in the Cyrenaic, iii. 294.
+Teucer, son of Telamon, i. 236; iii. 55, 56, 69.
+——, of Attica, ii. 374.
+Teucrians, inhabitants of the Troad, i. 96; ii. 373, 374.
+Teumēssus, t. of Boeotia, ii. 104, 108.
+Teutamis, ii. 395.
+Teuthěa, t. of Achæa, ii. 14.
+Teuthěas, r. of Achæa, ii. 14.
+Teuthrania, distr. of Mysia, ii. 299, 326, 389.
+Teuthras (? Traeis), river of the Bruttii, i. 398.
+——, king of Teuthrania, ii. 326—328, 346, 389.
+Teutons, i. 292.
+Teutria, isl. of, i. 434.
+Thala, t. of Numidia, iii. 284.
+Thalamæ, t. of Laconia, ii. 36.
+Thales, Milesian, i. 12; iii. 5.
+—— of Crete, poet, ii. 202, 204.
+Thalēstria, queen of the Amazons, ii. 237.
+Thamyris, the Thracian, i. 513; ii. 10, 23, 24, 187.
+Thapsacus, c. of Babylonia (
Thapsus, t. of Africa (
Thasian pottery, i. 487.
+Thasii, i. 515.
+Thasos, island (
Thaumaci, c. of Phthiotis, ii. 77, 136.
+Thaumacia, c. of Magnesia, ii. 140
+Thebaic keep, in Egypt, iii. 258.
+Thebaïs, part of Egypt, i. 67; iii. 84, 211, 221, 225, 243, 258, 260.
+——, Thebais, Thebaïce, portion of Bœotia, ii. 97, 102—106.
+Thebans, i. 155; ii. 39, 43, 68, 92, 94, 104, 109—112, 175.
+Thēbe, city of Pamphylia, iii. 49, 63, 65.
+——, Thebæ, city of the Troad, ii. 343, 344, 346, 348, 384—387, 394.
+—— Hypoplacia, ii. 343.
+Thebes, city of Beotia, i. 499; ii. 66, 74, 93, 95, 97, 102, 103, 107—109.
+——, city of Egypt, i. 15, 46, 56, 64; ii. 112, 300; iii. 140, 245, 257, 258, 261.
+—— Phthiotides, city of Thessa- ly, ii. 133, 135, 136, 138.
+——, plain of, in the Troad, ii. 374, 385, 390,
Thěmella, prince of the Arabians, iii. 167.
+Thěmis, ii. 121.
+——, Ichnæan, ii. 138.
+Themiscyra, distr. of Pontus (
Themiscyran plain, i. 190.
+Themisōnium, t. of Phrygia (
Themistæ, i. 503.
+Themistocles, ii. 347; iii. 6, 22.
+Thěna, t. of Africa, iii. 285, 288.
+Theocles, Athenian, i. 404.
+Theocritus, the Sophist, iii. 19.
+Theodectes, poet, iii. 87.
+Theodōrus, ii. 402; iii. 175.
+Theodŏsia, c. of Chersonesus (
Theodŏsius, mathematician, ii. 318.
+Theomnēstus, of Cos, musician, iii. 36.
Theōn-limen, city of Numidia, iii. 282.
+Theophanes, of Mitylene, ii. 220, 269, 271, 305, 392.
+Theophilus, maternal uncle of Strabo, ii. 307.
+Theophrastus, Peripatetic philoso- pher, ii. 88, 199, 378, 379, 392, 393.
+Theopompus, of Cnidus, iii. 34.
+——, of Chios, i. 69, 459, 487, 496; ii. 54, 57, 123, 152, 294, 352, 407; iii. 19.
+Theoprosōpon, prom. of Syria (
Theoris, ii. 89.
+Thera, isl. (
Therapnæ, t. of the Thebans, ii. 104.
+Thēras, founder of Thera, ii. 21.
+Therasia, isl., i. 89, 90; ii. 207.
+Theriaca, iii. 273.
+Therma, Therme, t. of Macedonia, i. 508—510.
+——, Thermum, c. of Ætolia, ii. 176.
+Thermaic, Thermæan, Gulf (
Thermessa, isl., i. 417—419.
+Thermōdōn, r. of Pontus (
Thermopylæ, i. 17, 57, 94, 95, 328; ii. 4, 118, 125, 127, 129, 131, 136, 137, 151, 396.
+Thēseium, ii. 86, 87.
+Theseus, i. 30, 40, 76, 430; ii. 63, 80, 86, 88, 90, 197.
+Thespiæ, Thespeia, Thespia, c. of Bœotia, ii. 58, 95, 104—106, 111.
+Thespians, ii. 99, 107.
+Thesproti, i. 493, 496, 497, 502.
+Thesprōtia, i. 382, 502,504; ii. 10.
+Thesprōtis, i. 9, 43, 502.
+Thessalian dress, ii. 272.
+Thessalians, i. 71, 319, 328, 500, 501, 503, 508; ii. 2, 4, 83, 114, 130—149, 158, 195, 272, 287.
+Thessaliōtæ, Thessaliōtis, ii. 132, 138, 142.
+Thessalonica, Thessaloniceia, c. of Macedonia (
Thessalonice, wife of Cassander, i. 509.
+Thessalus, son of Hæmon, ii. 149; iii. 31.
+Thessaly, i. 72, 328, 493, 501, 506, 507, 519; ii. 3, 11, 24, 32, 50, 70, 75, 93, 107, 115, 123, 129,131 —149, 177, 195, 350,
——, mountains of, i. 43, 131.
+——, plains, ii. 132, 133, 140 —143.
+——, dress, ii. 156.
+Thestiadæ, brothers of Althæa, ii. 179.
+Thestius, father of Leda, ii. 173.
+——, father of Althæa, ii. 179.
+Thetidium, temple of Thetis, ii. 133.
+Thimbrōn, iii. 292.
+Thisbe, Thisbæ, c. of Bœotia, i. 25, 457; ii. 106, 107.
+Thoæ, islands, ii. 25, 169.
+Thoantium, part of the coast of Rhodes, iii. 33.
+Thoas, or Achelous, ii. 158.
+——, king of the Ætolians, i. 381.
+Thome, or Ithome, ii. 141.
+Thōnis, king of Egypt, iii. 238.
+——, c. of Egypt, iii. 238.
+Thōpitis, lake of Armenia, same as Arsene, ii. 270; iii. 156.
+Thōrax, mtn of Lydia (
Thoreis, village of Attica, ii. 89.
+Thoricus, t. of Attica, ii. 88—90. 208.
+Thornax, ii. 41.
+Thrace, Thracia (
Thracian Chersonesus (
Thracian Bosporus.
—— army, ii. 67.
+—— tribes, i. 247, 482, 483, 496.
+—— mtns, i. 41, 488, 492, 504.
+—— race, i. 9.
+—— Sea, i. 42.
+—— coast, i. 9.
+Thracians, i. 164, 453—455, 460, 461, 463, 466, 468, 478, 481, 485, 488, 493, 496, 506, 519; ii. 93, 105, 151, 187, 286, 287, 301, 316, 318.
+——, Cabrenii, ii. 351.
+——, Xanthii, ii. 351.
+Thrasō, sculptor, iii. 13.
+Thrasyalces, of Thasos, i. 44; iii. 225.
+Thrasybulus, Athenian, ii. 87.
+Thrax, castle of Judæa, iii. 181.
+Thriasian plain, in Attica, ii. 81, 84.
+Thrinacia, name of Sicily, i. 400.
+Throni, prom. and t. of Cyprus (
Thronia, i. 67.
+Thronium (
Thryum, Thryoessa, t. of Triphylia, ii. 23, 24, 27, 28.
+Thucydides, i. 499; ii. 2, 36, 50, 56, 58, 122, 174, 366; iii. 41.
+Thule (
Thumæum, same as Ithome or Thome, ii. 141.
+Thūmelicus, son of Arminius, i. 446.
+Thūnatæ, nation of Illyria, i. 485.
+Thuria, t. of Messenia, ii. 36—38.
+——, ftn, i. 396.
+——, c. of the Thurii, i. 427.
+Thurian wine, i. 397.
+Thuriatic Gulf, ii. 37.
+Thurii or Thurians, t. of Lucania, i. 379, 380, 390, 396—398, 427; iii. 35.
+Thurius, same as Herodotus, iii. 35.
+Thūsnelda, daughter of Segestes, i. 446.
+Thyamus, Thyamis, r. of Epirus, i. 497.
+Thyateira, ii. 402; iii. 21.
+Thymbra, plain near Ilium, ii. 362.
+Thymbræus.
Thymbria, village of Caria, iii. 6.
+Thymbrius, r. near Ilium, ii. 363.
+Thyni, people of Bithynia, i. 453; ii. 287, 304.
+Thynia, isl. ii. 289.
+Thynias, prom. and district of Thrace, i. 490; ii. 287, 289.
+Thyreæ, c. of Cynuria, i. 102, 103; ii. 58.
+Thyrides, isl. and prom. of Laconia, ii. 5, 36, 40.
+Thyssos, t. of Macedonia, i. 512, 513.
+Tianos, ii. 399.
+Tibarani, Tibarēni, ii. 267, 277, 285, 296, 304.
+Tibarania, distr. of Pontus, i. 476.
+Tibaranic nations, i. 195.
+Tiber, r., i. 322, 325—327, 330, 336—310, 345, 348, 349, 351.
+Tiberius, Emperor, i. 234, 307, 441, 447; ii. 392, 405; iii. 269.
+—— Gracchus.
Tibius, relative of Strabo, ii. 307.
+——, Paphlagonian name, i. 467; ii. 302.
+Tibūra, c. of Latium (
Tiburtine stone-quarries, i. 354.
+Ticinum, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Ticinus, r. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Tieium, c. of Bithynia (
Tiga, c. of Mauritania, iii. 278.
+Tigranes, king of Armenia, ii. 270 —274, 284, 381; iii. 154, 157, 164.
+Tigranocerta, c. of Armenia (
Tigris, i. 75, 122—124, 126, 134, 137, 416; ii. 260—262, 267, 270; iii. 131, 132, 146, 147, 150, 152, 156, 158, 162.
+Tigurēni, i. 450.
+Tilphōssa, ftn of Bœotia, ii. 107, 110, 111.
+Tilphōssium (
——, t. of Bœotia, ii. 107, 110.
+Timæus, i. 274, 369, 390, 409; ii. 366; iii. 12, 32.
+Timagěnēs, i. 280; iii. 108.
+Timavum, temple of Diomede (
Timavus, r. of Istria (
Timia, i. 349.
+Timon, iii. 230.
+Timōnītis, distr. of Paphlagonia, ii. 313.
+Timōnium, iii. 230.
+Timosthenes, i. 44, 139, 141, 142, 210; ii. 120; iii. 279.
+Timŏthěus, Patriōn, ii. 293.
+Tingis, or Tiga, c. of Mauritania (
Tirizis, prom. and citadel of Hæ- mus, i. 490.
+Tiryns, c. of Argolis, ii. 49, 54, 58; iii. 31.
+Tisamenus, son of Orestes, ii. 68, 77.
+Tisiæūs, c. of Numidia, iii. 284.
+Titanes, same as Pelagones, i. 514; ii. 188.
+Titanus, t. of Thessaly, ii. 143.
+Titarēsius,'r. of Thessaly, i. 507; ii. 145, 146.
+Titarius, mtn of Thessaly, i. 507; ii. 146.
+Tithōnus, father of Memnon, ii. 347; iii. 130.
+Titius, iii. 160.
+Titus Quintius, ii. 146.
+—— Flaminius, i. 421.
+—— Tatius, i. 338, 342, 343, 348.
+Tityri, servants of Bacchus, ii. 180, 183, 186.
+Tityrus, mtn of Crete, ii. 200.
+Tityus, ii. 121—123.
+Tlepolemus, son of Hercules, ii. 9; iii. 31, 32.
+Tlōs, c. of Lycia (
Tmarus.
Tmōlus, mtn of Lydia (
Tochari, Scythians beyond the Iax- artes, ii. 245.
+Togati, i. 227, 250.
+Tolistobōgii, people of Galatia, i. 279; ii. 294, 319, 320.
+Tolōssa, Toulouse, i. 280, 281.
+Tomaruri, same as Tomuri, i. 503.
+Tomarus, Tmarus, mtn near Do- dona, i. 501—503; ii. 137.
+Tŏmis, c. of Mœsia, i. 489, 490.
+Tomisa, Tomisæ, fortress of Cappa- docia, ii. 278; iii. 44.
+Tomūri, i. 502, 503.
+Tŏpeira, c. of Thrace, i. 515.
+Toreatæ, ii. 223.
+Torōnæan, Torōnic, Gulf, in Mace- donia (
——
Tōygeni, i. 274, 450.
+Tracheia, iii. 3.
+Trachin, t. of Phocis, ii. 123.
+——, t. of Thessaly, i. 94; ii. 123, 129, 132, 135, 136.
+——, Heracleian, ii. 103, 130.
+Trachina, same as Tarracina.
+Trachinia, distr. of Thessaly, ii. 66, 135, 156.
+Trachinii, ii. 123.
+Trachiōtæ, i. 196; iii. 50.
+Trachiōtis, Tracheia,
Trachōnes, mtns near Damascus, iii. 169, 171.
+Traclinia, ii. 4.
+Tragææ, islands not far from Mile- tus, iii. 6.
+Tragasæan salt-pan, ii. 374.
Tragium, c. of Laconia, ii. 37.
+Tragurium, isl. (
Tralles, c. of Lydia, ii. 145, 305; iii. 24, 25, 43.
+Tralliani, ii. 336; iii. 25.
+Transpadana, i. 316, 321.
+Trapězōn, hill of Syria, iii. 164.
+Trapězūs, c. of Pontus (
——, hill of the Tauric Cher- sonese, i. 476.
+Trapontium, t. of Latium, i. 352.
+Trarium, c. of Mysia, ii. 376.
+Trasumennus, lake, i. 336.
+Trebias, r. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 323.
+Trebōnius, iii. 20.
+Trēbūla, t. of the Sabines (
Trephea, lake in Bceotia, ii. 102.
+Trēres, i. 93, 96; ii. 246, 301, 329, 346, 405; iii. 22.
+Trērus, r. of Latium (
Trēta, c. of Cyprus (
Trētum, prom. of Numidia (
Treviri, people of Gaul, i. 289.
+Triballi, Thracian race, i. 463, 468, 585, 488.
+Tribocchi, people of Gaul, i. 288, 289.
+Tricca (
Triccæus, Æsculapius, ii. 36.
+Trichæces, cognomen of the Dori- ans, ii. 195.
+Trichōnium, c. of Ætolia, ii. 159.
+Triclari, in Thessaly, i. 508.
+Tricorii, people of Gaul, i. 276, 303.
+Tricorythus, Tricorynthus, t. of Attica, ii. 59, 67, 90.
+Tridentini, i. 304.
+Triērēs, t, of Syria, iii. 169.
+Trieteric dance, ii. 186.
+Tneterides, ii. 185.
+Trinacria, same as Sicily, i. 400.
+Triněmeis, vill. of Attica, ii. 91.
+Trinx (
Triphylia, part of Elis, ii. 8, 11, 14 —19, 21, 22, 33—35, 45, 53, 155.
+Triphyliac towns, ii. 17.
+Triphylian Sea, ii. 22, 28.
+Triphylii, ii. 8, 16, 22, 28, 31.
+Triphyllus, ii. 409.
+Tripodes, Tripodiscium, t. of Me- garis, ii. 84.
+Tripolis, c. of Phœnicia, iii. 169.
+Tripolītis.
Triptolemus, father of Gordyes, i. 40; iii. 57, 157, 162.
+——, tragedy of Sophocles, i. 40, 41.
+Tritæa, c. of Achaia, ii. 14.
+Tritæenses, Tritæeis, ii. 14, 71.
+Tritōn, t. of Bœotia, ii. 101.
+Tritōnis, iii. 291.
+Trōad, i. 8, 91, 172, 187, 189, 195, 202, 453, 517; ii. 56, 189, 277, 317, 332, 338—390.
+——, Pelasgic, i. 329.
+Trōades.
Trōas, Alexandreia (
Trocmi, people of Galatia, i. 279, ii. 312, 319, 320.
+Trœzen, son of Pelops, ii. 56.
+—— (
Trœzenians, iii. 35.
+Trōgilius, prom. of Ionia (
——, isl. of Ionia, iii. 7.
+Trogïtis, marsh, in Lycaonia, ii. 322.
+Troglodytæ, inhabiting the Arabian Gulf, i. 202, 203, 267, 489; iii. 203, 210, 215, 217, 219, 266, 280.
+——, in the Caucasus, ii. 238, 239; iii. 203.
+Troglodytic, i. 197; iii. 88, 191, 193, 210, 235.
+Trŏphōnius, brother of Agamedes, ii. 119; iii. 180.
Trophonius Zeus, oracle of, at Le- badea, ii. 111.
+Trojan war, i. 31, 61—63, 76, 224, 316, 377, 404; ii. 30, 72, 200, 201.
+—— colony, i. 397.
+—— forces, i. 518.
+—— Minerva, i. 397.
+—— territory, i. 17.
+Trojans, i. 64, 274, 394, 397, 453, 508, 516; ii. 18, 162, 163; iii. 41, 184, 299,
——, Aphneian, ii. 344, 346.
+Troy, Troja, Ilium, ancient city of the Troad, i. 25, 26, 33, 55, 64, 65, 76, 77, 91, 224, 330, 394, 398, 494, 499, 508, 509, 511, 514, 519; ii. 16, 30, 74, 113, 132, 157, 174, 186, 191, 317, 339, 350— 363; iii. 34,
——, village of Egypt, iii. 252.
+Truentum, r. (
——, t. i. 358.
+Tryphōn,
Tūbattii, people of Germany, i. 447.
+Tūder, t. of Umbria (
Tūisi, t. of Cantabria, i. 234.
+Tūikkis (
Tūllum, mtn, i. 308.
+Tunis, c. of the Carthaginians, iii. 287.
+Turdētani, people of Spain, i. 209, 221, 226, 227.
+Turdētania, i. 209, 210, 212, 214, 216—219, 224, 226, 235.
+Turdūli, same as Turdētani, i. 209, 223, 227, 230.
+Tūriva, distr. of Bactriana, ii. 253.
+Tusci, same as Tyrrheni.
+Tusculan mountain, i. 351.
+Tusculum, c. of Latium (
Tyana, c. of Cappadocia (
Tyanītis, prefecture of Cappadocia, ii. 278, 281.
+Tychius, ii. 102, 403.
+Tychōn, ii. 348.
+Tymbrias, c. of Pisidia, ii. 324.
+Tymphæi, Tymphæans, i. 499, 501, 505.
+Tymphē, mtn of Epirus, i. 498.
+Tyndareian rocks, four islands on the coast of Marmora, iii. 235.
+Tyndaris, c. of Sicily (
Tyndarus, ii. 173.
+Typaněæ, c. of Triphylia, ii. 17
+Typhoëus, ii. 403.
+Typhōn, i. 368, 369; ii. 336, 404, 406; iii. 163, 243.
+Typhōneia, iii. 260.
+Typhrēstus, mtn of Thessaly, ii. 136.
+Tyrambē, c. on the Cimmerian Bos- porus, ii. 221.
+Tyrann1ōn, ii. 296, 380.
+Tyras, r. of Sarmatia (
Tyre, c. of Phœnicia (
——, isl. in the Persian Gulf (
Tyregetæ, i. 177, 194, 443, 452, 470.
+Tyrians, i. 238, 255.
+Tyriæum, c. of Phrygia, iii. 43.
+Tyrō, daughter of Salmoneus, ii. 32.
+Tyrrheni, Tyrrhenians, i. 319, 322, 325—328, 331, 334, 335, 357, 360, 367, 385, 404, 417, 438; ii. 197, 404.
+Tyrrhenia, Tyrrhenicē, i. 31, 35, 177, 301, 313, 323—330, 335— 338, 349, 415, 502; ii. 61, 387.
+Tyrrhenian cities, i. 331.
+—— Gulf, i. 139.
+—— Sea, i. 85,159, 185, 193, 311, 314, 315, 325, 357, 360, 373, 377—380, 403, 415.
Tyrrhenian pirates, i. 345.
+—— diviners, iii. 180.
+Tyrrhenus, son of Atys, i. 326, 329.
+Tyrtæus, poet, i. 426; ii. 39, 45.
+Tyrtamus, same as Theophrastus, ii. 392; iii. 17.
+Ubii, people of Germany, i. 289.
+Ucromirus, leader of the Chatti, i. 446.
+Ugernum, t. of Gaul (
Ulyssea (
Ulysses, i. 18,26,27, 31, 33—37, 54, 60, 62, 64, 69—72, 76, 224, 225, 236, 237, 328, 332, 346, 362, 364, 368, 376, 381, 459; ii. 9, 46, 83, 115, 143, 162, 166, 167, 201,364, 385; iii. 58.
+——, altar of, iii. 288.
+Umbria.
Umbrians.
Undalus, c. of Gaul.
Uranopolis, t. of Macedonia, i. 513.
+Urgi (Georgi?), i. 470.
+Uria, t. of Calabria (
——, lake of Ætolia (
Uriathus.
Urium, t. of Apulia (
Ursō, c. of Betica (
Usipi, people of Germany, i. 447.
+Uxia, distr. of Persia, iii. 131.
+Uxii, people of Persia, ii. 264; iii. 131, 132, 135, 152.
+Uxisama, island (
Uzita, t. of Numidia, iii. 284.
+Vaccæi, people of Spain, i. 228, 229, 243, 244.
+Vacūa, r. of Lusitania (
Vaga, t. of Numidia (
Valeria, i. 353.
+——, Via, i. 351, 353, 402.
+Valerius Flaccus, consul, ii. 356.
+Vapanes, t. of Corsica, i. 333.
+Var, r., i. 267, 275, 302, 313.
+Varagri, Alpine race, i. 303.
+Vardæi.
Varia, t. of Keltiberia, i. 243.
+——, t. of Latium, i. 353.
+Varius Flaccus, ii. 356.
+Varus Quintilius, i. 446.
+Vascōns, people of Spain, i.233, 242.
+Vates, i. 294.
+Veii, i. 335.
+Velitræ, t. of Latium (
Vellæi, people of Gaul (
Venafrum, t. of Campania (
Venasii, ii. 281.
+Vendōn, t. of the Iapodes (
Veněti, people of Gaul,
——, in the Adriatic, i. 291.
+——, of Paphlagonia, i. 316.
+Vennōnes, people of the Vindelici i. 304, 307.
+Ventidius, iii. 163, 164.
+Venus.
Venusia (
Vera, ii. 263.
+Verbanus (
Vercelli, vill. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 325.
Vercingetorix, i. 285.
+Verestis, r., i. 355.
+Veretum, i. 429, 430.
+Verona, i. 306, 317.
+Vertinæ, t. of Lucania (
Vescini.
Vesta, i. 327, 340.
+Vestīni, i. 326, 338, 358, 359.
+Vesuvius, Mount, i. 39, 367.
+Vettōnes, people of Spain, i. 209, 228, 229, 243, 246.
+Vibo-Valentia, t. of the Bruttii, i. 383.
+Vicětia, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (
Vienne, capital of the Allobroges, i. 277, 278.
+Villa Publica, in the Campus Mar- tius, i. 371.
+Viminal Gate, in Rome, i. 348.
+—— Hill, i. 348.
+Vindalum, t. of Gaul (
Vindelici, i. 287, 306, 307, 447, 448, 482.
+Viriathus, i. 238, 439.
+Visurgis (
Vitia, t. of Hyrcania, ii. 273.
+Vitii, people of Hyrcania, ii. 241, 248.
+Vivisci (
Vocontii, people of Gaul, i. 268, 276, 279, 302, 303.
+Volaterræ, c. of Etruria (
Volaterrani, i. 331.
+Volcæ Arecomisci, people of Gaul, i. 278, 279, 302.
+——, Tectosages, i. 279.
+Volsci, people of Italy, i. 339, 343, 344, 353.
+Volsinii, c, of the Tyrrhenians (
Vulcan, i. 65, 418; ii. 190; iii. 248.
+Vulturnus, c. and r. of Campania (
Wain, the (constellation), 4, 5.
+Xanthia, t. of the Ciconi, i. 515.
+Xanthii, in Lycia, iii. 47.
+——, Thracians, ii. 351.
+——, a tribe of the Dahæ, ii 245, 251.
+Xanthus, c. of Lycia (
——, r. of Lycia, iii. 47.
+——, r. of the Troad, ii 351.
+——, king of the Bœotians, ii. 82.
+——, of Lydia, historian, i. 78, 80; ii. 326, 336, 406; iii. 66, 67.
+Xenarchus, iii. 53.
+Xenŏclēs, guardian of Alexander's treasure, i. 108.
+——, orator, ii. 387; iii. 40.
+Xenocrates, Bithynian, ii. 299, 318, 382.
+Xenophanes, natural philosopher and poet, iii. 16.
+——, tyrant, iii. 56.
+Xenophōn, ii. 73, 95.
+Xerxēne, district of Lesser Ar- menia, ii. 268.
+Xerxes, son of Darius, i. 17, 96, 516, 517; ii. 83, 84, 148, 254, 347, 352; iii. 4, 6, 145.
+——, canal of, i. 512, 513.
+——, bridge of, i. 518.
+Ximēnē, distr. of Pontus, ii. 312.
+Xiphonia, prom. in Sicily, i. 403.
+Xoïs, isl. and c. of Egypt, iii. 240.
+Xūthus, father of Ion, ii. 67.
+Xypěteon, ii. 374.
+Ypsilo Nisi, iii. 16.
+Zacynthians, i. 239.
+Zacynthus, isl. (
Zagrium, Zagrus, mtn of Asia (
Zagrus, r., iii. 146, 153.
+Zaleucus, i. 390.
+Zama, t. of Numidia (
Zamolxis (
Zanclæans, in Sicily, i. 385, 405, 413.
+Zancle, i. 404.
+Zardōces, Paphlagonian name, ii. 302.
+Zariadris, leader of the Armenians, ii. 269, 273.
+Zariaspa, same as Bactra, ii. 249, 253.
+Zarmanochegas, iii. 119.
+——,
Zēla, city of Pontus (
Zēlas, father of Prusias, ii. 315.
+Zeleia, city of the Troad (
Zēlis (
Zēlītis, ii. 306, 309, 310, 312.
+Zella, iii. 285.
+Zenicetes, iii. 55.
+Zeno, of Citium, Stoic, i. 24, 66, 458; ii. 334, 382, 387; iii. 69,
+Zeno, of Elea, the Pythagorean, i. 375.
+——, orator, ii. 334; iii. 39.
+Zēnodōrus, robber, iii. 171.
+Zēnodŏtus, grammarian, ii. 110, 289, 302.
+Zēnophanes, tyrant of Cilicia, iii. 56.
+Zephyr, wind, i. 3, 42—44, 62.
+Zephyra.
Zephyria, prom. of Cyprus (
Zephyrium, prom. of Italy (
——, prom. of Caria, iii. 37.
+——, prom. of Cilicia (
——, prom. of Cilicia (
——, prom. of Egypt, iii. 238, 294.
+——, place on the coast of Marmara, iii. 236.
+Zerethra, ii. 76.
+Zethus, ii. 107.
+Zeugma, at Thapsacus, ii. 263, 274; iii. 44, 157.
+——, at Commagene, iii. 157.
+——, at Samosata, ii. 274; iii 44, 157.
+——, Straits of, ii. 352.
+Zeus.
Zeuxis, physician, ii. 336.
+Zincha, t. of Numidia, iii. 284.
+Zoïlus, orator, i. 410.
+Zōnas.
Zōstēr, prom. of Attica, ii. 89.
+Zūchis, lake and people of Libya, iii. 289.
+Zūmi, people of Germany, i. 444.
+Zygi, inhabitants of the Caucasus, i. 195; ii. 219, 224, 225; iii. 296.
+Zygopolis, city of Pontus, ii. 296.
It is most probable that Euclid received his mathematical training in Athens from the pupils of Plato; for most of the geometers who could have taught him were of that school, and it was in Athens that the older writers of elements, and the other mathematicians on whose works Euclid's
for which reason also he set before himself, as the end of the whole Elements, the construction of the so-called Platonic figures.It is evident that it was only an idea of Proclus' own to infer that Euclid was a Platonist because his
to make perfect the understanding of the learner in regard to the whole of geometryTo get out of the difficulty he says. ibid . p. 71, 8.
the whole of the geometer's argument is concerned with the cosmic figures.This latter statement is obviously incorrect. It is true that Euclid's
One thing is however certain, namely that Euclid taught, and founded a school, at Alexandria. This is clear from the remark of Pappus about Apolloniushe spent a very long time with the pupils of Euclid at Alexandria, and it was thus that he acquired such a scientific habit of thought.
One thing is however certain, namely that Euclid taught, and founded a school, at Alexandria. This is clear from the remark of Pappus about Apolloniushe spent a very long time with the pupils of Euclid at Alexandria, and it was thus that he acquired such a scientific habit of thought.
It is in the same passage that Pappus makes a remark which might, to an unwary reader, seem to throw some light on the
three- and four-line locus,which in fact was not possible without some theorems first discovered by himself. Pappus says on this
Now Euclid— regarding Aristaeus as deserving credit for the discoveries he had already made in conics, and without anticipating him or wishing to construct anew the same system (such was his scrupulous fairness and his exemplary kindliness towards all who could advance mathematical science to however small an extent), being moreover in no wise contentious and, though exact, yet no braggart like the other [Apollonius] —wrote so much about the locus as was possible by means of the conics of Aristaeus, without claiming completeness for his demonstrations.It is however evident, when the passage is examined in its context, that Pappus is not following any tradition in giving this account of Euclid: he was offended by the terms of Apollonius' reference to Euclid, which seemed to him unjust, and he drew a fancy picture of Euclid in order to show Apollonius in a relatively unfavourable light.
Another story is told of Euclid which one would like to believe true. According to Stobaeussome one who had begun to read geometry with Euclid, when he had learnt the first theorem, asked Euclid, ’But what shall I get by-learning these things?’ Euclid called his slave and said ’Give him threepence, since he must make gain out of what he learns.’
Another idea, that Euclid was born at Gela in Sicily, is due to the same confusion, being based on Diogenes Laertius' descriptionof Megara, or, according to some, of Gela, as Alexander says in the
In view of the poverty of Greek tradition on the subject even as early as the time of Proclus (410-485 A.D.), we must necessarily take
We readEuclid, son of Naucrates, grandson of Zenarchus
- The details at the beginning of this extract cannot be derived from Greek sources, for even Proclus did not know anything about Euclid's father, while it was not the Greek habit to record the names of grandfathers, as the Arabians commonly did. Damascus and Tyre were no doubt brought in to gratify a desire which the Arabians always showed to connect famous Greeks in some way or other with the East. Thus Nas<*>īraddīn, the translator of the son of Naucrates, the son of Berenice (?)
- (see Suter's translation in
Thusinus- also
let no one unversed in geometry enter my doors+
We readEuclid, son of Naucrates, grandson of Zenarchus
+ The details at the beginning of this extract cannot be derived from Greek sources, for even Proclus did not know anything about Euclid's father, while it was not the Greek habit to record the names of grandfathers, as the Arabians commonly did. Damascus and Tyre were no doubt brought in to gratify a desire which the Arabians always showed to connect famous Greeks in some way or other with the East. Thus Naṣīraddīn, the translator of the son of Naucrates, the son of Berenice (?)
(see Suter's translation in
Thusinus+ also
let no one unversed in geometry enter my doors; the Arab turned geometry into
-their Academies.
Equally remarkable are the Arabian accounts of the relation of Euclid and Apollonius
a carpenter.+
Equally remarkable are the Arabian accounts of the relation of Euclid and Apollonius
a carpenter.Suter's argument is based on the fact that the
discoveredthe books, by which it appears to be suggested that Hypsicles had edited them from materials left by Euclid.
We observe here the correct statement that Books XIV. and XV. were not written by Euclid, but along with it the incorrect information that Hypsicles, the author of Book XIV., wrote Book XV. also.
@@ -514,7 +513,7 @@(3) an addition to Pappus' remarks about the curvilineal angle which is equal to a right angle without being one
The defence of Geminus against Carpus, who combated his view of theorems and problems, is also probably due to Proclus
Lastly, we can have no hesitation in attributing to Proclus himself (1) the criticism of Ptolemy's attempt to prove the parallel-postulateif from one point two straight lines forming an angle be produced
- an assumption which purports to be the equivalent of a statement in AristotleTo him who desires to see this proved (
+ an assumption which purports to be the equivalent of a statement in AristotleTo him who desires to see this proved (
etc.
the geometer (Euclid) assumes this as an axiom, but it wants a great deal of proof, insomuch that both Ptolemy and Proclus wrote a whole book upon it@@ -830,7 +829,7 @@Berlin Aristotle, vol. IV. p. 214 a 9-12. .
After Thābit the
Naẓīf the physician told me that he had seen the tenth Book of Euclid in Greek, that it had 40 propositions more than the version in common circulation which had 109 propositions, and that he had determined to translate it into Arabic.
But the third form of the Arabian Euclid actually accessible to us is the edition of Abū Ja`far Mu[hnull ]. b. Mu[hnull ]. b. al-[Hnull ]asan Naṣraddĩn aţ-Ţĩsī (whom we shall call aţ-Ţĩsī for short), born at Tĩs (in Khurāsān) in 1201 (d. 1274). This edition appeared in two forms, a larger and a smaller. The larger is said to survive in Florence only (Pal. 272 and 313, the latter MS. containing only six Books); this was published at Rome in 1594, and, remarkably enough, some copies of
Aṭ-[Tnull ]ũsĩ's work is however not a
Aṭ-[Tnull ]ũsĩ's work is however not a
With a view to arriving at what may be called a common measure of the Arabian tradition, it is necessary to compare, in the first place, the numbers of propositions in the various Books. [Hnull ]ājĩ Khalfa says that al-[Hnull ]ajjāj's translation contained 468 propositions, and Thābit's 478; this is stated on the authority of aṭ-[Tnull ]ĩsĩ, whose own edition contained 46811?
as the number, Klamroth had read it as 21 (p. 273).
The numbers in the case of Heiberg include all propositions which he has printed in the text; they include therefore XIII. 6 and III. 12 now to be regarded as spurious, and X. 112-115 which he brackets as doubtful. He does not number the propositions in Books XIV., XV., but I conclude that the numbers in P reach at least 9 in XIV., and 9 in XV.
Introduction to the Book of Euclid,a treatise on
17. Abũ Sa'ĩd Sinãn b. Thãbit b. Qurra, the son of the translator of Euclid, followed in his father's footsteps as geometer, astronomer and physician. He wrote an improvement of the book of ...... on the Elements of Geometry, in which he made various additions to the original.
- It is natural to conjecture that
18. Abũ Sahl Wĩjan (or Waijan) b. Rustam al-Kũhĩ (fl. 988), born at Kũh in [Tnull ]abaristãn, a distinguished geometer and astronomer, wrote, according to the
Book of the Elementsafter that of Euclid
19. Abũ Naṣr Mu[hnull ]. b. Mu[hnull ]. b. [Tnull ]arkhãn b. Uzlaġ al-Fãrãbĩ (870-950) wrote a commentary on the difficulties of the introductory matter to Books I. and V.
1482. In this year appeared the first printed edition of Euclid, which was also the first printed mathematical book of any importance. This was printed at Venice by Erhard Ratdolt and contained Campanus' translation 1482. In this year appeared the first printed edition of Euclid, which was also the first printed mathematical book of any importance. This was printed at Venice by Erhard Ratdolt and contained Campanus' translationMea industria non sine maximo labore effeci vt qua facilitate litterarum elementa imprimuntur ea etiam geometrice figure conficerentur.
+ Mea industria non sine maximo labore effeci vt qua facilitate litterarum elementa imprimuntur ea etiam geometrice figure conficerentur.
1501. G. Valla included in his encyclopaedic work
1505. In this year Bartolomeo Zamberti (Zambertus) brought out at Venice the first translation, from the Greek text, of the whole of the
Euclidis megaresis philosophi platonicj mathematicarum disciplinarum Janitoris: Habent in hoc volumine quicunque ad mathematicam substantiam aspirant: elementorum libros xiij cum expositione Theonis insignis mathematici. quibus multa quae deerant ex lectione graeca sumpta addita sunt nec non plurima peruersa et praepostere: voluta in Campani interpretatione: ordinata digesta et castigata sunt etc.@@ -1050,7 +1049,7 @@
1533 is the date of the 1533 is the date of the The editor was Simon Grynaeus the elder (d. 1541), who, after working at Vienna and Ofen, Heidelberg and Tübingen, taught last of all at Basel, where theology was his main subject. His 1620. Henry Briggs (of Briggs' logarithms) published the first six Books in Greek with a Latin translation after Commandinus, 1703 is the date of the Oxford edition by David Gregory which, until the issue of Heiberg and Menge's edition, was still the only edition of the complete works of Euclidpraefatiuncula
@@ -1079,7 +1078,7 @@
corrected in many places
(London, G. Jones).
1814-1818. A most important step towards a good Greek text was taken by F. Peyrard, who published at Paris, between these years, in three volumes, the
1814-1818. A most important step towards a good Greek text was taken by F. Peyrard, who published at Paris, between these years, in three volumes, the
1824-1825. A most valuable edition of Books I.—VI. is that of J. G. Camerer (and C. F. Hauber) in two volumes published at Berlin
1825. J. G. C. Neide edited, from Peyrard, the text of Books I.—VI., XI. and XII. (
1826-9. The last edition of the Greek text before Heiberg's is that of E. F. August, who followed the Vatican MS. more closely than Peyrard did, and consulted at all events the Viennese MS. Gr. 103 (Heiberg's V). August's edition (Berlin, 1826-9) contains Books I.-XIII.
@@ -3214,7 +3213,7 @@twice the rectangle contained by the segments. By a curious idiom this is in Greek the rectangle
Similarly twice the rectangle contained by
is expressed as the rectangle
- (
described. 39, 45. the squares (before on
@@ -7004,8 +7003,8 @@
Therefore B is plane, and E, G are its sides.
Therefore A, B are plane numbers.
I say next that they are also similar.
For, <*> since F by multiplying D has made A, and by multiplying E has made C, therefore, as D is to E, so is A to C, that is, C to B. [VII. 17]
Again, <*> since E by multiplying F, G has made C, B respectively,
therefore, as F is to G, so is C to B. [VII. 17]
For, † since F by multiplying D has made A, and by multiplying E has made C, therefore, as D is to E, so is A to C, that is, C to B. [VII. 17]
Again, † since E by multiplying F, G has made C, B respectively,
therefore, as F is to G, so is C to B. [VII. 17]
But, as C is to B, so is D to E; therefore also, as D is to E, so is F to G.
And alternately, as D is to F, so is E to G. [VII. 13]
Therefore A, B are similar plane numbers; for their sides
are proportional. Q. E. D.
@@ -7494,13 +7493,13 @@
Now either they are not in continued proportion, and the extremes of them are prime to one another; or they are in continued proportion, and the extremes of them are not prime to one another; or they are not in continued proportion, nor are the extremes of them prime to one another; or they are in continued proportion, and the extremes of them are prime to one another.
If then A, B, C are in continued proportion, and the extremes of them A, C are prime to one another, it has been proved that it is impossible to find a fourth proportional number to them. [IX. 17]
<*>Next, let A, B, C not be in continued proportion, the extremes being again prime to one another; I say that in this case also it is impossible to find a fourth proportional to them.
†Next, let A, B, C not be in continued proportion, the extremes being again prime to one another; I say that in this case also it is impossible to find a fourth proportional to them.
For, if possible, let D have been found, so that, as A is to B, so is C to D, and let it be contrived that, as B is to C, so is D to E.
Now, since, as A is to B, so is C to D, and, as B is to C, so is D to E, therefore, A is to C, so is C to E. [VII. 14]
But A, C are prime, primes are also least, [VII. 21] and the least numbers measure those which have the same ratio, the antecedent the antecedent and the consequent the consequent. [VII. 20]
Therefore A measures C as antecedent antecedent.
But it also measures itself; therefore A measures A, C which are prime to one another: which is impossible.
Therefore it is not possible to find a fourth proportional to A, B, C.<*>
Therefore it is not possible to find a fourth proportional to A, B, C.†
Next, let A, B, C be again in continued proportion, but let A, C not be prime to one another.
I say that it is possible to find a fourth proportional to them.
For let B by multiplying C make D; therefore A either measures D or does not measure it.