From cfd5be8da095bee15df8c35896ae695c16aff771 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Nathaniel McCallum Date: Wed, 22 Nov 2023 11:21:24 -0500 Subject: [PATCH] tlg0543.tlg001.perseus-eng1 Convert HTML entities to UTF-8 characters --- .../tlg001/tlg0543.tlg001.perseus-eng1.xml | 1376 ++++++++--------- 1 file changed, 688 insertions(+), 688 deletions(-) diff --git a/data/tlg0543/tlg001/tlg0543.tlg001.perseus-eng1.xml b/data/tlg0543/tlg001/tlg0543.tlg001.perseus-eng1.xml index 3b071ea6f..ab0144a7e 100644 --- a/data/tlg0543/tlg001/tlg0543.tlg001.perseus-eng1.xml +++ b/data/tlg0543/tlg001/tlg0543.tlg001.perseus-eng1.xml @@ -137,8 +137,8 @@ The Lacedaemonians, after contending for supremacy in 3. Macedonia.The Macedonians obtained dominion in Europe from the lands bordering on the Adriatic to the -Danube,—which after all is but a small fraction of this -continent,—and, by the destruction of the Persian Empire, +Danube,—which after all is but a small fraction of this +continent,—and, by the destruction of the Persian Empire, they afterwards added to that the dominion of Asia. And yet, though they had the credit of having made themselves masters of a larger number of countries and states than any @@ -248,7 +248,7 @@ been little better than dreamers. For indeed some idea of a whole may be got from a part, but an accurate knowledge and clear comprehension cannot. Wherefore we must conclude that episodical history contributes exceedingly little to the familiar knowledge and secure grasp of universal history. While it is only by the combination -and comparison of the separate parts of the whole,—by observing their likeness and their difference,—that a man can +and comparison of the separate parts of the whole,—by observing their likeness and their difference,—that a man can attain his object: can obtain a view at once clear and complete; and thus secure both the profit and the delight of History.

@@ -303,9 +303,9 @@ this the Tarentines insulted the ambassadors of Ro in fear of the consequences, invited and obtained the assistance of Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus, B. C. 280. This happened in the year before the Gauls invaded Greece, some of whom perished near Delphi, while others crossed into -Asia. Then it was that the Romans—having reduced the +Asia. Then it was that the Romans—having reduced the Etruscans and Samnites to obedience, and conquered the -Italian Celts in many battles—attempted for the first time the +Italian Celts in many battles—attempted for the first time the reduction of the rest of Italy. Southern Italy. The nations for whose possessions they were about to fight they affected to regard, not in the light of foreigners, but as @@ -358,8 +358,8 @@ Now, though the Romans were much annoyed at this transaction, they c engaged in the wars I have mentioned above. But having got free from them they invested and besieged the troops. They presently took the place and killed the greater number -in the assault,—for the men resisted desperately, -knowing what must follow,—but took more +in the assault,—for the men resisted desperately, +knowing what must follow,—but took more than three hundred alive. B. C. 271. C. Quintus Claudus, L. Genucius Clepsina, Coss. These were sent to Rome, and there the Consuls brought them into the forum, where they were scourged and beheaded according to custom: for they wished as far as they @@ -381,7 +381,7 @@ support, the captors of Rhegium being n town again by the Syracusans, under circumstances which I will now detail.

Not long before this the military forces of the SyracusansThe rise of Hiero. He is elected General by the army, B. C. 275-274. -had quarrelled with the citizens, and while stationed near Merganè elected commanders from +had quarrelled with the citizens, and while stationed near Merganè elected commanders from their own body. These were Artemidorus and Hiero, the latter of whom afterwards became King of Syracuse. At this time he was quite a young man, but @@ -451,7 +451,7 @@ penalties of the law, for having broken faith with the people of Rhegium: and now so soon afterwards to assist the Mamertines, who had done precisely the same to Messene as well as Rhegium, involved a breach of equity very hard to -justify. The motives of the Romans in acceding to this prayer,—jealousy of the growing power of Carthage. +justify. The motives of the Romans in acceding to this prayer,—jealousy of the growing power of Carthage. But while fully alive to these points, they yet saw that Carthaginian aggrandisement was not confined to Libya, but had embraced many districts in Iberia as well; and that Carthage was, besides, @@ -746,8 +746,8 @@ Romans were taking a more decided part in Sicilian politics, they conceived that they must have a more formidable force to enable them to confront their enemy and maintain their own interests in Sicily. They select Agrigentum as their headquarters. Accordingly, they enlisted mercenaries from over sea -—a large number of Ligurians and Celts, and a still larger -number of Iberians—and despatched them to Sicily. And +—a large number of Ligurians and Celts, and a still larger +number of Iberians—and despatched them to Sicily. And perceiving that Agrigentum possessed the greatest natural advantages as a place of arms, and was the most powerful city in their province, they collected their supplies and their forces into it, deciding to use this city as their headquarters for the war.

@@ -792,7 +792,7 @@ temple of Asclepius outside the town; with the other they encamped in the outskirts of the city on the side which looks towards Heracleia. The space between the camps on either side of the city they secured by two trenches, -—the inner one to protect themselves against sallies from the +—the inner one to protect themselves against sallies from the city, the outer as a precaution against attacks from without, and to intercept those persons or supplies which always make their way surreptitiously into cities that are sustaining @@ -854,10 +854,10 @@ their opponents. After two months, Hanno is fo though skirmishes took place daily. But as Hannibal all this time kept signalling and -sending messages from the town to Hanno,— +sending messages from the town to Hanno,— telling him that his men were impatient of the famine, and that many were even deserting to the enemy owing to the -distress for food,—the Carthaginian general determined to +distress for food,—the Carthaginian general determined to risk a battle, the Romans being equally ready, for the reasons I have mentioned. So both parties advanced into the space between the @@ -917,7 +917,7 @@ these causes; and, moreover, that while ItalyLibya remained permanently uninjured; they became eager to get upon the sea and meet the Carthaginians there.

It was this branch of the subject that more than anything else induced me to give an account of this war at somewhat greater length than I otherwise should have done. I was -unwilling that a first step of this kind should be unknown,— +unwilling that a first step of this kind should be unknown,— namely how, and when, and why the Romans first started a navy.

It was, then, because they saw that the war they had undertaken lingered to a weary length, that they first thought of getting a fleet built, consisting of a @@ -930,8 +930,8 @@ proof of the courage, or rather the extraordinary audacity of the Roman enterprise. Not only had they no resources for it of reasonable sufficiency; but without any resources for it at -all, and without having ever entertained an idea of naval war,— -for it was the first time they had thought of it,—they nevertheless handled the enterprise with such extraordinary audacity, +all, and without having ever entertained an idea of naval war,— +for it was the first time they had thought of it,—they nevertheless handled the enterprise with such extraordinary audacity, that, without so much as a preliminary trial, they took upon themselves there and then to meet the Carthaginians at sea, on which they had for generations held undisputed supremacy. @@ -978,7 +978,7 @@ to him for the surrender of the town of LiparaPanormus of what had taken place, the Carthaginian general -Hannibal despatched Boōdes, a member of the Senate, with +Hannibal despatched Boōdes, a member of the Senate, with a squadron of twenty ships. He accomplished the voyage at night and shut up Gnaeus and his men within the harbour. When day dawned the crews made for the shore and ran @@ -1074,7 +1074,7 @@ by an unexpected piece of luck and an act of great daring effected his escape in the ship's boat. The rest of the Carthaginian squadron were sailing up with the view of charging; but as they were coming near they saw what had happened to the ships which were sailing in the front, and accordingly sheered off and avoided the blows of the engines. -Yet trusting to their speed, they managed by a manœuvre to +Yet trusting to their speed, they managed by a manœuvre to sail round and charge the enemy, some on their broadside and others on their stern, expecting by that method to avoid danger. But the engines swung round to meet them in @@ -1182,7 +1182,7 @@ out the best hands from the land army and divided the whole force which they meant to take on board into four divisions. Roman forces. 330 ships, with average of 420 men (300 rowers + 120 marines) = 138,600 men. Each division had alternative titles; the first was called the "First Legion" or the "First -Squadron,"—and so on with the others. The +Squadron,"—and so on with the others. The fourth had a third title besides. They were called "Triarii," on the analogy of land armies. The total number of men thus making up @@ -1207,7 +1207,7 @@ banks of oars, those, namely, on which the Consuls Marcus Atilius and Lucius Manlius respectively were sailing. These they stationed side by side in front and in a line with each other. Behind each of these they stationed ships one behind the other -in single file—the first squadron behind the one, and the +in single file—the first squadron behind the one, and the second squadron behind the other. These were so arranged that, as each ship came to its place, the two files diverged farther and farther from each other; the vessels being also @@ -1261,14 +1261,14 @@ view of breaking up the Roman close order. They began to retire with all speed, and the Romans pursued them with exultation. The consequence was that, while the first and second Roman squadrons were pressing the flying enemy, the third and fourth "legions" had become detached and were left behind, -—the former because they had to tow the horse-transports, +—the former because they had to tow the horse-transports, and the "Triarii" because they kept their station with them and helped them to form a reserve. But when the Carthaginians thought that they had drawn the first and second squadron a sufficient distance from the main body a signal was hoisted on board Hamilcar's ship, and they all simultaneously swung their ships round and engaged their pursuers. The contest was a severe one. The Carthaginians had a great superiority -in the rapidity with which they manœuvred their ships. They +in the rapidity with which they manœuvred their ships. They darted out from their line and rowed round the enemy: they approached them with ease, and retired with despatch. But the Romans, no less than the Carthaginians, had their reasons @@ -1285,7 +1285,7 @@ meanwhile Hanno with the right wing, which had held aloof when the first encounter took place, crossing the open sea, charged the ships of the Triarii and caused them great difficulty and embarrassment: while those of the Carthaginians -who had been posted near the land manœuvred into line, +who had been posted near the land manœuvred into line, and getting their ships straight, charged the men who were towing the horse-transports. These latter let go the towingropes, grappled with the enemy, and kept up a desperate struggle.

@@ -1362,7 +1362,7 @@ environs.

garrison to hold it and its territory, and had besides sent home to Rome to announce the events which had taken place and to ask for instructions as -to the future,—what they were to do, and what arrangements +to the future,—what they were to do, and what arrangements they were to make. Having done this they made active preparations for a general advance and set about plundering the country. They met with no opposition in this: they @@ -1506,7 +1506,7 @@ mouth to mouth, and gave rise, as was to be expected, to a good deal of popular rumour and sanguine talk. This was confirmed when he had once handled the troops. The way in which he got them into order when he had led them -outside the town; the skill with which he manœuvred the +outside the town; the skill with which he manœuvred the separate detachments, and passed the word of command down the ranks in due conformity to the rules of tactics, at @@ -1571,13 +1571,13 @@ watching for the right moment for beginning the attack.

 men on the elephants to advance and disperse the lines in front of them, and to his cavalry to outflank both wings and charge the enemy, than the Roman -army—clashing their shields and spears together after their -usual custom, and simultaneously raising their battle-cry— +army—clashing their shields and spears together after their +usual custom, and simultaneously raising their battle-cry— charged the enemy. The Roman cavalry being far outnumbered by the Carthaginians were soon in full retreat on both wings. But the fortune of the several divisions of the -infantry was various. Those stationed on the left wing— +infantry was various. Those stationed on the left wing— partly because they could avoid the elephants and partly -because they thought contemptuously of the mercenaries— +because they thought contemptuously of the mercenaries— charged the right wing of the Carthaginians, succeeded in driving them from their ground, and pursued them as far as their entrenchment. Those stationed in front of the elephants were less fortunate. The maniples in front were thrown @@ -1619,7 +1619,7 @@ clearest possible warning that no one should feel too confident of the favours of Fortune, especially in the hour of success. Here we see one, who a short time before refused all pity or consideration to the fallen, brought incontinently to beg them for his own life. Again, we -are taught the truth of that saying of Euripides— +are taught the truth of that saying of Euripides— One wise man's skill is worth a world in arms. For it was one man, one brain, that defeated the numbers which were believed to be invincible and able to accomplish @@ -1628,7 +1628,7 @@ anything; and restored to confidence a whole city that was unmistakably and utterly ruined, and the spirits of its army which had sunk to the lowest depths of despair. I record these things in the hope of benefiting my readers. There are two -roads to reformation for mankind—one through misfortunes of +roads to reformation for mankind—one through misfortunes of their own, the other through those of others: the former is the most unmistakable, the latter the less painful. One should never therefore voluntarily choose the former, for it makes reformation a matter of great difficulty and danger; but we @@ -1766,7 +1766,7 @@ their full strength, and after touching at SicilyLibya. There, as they coasted along the shore, they made a great number of descents upon the country without accomplishing anything of importance in any of them. At length they -came to the island of the Lotophagi called Mēnix, which is +came to the island of the Lotophagi called Mēnix, which is not far from the Lesser Syrtis. There, from ignorance of the waters, they ran upon some shallows; the tide receded, their ships went aground, and they were in extreme peril. However, @@ -1861,7 +1861,7 @@ pursued them up to the moat. But no sooner did the elephants thus come to close the archers on the wall, and overwhelmed with volleys of pila and javelins which poured thick and fast upon them from the men stationed on the outer edge of the moat, and who had -not yet been engaged,—and thus, studded all over with darts, +not yet been engaged,—and thus, studded all over with darts, and wounded past all bearing, they soon got beyond control. They turned and bore down upon their own masters, trampling men to death, and throwing their own lines into utter disorder @@ -2039,7 +2039,7 @@ not dared to intercept the course of the Carthaginians.

Himilco, the general in command at Lilybaeum, now A sally from Lilybaeum. saw that both divisions of his troops were in -high spirits and eager for service,—the original +high spirits and eager for service,—the original garrison owing to the presence of the reinforcement, the newly arrived because they had as yet had no experience of the hardships of the situation. He wished to take advantage of the excited feelings of both parties, before they cooled, in order to organise an attempt to set fire to the works of @@ -2081,7 +2081,7 @@ the shouting was loudest and the throng of combatants the densest. At these troops had been massed deliberately for attack and defence. The assailants strove their utmost to dislodge the defenders, the defenders exerted all their courage -to hold their ground and not yield an inch to the assailants,— +to hold their ground and not yield an inch to the assailants,— and with such emulation and fury on both sides, that they ended by falling at their posts rather than yield. But there were others mingled with these, carrying torchwood and tow @@ -2269,7 +2269,7 @@ land on his right. By daybreak the leading ships could be seen coming towards Drepana; and at the first sight of them Adherbal was overwhelmed with surprise. He quickly recovered his self-possession however: and, fully appreciating the significance of the enemy's attack, he determined to try -every manœuvre, and hazard every danger, rather than allow +every manœuvre, and hazard every danger, rather than allow himself and his men to be shut up in the blockade which threatened them. He lost no time in collecting his rowingcrews upon the beach, and summoning the mercenary soldiers who were in the town by proclamation. When the muster @@ -2334,7 +2334,7 @@ the many advantages which, taking it as a whole, the Carthaginians possessed, ga a continually increasing superiority. Owing to the better construction of their ships they had much the advantage in point of speed, while their position with the open sea behind them materially contributed to their -success, by giving them freer space for their manœuvres. Were +success, by giving them freer space for their manœuvres. Were any of them hard pressed by the enemy? Their speed secured them a sure escape, and a wide expanse of water was open to their flight. There they would swing round and attack the leading ships which were pursuing them: sometimes rowing round @@ -2352,8 +2352,8 @@ them were hard pressed, there was nowhere for them to retreat, for they were fighting close to the shore; and any ship of theirs that was hard driven by the enemy either backed into shallow water and stuck fast, or ran ashore and -was stranded. Moreover, that most effective of all manœuvres -in sea fights,—sailing through the enemy's line and appearing on their stern while they are engaged with others,—was +was stranded. Moreover, that most effective of all manœuvres +in sea fights,—sailing through the enemy's line and appearing on their stern while they are engaged with others,—was rendered impossible for them, owing to the bulk of their vessels; and still more so by the unskilfulness of their crews. Nor, again, were they able to bring help from behind to those @@ -2556,7 +2556,7 @@ of observation, commanding the surrounding district. It also commands a harbour conveniently situated for the passage from Drepana and Lilybaeum to Italy, in which there is always abundant depth of water; finally, it can only be reached by -three ways—two from the land side, one from the sea, all of +three ways—two from the land side, one from the sea, all of them difficult. Here Hamilcar entrenched himself. It was a bold measure: but he had no city which he could count upon as friendly, and no other hope on which he could rely; and @@ -2590,7 +2590,7 @@ of the transactions of every day; why they were undertaken, and how they were carried out. For every day had its ambuscade on one side or the other, its attack, or assault. A general assertion in regard to the men, combined with the actual result of their mutual determination to conquer, will -give a far better idea of the facts. It may be said then, generally, that nothing was left untried,—whether it be stratagems +give a far better idea of the facts. It may be said then, generally, that nothing was left untried,—whether it be stratagems which could be learnt from history, or plans suggested by the necessities of the hour and the immediate circumstances of the case, or undertakings depending upon an adventurous spirit @@ -2811,7 +2811,7 @@ always that they are ratified by the Roman people. The Carthaginians shall evacu war upon Hiero, nor bear arms against the Syracusans or their allies. The Carthaginians shall give up to the Romans all prisoners without ransom. The Carthaginians shall pay to the -Romans in twenty years 2200 Euboic talents of silver."About £500,000. For the value of the talent, taking the Euboic and +Romans in twenty years 2200 Euboic talents of silver."About £500,000. For the value of the talent, taking the Euboic and Attic talent as the same, see note on Book 34, 8.

The Longest and Harshest War in History @@ -2929,10 +2929,10 @@ Carthaginian government; so that one detachment should come to shore, receive the pay due to them, and depart from Carthage to their own country, before the next detachment was brought across and joined them. In accordance with this idea -Gesco began the transportation of the troops. But the Government—partly because the recent expenses had reduced their +Gesco began the transportation of the troops. But the Government—partly because the recent expenses had reduced their finances to a low ebb, partly because they felt certain that, if they collected the whole force and entertained them in Carthage, they would be able to persuade the mercenaries to -accept something less than the whole pay due to them—did +accept something less than the whole pay due to them—did not dismiss the detachments as they landed, but kept them massed in the city. The mercenaries sent to Sicca, But when this resulted in the commission of many acts of lawlessness by night and day, they began to @@ -2955,7 +2955,7 @@ the men, and roused strong feelings of animosity among them. These mercenaries being forced to retire to Sicca, lived there as they chose without any restraint upon their lawlessness. For they had obtained two things the most demoralising for -hired forces, and which in a word are in themselves the allsufficient source and origin of mutinies,—relaxation of discipline +hired forces, and which in a word are in themselves the allsufficient source and origin of mutinies,—relaxation of discipline and want of employment.Sicca Venerea, so called from a temple of Venus, was notorious for its licentiousness. Valer. Max. 2, 6, 15. For lack of something better to do, @@ -3071,7 +3071,7 @@ thought, taken every possible precaution for their interests, and especially in the arrangements for their conveyance to Libya. Accordingly they referred the dispute to the arbitration of the latter.

-Mathōs and Spendius +Mathōs and Spendius

Gesco came to Tunes by sea, bringing the money with him. There he held a meeting first of the officers, and then of the men, according to their nationalities; rebuked them for @@ -3085,7 +3085,7 @@ his master should recover possession of him, and he should be put to death with torture, in accordance with the laws of Rome, this man exerted himself to the utmost in word and deed to break off the arrangement with the Carthaginians. -Mathōs. He was seconded by a Libyan called Mathōs, +Mathōs. He was seconded by a Libyan called Mathōs, who was not a slave but free, and had actually served in the campaign. But he had been one of the most active agitators in the late disturbances: and being in terror @@ -3099,15 +3099,15 @@ striking terror into all the inhabitants of LibyaSpendius and Mathōs cause an outbreak. This was enough: the -men at once hurried to make a meeting; Spendius and Mathōs delivered violent invectives +rations and horses. Spendius and Mathōs cause an outbreak. This was enough: the +men at once hurried to make a meeting; Spendius and Mathōs delivered violent invectives against Gesco and the Carthaginians; their words were received with every sign of approval; no one else could get a hearing; whoever did attempt to speak was promptly stoned to death, without the assembly so much as waiting to ascertain whether be intended to support the party of Spendius or no. ba/lle. A considerable number of privates as well as officers were -killed in this manner in the various émeutes which took place; +killed in this manner in the various émeutes which took place; and from the constant repetition of this act of violence the whole army learnt the meaning of the word "throw," although there was not another word @@ -3118,7 +3118,7 @@ such occasions, if only some one started the cry "throw," such volleys were poured in from every side, and with such rapidity, that it was impossible for any one to escape who once ventured to stand forward to address them. The result was that soon no one had the courage to offer them any counsel at all; -and they accordingly appointed Mathōs and Spendius as their +and they accordingly appointed Mathōs and Spendius as their commanders.

 Gesco and His Staff Arrested @@ -3134,11 +3134,11 @@ wages as soon as they considered that they ought to have been paid to them, approached Gesco himself with some insolence. Gesco and his staff seized and thrown into chains With the idea of rebuking their precipitancy he refused to produce the pay, -and bade them "go and ask their general Mathōs +and bade them "go and ask their general Mathōs for it." This so enraged them, that without a moment's delay they first made a raid upon the money that was kept in readiness, and then arrested Gesco and the Carthaginians -with him. Mathōs and Spendius thought that the speediest +with him. Mathōs and Spendius thought that the speediest way to secure an outbreak of war was for the men to commit some outrage upon the sanctity of law and in violation of their engagements. They therefore co-operated with the mass of @@ -3151,7 +3151,7 @@ them into custody. Thenceforth they were at open war with were at once impious and contrary to the principles universally received among mankind.

This was the origin and beginning of the mercenary, or, asB.C. 240. -it is also called, the Libyan war. Mathōs lost no +it is also called, the Libyan war. Mathōs lost no time after this outrage in sending emissaries to the various cities in Libya, urging them to assert their freedom, and begging them to come to their aid and join them in their @@ -3208,7 +3208,7 @@ their husbands and fathers were being led off to prison for the non-payment of the taxes, now bound themselves by an oath in their several towns that they would conceal nothing that they possessed; and, stripping off their ornaments, unreservedly contributed them to furnish pay for the soldiers. They thus put such large means into the hands of -Mathōs and Spendius, that they not only discharged the +Mathōs and Spendius, that they not only discharged the arrears due to the mercenaries, which they had promised them as an inducement to mutiny, but remained well supplied for future needs. A striking illustration of the fact that true policy @@ -3225,7 +3225,7 @@ the city called Hecatompylos, in -and refitting what were left of their ships, triremes, penteconters, and the largest of the pinnaces. Meanwhile Mathōs, +and refitting what were left of their ships, triremes, penteconters, and the largest of the pinnaces. Meanwhile Mathōs, being joined by as many as seventy thousand Libyans, distributed these fresh troops between the two forces which were besieging Utica and Hippo Zarytus, and carried on those sieges without let or hindrance. At the same time they kept @@ -3311,14 +3311,14 @@ his former achievements, and of the confidence felt in him by the people. What he accomplished on this service was this.

A chain of hills runs along the isthmus connecting CarthageHe gets his men across the Macaras. with the mainland, which are difficult of access, and are crossed -by artificial passes into the mainland; of these hills Mathōs +by artificial passes into the mainland; of these hills Mathōs had occupied all the available points and posted guards there. Besides these there is a river called Macaras (Bagradas), which at certain points interrupts the passage of travellers from the city to the mainland, and though for the most part impassable, owing to the strength of its stream, is only crossed by one bridge. This -means of egress also Mathōs was guarding securely, and had +means of egress also Mathōs was guarding securely, and had built a town on it. The result was that, to say nothing of the Carthaginians entering the mainland with an army, it was rendered exceedingly difficult even for private individuals, who @@ -3380,7 +3380,7 @@ some little spirit and courage, or at least rescued them from the state of absolute despair into which they had fallen.

 Mathos Harasses Hamilcar -

Meanwhile Mathōs himself was continuing the siege +

Meanwhile Mathōs himself was continuing the siege of Hippo Zarytus, and he now counselled Autaritus, the leader of the Gauls, and Spendius to stick close @@ -3388,7 +3388,7 @@ to the skirts of the enemy, avoiding the plains, because the enemy were strong in cavalry and elephants, but marching parallel with them on the slopes of the mountains, and attacking them whenever they saw them -in any difficulty. Mathōs harasses Hamilcar's march. While suggesting these tactics, he at the +in any difficulty. Mathōs harasses Hamilcar's march. While suggesting these tactics, he at the same time sent messengers to the Numidians and Libyans, entreating them to come to their aid, and not to let slip the opportunity of securing their own freedom. Accordingly, @@ -3407,9 +3407,9 @@ that of Spendius on their flank; and it seemed impossible to escape from the danger which thus menaced them on every side.

 -Narávas Joins Hamilcar -

But there was at that time a certain Narávas, a Numidian -Hamilcar is joined by the Numidian Narávas. +Narávas Joins Hamilcar +

But there was at that time a certain Narávas, a Numidian +Hamilcar is joined by the Numidian Narávas. of high rank and warlike spirit, who entertained an ancestral feeling of affection for the Carthaginians, rendered especially warm at that time by admiration for Hamilcar. He now thought that he @@ -3417,8 +3417,8 @@ had an excellent opportunity for an interview and association with that general; and accordingly came to the Carthaginian quarters with a body of a hundred Numidians, and boldly approaching the outworks, remained there waving his hand. Wondering what his object could be Hamilcar sent a horseman -to see; to whom Narávas said that he wished for an interview -with the general. The Carthaginian leader still showing hesitation and incredulity, Narávas committed his horse and javelins +to see; to whom Narávas said that he wished for an interview +with the general. The Carthaginian leader still showing hesitation and incredulity, Narávas committed his horse and javelins to the care of his guards, and boldly came into the camp unarmed. His fearlessness made a profound impression not unmixed with surprise. No further objection, however, was made to his presence, and the desired interview was accorded; in @@ -3429,7 +3429,7 @@ full intention of taking his place by his side and of faithfully sharing all his actions and undertakings." Hamilcar, on hearing these words, was so immensely charmed by the young man's courage in coming, and his honest simplicity in the interview, that he not only consented to accept his co-operation, but promised also with an oath that he would give him his daughter in -marriage if he kept faith with Carthage to the end. The agreement having been thus made, Narávas came with his division of +marriage if he kept faith with Carthage to the end. The agreement having been thus made, Narávas came with his division of Numidians, numbering two thousand. Thus reinforced Hamilcar offered the enemy battle; which Spendius, having joined forces with the Libyans, accepted; and descending into @@ -3437,7 +3437,7 @@ the plain engaged the Carthaginians. Again def severe battle which followed Hamilcar's army was victorious: a result which he owed partly to the excellent behaviour of the elephants, but particularly to the brilliant -services rendered by Narávas. Autaritus and Spendius managed +services rendered by Narávas. Autaritus and Spendius managed to escape; but of the rest as many as ten thousand were killed and four thousand taken prisoners. When the victory was completed, Hamilcar gave permission to those of the prisoners who chose @@ -3452,7 +3452,7 @@ them were ever caught so doing, he warned them distinctly that he would meet with no mercy.

 The Mutineers Resolve to Murder Gesco -

This conspiracy of Mathōs and Spendius caused an +

This conspiracy of Mathōs and Spendius caused an outbreak about this same time in another quarter. Mutiny in Sardinia. For the mercenaries who were in garrison in Sardinia, inspired by their example, @@ -3473,7 +3473,7 @@ its inhabitants, and its natural products. But as many have described it at great length, I do not think that I need repeat statements about which there is no manner of dispute.

To return to Libya. The indulgence shown by HamilcarB. C. 239. Plan of Spendius for doing away with the good impression made by the leniency of Barcas. -to the captives alarmed Mathōs and Spendius +to the captives alarmed Mathōs and Spendius and Autaritus Gaul. They were afraid that conciliatory treatment of this sort would induce the Libyans, and the main body of the mercenaries, to embrace with eagerness the impunity @@ -3637,17 +3637,17 @@ come from Carthage to their aid, a and threw the bodies from the wall. They surrendered their town to the Libyans, while they even refused the request of the Carthaginians to be allowed to bury the corpses of their -unfortunate soldiers, Mathōs and Spendius were so elated by +unfortunate soldiers, Mathōs and Spendius were so elated by these events that they were emboldened to attempt Carthage itself. But Barcas had now got Hannibal as his coadjutor, who had been sent by the citizens to the army in the place of -Hanno,—recalled in accordance with the sentence of the +Hanno,—recalled in accordance with the sentence of the army, which the government had left to their discretion in reference to the disputes that arose between the two generals. -Accompanied, therefore, by this Hannibal and by Narávas, +Accompanied, therefore, by this Hannibal and by Narávas, Hamilcar scoured the country to intercept the supplies of -Mathōs and Spendius, receiving his most efficient support in -this, as in other things; from the Numidian Narávas.

 +Mathōs and Spendius, receiving his most efficient support in +this, as in other things; from the Numidian Narávas.

Hippo and Utica Join the Rebels

Such being the position of their forces in the field, the @@ -3688,11 +3688,11 @@ the treaty.

 Hamilcar's Tactical Superiority

The assistance thus obtained from these allies encouraged the Carthaginians to maintain their resistance: while -Mathōs and Spendius found themselves quite as much in the +Mathōs and Spendius found themselves quite as much in the position of besieged as in that of besiegers; for Hamilcar's force reduced them to such distress for provisions that they -were at last compelled to raise the siege. B. C. 238. Hamilcar, with assistance from Sicily, surrounds Mathōs and Spendius. However, after a +were at last compelled to raise the siege. B. C. 238. Hamilcar, with assistance from Sicily, surrounds Mathōs and Spendius. However, after a short interval, they managed to muster the most effective of the mercenaries and Libyans, to the number in all of fifty thousand, among whom, @@ -3700,7 +3700,7 @@ besides others, was Zarzas the Libyan, with his division, and commenced once more to watch and follow on the flank of Hamilcar's march. Their method was to keep away from the level country, for -fear of the elephants and the cavalry of Narávas; but to seize +fear of the elephants and the cavalry of Narávas; but to seize in advance of him all points of vantage, whether it were rising ground or narrow pass. In these operations they showed themselves quite a match for their opponents in the fury of @@ -3762,23 +3762,23 @@ a man. This slaughter, by which more than forty thousand perished, took place near a place called the Saw, so named from its shape resembling that tool.

 -Mathōs Captures Hannibal +Mathōs Captures Hannibal

This achievement of Hamilcar revived the hopes of -Siege of Mathōs in Tunes. -the Carthaginians who had been in absolute despair: while he, in conjunction with Narávas +Siege of Mathōs in Tunes. +the Carthaginians who had been in absolute despair: while he, in conjunction with Narávas and Hannibal, employed himself in traversing the country and visiting the cities. His victory secured the submission of the Libyans; and when they had come in, and the greater number of the towns had been reduced to obedience, he and his colleagues advanced to attack Tunes, -and commenced besieging Mathōs. Hannibal pitched his +and commenced besieging Mathōs. Hannibal pitched his camp on the side of the town nearest to Carthage, and Hamilcar on the opposite side. When this was done they brought the captives taken from the army of Spendius and crucified them in the sight of the enemy. Defeat and death of Hannibal. But observing that Hannibal was conducting his command with -negligence and over-confidence, Mathōs assaulted the ramparts, killed many of the Carthaginians, and drove the entire army from the camp. All the +negligence and over-confidence, Mathōs assaulted the ramparts, killed many of the Carthaginians, and drove the entire army from the camp. All the baggage fell into the hands of the enemy, and Hannibal himself was made a prisoner. They at once took him up to the cross on which Spendius was hanging, and after the infliction of exquisite tortures, took down the latter's body and fastened @@ -3813,20 +3813,20 @@ employment of many various arguments, they induced the generals to meet; and Hanno and Barcas were compelled to give in and yield to their representations. The result was -that they ever afterwards co-operated with each other so cordially, that Mathōs found himself continually worsted in the +that they ever afterwards co-operated with each other so cordially, that Mathōs found himself continually worsted in the numerous skirmishes which took place round the town called Leptis, as well as certain other towns; and at last became eager to bring the matter to the decision of a general engagement, a desire in which the Carthaginians also shared in an equal degree. Both sides therefore having determined upon this course: they summoned all their allies to join them-in confronting the peril, and collected the garrisons stationed in the various towns, conscious that they were about to stake their all -on the hazard. Mathōs beaten and captured. All being ready on either side for the conflict, +on the hazard. Mathōs beaten and captured. All being ready on either side for the conflict, they gave each other battle by mutual consent, both sides being drawn up in full military array. When victory declared itself on the side of the Carthaginians, the larger number of the Libyans perished on the field; and the rest, having escaped to a certain -town, surrendered shortly afterwards; while Mathōs himself +town, surrendered shortly afterwards; while Mathōs himself was taken prisoner by his enemies.

 Aftereffects in Hippo, Utica, and Sardinia @@ -3849,7 +3849,7 @@ re-establish her authority over Libya, act in the drama was performed by the young men conducting a triumphal procession through the town, and finally inflicting every kind of torture upon -Mathōs. For three years and about four months did the +Mathōs. For three years and about four months did the mercenaries maintain a war against the Carthaginians which far surpassed any that I ever heard of for cruelty and inhumanity.

@@ -4479,10 +4479,10 @@ Trigoboli, of which streams the northern is called the Padoa, the southern the Olana. At the mouth of the latter there is a harbour affording as safe anchorage as any in the Adriatic. The whole river is called by the country folk the Bodencus. -As to the other stories current in Greece about this river,—I +As to the other stories current in Greece about this river,—I mean Phaethon and his fall, and the tears of the poplars and the black clothes of the inhabitants along this stream, which -they are said to wear at this day as mourning for Phaethon,—all +they are said to wear at this day as mourning for Phaethon,—all such tragic incidents I omit for the present, as not being suitable to the kind of work I have in hand; but I shall return to them at some other more fitting opportunity, particularly because @@ -4512,7 +4512,7 @@ of themselves. First, the country near the source of the Insubres settled in the country, the largest tribe of all; and next them, along the bank of the river, the Cenomani. But the district along the shore of the Adriatic was held by another -very ancient tribe called Ven&ebreve;ti, in customs and dress nearly +very ancient tribe called Venĕti, in customs and dress nearly allied to Celts, but using quite a different language, about whom the tragic poets have written a great many wonderful tales. South of the Padus, in the Apennine district, first @@ -4549,7 +4549,7 @@ conquered the Romans in battle, and pursuing the flying legions, in three days after the battle occupied Rome itself with the exception of the Capitol. Battle of the Allia, 18th July, B. C. 390. But a circumstance intervened which recalled them home, an invasion, that is to say, of their territory by -the Ven&ebreve;ti. Accordingly they made terms with the Romans, +the Venĕti. Accordingly they made terms with the Romans, handed back the city, and returned to their own land; and subsequently were occupied with domestic wars. Some of the tribes, also, who dwelt on the Alps, comparing their own barren @@ -4606,7 +4606,7 @@ an expedition against them, which was met by the tribe called the Senones. In a pitched battle the army of the Senones were cut to pieces, and the rest of the tribe expelled from the county; into which the Romans sent the first colony which they ever -planted in Gaul—namely, the town of Sena, so +planted in Gaul—namely, the town of Sena, so called from the tribe of Gauls which formerly occupied it. Sena Gallica. This is the town which I mentioned before as lying on the coast at the extremity of the plains of the Padus.

 @@ -4721,7 +4721,7 @@ formidable army, furnished with a variety of armour, in the eighth year after the distribution of the lands of Picenum. The Insubres and Boii remained loyal to the agreement they had -made with them: but the Ven&ebreve;ti and Cenomani being induced +made with them: but the Venĕti and Cenomani being induced by embassies from Rome to take the Roman side, the Celtic kings were obliged to leave a portion of their forces behind, to guard against an invasion of their territory by those tribes. @@ -4769,7 +4769,7 @@ were formed into an army and sent in advance into Etruria, under the command of one of the Praetors. Moreover, the Umbrians and Sarsinatae, hill tribes of the Apennine district, were collected to the number of twenty thousand; and with -them were twenty thousand Ven&ebreve;ti and Cenomani. These +them were twenty thousand Venĕti and Cenomani. These were stationed on the frontier of the Gallic territory, that they might divert the attention of the invaders, by making an incursion into the territory of the Boii. These were the forces @@ -4854,8 +4854,8 @@ of the cavalry, led the way towards the hill. The Gallic chieftains too had seen his watch fires, and understood that the enemy was come; and at once held council of war. The advice of King Aneroestes was, "that seeing the amount of -booty they had taken,—an incalculable quantity indeed of -captives, cattle, and other spoil,—they had better not run +booty they had taken,—an incalculable quantity indeed of +captives, cattle, and other spoil,—they had better not run the risk of another general engagement, but return home in safety; and having disposed of this booty, and freed themselves from its incumbrance, return, if they thought good, to make @@ -5103,7 +5103,7 @@ eventually killed the greater number of them. And this was due to the foresight of the Tribunes: for the Consul Flaminius is thought to have made a strategic mistake in his arrangements for this battle. By drawing up his men along the very brink -of the river, he rendered impossible a manœuvre characteristic +of the river, he rendered impossible a manœuvre characteristic of Roman tactics, because he left the lines no room for their deliberate retrograde movements; for if, in the course of the battle, the men had been forced ever so little from their ground, @@ -5122,7 +5122,7 @@ submission, the new Consuls, Marcus Claudius Marcellus and Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus, were urgent that no peace should be granted them. Thus frustrated, they determined to try a last chance, and once more -took active measures to hire thirty thousand Gaesatae,—the +took active measures to hire thirty thousand Gaesatae,—the Gallic tribe which lives on the Rhone. Having obtained these, they held themselves in readiness, and waited for the attack of their enemies. At the beginning of spring the Consuls assumed @@ -5246,8 +5246,8 @@ undertaken, as previous writers have done, to write the history of particular peoples, such as the Greeks or Persians, but the history of all known parts of the world at once, because there was something in the state of our own times which made such -a plan peculiarly feasible,—of which I shall speak more at -length hereafter,—it will be proper, before entering on my main +a plan peculiarly feasible,—of which I shall speak more at +length hereafter,—it will be proper, before entering on my main subject, to touch briefly on the state of the most important of the recognised nations of the world.

Of Asia and Egypt I need not speak before the time at @@ -5324,7 +5324,7 @@ part of Italy became the scene of murde and every kind of confusion; deputations were sent from most parts of Greece to endeavour to bring about some settlement of these disorders.The Pythagorean clubs, beginning in combinations for the cultivation of -mystic philosophy and ascetic life, had grown to be political,—a combination +mystic philosophy and ascetic life, had grown to be political,—a combination of the upper or cultivated classes to secure political power. Thus Archytas was for many years ruler in Tarentum (Strabo, I.3.4). The earliest was at Croton, but they were also established in many cities of Magna Graecia. @@ -5370,7 +5370,7 @@ at another, still more effectually, by that of Mace Unification of the Peloponnese

When at length, however, the country did obtain leaders of sufficient ability, it quickly manifested its intrinsic -excellence by the accomplishment of that most glorious achievement,—the union of the Peloponnese. The originator of +excellence by the accomplishment of that most glorious achievement,—the union of the Peloponnese. The originator of this policy in the first instance was Aratus of Sicyon; its active promotion and consummation was due to Philopoemen of Megalopolis; while Lycortas and his party must be looked @@ -5442,7 +5442,7 @@ the second league, which exists at this day, and which were the first members of the original league to do so; and, secondly, that the continuity of the policy pursued by the Achaeans might rest, not on my word only, but on the evidence of the -actual facts. It was in virtue of this policy,—by holding +actual facts. It was in virtue of this policy,—by holding out the bait of equality and freedom, and by invariably making war upon and crushing those who on their own account, or with the support of the kings, enslaved any of the states within their borders, that they finally accomplished the @@ -5674,7 +5674,7 @@ of all Greece, in which it would be imp succeed without first crushing the government of Macedonia. They were, therefore, to urge him to consider, with a view to the future, which of the two courses would be the more to his -own interests,—to fight for supremacy in Greece in conjunction with the Achaeans and Boeotians against Cleomenes in +own interests,—to fight for supremacy in Greece in conjunction with the Achaeans and Boeotians against Cleomenes in the Peloponnese; or to abandon the most powerful race, and to stake the Macedonian empire on a battle in Thessaly, against a combined force of Aetolians and Boeotians, with the Achaeans @@ -5753,14 +5753,14 @@ bring the existing war to a conclusion unaided.

But when Ptolemy, despairing of retaining the league's Euergetes, jealous of the Macedonian policy of Aratus, helps Cleomenes. friendship, began to furnish Cleomenes with -supplies,—which he did with a view of setting +supplies,—which he did with a view of setting him up as a foil to Antigonus, thinking the Lacedaemonians offered him better hopes than the Achaeans of being able to thwart the policy of the Macedonian kings.; and when the Achaeans themselves had suffered -three defeats,—one at Lycaeum in an engagement with Cleomenes whom they had met on a march; and again in a pitched +three defeats,—one at Lycaeum in an engagement with Cleomenes whom they had met on a march; and again in a pitched battle at Ladocaea in the territory of Megalopolis, in which Lydiades fell; and a third time decisively at a place called Hecatomboeum in the territory of Dyme where their whole forces had -been engaged,—after these misfortunes, no further delay was +been engaged,—after these misfortunes, no further delay was possible, and they were compelled by the force of circumstances to appeal unanimously to Antigonus. Thereupon Aratus sent his son to Antigonus, and ratified the terms of the subvention. @@ -5910,7 +5910,7 @@ When day broke he had a narrow escape from being ejected, if not from absolute destruction, through the valour of the citizens. This had been his fortune three months before, when he had made his way into the city by the region which is called the -Cōlaeum: but on this occasion, by the superiority of his +Cōlaeum: but on this occasion, by the superiority of his force, and the seizure in advance of the strongest positions in the town, he succeeded in effecting his purpose. He eventually ejected the inhabitants, and took entire possession of the city; which, once in his power, he dismantled in so savage @@ -6063,7 +6063,7 @@ a crime of the most impious description. To slaughter and wreak vengeance on the men who had just before taken their city, and refrained from doing them the least harm, and who were at that very moment engaged in protecting -their lives and liberties,—can anything be imagined more +their lives and liberties,—can anything be imagined more detestable? What punishment can be conceived to correspond with its enormity? If one suggests that they would be rightly @@ -6097,7 +6097,7 @@ a man of a most distinguished family, who had been despot of Argos, as his fathers had been before him, upon falling into the hands of Antigonus and the league "was hurried off to Cenchreae and there -racked to death,—an unparalleled instance of injustice and +racked to death,—an unparalleled instance of injustice and cruelty." But in this matter also our author preserves his peculiar method. He makes up a story about certain cries of this man, when he was on the rack, being heard @@ -6120,11 +6120,11 @@ and crime possible to mankind. And if Aristomachus endured the most terrible tortures, as Phylarchus says, he yet would not have been sufficiently punished for the crime of one day, in which, when Aratus had effected an entrance into Argos -with the Achaean soldiers,—and after supporting the most +with the Achaean soldiers,—and after supporting the most severe struggles and dangers for the freedom of its citizens, had eventually been driven out, because the party within who were in league with him had not ventured to stir, for fear of the -tyrant,—Aristomachus availed himself of the pretext of their +tyrant,—Aristomachus availed himself of the pretext of their complicity with the irruption of the Achaeans to put to the rack and execute eighty of the leading citizens, who were perfectly innocent, in the presence of their relations. I pass by the @@ -6151,7 +6151,7 @@ For the Achaean government not only secured him an indemnity for all crimes committed by him while despot, but admitted him as a member of the league, and invested him -with the highest office in it,—that, namely, of Commander-in-Chief and +with the highest office in it,—that, namely, of Commander-in-Chief and Strategus.h(gemo/na kai\ strathgo\n. It is not quite clear whether this is merely a description of the ordinary office of Strategus, or whether any special office is meant, such as that conferred on Antigonus. In 4, 11 h(gemo/nes includes the @@ -6185,15 +6185,15 @@ instance, he has told us clearly enough how Cleomenes took the town, preserved it from damage, and forthwith sent couriers to the Megalopolitans in Messene with a despatch, offering them the safe enjoyment of their country if they would throw -in their lot with him;—and his object in telling all this is +in their lot with him;—and his object in telling all this is to enhance the magnanimity and moderation of Cleomenes towards his enemies. Nay, he has gone farther, and told us how the people of Megalopolis would not allow the letter to be read to the end, and were not far from stoning the bearers of it. Thus much he does tell us. But the sequel to this, so -appropriate to an historian,—the commendation, I mean, and -honourable mention of their noble conduct,—this he has altogether left out. And yet he had an opportunity ready to his +appropriate to an historian,—the commendation, I mean, and +honourable mention of their noble conduct,—this he has altogether left out. And yet he had an opportunity ready to his hand. For if we view with approval the conduct of a people who merely by their declarations and votes support a war in behalf of friends and allies; while to those who go so far as to @@ -6265,7 +6265,7 @@ of six thousand talents, he would have been better supplied than Ptolemy himself. And as for war with Antigonus, if he had become master of only three hundred talents, he would have been able to continue it without any difficulty. But the -writer states two inconsistent propositions—that Cleomenes +writer states two inconsistent propositions—that Cleomenes depended wholly on Ptolemy for money: and that he at the same time had become master of that enormous sum. Is this not irrational, and grossly careless besides? I might mention @@ -6284,7 +6284,7 @@ and foolhardy step, because the places at which the frontier was crossed were strongly fortified; but those who were capable of judging regarded the measure as at once safe and prudent. For seeing that Antigonus had dismissed his forces, -he reckoned on two things,—there would be no one to resist +he reckoned on two things,—there would be no one to resist him, and therefore he would run no risk; and when the Argives found that their territory was being laid waste up to their walls, they would be certain to be roused to anger and to @@ -6388,7 +6388,7 @@ stationed with Cleomenes's cavalry, observing that the Achaean lines were not covered by any other troops behind them, charged them on the rear; and thus reduced the division while endeavouring to carry the hill of Evas to a state of -great peril,—being met as they were on their front by Eucleidas +great peril,—being met as they were on their front by Eucleidas from the top of the hill, and being charged and vigorously attacked by the light-armed mercenaries on their rear. Philopoemen's presence of mind. It was at this point @@ -6437,7 +6437,7 @@ to give them battle on the very summit of the hill; and so, as soon as he was forced by the weight of their heavy armour and their close order to give any ground, it was immediately occupied by the Illyrians; while his own men were obliged to -take lower ground, because they had no space for manœuvring +take lower ground, because they had no space for manœuvring on the top. The result was not long in arriving: they suffered a repulse, which the difficult and precipitous nature of the ground over which they had to retire turned into a disastrous flight.

@@ -6517,10 +6517,10 @@ Ptolemy Philopator succeeded to the throne of Egypt same period died Seleucus, son of that Seleucus who had the double surnames of Callinicus and Pogon: he was succeeded on the throne of Syria by his brother Antiochus. The deaths of -these three sovereigns—Antigonus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus—fell +these three sovereigns—Antigonus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus—fell in the same Olympiad, as was the case with the three immediate successors to Alexander the -Great,—Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus,— +Great,—Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus,— for the latter all died in the 124th Olympiad, and the former in the 139th.

I may now fitly close this book. I have completed the @@ -6530,7 +6530,7 @@ after becoming supreme in Italy, began outside of it, and to dispute with the Carthaginians the dominion of the sea. I have at the same time explained the state of Greece, Macedonia, and Carthage at this epoch. I have now -arrived at the period which I originally marked out,—that +arrived at the period which I originally marked out,—that namely in which the Greeks were on the point of beginning the Social, the Romans the Hannibalic war, and the kings in Asia the war for the possession of Coele-Syria. The termination therefore of the wars just described, and the death of the @@ -6837,7 +6837,7 @@ to the demands of Rome by surrendering injury; and thus get rid of the common enemy of the state without the odium of doing it themselves, and secure the safety of their territory by ridding themselves of the threatened -war—all of which they could have effected by merely passing +war—all of which they could have effected by merely passing a decree?" If this question were put, I say, it would admit of no answer. The fact is that, so far from doing anything of the sort, they maintained the war in accordance with Hannibal's policy for seventeen years; and refused to make terms @@ -6848,8 +6848,8 @@ their own city and persons in imminent danger of destruction.

I do not allude to Fabius and his annals from any fear of their wearing such an air of probability in themselves as to -gain any credit,—for the fact is that his assertions are so contrary to reason, that it does not need any argument of mine to -help his readers to perceive it,—but I wished to warn those +gain any credit,—for the fact is that his assertions are so contrary to reason, that it does not need any argument of mine to +help his readers to perceive it,—but I wished to warn those who take up his books not to be misled by the authority of his name, but to be guided by facts. For there is a certain class of readers in whose eyes the personality of the writer is of more @@ -6880,7 +6880,7 @@ war, and had to give his attention entirely to that.

B.C. 238. Bk. i. ch. 88. Second cause. war, proclaimed war with Carthage, the latter at first was inclined to resist at all hazards, because the goodness of her cause gave her hopes -of victory,—as I have shown in my former book, without which +of victory,—as I have shown in my former book, without which it would be impossible to understand adequately either this or what is to follow. The Romans, however, would not listen to anything: and the Carthaginians therefore yielded to the force @@ -7197,7 +7197,7 @@ island. Demetrius himself made his way to some galleys which he kept at anchor at a solitary point on the coast, with a view to every contingency; and going on board, he sailed away at nightfall, and arrived unexpectedly at the court of King -Philip, where he passed the remainder of his life:—a man +Philip, where he passed the remainder of his life:—a man whose undoubted boldness and courage were unsupported by either prudence or judgment. His end was of a piece with the whole tenor of his life; for while endeavouring at the instigation of Philip to seize Messene, he exposed himself during @@ -7232,7 +7232,7 @@ believe that Fortune, among its other bounties, granted the Romans the privilege of being men of being men of the world from their cradles. I need not waste any more words upon such compositions as those of Chaereas and Sosilus;Of Chaereas nothing seems known; a few fragments of an historian of his -name are given in Müller, vol. iii. Of Sosilus, Diodorus (26, fr. 6) says that he +name are given in Müller, vol. iii. Of Sosilus, Diodorus (26, fr. 6) says that he was of Ilium and wrote a history of Hannibal in seven books. Nepos (Hann. 13) calls him a Lacedaemonian, and says that he lived in Hannibal's camp and taught him Greek. which, in my @@ -7259,7 +7259,7 @@ them because made without their consent (and on this point they quoted the precedent of the Romans themselves, who in the Sicilian war repudiated the terms agreed upon and accepted by Lutatius, as having been made without their -consent)—passing over this, they pressed with all the +consent)—passing over this, they pressed with all the vehemence they could, throughout the discussion, the last treaty made in the Sicilian war; in which they affirmed that there was no clause relating to Iberia, but one expressly providing security for the allies of both parties to the treaty. Now, @@ -7270,7 +7270,7 @@ On this occasion the Roman envoys contented themselves with the reply that, while Saguntum was intact, the matter in dispute admitted of pleadings and of a discussion on its merits; but that, that city having been treacherously seized, they had -only two alternatives,—either to deliver the persons guilty of +only two alternatives,—either to deliver the persons guilty of the act, and thereby make it clear that they had no share in their crime, and that it was done without their consent; or, if they were not willing to do that, and avowed their complicity @@ -7294,10 +7294,10 @@ Horatius, the first Consuls appointed after the expulsion of the kings, by which men also the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was consecrated. This was twenty-eight years before the invasion of Greece -by Xerxes. The first treaty, B. C. 509-508. Of this treaty I append a translation, as accurate as I could make it,—for the +by Xerxes. The first treaty, B. C. 509-508. Of this treaty I append a translation, as accurate as I could make it,—for the fact is that the ancient language differs so much from that at present in use, that the best scholars among the Romans themselves have great difficulty in interpreting some points in it, -even after much study. The treaty is as follows:—

+even after much study. The treaty is as follows:—

"There shall be friendship between the Romans and their allies, and the Carthaginians and their allies, on these conditions:

"Neither the Romans nor their allies are to sail beyond @@ -7309,7 +7309,7 @@ shall depart within five days.

"Men landing for traffic shall strike no bargain save in the presence of a herald or town-clerk. Whatever is sold in the presence of these, let the price be secured to the seller on the -credit of the state—that is to say, if such sale be in Libya or +credit of the state—that is to say, if such sale be in Libya or Sardinia.

"If any Roman comes to the Carthaginian province in Sicily he shall enjoy all rights enjoyed by others. The Carthaginians shall do no injury to the people of Ardea, Antium, @@ -7398,7 +7398,7 @@ treaty refers.

the invasion of Pyrrhus into Sicily; before the Carthaginians undertook the war for the possession of Sicily. This treaty contains the same provisions as the two earlier treaties with these additional -clauses:—

+clauses:—

"If they make a treaty of alliance with Pyrrhus, the Romans or Carthaginians shall make it on such terms as @@ -7421,7 +7421,7 @@ hand, and, having taken the oath in the name of his country, added these words, "If I abide by this oath may he bless me; but if I do otherwise in thought or act, may all others be kept safe each in his own country, under his own laws, in enjoyment -of his own goods, household gods, and tombs,—may I alone +of his own goods, household gods, and tombs,—may I alone be cast out, even as this stone is now." And having uttered these words he throws the stone from his hand.

@@ -7499,7 +7499,7 @@ question compelled by the necessities of their position, contrary to all justice, to evacuate Sardinia, and to pay this enormous sum of money. For as to the allegation of the Romans, that they had during the Mercenary war been guilty of acts of hostility -to ships sailing from Rome,—that was barred by their own act +to ships sailing from Rome,—that was barred by their own act in restoring, without ransom, the Carthaginian prisoners, in gratitude for similar conduct on the part of Carthage to Romans who had landed on their shores; a transaction which @@ -7577,9 +7577,9 @@ minute discussion on points of this kind is unnecessary. And if any man were entirely self-sufficing in every event, I might allow that the accurate knowledge of the past, though a graceful accomplishment, was perhaps not essential: but as long as it is not in mere mortals to say this, either in public or private -affairs,—seeing that no man of sense, even if he is prosperous +affairs,—seeing that no man of sense, even if he is prosperous for the moment, will ever reckon with certainty on the future, -—then I say that such knowledge is essential, and not merely +—then I say that such knowledge is essential, and not merely graceful. For take the three commonest cases. Suppose, first, a statesman to be attacked either in his own person or in that of his country: or, secondly, suppose him to be anxious @@ -7599,7 +7599,7 @@ without disguise the motives and purposes of the several persons engaged; and te favour, active kindness, and assistance, or the reverse. They give us also many opportunities of distinguishing who would be likely to pity us, feel indignation at our wrongs, and defend -our cause,—a power that contributes very greatly to national +our cause,—a power that contributes very greatly to national as well as individual security. Neither the writer nor the reader of history, therefore, should confine his attention to a bare statement of facts: he must take into account all that @@ -7626,9 +7626,9 @@ are many times as numerous as mine, it is impossible for their readers to get any certain information from them: first, because most of them differ in their account of the same transactions; and secondly, because they omit contemporary -history,—the comparative review of which would put a very +history,—the comparative review of which would put a very different complexion upon events to that derived from isolated -treatment,—and are unable to touch upon the most decisive +treatment,—and are unable to touch upon the most decisive events at all. For, indeed, the most important parts of history are those which treat the events which follow or accompany a certain course of conduct, and pre-eminently so those which treat of causes. For instance, we see that the war with @@ -7758,9 +7758,9 @@ which he did with unexpected rapidity, though not without severe fighting and serious loss; he left Hanno in chief command of all the district north of the Iber, and with absolute authority over the Burgusii, who were the people that gave him most uneasiness on account of their friendly feeling towards Rome. He then detached from his army ten thousand -foot and a thousand horse for the service of Hanno,—to whom +foot and a thousand horse for the service of Hanno,—to whom also he entrusted the heavy baggage of the troops that were to -accompany himself,—and the same number to go to their own +accompany himself,—and the same number to go to their own land. The object of this last measure was twofold: he thereby left a certain number of well-affected persons behind him; and @@ -7808,10 +7808,10 @@ the world, the next point will be to make the geography of our own part of it intelligible by a corresponding division.

It falls, then, into three divisions, each distinguished by a -particular name,—Asia, Libya, Europe.This division of the world into three parts was an advance upon the +particular name,—Asia, Libya, Europe.This division of the world into three parts was an advance upon the ancient geographers, who divided it into two, combining Egypt with Asia, and Africa with Europe. See Sall. Jug. 17; -Lucan, Phars. 9, 411; Varro de L. L. 5, § 31. +Lucan, Phars. 9, 411; Varro de L. L. 5, § 31. And note on 12, 25. The boundaries are respectively the Don, the Nile, and the Straits of the Pillars of Hercules. Asia lies between the Don and the Nile, and lies @@ -7873,7 +7873,7 @@ the name long after the disappearance of the altars (Stra a seaboard of over sixteen thousand stades. They had also crossed the strait of the Pillars of Hercules, and got possession of the whole seaboard of Iberia on the Mediterranean as far as -the Pyrenees, which separate the Iberes from the Celts—that +the Pyrenees, which separate the Iberes from the Celts—that is, for a distance of about eight thousand stades: for it is three thousand from the Pillars to New Carthage, from which Hannibal started for Italy; two thousand six hundred from @@ -7928,8 +7928,8 @@ territory recently allotted by the Romans, and following close upon the track of the flying colonists, laid siege to the Roman colony of Mutina, in which the fugitives had taken refuge. Among them were the triumviri or three commissioners who -had been sent out to allot the lands; of whom one—Gaius -Lutatius—was an ex-consul, the other two ex-praetors. Outrage by Boii and Insubres. These +had been sent out to allot the lands; of whom one—Gaius +Lutatius—was an ex-consul, the other two ex-praetors. Outrage by Boii and Insubres. These men having demanded a parley with the enemy, the Boii consented: but treacherously seized them upon their leaving the town, @@ -7958,7 +7958,7 @@ Consul to enrol two more legions for himself from the allies.

 to the arrival of Hannibal; thus completing the course of events which I have already had occasion to describe.

Meanwhile the Consuls, having completed the necessaryTiberius Sempronius prepares to attack Carthage. -preparations for their respective missions, set sail at the beginning of summer—Publius to Iberia, with sixty +preparations for their respective missions, set sail at the beginning of summer—Publius to Iberia, with sixty ships, and Tiberius Sempronius to Libya, with a hundred and sixty quinqueremes. The latter thought by means of this great fleet to strike @@ -7980,9 +7980,9 @@ marched, and having made his way through the Celts partly by bribes and partly by force. Being informed that the enemy were at hand, Publius was at first incredulous of the fact, because of the rapidity of the advance; but wishing to -know the exact state of the case,—while staying behind himself to refresh his troops after their voyage, and to consult with +know the exact state of the case,—while staying behind himself to refresh his troops after their voyage, and to consult with the Tribunes as to the best ground on which to give the -enemy battle,—he sent out a reconnoitring party, consisting +enemy battle,—he sent out a reconnoitring party, consisting of three hundred of his bravest horse; joining with them as guides and supports some Celts, who chanced to be serving as mercenaries at the time in Marseilles.

@@ -8205,7 +8205,7 @@ into Italy.

to produce a striking effect by their descriptions of the wonders of this country, have fallen into two errors which are more -alien than anything else to the spirit of history,—perversion of +alien than anything else to the spirit of history,—perversion of fact and inconsistency. Introducing Hannibal as a prodigy of strategic skill and boldness, they yet represent him as acting with the most conspicuous indiscretion; and then, finding @@ -8219,7 +8219,7 @@ active men on foot to do so: and similarly they tell us that the desolation of this district is so complete, that, had not some god or hero met Hannibal's forces and showed them the way, they would have been hopelessly lost and perished to a man.

-

Such stories involve both the errors I have mentioned,— +

Such stories involve both the errors I have mentioned,— they are both false and inconsistent.

Absurd Premises of Other Historians @@ -8231,7 +8231,7 @@ taken, and the people to which it led, and above all as to the practicability of what he was undertaking to do? They, in fact, represent Hannibal, when at the height of his expectation of success, doing what those would hardly do who have utterly -failed and have been reduced to despair,—that is, to entrust +failed and have been reduced to despair,—that is, to entrust themselves and their forces to an unknown country. And so, too, what they say about the desolation of the district, and its precipitous and inaccessible character, only serves to bring their @@ -8377,7 +8377,7 @@ and went to the relief of the advancing line. Having the advantage of charging the enemy from the higher ground he inflicted a severe loss upon them, but suffered also as severe a one in his own army; for the commotion in the line now -grew worse, and in both directions at once—thanks to the +grew worse, and in both directions at once—thanks to the shouting and struggling of these combatants: and it was not until he had killed the greater number of the Allobroges, and forced the rest to fly to their own land, that the remainder of @@ -8491,9 +8491,9 @@ The troops however bore up against the fatigue, having now grown accustomed to such hardships; but when they came to a place where the path was too narrow for the elephants or -beasts of burden to pass,—and which, narrowed before by +beasts of burden to pass,—and which, narrowed before by landslips extending about a stade and a half, had recently -been made more so by another landslip,—then once more +been made more so by another landslip,—then once more despondency and consternation fell upon the troops. Hannibal's first idea was to avoid this mauvais pas by a detour, but this route too being made impossible by a snow-storm, he abandoned the idea.

 @@ -8712,8 +8712,8 @@ feelings were entertained at Rome when there. For scarcely had the last rumour about the taking of Saguntum by the Carthaginians ceased to attract attention, and scarcely had the measures adopted in view of that event been -taken,—namely the despatch of one Consul to Libya to besiege -Carthage, and of the other to Iberia to meet Hannibal there,— +taken,—namely the despatch of one Consul to Libya to besiege +Carthage, and of the other to Iberia to meet Hannibal there,— than news came that Hannibal had arrived in Italy with his army, and was already besieging certain towns in it. Tiberius Sempronius recalled. Thrown into great alarm by this unexpected turn of affairs, the Roman @@ -8825,7 +8825,7 @@ extravagant presumption of the Carthaginians to venture to face Romans, by whom they had been so often beaten, and to whom they had for so many years paid tribute and been all but slaves. And when in addition to this they at present -knew thus much of their mettle,—that they dared not face +knew thus much of their mettle,—that they dared not face them, what was the fair inference to be drawn for the future? Their cavalry, in a chance encounter on the Rhone with those of Rome, had, so far from coming off well, lost a large number @@ -9128,8 +9128,8 @@ trees: not knowing that for the concealment and safety of an ambush such places are much better than woods; because the men can command from them a distant view of all that is going on: while nearly all places have sufficient cover to -make concealment possible,—a stream with an overhanging -bank, reeds, or ferns, or some sort of bramble-bushes,—which +make concealment possible,—a stream with an overhanging +bank, reeds, or ferns, or some sort of bramble-bushes,—which are good enough to hide not infantry only, but sometimes even cavalry, if the simple precaution is taken of laying conspicuous @@ -9381,8 +9381,8 @@ made it hard to recognise him, not only for those who met him suddenly, but even for his intimates. But seeing that the Celts were discontented at the lengthened continuance of the war within their borders, and were in a state of restless hurry -to invade the enemy's territory,—on the pretence of hatred for -Rome, but in reality from love of booty,—he determined to +to invade the enemy's territory,—on the pretence of hatred for +Rome, but in reality from love of booty,—he determined to break up his camp as soon as possible, and satisfy the desires of his army. Accordingly as soon as the change of season set in, by questioning those who were reputed to know the @@ -9391,7 +9391,7 @@ Etruria were long and well known to the enemy, but that the one which led through the marshes was short, and would bring them upon Flaminius as a surprise."He crossed the Apennines, not by the ordinary road to Lucca, descending the valley of the Macra, but, as it appears, by a straighter line down the -valley of the Auser or Serchio."—ARNOLD. This was what suited his +valley of the Auser or Serchio."—ARNOLD. This was what suited his peculiar genius, and he therefore decided to take this route. But when the report was spread in his army that the general was going to lead them through some marshes, every soldier @@ -9480,7 +9480,7 @@ to a general than the knowledge of his opponent's character and disposition. As in combats between individuals or ranks, he who would conquer must observe carefully how it is possible to attain his object, and what part -of his enemy appears unguarded or insufficiently armed,— +of his enemy appears unguarded or insufficiently armed,— so must a commander of an army look out for the weak place, not in the body, but in the mind of the leader of the hostile force. For it has often happened before now that, from mere @@ -9508,7 +9508,7 @@ on the point where he is most open to it, will very soon be the victor in the campaign. For as a ship, if you deprive it of its steerer, falls with all its crew into the hands of the enemy; so, in the case of an army in war, if you outwit or -out-manœuvre its general, the whole will often fall into your +out-manœuvre its general, the whole will often fall into your hands.

Flaminius Enticed Out @@ -9562,9 +9562,9 @@ valley. Making his way to the end of the valley along the bank of the lake, Hannibal posted himself with the Spanish and Libyan troops on the hill immediately in front of him as he marched, and pitched a camp on it; but sent his Balearic -slingers and light-armed troops by a détour, and stationed +slingers and light-armed troops by a détour, and stationed them in extended order under the cover of the hills to the -right of the valley; and by a similar détour placed the Gauls +right of the valley; and by a similar détour placed the Gauls and cavalry under the cover of hills to the left, causing them also to extend their line so far as to cover the entrance of the defile running between the cliff and lake into the valley.Livy, 22, 4-6. For @@ -9687,10 +9687,10 @@ the duty of all classes to do, and how they were to do it.

About the same time as the battle of Thrasymene, Servilius's advanced guard cut to pieces. the Consul Gnaeus Servilius, who had been -stationed on duty at Ariminum,—which +stationed on duty at Ariminum,—which is on the coast of the Adriatic, where the plains of Cis-Alpine Gaul join the rest of Italy, not far from -the mouths of the Padus,—having heard that Hannibal had +the mouths of the Padus,—having heard that Hannibal had entered Etruria and was encamped near Flaminius, designed to join the latter with his whole army. But finding himself hampered by the difficulty of transporting so heavy a force, he @@ -9832,7 +9832,7 @@ and therefore, their manifest inferiority making it impossible for Fabius to offer the enemy battle, he fell back upon those resources in which the Romans had the advantage of the enemy; clung to them; and conducted the war by their means: -and they were—an inexhaustible supply of provisions and of +and they were—an inexhaustible supply of provisions and of men.

@@ -9848,7 +9848,7 @@ close union, he watched for favourable opportunities of time and place; and by this method of proceeding captured and killed a large number of the enemy, who in their contempt of him straggled from their camp in search of plunder. His -object in these manœuvres was twofold,—to gradually diminish +object in these manœuvres was twofold,—to gradually diminish the limited numbers of the enemy: and to strengthen and renew by such successes in detail the spirits of his own men, which had been depressed, to begin with, by the general defeat of their armies. But nothing would induce him to agree to @@ -9870,7 +9870,7 @@ approach or engage the enemy. Accordingly, when Hannibal saw that Fabius plainly meant to decline a battle, but yet would not abandon the country altogether, he formed the bold resolution of penetrating to the plains round Capua; and actually did so as far as Falernum, convinced that thereby he should -do one of two things,—force the enemy to give him battle, or +do one of two things,—force the enemy to give him battle, or make it evident to all that the victory was his, and that the Romans had abandoned the country to him. This he hoped @@ -9879,7 +9879,7 @@ be eager to revolt from Rome. For up t the Romans had been beaten in two battles, not a single city in Italy had revolted to the Carthaginians; but all maintained their fidelity, although some of them were suffering severely; -—a fact which may show us the awe and respect which the +—a fact which may show us the awe and respect which the Republic had inspired in its allies.

 Fertility and Beauty of the Plains Near Capua @@ -9986,7 +9986,7 @@ them at the double, and, with as much noise as possible, make for the top of the ridge; that, if they found any of the enemy there, they might close with and attack them at once. At the same time he himself led the main army towards the narrow -gorge of the pass,—his heavy-armed men in front, next to them +gorge of the pass,—his heavy-armed men in front, next to them the cavalry, then the booty, and the Iberians and Celts bringing up the rear.

 Fabius Returns to Rome @@ -10167,7 +10167,7 @@ crossed the Iber, the Carthaginians could no longer hold Saguntum and were besieging it, and that the city was in -danger,—if he were to take the hostages and restore them to +danger,—if he were to take the hostages and restore them to their parents and cities, he would not only frustrate the ambitious scheme of the Romans, who wished above all things by getting possession of the hostages to have the credit @@ -10382,7 +10382,7 @@ was taking place, he looked upon it as an excellent opportunity; and immediately orders to engage the enemy and contest the possession of the position; after these he sent his cavalry, and close behind them he led his heavy-armed troops in person, as on the former -occasion, intending to repeat exactly the same manœuvres.

 +occasion, intending to repeat exactly the same manœuvres.

Cautious Fabius Saves the Day

As the day broke, and the thoughts and eyes of all @@ -10427,9 +10427,9 @@ placed a guard upon it, proceeded thenceforth with their preparations for the wi elected Lucius Aemilius and Gaius Terentius. On their appointment the Dictators laid down their offices, and the Consuls of the previous -year, Gnaeus Servilius and Marcus Regulus— +year, Gnaeus Servilius and Marcus Regulus— who had been appointed after the death of -Flaminius,—were invested with pro-consular authority by +Flaminius,—were invested with pro-consular authority by Aemilius; and, taking the command at the seat of war, administered the affairs of the army independently. Meanwhile Aemilius, in consultation with the Senate, set at once to work to levy new soldiers, to fill up the numbers of the legions @@ -10549,13 +10549,13 @@ come off victorious, should, when drawn up all together, and nearly double of the enemy in number, be defeated."

"Wherefore, men of the army," he continued, "seeing that we have every advantage on our side for securing a victory, -there is only one thing necessary,—your determination, your +there is only one thing necessary,—your determination, your zeal! And I do not think I need say more to you on that point. To men serving others for pay, or to those who fight as allies on behalf of others, who have no greater danger to expect than meets them on the field, and for whom the issues at stake -are of little importance,—such men may need words of exhortation. But men who, like you, are fighting not for others, but -themselves,—for country, wives, and children; and for whom +are of little importance,—such men may need words of exhortation. But men who, like you, are fighting not for others, but +themselves,—for country, wives, and children; and for whom the issue is of far more momentous consequence than the mere danger of the hour, need only to be reminded: require no exhortation. For who is there among you who would not wish @@ -10608,7 +10608,7 @@ Roman light-armed, and helped to sustain the battle. Nightfall for the present p at all answered to the hopes of the Carthaginians. But next day Aemilius, not thinking it right to engage, and yet being unable any longer to lead off his army, encamped with twothirds of it on the banks of the Aufidus, the only river which -flows right through the Apennines,—that chain of mountains +flows right through the Apennines,—that chain of mountains which forms the watershed of all the Italian rivers, which flow either west to the Tuscan sea, or east to the Hadriatic. This chain is, I say, pierced by the Aufidus, which rises on the side @@ -10636,8 +10636,8 @@ of cavalry on their side?" And when all signified their acquiescence in such an evident truth, he added: "First, then, give thanks to the gods: for they have brought the enemy into this country, because they designed the victory for us. And, -next to me, for having compelled the enemy to fight,—for -they cannot avoid it any longer,—and to fight in a place so +next to me, for having compelled the enemy to fight,—for +they cannot avoid it any longer,—and to fight in a place so full of advantages for us. But I do not think it becoming in me now to use many words in exhorting you to be brave and forward in this battle. When you had had no experience of @@ -10740,7 +10740,7 @@ battles. The shield of the Iberians and Celts was about the same size, but their swords were quite different. For that of the Roman can thrust with as deadly effects as it can cut, while the Gallic sword can only cut, and that requires some room. -And the companies coming alternately,—the naked Celts, and +And the companies coming alternately,—the naked Celts, and the Iberians with their short linen tunics bordered with purple stripes, the whole appearance of the line was strange and terrifying. The whole strength of the Carthaginian cavalry was ten thousand, but that of their foot was not more than forty @@ -10765,10 +10765,10 @@ began in earnest, and in the true barbaric fashion: for there was none of the usual formal advance and retreat; but when they once got to close quarters, they grappled man to man, and, dismounting from their horses, fought on foot. But -when the Carthaginians had got the upper hand in this encounter and killed most of their opponents on the ground,— +when the Carthaginians had got the upper hand in this encounter and killed most of their opponents on the ground,— because the Romans all maintained the fight with spirit and -determination,—and began chasing the remainder along the +determination,—and began chasing the remainder along the river, slaying as they went and giving no quarter; then the legionaries took the place of the light-armed and closed with the enemy. For a short time the Iberian and Celtic @@ -10798,7 +10798,7 @@ must mean "against," "so as to attack." And this seems to be Casaubon's interpretation. the exigency of the moment suggesting to them what they ought to do. Thus it came about, as Hannibal had planned, that the Romans were caught between two -hostile lines of Libyans—thanks to their impetuous pursuit of +hostile lines of Libyans—thanks to their impetuous pursuit of the Celts. Still they fought, though no longer in line, yet singly, or in maniples, which faced about to meet those who charged them on the flanks.

 @@ -11282,10 +11282,10 @@ suffering; and expressed their willingness to become allies of the league, and their anxiety to be enrolled among its members. The Achaean magistrates declined the offered alliance, on the ground that it was impossible to admit a new member without the -concurrence of Philip and the other allies,—for the sworn alliance +concurrence of Philip and the other allies,—for the sworn alliance negotiated by Antigonus during the Cleomenic war was still in force, and included Achaia, Epirus, Phocis, Macedonia, -Boeotia, Acarnania, and Thessaly;—but they said that they +Boeotia, Acarnania, and Thessaly;—but they said that they would march out to their relief, if the envoys there present would place their sons in Sparta, as hostages for their promise not to make terms with the Aetolians without the consent of @@ -11305,7 +11305,7 @@ therefore at once sent despatches to Cyllene and to the Aetolian Strategus, Ariston, begging that the transports should be sent to a place on the coast of Elis called the island of Pheia;The city of Pheia was on the isthmus connecting the promontory Ichthys -(Cape Katákolo) with the mainland: opposite its harbour is a small island +(Cape Katákolo) with the mainland: opposite its harbour is a small island which Polybius here calls Pheias, i.e. the island belonging to Pheia. and they themselves two days later struck camp, and laden with booty marched towards Elis. For the Aetolians always maintained a friendship with the @@ -11313,7 +11313,7 @@ Eleans that they might have through them an entrance for their plundering and piratical expeditions into the Peloponnese.

Aratus Dismisses the Achaean Troops -

Aratus waited two days: and then, foolishly — believing +

Aratus waited two days: and then, foolishly — believing Aratus dismisses the Achaean levy, with the exception of 3000 foot and 300 horse. that the Aetolians would return by the route they had indicated, he dismissed all the Achaeans @@ -11537,7 +11537,7 @@ Messenians; hoping by that crafty measure to tamper with the loyalty of the Achaean allies and sow disunion among them. With the Achaeans themselves they voted to maintain peace, on condition that they withdrew from alliance with Messenia, -and to proclaim war if they refused,—than which nothing +and to proclaim war if they refused,—than which nothing could have been more unreasonable. For being themselves in alliance, both with Achaeans and Messenians, they proclaimed war against the former, unless the two ceased to be in @@ -11587,12 +11587,12 @@ Illyrians.

But the Aetolian Strategus Ariston, ignoring everything that was going on, remained quietly at home, asserting that he was not at war with the Achaeans, but was maintaining peace: -a foolish and childish mode of acting,—for what better epithets +a foolish and childish mode of acting,—for what better epithets could be applied to a man who supposed that he could cloak notorious facts by mere words? Meanwhile Dorimachus and his colleague had marched through the Achaean territory and suddenly appeared at Cynaetha.

-

Cynaetha was an Arcadian cityBut outside the natural borders of Arcadia. Mod. Kalávryta. which, +

Cynaetha was an Arcadian cityBut outside the natural borders of Arcadia. Mod. Kalávryta. which, for many years past,The previous history of Cynaetha. had been afflicted with implacable and violent political factions. The two parties had frequently retaliated on each other with massacres, @@ -12012,7 +12012,7 @@ policy. To pass a decree against going to war,See B. C. 382. When Phoebidas treacherously seized the Cadmeia, the Lacedaemonians @@ -12052,7 +12052,7 @@ that the wars in Italy, Greece and chose from fear to side with the -Persians,—nor indeed for Pindar who supported their inaction -in the verses—See Stobaeus Floril. 58, 9, who gives three more lines. +Persians,—nor indeed for Pindar who supported their inaction +in the verses—See Stobaeus Floril. 58, 9, who gives three more lines. A quiet haven for the ship of state Should be the patriot's aim, And smiling peace, to small and great @@ -12166,10 +12166,10 @@ themselves; and they finally involved their country in the gravest misfortunes. And the reason in my opinion was this, that being neighbours to two of the most powerful nations in the Peloponnese, or I might almost say in Greece, I mean the -Arcadians and Lacedaemonians,—one of which had been +Arcadians and Lacedaemonians,—one of which had been irreconcilably hostile to them from the moment they occupied the country, and the other disposed to be friendly and protect -them,—they never frankly accepted hostility to the Spartans, or +them,—they never frankly accepted hostility to the Spartans, or friendship with the Arcadians. Accordingly when the attention of the former was distracted by domestic or foreign war, the Messenians were secure; for they always enjoyed peace and @@ -12205,7 +12205,7 @@ in the sacred enclosure of Zeus on Mount Lycaeus. according to the evidence of Callisthenes, in which they inscribed the following verses: A faithless king will perish soon or late! Messene tracked him down right easily, -The traitor:—perjury must meet its fate; +The traitor:—perjury must meet its fate; Glory to Zeus, and life to Arcady! The point of this is, that, having lost their own country, they pray the gods to save Arcadia as their second country.But Pausanias represents the pillar as put up by the Arcadians, not the @@ -12277,10 +12277,10 @@ advised the adoption of their alliance, and those who took the opposite side. When, however, some of the elders reminded the people of the good services rendered them by Antigonus and the Macedonians, and the injuries inflicted on them by -Charixenus and Timaeus,—when the Aetolians invaded them +Charixenus and Timaeus,—when the Aetolians invaded them with their full force and ravaged their territory, enslaved the neighbouring villages, and laid a plot for attacking Sparta -itself by a fraudulent and forcible restoration of exiles,—these +itself by a fraudulent and forcible restoration of exiles,—these words produced a great revulsion of feeling, and the people finally decided to maintain the alliance with Philip and the Macedonians. Machatas accordingly had to go home without @@ -12322,8 +12322,8 @@ renewed popularity. This people for instance, to say nothing of other examples, after nearly three years of constitutional government, following the banishment of Cleomenes, without once thinking of appointing kings at Sparta, no sooner heard -of the death of Cleomenes than they were eager—populace -and Ephors alike—to restore kingly rule. Agesipolis appointed king. +of the death of Cleomenes than they were eager—populace +and Ephors alike—to restore kingly rule. Agesipolis appointed king. Accordingly the Ephors who were in sympathy with the conspirators, and who had made the alliance with Aetolia which I just now mentioned, did so. One of these kings so restored they appointed in accordance with the regular and legal succession, namely Agesipolis. @@ -12387,9 +12387,9 @@ equinox, while the Achaeans hold theirs about the time of the rising of the Pleiads. As soon therefore as summer had well set in, and Aratus the younger had taken over his -office, all these wars at once began simultaneously. June—September, B.C. 219. Hannibal began besieging Saguntum; the +office, all these wars at once began simultaneously. June—September, B.C. 219. Hannibal began besieging Saguntum; the Romans sent Lucius Aemilius with an army to Illyria against -Demetrius of Pharos,—of both which I spoke in the last book; +Demetrius of Pharos,—of both which I spoke in the last book; Antiochus, having had Ptolemais and Tyre betrayed to him by Theodotus, meditated attacking Coele-Syria; and Ptolemy was engaged in preparing for the war with Antiochus. While @@ -12506,7 +12506,7 @@ the present day, in which every sea and land has been thrown open to travellers; and in which, therefore, one can no longer employ the evidence of poets and fabulists, as my predecessors have done on very many points, "offering," as Heraclitus says, -"tainted witnesses to disputed facts,"—but I must try to +"tainted witnesses to disputed facts,"—but I must try to make my narrative in itself carry conviction to my readers.

I say then the Pontus has long been in process of being filled up with mud, and that this process is actually going on @@ -12607,7 +12607,7 @@ channel connecting the Pontus and Propo being, as I have said, a hundred and twenty stades, and Hieron marking its termination towards the Pontus, and the Strait of Byzantium that towards the Propontis, -—half-way between these, on the European side, stands Hermaeum, on a headland jutting out into the channel, about +—half-way between these, on the European side, stands Hermaeum, on a headland jutting out into the channel, about five stades from the Asiatic coast, just at the narrowest point of the whole channel; where Darius is said to have made his bridge of ships across the strait, @@ -12642,10 +12642,10 @@ so; while the current carries you to the former, whether you will or no, as I have just now shown. B.C. 410. And a proof of my assertion is this: those who want to cross from Calchedon to Byzantium cannot sail straight across the channel, but coast up -to the Cow and Chrysopolis,—which the Athenians formerly +to the Cow and Chrysopolis,—which the Athenians formerly seized, by the advice of Alcibiades, when they for the first time levied customs on -ships sailing into the Pontus,Xenophon, Hellen. 1, 1, 22.—and then drift down +ships sailing into the Pontus,Xenophon, Hellen. 1, 1, 22.—and then drift down the current, which carries them as a matter of course to Byzantium. And the same is the case with a voyage on either side of Byzantium. For if a man is running before a @@ -12781,9 +12781,9 @@ was all in favour of his assuming the crown; yet he refused to do so, and preserving the royal title for Antiochus the younger, son of Seleucus, went on energetically with the expedition, and the recovery of the whole of the territory this side Taurus. -Meeting however with unexpected success,—for he shut up +Meeting however with unexpected success,—for he shut up Attalus within the walls of Pergamus and became master of all -the rest of the country,—he was puffed up by his good fortune, +the rest of the country,—he was puffed up by his good fortune, and at once swerved from his straightforward course of policy. He assumed the diadem, adopted the title of king, and was at this time the most powerful and formidable of all the kings @@ -12902,7 +12902,7 @@ and sent Polemocles with him in command of three triremes, wishing, as the saying is, to send the Byzantines "spear and herald's staff at once." Upon their appearance a pacification was arranged, in the year of Cothon, son of Callisthenes, Hieromnemon in Byzantium.That this was the name of a yearly officer at Byzantium appears from a -decree in Demosthenes (de Cor. § 90), and Byzantine coins, Eckhel, ii. p. 31. +decree in Demosthenes (de Cor. § 90), and Byzantine coins, Eckhel, ii. p. 31. The title seems to have been brought from the mother-city Megara; as at Chalcedon, another colony of Megara, the same existed (C. I. G. 3794). It was connected with the worship of Apollo brought from Megara, Muller's @@ -13042,7 +13042,7 @@ this peninsula, connecting it with Asia two stades wide, that the city is so placed as to entirely close it up from sea to sea; the rest of the peninsula stretches out -into the open sea,—a piece of flat land from which the town +into the open sea,—a piece of flat land from which the town is easily accessible, but surrounded by a steep coast offering very bad harbourage, and having exceedingly few spots admitting of disembarkation. The Sinopeans then were dreadfully alarmed lest Mithridates should blockade them, by throwing @@ -13055,7 +13055,7 @@ round the places accessible from the sea; and at the same time by storing weapons and stationing guards at all points open to attack: for the whole area is not large, but is capable of being easily defended and by a moderate force.

-

Such was the situation at Sinope at the time of the commencement of the Social war,—to which I must now return.

+

Such was the situation at Sinope at the time of the commencement of the Social war,—to which I must now return.

Philip Starts for Aetolia

King Philip started from Macedonia with his army for @@ -13362,7 +13362,7 @@ to collect booty from the country; and by the time he reached Oeniadae his army was richly provided with every kind of goods. But he resolved first to take Paeanium: and having pitched his camp under its walls, -by a series of assaults carried the place by force,— +by a series of assaults carried the place by force,— a town not large in circumference, for that was less than seven stades, but second to none in the construction of its houses, walls, and towers. The wall of this town @@ -13410,7 +13410,7 @@ with all speed, by the same route as that by which he had come. When he was on the point of recrossing the Ambracian gulf from Acarnania into Epirus, Demetrius of Pharos presented himself, sailing with a single galley, having just been banished -from Illyria by the Romans,—as I have stated in the previous +from Illyria by the Romans,—as I have stated in the previous book.3, 19. Philip received him with kindness and bade him sail to Corinth, and go thence through Thessaly to Macedonia; @@ -13475,11 +13475,11 @@ Having made these arrangements, he again started, and pitched his camp near the temple of the Dioscuri in Phliasia.

 Euripidas Intends to Attack Sicyon -

Meanwhile Euripidas, with two companies of Eleans,— +

Meanwhile Euripidas, with two companies of Eleans,— B. C. 218, Jan.-Feb. Destruction of a marauding army of Eleans under Euripidas. who combined with the pirates and mercenaries made up an army of two thousand two hundred -men, besides a hundred horse,—started from +men, besides a hundred horse,—started from Psophis and began marching by way of Pheneus and Stymphalus, knowing nothing about Philip's arrival, with the purpose of wasting the territory @@ -13605,9 +13605,9 @@ he gave the signal by the sound of trumpet, and began the assault on the walls at once. At first the garrison offered a spirited resistance and hurled many of the enemy from their ladders; but when the supply of weapons inside the town, as -well as other necessary materials, began to run short,—as was to +well as other necessary materials, began to run short,—as was to be expected from the hasty nature of the preparations for -defence,—and the Macedonians showed no sign of terror, the +defence,—and the Macedonians showed no sign of terror, the next man filling up the place of each who was hurled from the scaling-ladder, the garrison at length turned to flight, and made their escape one and all into the citadel. In the king's army @@ -13683,7 +13683,7 @@ the rest of the Peloponnese: and some o enamoured of a country life, that there are cases of families who, being in enjoyment of considerable wealth, have for two or three generations never entered a public law-court -at all.Reading a(li/an. See Müller's Dorians, Vol. ii. p. 88. +at all.Reading a(li/an. See Müller's Dorians, Vol. ii. p. 88. And this result is brought about by the great care and attention bestowed upon the agricultural class by the government, to see that their law-suits should be settled on the spot, and every @@ -13743,7 +13743,7 @@ leave nothing unattempted or incomplete, he occupied certain spots which commanded the approach to it, with his mercenaries: while leaving his baggage and main army in his entrenched camp, he himself led his peltasts and light-armed troops through the gorge, and, without meeting with any resistance, came directly under the fortress. The fugitives were -panic-stricken at his approach: for they were utterly inexperienced in war and unprovided with means of defence,—a +panic-stricken at his approach: for they were utterly inexperienced in war and unprovided with means of defence,—a mere rabble hurriedly collected together; they therefore at once surrendered, and among them two hundred mercenary soldiers, of various nationalities, who had been brought there by @@ -13969,7 +13969,7 @@ that the chief obstacles in the way of the accomplishment of his design were Lycurgus, and those Ephors who had invested him with the crown, he directed his first efforts against them. The Ephors he seized while at dinner, and put them all to -death on the spot,—chance thus inflicting upon them the +death on the spot,—chance thus inflicting upon them the punishment they deserved: for whether we regard the person at whose hands, or the person for whose sake they were thus @@ -14166,7 +14166,7 @@ placed in command of the Peloponnese by and asserting that he was a proper person to be with the king on a campaign; his object being to get some one else appointed to conduct the government of the Peloponnese. This was -indeed a novel method of defamation,—to damage one's neighbours, not by attacking, but by praising their characters; and +indeed a novel method of defamation,—to damage one's neighbours, not by attacking, but by praising their characters; and this method of wreaking one's malice, envy, and treachery may be regarded as primarily and specially the invention of the @@ -14267,7 +14267,7 @@ best deprive them of the opportunity of coming to each others' relief; as they were widely scattered, and each would be in alarm for their own safety, because the approach of an enemy by sea is so silent and rapid. For he was at war with three -separate nations,—Aetolians, Lacedaemonians, and Eleans.

+separate nations,—Aetolians, Lacedaemonians, and Eleans.

Having arrived at this decision, he ordered the ships of the Achaeans as well as his own to muster at Lechaeum; and there he made continual experiments in practising the soldiers @@ -14335,9 +14335,9 @@ town, to see how he could bring his siege-works and artillery to bear upon the wall. He wished to be able to use the place as a rendezvous for his allies; but he was also desirous of taking it: first, because he would thereby deprive the Aetolians of their -most useful support,—for it was by means of Cephallenian +most useful support,—for it was by means of Cephallenian ships that they made their descents upon the Peloponnese, and -ravaged the sea-boards of Epirus and Acarnania,—and, +ravaged the sea-boards of Epirus and Acarnania,—and, secondly, that he might secure for himself and his allies a convenient base of operations against the enemy's territory. For Cephallenia lies exactly opposite the Corinthian Gulf, in @@ -14387,7 +14387,7 @@ with his friends on the next step to be taken.

 Philip Invades Aetolia

Meanwhile Lycurgus had invaded Messenia; and Dorimachus had started for Thessaly with half the Ambassadors from Acarnania urge Philip to invade Aetolia; others from Messenia beg him to come there. -Aetolian army,—both with the idea that they +Aetolian army,—both with the idea that they would thus draw off Philip from the siege of Palus. Presently ambassadors arrived at the court to make representations on these subjects @@ -14537,7 +14537,7 @@ bivouacked on the spot laden with booty of every description; but the next morning they selected the most valuable and portable part of it, and making the rest into a heap in front of their tents, set fire to it. So also in regard to the dedicated -arms which were hanging up in the porticoes,—those of them +arms which were hanging up in the porticoes,—those of them which were valuable they took down and carried off, some they exchanged for their own, while the rest they collected together and burnt. The number of these was more than @@ -14560,7 +14560,7 @@ the names or figures of gods. Such they did abstain from injuring. On the walls also they wrote the celebrated line composed by Samus, the son of Chrysogonus, a foster-brother of the king, whose genius was then beginning to manifest itself. -The line was this— +The line was this— "Seest thou the path the bolt divine has sped?" And in fact the king and his staff were fully convinced that, in thus acting, they were obeying the dictates of right and @@ -14624,7 +14624,7 @@ dedicated to the gods; though it was in precisely such that the injuries of the Persians in Greece had been most conspicuous. These were the precedents which Philip should have called to mind on this occasion; and so have shown himself the -successor and heir of these men,—not so much of their power, +successor and heir of these men,—not so much of their power, as of their principles and magnanimity. The subsequent decline in Philip's character. But throughout his life he was exceedingly anxious to establish his relationship to Alexander and Philip, and yet took not the @@ -14658,7 +14658,7 @@ their object to involve the innocent in the destruction of the guilty, but rather to see that those who are held to be guilty should share in the preservation and elevation of the guiltless. It is the act of a tyrant to inflict injury, and so to maintain his power -over unwilling subjects by terror,—hated, and hating those +over unwilling subjects by terror,—hated, and hating those under him: but it is the glory of a king to secure, by doing good to all, that he should rule over willing subjects, whose love he has earned by humanity and beneficence.

@@ -14893,9 +14893,9 @@ Lacedaemonians before they became aware of it. Aetolia; and there was even some talk among them of sending Lycurgus to the assistance of the Aetolians. Dismay at Sparta. But no @@ -14913,7 +14913,7 @@ he renewed his voyage before daybreak, and after a two days' sail, during which he ravaged the sea-board of the Aetolians, he dropped anchor in Lechaeum; thence, after seven days' continuous march, he arrived on the heights above Sparta in -the neighbourhood of the Menelaïum,—a feat which most of +the neighbourhood of the Menelaïum,—a feat which most of those even who saw it done could scarcely believe.

Philip Marches Through Laconia @@ -14989,7 +14989,7 @@ about noon, arrived once more with his whole army at Amyclae.

 Lycurgus Goes Out to Resist

Leaving directions with his officers and friends as to the coming engagement, Lycurgus himself left Sparta and -occupied the ground near the Menelaïum, with as many as two +occupied the ground near the Menelaïum, with as many as two thousand men. He agreed with the officers in the town that they should watch carefully, in order that, whenever he raised the signal, they might lead out their troops from the town at @@ -15023,7 +15023,7 @@ and is situated on level ground, broken at certain points by irregularities and hills. The river Eurotas flows past it on the east, and for the greater part of the year is too large to be forded; and the -hills on which the Menelaïum stands are on the other side of +hills on which the Menelaïum stands are on the other side of the river, to the south-east of the town, rugged and difficult of access and exceedingly lofty; they exactly command the space between the town and the Eurotas, which flows at the very @@ -15046,7 +15046,7 @@ relieve another.

with his friends decided that the matter of most urgent necessity was to dislodge the division of Lycurgus, first of all, from the position near the -Menelaïum. He took therefore his mercenaries, peltasts, +Menelaïum. He took therefore his mercenaries, peltasts, and Illyrians, and advanced across the river in the direction of the hills. Perceiving Philip's design, Lycurgus began getting his men ready, and exhorted them to face the battle, and @@ -15179,7 +15179,7 @@ reported to him; and the cities in GreeceCoele-Syria, had once more dismissed his army into winter quarters. The Spartan king Lycurgus fled to Aetolia in fear of the Ephors: for acting on a -false charge that he was meditating a coup d'état, they had +false charge that he was meditating a coup d'état, they had collected the young men and come to his house at night. But getting previous intimation of what was impending, he had quitted the town accompanied by the members of his household.

@@ -15415,7 +15415,7 @@ been made by many other historians of an intention to write a universal history, and of undertaking a work on a larger scale than their predecessors. About these writers, putting out of the question Ephorus, the first and only man who has really attempted a universal history, I will not mention any name or say -more about them than this,—that several of my contemporaries, +more about them than this,—that several of my contemporaries, while professing to write a universal history have imagined that they could tell the story of the war of Rome and Carthage in three or four pages. Yet every one knows that events more @@ -15480,10 +15480,10 @@ Cleomenes took no steps. But upon that monarch's death, seeing that the time was slipping away, and that the peculiar position of affairs in Greece seemed almost to cry aloud for -Cleomenes,—for Antigonus was dead, the Achaeans involved +Cleomenes,—for Antigonus was dead, the Achaeans involved in war, and the Lacedaemonians were at one with the Aetolians in hostility to the Achaeans and Macedonians, which -was the policy originally adopted by Cleomenes,—then, indeed, +was the policy originally adopted by Cleomenes,—then, indeed, he was actually compelled to use some expedition, and to bestir himself to secure his departure from Alexandria. First therefore, in interviews with the king, he urged him to @@ -15620,13 +15620,13 @@ only in the superior size of his prison. Finding himself in this distressing plight, and with fear of worse for the future, Cleomenes determined to make the most desperate attempts for freedom: not so much because he felt confident of success, -—for he had none of the elements of success in such an enterprise on his side,—but rather because he was eager to die +—for he had none of the elements of success in such an enterprise on his side,—but rather because he was eager to die nobly, and endure nothing unworthy of the gallantry which he had previously displayed. He must, I think, as is usually the case with men of high courage, have recalled and reflected -upon as his model those words of the hero:Homer, Il., 22, 304.— -"Yea, let me die,—but not a coward's death, +upon as his model those words of the hero:Homer, Il., 22, 304.— +"Yea, let me die,—but not a coward's death, Nor all inglorious: let me do one deed, That children yet unborn may hear and mark!"

@@ -15691,7 +15691,7 @@ treacherously assassinated after crossing Mount Taurus with his army, as I have he succeeded to the throne himself; and made Achaeus governor of Asia on this side Taurus, Molon and his brother Alexander guardians of -his dominions in upper Asia,—Molon acting as Satrap of Media, +his dominions in upper Asia,—Molon acting as Satrap of Media, his brother of Persia.

 The Royal Family of Syria @@ -15824,7 +15824,7 @@ and the territory of Apollonia. I the barrier of Mount Zagrus, which has an ascent of a hundred stades, and containing in its range many separate peaks and defiles is subdivided by deep valleys, and at certain -points by cañons, inhabited by Cosseans, Corbrenians, Carchi, +points by cañons, inhabited by Cosseans, Corbrenians, Carchi, and several other barbarous tribes who have the reputation of being excellent warriors. Again on the west it is coterminous @@ -15863,7 +15863,7 @@ monarchs. Having therefore the young king entirely in his power, owing to his age, he set out; and having mustered the army at Apameia he started thence and arrived at Laodiceia. King Antiochus in Coele-Syria. Advancing from that time with his whole army, the king crossed -the desert and entered the cañon called Marsyas, which lies +the desert and entered the cañon called Marsyas, which lies between the skirts of Libanus and Anti-Libanus, and is contracted into a narrow gorge by those two mountains. Just where the valley is narrowest it is divided by marshes and lakes, from which the scented reed is cut. @@ -15965,7 +15965,7 @@ but threw their beasts of burden in also, with their packs, as though they thought that the river by some providential instinct would take their part and convey them safely to the opposite camp. The result was that the stream presented a -truly pitiable and extraordinary spectacle,—horses, beasts of +truly pitiable and extraordinary spectacle,—horses, beasts of burden, arms, corpses, and every kind of baggage being carried down the current along with the swimmers.

Having secured the camp of Xenoetas, Molon crossed theMolon's successful campaign. B.C. 221. @@ -16344,7 +16344,7 @@ spring, he summoned his friends to advise with him as to the invasion of Coele-Syria. After many suggestions had been made in respect to this undertaking, touching the nature of the country, the military preparation required, and -the assistance to be rendered by the fleet,—Apollophanes of +the assistance to be rendered by the fleet,—Apollophanes of Seleucia, whom I mentioned before, put an abrupt end to all these suggestions by remarking that "it was folly to desire Coele-Syria and to march against that, @@ -16474,8 +16474,8 @@ After passing the canon called Marsyas, he encamped near Gerrha, close to the lake which lies between the two mountains. Hearing there that Ptolemy's general Nicolaus was besieging Theodotus in Ptolemais, he left his heavy-armed troops -behind with orders to their leaders to besiege Brochi,—the -stronghold which commands the road along the lake,—and +behind with orders to their leaders to besiege Brochi,—the +stronghold which commands the road along the lake,—and led his light-armed troops forward himself, with the intention of raising the siege of Ptolemais. But Nicolaus had already got intelligence of the king's approach; and had accordingly @@ -16536,7 +16536,7 @@ inviting them to send commissioners to discuss the terms of a treaty. The commissioners duly arrived, and by occupying the time with going backwards and forwards between the two kings, abundantly secured to these statesmen the two things -which they wanted,—delay, and time to make their preparations for war. They fixed their residence at Memphis and +which they wanted,—delay, and time to make their preparations for war. They fixed their residence at Memphis and there carried on these negotiations continuously. Nor were they less attentive to the ambassadors from Antiochus, whom they received with every mark of courtesy and kindness. But @@ -16597,7 +16597,7 @@ Socrates of Boeotia had two thousand li him; while the Achaean Phoxidas, and Ptolemy the son of Thraseas, and Andromachus of Aspendus were associated in the duty of drilling the phalanx and the mercenary Greek -soldiers on the same ground,—Andromachus and Ptolemy +soldiers on the same ground,—Andromachus and Ptolemy commanding the phalanx, Phoxidas the mercenaries; of which the numbers were respectively twenty-five thousand and eight thousand. The cavalry, again, attached to the court, amounting to seven hundred, as well as that which was obtained from @@ -17020,7 +17020,7 @@ for reference in our minds the disasters of those who have made mistakes before us in this or that particular. But while preparing with great labour and cost stores of corn and money, and a provision of walls and weapons to meet unforeseen eventualities, that which is the easiest of all and the most serviceable in the -hour of danger—that we all neglect; although we might obtain +hour of danger—that we all neglect; although we might obtain this experience from history and research, which in themselves add a dignity to leisure and a charm to existence.

Achaeus then duly arrived at the time expected: and afterFailure of the treason of Logbasis. @@ -17108,9 +17108,9 @@ the river Megistus.

 Mutiny of the Gauls. and the Gauls who had all along been much discontented at the hardships of the -march,—which was rendered the more painful +march,—which was rendered the more painful for them by the fact of their being accompanied by their -wives and children, who followed the host in waggons,— +wives and children, who followed the host in waggons,— now regarded the eclipse as an evil augury, and refused to go on. But King Attalus, who got no effective service out of them, and saw that they straggled during the march and @@ -17237,7 +17237,7 @@ Ptolemy beginning to move his army outside its camp, Antiochus hastened to do the same. Both formed their front of their phalanx and men armed in the Macedonian manner. But Ptolemy's two -wings were formed as follows:—Polycrates, with the cavalry +wings were formed as follows:—Polycrates, with the cavalry under his command, occupied the left, and between him and the phalanx were Cretans standing close by the horsemen; next them came the royal guard;Agema. See note on 5, 25. then the peltasts under @@ -17549,10 +17549,10 @@ rest of the world.

B.C. 217. Greece. Return of Lycurgus to Sparta. He projects an invasion of Messenia. was Strategus of the Aetolians, and when Aratus had just become Strategus of the Achaean -league,—at which point we broke off in our +league,—at which point we broke off in our history of the Social war,See ante, ch. 30. Agetas had been elected Aetolian Strategus in the autumn of 218 B.C., Aratus Achaean Strategus in the early summer of B.C. -217.—Lycurgus of Sparta +217.—Lycurgus of Sparta returned home from Aetolia. The Ephors had discovered that the charge on which he had been banished was false; and had accordingly sent for him @@ -17600,7 +17600,7 @@ anything.

Aratus, with a provident regard for the future, arranged with Taurion to provide fifty horse and five hundred foot, and with the Messenians to send an equal number; with the view of -using these men to protect the territories of Messenia, Megalopolis, Tegea, and Argos,—for these districts, being on the +using these men to protect the territories of Messenia, Megalopolis, Tegea, and Argos,—for these districts, being on the frontier of Laconia, have to bear the brunt of Lacedaemonian invasion for the rest of the Peloponnese; while with the Achaean levies and mercenaries he planned to guard the parts @@ -17620,7 +17620,7 @@ disputes, jealousies, and mutual hatred; which is ever the case, both with states and individuals, when means fall short of desires. The first controversy was about the walling of the -town,—one party maintaining that the limits of the city should +town,—one party maintaining that the limits of the city should be contracted to a size admitting of being completely walled and guarded at a time of danger; for that in the late occasion it was its size and unguarded state which had caused their @@ -17747,7 +17747,7 @@ Alexander and his men threw themselves into the citadel also: the Aetolian hundred picked soldiers were made prisoners; and when daylight showed Agetas what had taken place, he -drew off his troops,—baffled by a ruse very like what he had +drew off his troops,—baffled by a ruse very like what he had on many occasions practised himself.

Philip Secures His Frontier @@ -17780,7 +17780,7 @@ intend to effect their entrance? Or again, while satisfying themselves as to these measurements, to entrust the construction of ladders and all such machinery, which, though taking little time to make, have to stand the test of a very critical service, -without consideration, and to incompetent persons,—is not +without consideration, and to incompetent persons,—is not this deserving of censure? For in such actions it is not a question of succeeding or failing without ill consequences; but failure is followed by positive damage in manifold respects: @@ -18161,8 +18161,8 @@ And it was then that at Rome Caius Terentius and Lucius Aemilius entered upon th Philip's preparation for an invasion of Italy. consideration that he would want ships to carry out his designs, and men for rowing, not -for fighting,—for he could never have even -entertained a hope of fighting the Romans at sea,—but rather +for fighting,—for he could never have even +entertained a hope of fighting the Romans at sea,—but rather for the transport of soldiers, and to enable him to cross with greater speed to any point to which he might desire to go, and so surprise the enemy by a sudden appearance, and @@ -18262,7 +18262,7 @@ the best in itself, and the most instructive to the students of it, was that it would enable them to know and fully realise in what manner, and under what kind of constitution, it came about that nearly the whole world fell under the power of Rome -in somewhat less than fifty-three years,—an event certainly +in somewhat less than fifty-three years,—an event certainly without precedent. This being my settled purpose, I could see no more fitting period than the present for making a pause, and examining the truth of the remarks about to be made on @@ -18313,7 +18313,7 @@ they are wrong. For it is plain that we must regard as the best constitution that which partakes of all these three elements. And this is no mere assertion, but has been proved by the example of Lycurgus, who was the first to construct a -constitution—that of Sparta—on this principle. Nor can we +constitution—that of Sparta—on this principle. Nor can we admit that these are the only forms: for we have had before now examples of absolute and tyrannical forms of government, @@ -18339,7 +18339,7 @@ where reverence to the gods, succour of parents, respect to elders, obedience to laws, are traditional and habitual, in such communities, if the will of the majority prevail, we may speak of the form of government as a democracy. So then we -enumerate six forms of government,—the three commonly +enumerate six forms of government,—the three commonly spoken of which I have just mentioned, and three more allied forms, I mean despotism, oligarchy and mob-rule. The first of these arises without artificial aid and in the natural order of @@ -18352,9 +18352,9 @@ people passionately avenging the unjust acts of their rulers, democracy comes into existence; which again by its violence and contempt of law becomes sheer mob-rule.Aristotle's classification is kingship, aristocracy, politei/a, democracy, oligarchy, tyranny (Pol. 4, 2). This was derived from Plato (Pol. 302, c.) -who arranges the six (besides the ideal polity) in pairs, kingship, tyranny,—aristocracy, oligarchy,—democracy, good and bad. Plato has no distinct +who arranges the six (besides the ideal polity) in pairs, kingship, tyranny,—aristocracy, oligarchy,—democracy, good and bad. Plato has no distinct name, except dhmokrati/a para/nomos, for the bad democracy which Polybius calls -o)xlokrati/a, "mob-rule." Polybius's arrangement is this— +o)xlokrati/a, "mob-rule." Polybius's arrangement is this— Kingship (arising from a natural despotism or monarchy) degenerates into Tyranny. Aristocracy degenerates into Oligarchy. Democracy degenerates into Mob-rule. No clearer @@ -18396,11 +18396,11 @@ as with the animals, he who was superior to the rest in strength of body or courage of soul would lead and rule them. For what we see happen in the case of animals that are without the -faculty of reason, such as bulls, goats, and cocks,—among +faculty of reason, such as bulls, goats, and cocks,—among whom there can be no dispute that the strongest take the lead, -—that we must regard as in the truest sense the teaching of +—that we must regard as in the truest sense the teaching of nature. Originally then it is probable that the condition of -life among men was this,—herding together like animals and +life among men was this,—herding together like animals and following the strongest and bravest as leaders. The limit of this authority would be physical strength, and the name we should give it would be despotism. But as soon as the idea @@ -18507,10 +18507,10 @@ upon this charge at first as a great privilege, made the public advantage their chief concern, and conducted all kinds of business, public or private, with diligence and caution. But when the sons of these men received the same position of -authority from their fathers,—having had no experience of +authority from their fathers,—having had no experience of misfortunes, and none at all of civil equality and freedom of speech, but having been bred up from the first under the -shadow of their fathers' authority and lofty position,—some +shadow of their fathers' authority and lofty position,—some of them gave themselves up with passion to avarice and unscrupulous love of money, others to drinking and the @@ -18690,7 +18690,7 @@ inflicting punishment on all who are under their command while on active service: and they have authority to expend as much of the public money as they choose, being accompanied by a quaestor who is entirely at their orders. A survey of -these powers would in fact justify our describing the constitution as despotic,—a clear case of royal government. +these powers would in fact justify our describing the constitution as despotic,—a clear case of royal government. Nor will it affect the truth of my description, if any of the institutions I have described are changed in our time, or in that of our posterity: and the same remarks apply to what @@ -18711,11 +18711,11 @@ such as treason, conspiracy, poisoning, or wilful murder, are in the hands of the Senate. Besides, if any individual or state among the Italian allies requires a controversy to be settled, a -penalty to be assessed, help or protection to be afforded,—all +penalty to be assessed, help or protection to be afforded,—all this is the province of the Senate. Or again, outside Italy, if it is necessary to send an embassy to reconcile warring communities, or to remind them of their duty, or sometimes to impose requisitions upon them, or to receive their submission, -or finally to proclaim war against them,—this too is the +or finally to proclaim war against them,—this too is the business of the Senate. In like manner the reception to be given to foreign ambassadors in Rome, and the answers to be returned to them, are decided by the Senate. With such business the people have nothing to do. Consequently, if one @@ -18735,7 +18735,7 @@ a part left the people, and it is a most important one. For the people is the sole fountain of honour and of punishment; and it is by these two things and these alone that dynasties and constitutions and, in a word, human society are held together: for where the distinction between them is not -sharply drawn both in theory and practice, there no undertaking can be properly administered,—as indeed we might expect +sharply drawn both in theory and practice, there no undertaking can be properly administered,—as indeed we might expect when good and bad are held in exactly the same honour. The people then are the only court to decide matters of life and death; and even in-cases where the penalty is money, if @@ -18743,10 +18743,10 @@ the sum to be assessed is sufficiently serious, and especially when the accused have held the higher magistracies. And in regard to this arrangement there is one point deserving especial commendation and record. Men who are on trial for their -lives at Rome, while sentence is in process of being voted,—if +lives at Rome, while sentence is in process of being voted,—if even only one of the tribes whose votes are needed to ratify the -sentence has not voted,—have the privilege at Rome of openly +sentence has not voted,—have the privilege at Rome of openly departing and condemning themselves to a voluntary exile. Such men are safe at Naples or Praeneste or at Tibur, and at other towns with which this arrangement has been duly @@ -18808,10 +18808,10 @@ it is obliged in public affairs to take the multitude into account, and respect the wishes of the people; and it cannot put into execution the penalty for offences against the republic, which are punishable with death, unless the people first ratify its decrees. -Similarly even in matters which directly affect the senators,— +Similarly even in matters which directly affect the senators,— for instance, in the case of a law diminishing the Senate's traditional authority, or depriving senators of certain dignities -and offices, or even actually cutting down their property,— +and offices, or even actually cutting down their property,— even in such cases the people have the sole power of passing or rejecting the law. But most important of all is the fact that, if the Tribunes interpose their veto, the Senate not only @@ -18831,7 +18831,7 @@ contracts, too numerous to count, are given out by the censors in all parts of Italy for the repairs or construction of public buildings; there is also the collection of revenue from many -rivers, harbours, gardens, mines, and land—everything, in a +rivers, harbours, gardens, mines, and land—everything, in a word, that comes under the control of the Roman government: and in all these the people at large are engaged; so that there is scarcely a man, so to speak, who is not interested either as @@ -18880,7 +18880,7 @@ determines to attempt. Nay, even when these external alarms are past, and the people are enjoying their good fortune and the fruits of their victories, and, as usually happens, growing corrupted by flattery and idleness, show a tendency to violence -and arrogance,—it is in these circumstances, more than ever, +and arrogance,—it is in these circumstances, more than ever, that the constitution is seen to possess within itself the power of correcting abuses. For when any one of the three classes becomes puffed up, and manifests an inclination to be contentious and unduly encroaching, the mutual interdependency @@ -18890,7 +18890,7 @@ check this tendency: and so the proper equilibrium is maintained by the impulsiv by its fear of the other. . . .

 On the Roman Army -

After electing the Consuls they proceed to elect military tribunes,—fourteen from those who had five years', and +

After electing the Consuls they proceed to elect military tribunes,—fourteen from those who had five years', and ten from those who had ten years', service. All citizens must serve ten years in the cavalry or twenty years in the infantry before the forty-sixth year of their age, except those rated @@ -18933,9 +18933,9 @@ the last. With the next four the tribunes of the third legion have the first choice, those of the second the last; and so on in regular rotation: of which the result is that each legion gets men of much the same standard. But when they have -selected the number prescribed,—which is four thousand two +selected the number prescribed,—which is four thousand two hundred infantry for each legion, or at times of special danger -five thousand,—they next used to pass men for the cavalry, in +five thousand,—they next used to pass men for the cavalry, in old times after the four thousand two hundred infantry; but now they do it before them, the selection having been made by the censor on the basis of wealth; and they enrol three hundred @@ -19009,7 +19009,7 @@ to have the2. Arms of the H complete panoply. This to a Roman means, first, a large shield (scutum), the surface of which is curved outwards, its breadth two and -a half feet, its length four feet,—though there is also an extra +a half feet, its length four feet,—though there is also an extra sized shield in which these measures are increased by a palm's breadth. It consists of two layers of wood fastened together with bull's-hide glue; the outer surface of which is first @@ -19176,17 +19176,17 @@ to put the Praetorium, they measure off a square round this standard; in such a way that each of its sides is a hundred feet from the standard, and the area of the square is four plethra.the plethrum = 10,000 square feet. The side of the square of the Praetorium, therefore, is 200 feet. -Along one side of this square—whichever aspect appears -most convenient for watering and foraging—the legions are +Along one side of this square—whichever aspect appears +most convenient for watering and foraging—the legions are stationed as follows. I have said that there were six Tribuni -in each legion, and that each Consul had two legions,—it +in each legion, and that each Consul had two legions,—it follows that there are twelve Tribuni in a Consular army. Well, they pitch the tents of these Tribuni all in one straight line, parallel to the side of the square selected, at a distance of fifty feet from it (there is a place too selected for the horses, beasts of burden, and other baggage of the Tribuni); these tents face the outer side of the camp and away from the square -described above,—a direction which will henceforth be called +described above,—a direction which will henceforth be called "the front" by me. The tents of the Tribuni stand at equal distances from each other, so that they extend along the whole breadth of the space occupied by the legions.

 @@ -19198,7 +19198,7 @@ they measure another distance of a hundred feet towards the front. At that distance another parallel straight line is drawn, and it is from this last that they begin arranging the quarters of the legions, which they do as -follows:—they bisect the last mentioned straight line, and +follows:—they bisect the last mentioned straight line, and from that point draw another straight line at right angles to it; along this line, on either side of it facing @@ -19258,7 +19258,7 @@ out the camp the spaces assigned to the latter are made proportionally deeper, s those occupied by the legions. Thus five viae are formed:That is, one between the two legions, and two between the blocks in each. and back to back with these cavalry are the spaces for the infantry of the allies, the depth being proportionally increased -according to their numbers;That is to say—without the extraordinarii (1/5)—there are 2400 to get into +according to their numbers;That is to say—without the extraordinarii (1/5)—there are 2400 to get into 10 spaces instead of 3000 into 30. and these maniples face the outer sides of the camp and the agger. In each maniple the first tent at either end is occupied by the centurions. Via Quintana. Between @@ -19534,7 +19534,7 @@ the camp, or bearing false witness: as also to any one who in full manhood is detected in shameful immorality: or to any one who has been thrice punished for the same offence. All these things are punished as crimes. But such as the following are reckoned as cowardly and dishonourable in a soldier: -—for a man to make a false report to the Tribunes of his +—for a man to make a false report to the Tribunes of his valour in order to get reward; or for men who have been told off to an ambuscade to quit the place assigned them from fear; and also for a man to throw away any of his arms from @@ -19649,8 +19649,8 @@ lines. With this order of march, on an alarm being given, the columns face to the right or left according to the quarter on which the enemy appears, and get clear of the baggage. So that in a short space of time, and by one movement, the whole -of the hoplites are in line of battle—except that sometimes it -is necessary to half-wheel the Hastati also—and the baggage +of the hoplites are in line of battle—except that sometimes it +is necessary to half-wheel the Hastati also—and the baggage and the rest of the army are in their proper place for safety, namely, in the rear of the line of combatants.

@@ -19752,10 +19752,10 @@ or the occurrence of a storm induce the crew to be of one mind and to obey the helmsman, everything goes well; but if they recover from this fear, and begin to treat their officers with contempt, and to quarrel with each other because they are no -longer all of one mind,—one party wishing to continue the +longer all of one mind,—one party wishing to continue the voyage, and the other urging the steersman to bring the ship to anchor; some letting out the sheets, and others hauling -them in, and ordering the sails to be furled,—their discord and +them in, and ordering the sails to be furled,—their discord and quarrels make a sorry show to lookers on; and the position of affairs is full of risk to those on board engaged on the same voyage: and the result has often been that, after escaping the @@ -19774,7 +19774,7 @@ was mainly consolidated by Pericles; so that Polybius includes much of the period of her rise with that of her decline. Therefore I need say no more about either it, or the Theban constitution: in both of which a mob manages everything on its own unfettered -impulse—a mob in the one city distinguished for headlong outbursts of fiery temper, in the other trained in long habits of +impulse—a mob in the one city distinguished for headlong outbursts of fiery temper, in the other trained in long habits of violence and ferocity.

The Cretan Constitution Compared to the Spartan @@ -19785,8 +19785,8 @@ is how such writers as Ephorus, Xenophon, Callisthenes and PlatoFor what remains of the account of Ephorus see Strabo, 10.4.8-9. The reference to Plato is to the "Laws," especially Book I. See also Aristotle, Pol. 2, 10, who points out the likeness and unlikeness between the Cretan and -Lacedaemonian constitutions.—who are the most -learned of the ancients—could assert that it was like that +Lacedaemonian constitutions.—who are the most +learned of the ancients—could assert that it was like that of Sparta; and secondly how they came to assert that it was at all admirable. I can agree with neither assertion; and I will explain why I say so. And first as to its dissimilarity @@ -19823,8 +19823,8 @@ overlooking these important differences, these writers have gone out of their way to comment at length on the legislation of Lycurgus: "He was the only legislator," they say, "who saw the important points. For there being two things on -which the safety of a commonwealth depends,—courage in -the face of the enemy and concord at home,—by abolishing +which the safety of a commonwealth depends,—courage in +the face of the enemy and concord at home,—by abolishing covetousness, he with it removed all motive for civil broil and contest: whence it has been brought about that the Lacedaemonians are the best governed and most united people in Greece." Yet while giving utterance to these sentiments, and @@ -19895,7 +19895,7 @@ men brave and noble minded: but when both these virtues, courage and high morality, are combined in one soul or in one state, vice will not readily spring from such a soil, nor will such men easily be overcome by their enemies. By constructing his constitution therefore in this spirit, and of these -elements, he secured two blessings to the Spartans,—safety for +elements, he secured two blessings to the Spartans,—safety for their territory, and a lasting freedom for themselves long after he was gone. He appears however to have made no one provision whatever, particular or general, for the acquisition of the territory @@ -19960,7 +19960,7 @@ neither exists, nor ever has existed, a constitution and civil order preferable to that of Sparta. But if any one is seeking aggrandisement, and believes that to be a leader and ruler and despot of numerous subjects, and to have all looking and -turning to him, is a finer thing than that,—in this point of +turning to him, is a finer thing than that,—in this point of view we must acknowledge that the Spartan constitution is deficient, and that of Rome superior and better constituted for @@ -19969,7 +19969,7 @@ For when the Lacedaemonians strove to possess themselves of the supremacy in Greece, it was not long before they brought their own freedom itself into danger. Whereas the Romans, after obtaining supreme power over the Italians themselves, soon -brought the whole world under their rule,—in which achievement the abundance and availability of their supplies largely +brought the whole world under their rule,—in which achievement the abundance and availability of their supplies largely contributed to their success.

 Carthage Compared with Rome @@ -20012,10 +20012,10 @@ the war.

 at the provisions for carrying on a war, we shall find that whereas for a naval expedition the Carthaginians are the better trained and -prepared,—as it is only natural with a people +prepared,—as it is only natural with a people with whom it has been hereditary for many generations to practise this craft, and to follow the seaman's trade above all -nations in the world,—yet, in regard to military service on +nations in the world,—yet, in regard to military service on land, the Romans train themselves to a much higher pitch than the Carthaginians. The former bestow their whole attention upon this department: whereas the Carthaginians @@ -20058,9 +20058,9 @@ age and he is there, or, failing him, one of his relations, mounts the Rostra and delivers a speech concerning the virtues of the deceased, and the successful exploits performed by him in his lifetime. Imagines. By these means the people are reminded of what -has been done, and made to see it with their own eyes,—not +has been done, and made to see it with their own eyes,—not only such as were engaged in the actual -transactions but those also who were not;— +transactions but those also who were not;— and their sympathies are so deeply moved, that the loss appears not to be confined to the actual mourners, but to be a public one affecting the whole people. After the burial @@ -20259,8 +20259,8 @@ got what he had left behind, once more set out, under the belief that by means of this return he had kept his promise and discharged his oath. Upon the arrival of the envoys at Rome, imploring and beseeching the Senate not to grudge the captured troops their return home, but to allow them to rejoin their -friends by paying three minae each for them,—for these were -the terms, they said, granted by Hannibal,—and declaring that +friends by paying three minae each for them,—for these were +the terms, they said, granted by Hannibal,—and declaring that the men deserved redemption, for they had neither played the coward in the field, nor done anything unworthy of Rome, but had been left behind to guard the camp; and that, when @@ -20270,7 +20270,7 @@ the time deprived of, roughly speaking, all their allies, they neither yielded so far to misfortune as to disregard what was becoming to themselves, nor omitted to take into account any necessary consideration. They saw through Hannibal's -purpose in thus acting,—which was at once to get a large supply +purpose in thus acting,—which was at once to get a large supply of money, and at the same time to take away all enthusiasm from the troops opposed to him, by showing that even the conquered had a hope of getting safe home again. Therefore @@ -20492,8 +20492,8 @@ incidents, and to speak at inordinate length on subjects that scarcely deserve to be recorded at all. There are some, too, who fall into a similar mistake from mere want of judgment. With how much more reason might the space employed on -these descriptions,—which they use merely to fill up and spin -out their books,—have been devoted to Hiero and Gelo, +these descriptions,—which they use merely to fill up and spin +out their books,—have been devoted to Hiero and Gelo, without mentioning Hieronymus at all! It would have given greater pleasure to readers and more instruction to students.

@@ -20504,7 +20504,7 @@ greater pleasure to readers and more instruction to students.

 abilities without inheriting wealth, or reputation, or any other advantage of fortune. And, in the second place, was established king of Syracuse without putting to death, banishing, or -harassing any one of the citizens,—which is the most astonishing circumstance of all. And what is quite as surprising as +harassing any one of the citizens,—which is the most astonishing circumstance of all. And what is quite as surprising as the innocence of his acquisition of power is the fact that it did not change his character. For during a reign of fifty-four years he preserved peace for the country, maintained his own @@ -20550,7 +20550,7 @@ him, and all Carthaginians serving in his army, subject to our mutual consent, proposes to make this sworn treaty of friendship and honourable good-will. Let us be friends, close -allies, and brethren, on the conditions herein following:—

+allies, and brethren, on the conditions herein following:—

(1) Let the Carthaginians, as supreme, Hannibal their1st article sworn to by Philip's representative. chief general and those serving with him, all members of the Carthaginian dominion living @@ -20642,7 +20642,7 @@ to him, he took them in his hands, and, turning round a little to one side, held them out to Aratus and asked him "what he thought the sacrifices indicated? To quit the citadel or hold it?" Thereupon Demetrius struck in on the spur of the -moment by saying, "If you have the heart of an augur,—to +moment by saying, "If you have the heart of an augur,—to quit it as quick as you can: but if of a gallant and wise king, to keep it, lest if you quit it now you may never have so good an opportunity again: for it is by thus holding the two horns @@ -20703,7 +20703,7 @@ advantage of lofty principle and strict integrity, that the Cretans, having at length come to an understanding with each other and made a national alliance, selected Philip to arbitrate between them; and that this settlement was completed without an -appeal to arms and without danger,—a thing for which it +appeal to arms and without danger,—a thing for which it would be difficult to find a precedent in similar circumstances. From the time of his exploits at Messene all this was utterly changed. And it was natural that it should be so. For his @@ -21061,7 +21061,7 @@ gain Iberia, or at another time 215. His death, however, did not bring more p relations between Syracuse and Rome, but only gave the Syracusans more able leaders (Livy, 24, 21). After the slaughter of Themistius and Andramodorus, who had been elected on the board of Generals, and the cruel murder of all the royal family, -Epicydes and Hippocrates,—Syracusans by descent, but born and +Epicydes and Hippocrates,—Syracusans by descent, but born and brought up at Carthage, and who had been sent to Syracuse on a -special mission by Hannibal,—were elected into the vacant places +special mission by Hannibal,—were elected into the vacant places in the board of Generals. They became the leading spirits in the Syracusan government, and for a time kept up an appearance of wishing to come to terms with Rome; and legates were actually @@ -21097,7 +21097,7 @@ people to vote for the peace with Rome But Hippocrates and Epicydes determined not to acknowledge the peace: they therefore provoked the Romans by plundering in or near the Roman pale,To which proceedings may be referred a sentence of Polybius preserved -by Suidas, s. v. dieskeuasme/nhn—"They send out certain Cretans, as though +by Suidas, s. v. dieskeuasme/nhn—"They send out certain Cretans, as though on a raid, giving them a sham despatch to carry." See Livy, 24, 30-31. and then took refuge in Leontini. Marcellus complained at Syracuse, but was told that Leontini was not within Syracusan jurisdiction. Marcellus, therefore, @@ -21156,7 +21156,7 @@ then had been lashed together on the sides thus left bare. But if any one will take the trouble to read the opening passage of his forty-ninth book, he would be indeed astonished -at this writer's extravagance. Besides his other strange statements he has ventured to write as follows—for I here subjoin -his actual words:—"If there was any one in all Greece, or among +at this writer's extravagance. Besides his other strange statements he has ventured to write as follows—for I here subjoin +his actual words:—"If there was any one in all Greece, or among the Barbarians, whose character was lascivious and shameless, he was invariably attracted to Philip's court in Macedonia and got the title of 'the king's companion.' For it was Philip's constant @@ -21391,7 +21391,7 @@ ventured to use such foul language; and what that monarch's principles and debauchery were in his lifetime we gather from the inscription on his tomb, which runs thus: "The joys I had from love or wine -Or dainty meats—those now are mine." +Or dainty meats—those now are mine." But when speaking of Philip and his friends, a man ought to be on his guard, not so much of accusing them of effeminacy and want of courage, or still more of shameless immorality, but on @@ -21421,7 +21421,7 @@ nearly all the world, they filled a very large number of histories with the record of their glorious deeds. We may admit then that the bitter invective of the historian Timaeus against Agathocles, despot of Sicily, though it seems unmeasured, has -yet some reason in it,—for it is directed against a personal +yet some reason in it,—for it is directed against a personal enemy, a bad man, and a tyrant; but that of Theopompus is too scurrilous to be taken seriously.

@@ -21491,7 +21491,7 @@ disinterested virtue, that the sufferer was more ashamed, than the inflicter of the injury, of having it known, that, after so many splendid services performed in the interests of Philip, he had got such a return as that for his loyalty.The accusation of administering slow poisons is a very common one, as -readers of mediæval history know. But the ignorance of the conditions of +readers of mediæval history know. But the ignorance of the conditions of health was too great to allow us to accept them without question. It is doubtful whether drugs, acting in this particular way, were known to the ancients; and certainly spitting blood would be no conclusive evidence of @@ -21689,8 +21689,8 @@ was under the special favour of Providence, he repeatedly begged and prayed Cambylus to bring it to a conclusion. Bolis was equally successful with Nicomachus and Melancomas. They entertained no doubt of his sincerity, and joined him in -the composition of letters to Achaeus,—composed in a -cipher which they had been accustomed to use,—to prevent +the composition of letters to Achaeus,—composed in a +cipher which they had been accustomed to use,—to prevent any one who got hold of the letter from making out its contents, exhorting him to trust Bolis and Cambylus. So Arianus, having by the aid of Cambylus made his way into the acropolis, @@ -21782,7 +21782,7 @@ send some two or three of his friends with him, and by the time that they had joined Melancomas he would be prepared to depart. So Achaeus did all he could for his security; but he did not know that he was trying to do what the proverb -declares to be impossible—out-cretan a Cretan. For there was +declares to be impossible—out-cretan a Cretan. For there was no trick likely to be tried that Bolis had not anticipated. However when the night came, in which Achaeus said that he would send his friends with them, he sent on Arianus and Bolis to the entrance of the acropolis, with instructions to wait there until @@ -21844,7 +21844,7 @@ and married to Laodice, a daughter of King Mithridates, and who had made himself master of all Asia this side of Taurus, and who at that very moment was believed by his own army, as well as by that of his enemy, to be safely ensconced in -the strongest position in the world,—sitting chained upon the +the strongest position in the world,—sitting chained upon the ground, in the hands of his enemies, before a single person knew of it except those who had effected the capture.

 @@ -21882,7 +21882,7 @@ produced mutual distrust, and before long both parties surrendered themselves and the acropolis. Thus Achaeus, in spite of having taken every reasonable precaution, lost his life by the perfidy of those in whom he trusted. His fate may teach -posterity two useful lessons,—not to put faith in any one +posterity two useful lessons,—not to put faith in any one lightly; and not to be over-confident in the hour of prosperity, knowing that, in human affairs, there is no accident which we may not expect. . . .

 @@ -21927,7 +21927,7 @@ By these proceedings, in which he was thought to have acted with true royal magnanimity, he won the affection and support of all the inhabitants of that part of the country.

-The Hannibalian War — Tarentum +The Hannibalian War — Tarentum

It was in the wantonness of excessive prosperity that the Tarentines invited Pyrrhus of Epirus; for democratic liberty that has enjoyed a long and unchecked career comes @@ -22425,7 +22425,7 @@ rear and range them in front of themselves. This produced a defence of greater security than any palisade.This fragment is supposed, by comparison with Livy, 25, 36, to belong to the account of the fall of Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio in Spain, B. C. 212. . . .

So entirely unable are the majority of mankind to submit -to that lightest of all burdens—-silence. . . .

+to that lightest of all burdens—-silence. . . .

Anything in the future seems preferable to what exists in the present. . . .

@@ -22466,7 +22466,7 @@ colonisations, as well as of the foundations of cities and the consanguinity of peoples, there was nothing left for a writer at this date but to copy the words of others and claim them as his -own,—than which nothing could be more dishonourable; or, +own,—than which nothing could be more dishonourable; or, if he did not choose to do that, to absolutely waste his labour, being obliged to acknowledge that he is composing a history and bestowing thought on what has already been sufficiently set @@ -22474,7 +22474,7 @@ forth and transmitted to posterity by his predecessors. For these and sundry other reasons I abandoned such themes as these, and determined on writing a history of actions: first, because they are continually new and require a new narrative, -—as of course one generation cannot give us the history of +—as of course one generation cannot give us the history of the next; and secondly, because such a narrative is of all others the most instructive. This it has always been: but it is eminently so now, because the arts and sciences have made @@ -22618,7 +22618,7 @@ his camp.

Rome Saved by Luck

On this being known at Rome, the utmost confusion Terror at Rome. -and terror prevailed among the inhabitants,— +and terror prevailed among the inhabitants,— this movement of Hannibal's being as unexpected as it was sudden; for he had never been so close to the city before. At the same time their alarm was increased by the idea at once occurring to them, @@ -22662,7 +22662,7 @@ one into which no one had ever expected an enemy to set foot.

Hannibal starts on his return. within ten stades of him, Hannibal broke up his quarters before daylight. He did so for three -reasons:—first, because he had collected an +reasons:—first, because he had collected an enormous booty; secondly, because he had given up all hope of taking Rome; and lastly, because he reckoned that the time had now come at which he expected, according to @@ -22893,7 +22893,7 @@ and have no fixed design.

Scientific Strategy

Every operation requires a time fixed for its commencement, a period and place for its execution, -The points of inherent importance in the conduct of a campaign,—time, place, secrecy, code of signals, agents, and method. +The points of inherent importance in the conduct of a campaign,—time, place, secrecy, code of signals, agents, and method. secrecy, definite signals, persons by whom and with whom it is to be executed, and a settled plan for conducting it. It is evident that the man @@ -22949,7 +22949,7 @@ next best thing is that he should make careful inquiries and not trust just any one: and men who undertake to act as guides to such places should always deposit security with those whom they are conducting.

-

These,—and other points like them, it is perhaps possible6. Accurate knowledge of natural +

These,—and other points like them, it is perhaps possible6. Accurate knowledge of natural phenomena enabling a general to make accurate calculation of time. that leaders may learn sufficiently from the mere study of strategy, whether practical or in books. @@ -22968,7 +22968,7 @@ the increase and diminution of both the one and the other. How can a man calculate a march, and the distance practicable in a day or in a night, if he is unacquainted with the variation of these periods of time? In fact nothing can be done up to time -without this knowledge,—it is inevitable otherwise that a man +without this knowledge,—it is inevitable otherwise that a man should be sometimes too late and sometimes too soon. And these operations are the only ones in which being too soon is a worse fault than being too late. For the general who overstays @@ -23028,7 +23028,7 @@ and are incapable of being accurately reckoned upon, are quite sufficient to bring us to great and frequent distress, for instance, downpours of rain and rise of torrents, excessive frosts and snows, misty and cloudy weather, and other things -like these;—but if we also neglect to provide for those which +like these;—but if we also neglect to provide for those which can be foreseen, is it not likely that we shall have ourselves to thank for frequent failures? None of these means then must be neglected, if we wish to avoid those errors into which @@ -23219,7 +23219,7 @@ of history as a whole, from writers of partial histories. . . .

 Estimate of Hannibal

Of all that befell the Romans and Carthaginians, good -or bad, the cause was one man and one mind,—Hannibal. +or bad, the cause was one man and one mind,—Hannibal. For it is notorious that he managed the Italian campaigns in person, and the Spanish by the agency of the elder of his @@ -23322,7 +23322,7 @@ result of circumstances.

Fond of money indeed he does seem to have His avarice. been to a conspicuous degree, and to have -had a friend of the same character—Mago, +had a friend of the same character—Mago, who commanded in Bruttium. That account I got from the Carthaginians themselves; for natives know best not only which way the wind lies, as the proverb has it, but @@ -23353,8 +23353,8 @@ and began to look round for opportunities and pretexts for revolting back again was then that Hannibal seems to have been at his lowest point of distress and despair. For neither was he able to keep a watch upon all the cities so widely removed from each -other,—while he remained entrenched at one spot, and the -enemy were manœuvering against him with several armies,— +other,—while he remained entrenched at one spot, and the +enemy were manœuvering against him with several armies,— nor could he divide his force into many parts; for he would have put an easy victory into the hands of the enemy by becoming inferior to them in numbers, and finding it impossible to be personally present at all points. Wherefore he was @@ -23374,7 +23374,7 @@ character of Hannibal, owing to the influence exercised on it by the counsel of friends and the force of circumstances. The prevailing notion about him, however, at Carthage was that he was greedy of money, at Rome that he was cruel.See 3, 86, note. -Cp. Cicero de Am. § 8, cum duobus ducibus de +Cp. Cicero de Am. § 8, cum duobus ducibus de imperio in Italia decertatum est, Pyrrho et Annibale. Ab altero propter probitatem ejus non nimis alienos animos habemus; alterum propter crudelitatem semper hacc civitas oderit. . . .

@@ -23433,7 +23433,7 @@ his authority by the terror which he had thus set up. Greece. Accordingly, without waiting @@ -23521,7 +23521,7 @@ war if all these combine?

Conclusion of the Speech

"I have said thus much with the deliberate purpose of showing you that you are not hampered by previous engagements, but are entirely free in your deliberations as to which -you ought to join—Aetolians or Macedonians. If you are +you ought to join—Aetolians or Macedonians. If you are under an earlier engagement, and have already made up your minds on these points, what room is there for further argument? For if you had made the alliance now existing between yourselves and us, previous to the good services done @@ -23542,7 +23542,7 @@ subsequent wrong done you by Aetolians, or subsequent favour by Macedonians: or if neither of these exist, on what grounds are you now, at the instance of the very men to whom you justly refused to listen formerly, when no obligation -existed, about to undo treaties and oaths—the strongest +existed, about to undo treaties and oaths—the strongest bonds of fidelity existing among mankind."

Such was the conclusion of what was considered a very cogent speech by Chlaeneas.

@@ -23551,7 +23551,7 @@ cogent speech by Chlaeneas.

After him the ambassador of the Acarnanians, Lyciscus, came forward: and at first he paused, seeing the multitude talking to each other about the last speech; but when at last -silence was obtained, he began his speech as follows:—

+silence was obtained, he began his speech as follows:—

"I and my colleagues, men of Sparta, have been sent toSpeech of Lyciscus, envoy from Acarnania, which country was to fall to the Aetolians by the proposed new treaty. See Livy, 26, 24. you by the common league of the Acarnanians; @@ -23577,7 +23577,7 @@ foolish of men, and that the arguments I am about to put forward are indeed futile, if, as he maintains, nothing fresh has happened, and Greek affairs are in precisely the same position as before. But if exactly the reverse be the case, as I shall -clearly prove in the course of my speech,—then I imagine that +clearly prove in the course of my speech,—then I imagine that I shall be shown to give you some salutary advice, and Chlaeneas to be quite in the wrong. We are come, then, expressly because we are convinced that it is needful for us to speak on @@ -23639,14 +23639,14 @@ vengeance of the Persians for their outrages on all the Greeks you made no mention at all; nor of his having released us all in common from heavy miseries, by enslaving the barbarians, and depriving them of the -supplies which they used for the ruin of the Greeks,—sometimes pitting the Athenians against the ancestors of these +supplies which they used for the ruin of the Greeks,—sometimes pitting the Athenians against the ancestors of these gentlemen here, at another the Thebans; nor finally of his having subjected Asia to the Greeks.

"As for Alexander's successors how had you the audacityThe Diadochi. to mention them? They were indeed, according to the circumstances of the time, on many occasions the authors of good to some and of harm to others: for which perhaps others might be allowed to bear them a grudge.The Aetolian policy. -But to you Aetolians it is in no circumstance open to do so,— +But to you Aetolians it is in no circumstance open to do so,— you who have never been the authors of anything good to any one, but of mischief to many and on many occasions! Who was it that called in Antigonus son of @@ -23727,7 +23727,7 @@ have allied yourselves not with Aetolians but with Macedonians; and now again, in answer to these invitations, you ought to join Philip rather than the former people. But, it may be objected, you will be breaking a treaty. Which will be the graver -breach of right on your part,—to neglect a private arrangement +breach of right on your part,—to neglect a private arrangement made with Aetolians, or one that has been inscribed on a column and solemnly consecrated in the sight of all Greece? On what ground are you so careful of breaking faith with this @@ -23765,7 +23765,7 @@ another race, whom you think to bring against Philip, but have really unconsciously brought against yourselves and all Greece. For just as men in the stress of war, by introducing into their cities garrisons superior in strength to their own forces, while successfully repelling all danger from the enemy, -put themselves at the mercy of their friends,—just so are the +put themselves at the mercy of their friends,—just so are the Aetolians acting in the present case. For in their desire to conquer Philip and humble Macedonia, they have unconsciously brought such a mighty cloud from the west, as for the present perhaps will overshadow Macedonia first, but which in @@ -23780,7 +23780,7 @@ when Xerxes sent an ambassador to your town demanding earth and water, thrust the man into a well, and, throwing earth upon him, bade him take back word to Xerxes that he had got from the Lacedaemonians what he had -demanded from them,—earth and water? Why was it again, +demanded from them,—earth and water? Why was it again, do you suppose, that Leonidas and his men started forth to a voluntary and certain death? Was it not that they might have the glory of being the @@ -23854,7 +23854,7 @@ promptly to the relief of Acarnania; he Aetolians returned home. Livy, l. c.

Zeal on the part of friends, if shown in time, is of great service; but if it is dilatory and late, it renders the assistance -nugatory,—supposing, of course, that they wish to keep the +nugatory,—supposing, of course, that they wish to keep the terms of their alliance, not merely on paper, but by actual deeds.On the margin of one MS. is written "For such is the characteristic @@ -23906,8 +23906,8 @@ secured his position excellently on the side of the town, and had strengthened the outer line of his camp with a trench and wall, Publius Sulpicius, the Roman pro-consul, and Dorimachus, Strategus of the Aetolians, -arrived in person,—Publius with a fleet, and -Dorimachus with an army of infantry and cavalry,—and +arrived in person,—Publius with a fleet, and +Dorimachus with an army of infantry and cavalry,—and assaulted Philip's entrenchment. Their repulse led to greater exertions on Philip's part in his attack upon the Echinaeans, who in despair surrendered to him. For Dorimachus was @@ -23973,7 +23973,7 @@ their attention to the war.

-The Hannibalian War — The Recovery of Tarentum +The Hannibalian War — The Recovery of Tarentum

THE distance from the strait and town of Rhegium to B.C. 209, Coss. Q. Fabius Maximus V. Q. Fulvius Flaccus IV. Tarentum is more than two thousand stades; @@ -24040,7 +24040,7 @@ establishment of the Lacedaemonian constitution; nor that Publius depended on dr words for his success in securing empire for his country. But as both saw that the majority of mankind cannot be got to accept contentedly what is new and strange, nor to face dangers -with courage, without some hope of divine favour,—Lycurgus, +with courage, without some hope of divine favour,—Lycurgus, by always supporting his own schemes by an oracular response from the Pythia, secured better acceptation and credit for his ideas; and Publius, by always in like manner instilling into @@ -24211,8 +24211,8 @@ than ten days' march from the New Town. be risking too much to do so against all three at once, because his predecessors had been beaten, and because the enemy would vastly out-number him; if, on the other hand, he were to march rapidly to engage one of the three, and should then find -himself surrounded—which might happen by the one attacked -retreating, and the others coming up to his relief,—he dreaded +himself surrounded—which might happen by the one attacked +retreating, and the others coming up to his relief,—he dreaded a disaster like that of his uncle Gnaeus and his father Publius.

 @@ -24229,7 +24229,7 @@ very conveniently for the Carthaginians to make the sea passage from Libya; that they in fact had the bulk of their money and war material in it, as well as their hostages from the whole of Iberia; that, most important of all, the number of fighting men garrisoning the citadel only amounted -to a thousand,—because no one would ever suppose that, +to a thousand,—because no one would ever suppose that, while the Carthaginians commanded nearly the whole of Iberia, any one would conceive the idea of assaulting this @@ -24248,7 +24248,7 @@ considerations convinced him that, if he could accomplish his purpose, he would not only damage his opponents, but gain a considerable advantage for himself; and that, if on the other hand he failed in effecting it, he would yet be able to secure -the safety of his men owing to his command of the sea, provided he had once made his camp secure,—and this was easy, +the safety of his men owing to his command of the sea, provided he had once made his camp secure,—and this was easy, because of the wide dispersion of the enemy's forces. He had therefore, during his residence in winter quarters, devoted himself to preparing for this operation to the exclusion of @@ -24316,8 +24316,8 @@ Exactly opposite this lies the western mountain in a closely-corresponding posit great cost, which it is said was built by Hasdrubal when he was aiming at establishing royal power. The remaining three lesser elevations bound it on the north, of which the westernmost is called the hill of Hephaestus, the next to it that of -Aletes,—who is believed to have attained divine honours from -having been the discoverer of the silver mines,—and the third +Aletes,—who is believed to have attained divine honours from +having been the discoverer of the silver mines,—and the third is called the hill of Cronus. The lagoon has been connected with the adjoining sea artificially for the sake of the maritime folk; and over the channel thus cut between it and the sea a @@ -24330,14 +24330,14 @@ of the Roman camp which faced the city therefore was secured, without any artificial means, by the lagoon and the sea. The neck of land lying between these two, and connecting the city with the continent, Scipio did not fence off with a stockade, although it abutted on the middle of his -camp,—either for the sake of making an impression upon the +camp,—either for the sake of making an impression upon the enemy, or by way of suiting the arrangement to his own design, -—that he might have nothing to hamper the free egress and +—that he might have nothing to hamper the free egress and return of his troops to and from the camp. The circuit of -the city wall was not more than twenty stades formerly,— +the city wall was not more than twenty stades formerly,— though I am aware that it has been stated at forty stades; but this is false, as I know from personal inspection and not -from mere report,—and in our day it has been still farther +from mere report,—and in our day it has been still farther contracted.

The fleet arrived to the hour, and Publius then thought itScipio discloses his intention of assaulting New Carthage. time to summon a meeting of his men and to @@ -24558,7 +24558,7 @@ that the arrangement whereby the Roman army is thus divided, half being engaged in gathering booty and half remaining drawn up in reserve, precludes all danger of a general catastrophe arising from personal rivalry in greed. For as both parties feel absolute confidence in the fair dealing of each in respect to the -booty,—the reserves no less than the plunderers,—no one +booty,—the reserves no less than the plunderers,—no one leaves the ranks, which has been the most frequent cause of disaster in the case of other armies.

 @@ -24643,7 +24643,7 @@ articles as were fitting for his purpose, he presented each with what was suitable to their sex and age: the girls with ear-rings and bracelets, the young men with daggers and swords. The women. Among the captive women was the wife of Mandonius, -brother of Andobalus king of the Ilergētes. +brother of Andobalus king of the Ilergētes. This woman fell at his feet and besought him with tears to protect their honour better than the Carthaginians had done. Touched by her distress Scipio asked her in what respect she @@ -24728,7 +24728,7 @@ overseers over them in regular divisions to secure that this was done; but he also personally inspected them every day, and saw that they were severally supplied with what was necessary. Thus while the legions were practising and training in the -vicinity of the town, and the fleet manœuvring and rowing in +vicinity of the town, and the fleet manœuvring and rowing in the sea, and the city people sharpening weapons or forging arms or working in wood, every one in short busily employed in making armour, the whole place must have presented the @@ -24869,7 +24869,7 @@ drill. He did not ride in front of the army, as generals nowadays do, from the n a commander. For what can be less scientific or more dangerous than for a commander to be seen by all his men, -and yet not to see one of them? In such manœuvres a +and yet not to see one of them? In such manœuvres a Hipparch should not make a display not of mere military dignity, but of the skill and ability of an officer, appearing at one time in the front, at another on the rear, and at another in the @@ -25106,7 +25106,7 @@ Labus. The barbarians being mustered there, and resolved to dispute his passage, a severe engagement took place, in which the barbarians were eventually dislodged, and -by the following manœuvre. As long as they were engaged +by the following manœuvre. As long as they were engaged face to face with the phalanx, they kept well together and fought desperately; but before daybreak the light-armed troops had made a wide circuit, and seized some high ground on the @@ -25195,7 +25195,7 @@ Cp. Plato, Laches, 187 B; Euthydemus, 285 B; Euripides, Cyclops, 654. not on the general. Fiat experimentum in corpore vili For to -say "I shouldn't have thought it,"—"Who would have +say "I shouldn't have thought it,"—"Who would have expected it?" seems to me the clearest proof of strategical incompetence and dulness.

 @@ -25248,8 +25248,8 @@ winter quarters, he came to Tarraco, ac kinsfolk and friends; and there being admitted to an interview with Scipio, he said that "he thanked the gods heartily that he was the first of the native princes to come to him; for whereas the others were still sending ambassadors to the -Carthaginians and looking to them for support,—even while -stretching out their hands to the Romans,—he was come there +Carthaginians and looking to them for support,—even while +stretching out their hands to the Romans,—he was come there to offer not only himself, but his friends and kinsfolk also, to the protection of Rome. If therefore he should have the honour to be regarded by him as a friend and ally, he would @@ -25397,7 +25397,7 @@ mines. But when he learnt the approach of the Romans, he shifted his quarters; and his rear being secured by a river, and having a stretch of tableland in front of his entrenchment of sufficient extent -for his troops to manœuvre, and bounded by a steep descent +for his troops to manœuvre, and bounded by a steep descent sufficiently deep for security, he stayed quietly in position: always taking care to post pickets on the brow of the descent. As soon as he came within distance, Scipio was @@ -25488,7 +25488,7 @@ pride, not merely in any human breast, but even, if I may say so without irreverence, in that of a god. But Scipio's greatness of soul was so superior to the common standard of mankind, that he again and again rejected what Fortune had put within his grasp, that prize beyond which men's boldest -prayers do not go—the power of a king: and he steadily preferred his country and his duty to that royalty, which men +prayers do not go—the power of a king: and he steadily preferred his country and his duty to that royalty, which men gaze at with such admiration and envy.

Scipio next proceeded to select from the captives theScipio occupies the position evacuated by the Carthaginians. native Iberians, and all these he dismissed to @@ -25532,7 +25532,7 @@ of this sort is well worth the observation and attention of my readers; for it affords a trial and test of the vigour of the leader affected. As in the hunting-field the wild animals never show their full courage and strength until surrounded -and brought to bay,—so it is with leaders. And no more +and brought to bay,—so it is with leaders. And no more conspicuous instance could be found than this of Philip. He dismissed the various embassies, promising each that he would do his best: and then devoted his attention to the war which @@ -25611,7 +25611,7 @@ make some improvement; but his invention still fell very far short of what was wanted, as the following passage from his treatise will show.This passage does not occur in the extant treatise of Aeneas; -but is apparently referred to (ch. 7, § 4) as being contained in a preparatory treatise +but is apparently referred to (ch. 7, § 4) as being contained in a preparatory treatise (paraskeuastikh\ bi/blos). "Let those who wish," he says, "to communicate any matter of pressing importance to each other by fire-signals prepare two earthenware vessels of exactly equal size both as @@ -25704,7 +25704,7 @@ on which side the torches are raised, and to hide them entirely when they are lo on both sides, when a man wishes, for instance, to send the message "Some of our soldiers to the number of a hundred -have deserted to the enemy,"—the first thing to do is to select +have deserted to the enemy,"—the first thing to do is to select words that may give the same information with the fewest letters, for instance, "A hundred Cretans have deserted," for thus the number of letters is diminished by more than a half @@ -25715,7 +25715,7 @@ letters and therefore on the second tablet; the signaller therefore must raise two torches on the left to show the recipient that he must look at the second tablet; then he will raise five on the right, because k is the fifth letter in the -group,

The grouping of these letters will be as follows:— +group,

The grouping of these letters will be as follows:— 123451 azlpf @@ -26020,7 +26020,7 @@ which, though profitless (and most wars are that), was yet glorious from the motive which prompted it, and the reputation likely to accrue from it, you might be pardoned perhaps for a fixed determination to continue it; but if it is a war of the most signal infamy, which can bring you nothing -but discredit and obloquy,—does not such an undertaking +but discredit and obloquy,—does not such an undertaking claim considerable hesitation on your part? We will speak our opinion frankly; and you, if you are wise, will give us a quiet hearing. For it is much better to hear a disagreeable @@ -26040,9 +26040,9 @@ you: but now your execution of it has made that disgrace palpable to the eyes of all the world. Moreover, Philip merely lends his name and serves as a pretext for the war: he is not -exposed to any attack: it is against his allies,—the majority of +exposed to any attack: it is against his allies,—the majority of the Peloponnesian states, Boeotia, Euboea, Phocis, Locris, -Thessaly, Epirus,—that you have made this treaty, bargaining +Thessaly, Epirus,—that you have made this treaty, bargaining that their bodies and their goods shall belong to the Romans, their cities and their territory to the Aetolians. Cp. 9. 39. And though personally, if you took a city, you @@ -26052,18 +26052,18 @@ over all other Greeks to the barbarians, to be exposed to the most shameful violence and lawlessness. And all this was hitherto kept a secret. But now the fate of the people of Oreus, and of the miserable Aeginetans, has betrayed you to -every one,—Fortune having, as though of set purpose, suddenly +every one,—Fortune having, as though of set purpose, suddenly brought your infatuation before the scenes.

"So much for the origin of the war and its events up to -now. But as to its result,—supposing everything to go to -your wish,—what do you expect that to be? Will it not be +now. But as to its result,—supposing everything to go to +your wish,—what do you expect that to be? Will it not be the beginning of great miseries to all Greece?

Philip In Aetolia Again

"For I presume no one can fail to see that, if once the -Romans get rid of the war in Italy,—and this is all but done, +Romans get rid of the war in Italy,—and this is all but done, now that Hannibal has been confined to a narrow district in -Bruttii,—they will direct their whole power upon Greece: +Bruttii,—they will direct their whole power upon Greece: professedly, indeed, in aid of the Boeotians against Philip, but really with the view of reducing it entirely under their own power. And if they design to treat it well when they have @@ -26086,7 +26086,7 @@ safety of yourselves or of the rest of GreeceThis speaker having, as it seemed, made a considerable impression, he was followed by the ambassadors of Philip, who, without making a long speech, merely said that they were -commissioned to do one of two things,—if the Aetolians chose +commissioned to do one of two things,—if the Aetolians chose peace, to accept it readily: if not, to call the gods and the ambassadors from Greece to witness that the Aetolians, and not Philip, ought to be held responsible for what happened @@ -26137,7 +26137,7 @@ now bestow on your dress, and transfer to your dress the neglect which you now show of your arms. By thus acting, you will at once save your money, and be undoubtedly able to maintain the interests of your country. Therefore the man -who is going to take part in manœuvres or a campaign ought, +who is going to take part in manœuvres or a campaign ought, when putting on his greaves, to see that they are bright and well-fitting, much more than that his shoes and boots are; and when he takes up his shield and helmet, to take care that they @@ -26152,7 +26152,7 @@ and their country with glory."

so much struck with the wisdom of the advice, that, immediately after leaving the council-chamber, they began pointing with scorn at the over-dressed dandies, and forced some of them to quit -the market-place; and what is more, in future manœuvres and +the market-place; and what is more, in future manœuvres and campaigns they kept a stricter watch on each other in these points.

 @@ -26249,8 +26249,8 @@ the enemy's plan was, by pouring volleys from the catapults into his phalanx, to throw the ranks into confusion: he therefore gave him no time or interval of repose, but opened the engagement by a vigorous charge of his TarentinesThe "Tarentines" were horsemen armed with light skirmishing -javelins. See 4, 77; 16, 18; and cp. Arrian, Tact. 4, § 5; -18, § 2. Livy, 35, +javelins. See 4, 77; 16, 18; and cp. Arrian, Tact. 4, § 5; +18, § 2. Livy, 35, 28; 37, 40. close to the temple of Poseidon, where the ground was flat and suitable for cavalry. The battle begun by light-cavalry charges. Whereupon @@ -26372,7 +26372,7 @@ that if he advanced with a full apprehension of the difficulty presented by the dyke, and then changing his mind and deciding to shrink from the attempt, were to retire in loose order and a long straggling column,The text is certainly corrupt here, and it is not clear what the general -sense of the passage is beyond this,—that Philopoemen calculated on defeating +sense of the passage is beyond this,—that Philopoemen calculated on defeating the enemy, as he did, while struggling through the dyke: or on their exposing themselves to attack if they retreated from the dyke without crossing it. the victory would be his, without a general engagement, and the defeat his adversary's. @@ -26605,14 +26605,14 @@ force from the left wing, turned the one to the left the other to the right, and advanced at a great speed in column upon the enemy, the troops in succession forming up and following in column as they wheeled. When these troops were within a short -distance of the enemy,—the Iberians in the line direct being -still a considerable distance behind, because they were advancing at a deliberate pace,—they came into contact with the two +distance of the enemy,—the Iberians in the line direct being +still a considerable distance behind, because they were advancing at a deliberate pace,—they came into contact with the two wings of the enemy simultaneously, the Roman forces being in column, according to Scipio's original plan. The movements subsequent to this, which resulted in the troops on the rear finding themselves in the same line as the troops in front, and engaged like them with the enemy, -were exactly the converse of each other—taking the right +were exactly the converse of each other—taking the right and left wings in general, and the cavalry and infantry in particular. For the cavalry and velites on the right wing came into line on the right and tried to outflank the enemy, while the heavy infantry came into line on the left; @@ -26632,7 +26632,7 @@ were severely handled, being wounded and harassed on every side by the velites and cavalry, and did as much harm to their friends as to their foes; for they rushed about promiscuously and killed every one that -fell in their way on either side alike. As to the infantry,— +fell in their way on either side alike. As to the infantry,— the Carthaginian wings began to be broken, but the centre occupied by the Libyans, and which was the best part of the army, was never engaged at all. It could not quit its ground @@ -26787,7 +26787,7 @@ they were struck with terror.

 their grievances were, or what they looked for forward that induced them to mutiny. For that there were three motives only on which men usually venture to rebel against their -country and their commanders,—discontent and anger with +country and their commanders,—discontent and anger with their officers; dissatisfaction with their present position; or, lastly, hopes of something better and more glorious. "Now, I ask you," he continued, "which of these can you allege? It is @@ -26831,10 +26831,10 @@ surely to become the enemies of your country in reliance on such men as these! Nor again had you any prospect of becoming masters of Iberia by your own prowess: for you would not have been strong enough, even in conjunction with Andobales, to meet us in the field, to say nothing of doing so without -such aid. I should like then to ask,—what was it in which +such aid. I should like then to ask,—what was it in which you trusted? Surely not in the skill and valour of the leaders whom you have now elected, or in the fasces and axes which -were borne in front of them,—men of whom I will not deign +were borne in front of them,—men of whom I will not deign to say even another word. All this, my men, is absolutely futile; nor will you be able to allege even the smallest just complaint against me or your country. Wherefore I will @@ -27000,7 +27000,7 @@ points caused a written treaty to be drawn up, and the terms of the treaty to be confirmed on oath, he marched away; after liberally provisioning his troops, and accepting the elephants belonging to Euthydemus. Antiochus continues his march into the interior of Asia. He crossed the -CaucasusThat is the Caucasus Indicus or Paropamisus: mod. Hindú Kúsh. and descended into India; renewed +CaucasusThat is the Caucasus Indicus or Paropamisus: mod. Hindú Kúsh. and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more @@ -27403,7 +27403,7 @@ did he visit? What cities of the one or the other? In whose hands did he find the treaty? Yet we all know, I suppose, that this is a speciality of Timaeus's, and that it is in this that he has surpassed all other historians, and rests his chief claim -to credit,—I mean his parade of accuracy in studying chronology +to credit,—I mean his parade of accuracy in studying chronology and ancient monuments, and his care in that department of research. Therefore we may well wonder how he came to omit telling us the name of the city in which he found the @@ -27417,12 +27417,12 @@ deliberate falsehood. For that Timaeus, if he really had obtained such proofs, would not have let them slip, but would have fastened upon them with both hands, as the saying is, is proved by the following considerations. Would a writer who -tried to establish his credit on that of Echecrates,—he mentioning him by name as the person with whom he had conversed, +tried to establish his credit on that of Echecrates,—he mentioning him by name as the person with whom he had conversed, and from whom he had obtained his facts about the Italian -Locri,—taking the trouble to add, by way of showing that he +Locri,—taking the trouble to add, by way of showing that he had been told them by no ordinary person, that this man's father had formerly been entrusted with an embassy by -Dionysius,—would such a writer have remained silent about it +Dionysius,—would such a writer have remained silent about it if he had really got hold of a public record or an ancient tablet?

@@ -27479,9 +27479,9 @@ but an idle tale." See @@ -27607,7 +27607,7 @@ and smoke and clay, at the early age of eighteen, should have within a short time advanced from that humble beginning to be master of all Sicily, and after being a terror to the Carthaginians, should have grown old in office and died in enjoyment of -the royal title,—does not this prove that Agathocles had some +the royal title,—does not this prove that Agathocles had some great and admirable qualities, and many endowments and talents for administration? In view of these the historian ought not to have recounted to posterity only what served to discredit @@ -27848,7 +27848,7 @@ for Ephorus and Callisthenes. . . .

 Timaeus Exalts Timoleon To Excess

Timaeus attacks Ephorus with great severity, though he Timaeus's over-estimate of Timoleon. -is himself liable to two grave charges—bitterness +is himself liable to two grave charges—bitterness in attacking others for faults of which he is himself guilty, and complete demoralisation, shown by the opinions which he expresses in his memoirs, and which he endeavours to implant in the minds of his readers. If we @@ -27892,7 +27892,7 @@ variegated colours." If we apply this principle to Timaeus, we shall have abundant reason to think badly of him. In attacking others he shows great acuteness and boldness; when he comes to independent narrative he is full of dreams, -miracles, incredible myths,—in a word, of miserable superstition and old wives' tales. The truth is that Timaeus is a proof +miracles, incredible myths,—in a word, of miserable superstition and old wives' tales. The truth is that Timaeus is a proof of the fact, that at times, and in the case of many men, want of skill and want of judgment so completely destroy the value @@ -27924,7 +27924,7 @@ be said he will be shown to be unphilosophical, and, in short, utterly uninstructed. For towards the end of his twenty-first book, in the course of his "harangue of Timoleon," he remarks that "the whole sublunary world being divided into three parts -—Asia, Libya, and Europe. . . ."See 3, 37. The point seems to be that the remark was too commonplace +—Asia, Libya, and Europe. . . ."See 3, 37. The point seems to be that the remark was too commonplace to put into the mouth of a hero. One could scarcely believe such a remark to have come, I don't say from Timaeus, but even from the proverbial Margites. . . .

@@ -28010,7 +28010,7 @@ have been persuaded by their powerful arguments to commit themselves to their treatment, and have thereby endangered their lives: for they are like men trying to steer a ship out of -a book. Still such men go from city to city with great éclât, +a book. Still such men go from city to city with great éclât, and get the common people together to listen to them. But if, when this is done, they induce certain people to submit as a specimen to their practical treatment; they only succeed in @@ -28207,7 +28207,7 @@ knew the difference between peace and war." Then after making two or three practical suggestions, Hermocrates is represented as expressing an opinion that "if they seriously consider the matter they will learn the profound difference between peace -and war,"—although just before he had said that it was precisely this which moved his gratitude to the men of Gela, that +and war,"—although just before he had said that it was precisely this which moved his gratitude to the men of Gela, that "the discussion did not take place in the mass assembly, but in a congress of men who knew the difference between peace and war." This is an instance in which Timaeus not only fails to @@ -28236,17 +28236,17 @@ of his own principles;" and that "he had injured all those persons against whom he waged war, under compulsion and in obedience to the order of another, but was never voluntarily the author of harm to any man."Ib. ch. 25. Next he quotes the instance -of Zeus in Homer as being displeased with Ares, and sayingHomer, Il. 5. 890.— +of Zeus in Homer as being displeased with Ares, and sayingHomer, Il. 5. 890.— "Of all the gods that on Olympus dwell I hold thee most detested; for thy joy Is ever strife and war and battle." -And again the wisest of the heroes saysHomer Il. 9, 63.— +And again the wisest of the heroes saysHomer Il. 9, 63.— "He is a wretch, insensible and dead To all the charities of social life, Whose pleasure is in civil broil and war." Then he goes on to allege that Euripides agrees with Homer -in the linesEuripides, fr.— +in the linesEuripides, fr.— "O well of infinite riches! O fairest of beings divine! O Peace, how alas! thou delayest; @@ -28261,7 +28261,7 @@ in the former even the healthy perish. Moreover, in time of peace, the old are buried by the young as nature directs, while in war the case is reversed; and above all in war there is no security even as far as the city walls, while in peace it extends -to the frontier of the territory"—and so on. I wonder what +to the frontier of the territory"—and so on. I wonder what other arguments would have been employed by a youth who had just devoted himself to scholastic exercises and studies in history; and who wished, according to the rules of the art, to @@ -28396,14 +28396,14 @@ engaged in most political contests." The same might be said of the art of healing and of steering. Homer has spoken even more emphatically than these writers on this point. For when he wishes to describe what the man of light and leading should -be, he introduces Odysseus in these words— +be, he introduces Odysseus in these words— "Tell me, oh Muse, the man of many shifts Who wandered far and wide." -and then goes on— +and then goes on— "And towns of many saw, and learnt their mind, And suffered much in heart by land and sea." -and againHomer, Odyss. 1, 1-4; 8, 183.— +and againHomer, Odyss. 1, 1-4; 8, 183.— "Passing through wars of men and grievous waves."

Mere Inquiry Is Insufficient @@ -28457,10 +28457,10 @@ underwent in collecting records from Assyria, and in studying the customs of the Ligures, Celts, and Iberians. But he exaggerates these so much, that he could not have himself expected to be believed. One would be glad to ask the historian which of the two he thinks is the more expensive -and laborious,—to remain quietly at home and collect records +and laborious,—to remain quietly at home and collect records and study the customs of Ligures and Celts, or to obtain personal experience of all the tribes possible, and see them -with his own eyes? To ask questions about manœuvres on +with his own eyes? To ask questions about manœuvres on the field of battle and the sieges of cities and fights at sea from those who were present, or to take personal part in the dangers and vicissitudes of these operations as they occur? @@ -28477,7 +28477,7 @@ important and most difficult. And, indeed, in this particular department of research, men who have had no personal experience must necessarily fall into grave errors. For how is a man, who has no knowledge of such things, to put the right -questions as to manœuvering of troops, sieges of cities, and +questions as to manœuvering of troops, sieges of cities, and fights at sea? And how can he understand the details of what is told him? Indeed, the questioner is as important as the narrator for getting a clear story. For in the case of men @@ -28554,7 +28554,7 @@ and war.

 Philip Intrigues Against Rhodes

Philip gave Heracleides a kind of problem to work out, -—how to circumvent and destroy the Rhodian fleet. At the +—how to circumvent and destroy the Rhodian fleet. At the same time he sent envoys to Crete to excite and provoke them to go to war with the Rhodians. Heracleides, @@ -28653,7 +28653,7 @@ mercenaries he had to support for their security, and the expenses which fell up religion and the needs of the State. If the listeners gave in he was satisfied; but if they ever refused to comply with his demand, he would say, "Perhaps I cannot persuade you, but I -think this lady Apéga will succeed in doing so." Apéga was +think this lady Apéga will succeed in doing so." Apéga was the name of his wife. Immediately on his saying these words, the figure I have described was brought in. As soon as the man offered his hand to the supposed lady to raise her from @@ -28698,7 +28698,7 @@ rugged country, but the wealth of the Gerraei who inhabit it has adorned it with villages and towers. It lies along the Arabian Sea, and Antiochus gave orders to spare it. . . .

In a letter to Antiochus the Gerraei demanded that he should -not destroy what the gods had given them—perpetual peace +not destroy what the gods had given them—perpetual peace and freedom; and this letter having been interpreted to him he granted the request. . . .

Their freedom having been confirmed to the Gerraei, they @@ -28711,7 +28711,7 @@ and thence to Seleucia. . . . Preface -

PERHAPS a resumé of events in each Olympiad may arrest the +

PERHAPS a resumé of events in each Olympiad may arrest the attention of my readers both by their number and importance, the transactions in every part of the world being brought under one view. 144th Olympiad, B. C. 204-200. However, I think the @@ -29160,7 +29160,7 @@ of Murtium, Mnesis, and Pothine? And yet Mnesis was a flute-girl, as was Pothine, and Murtium was a public prostitute. And was not Agathocleia, the mistress of -king Ptolemy Philopator, an influential personage,—she who +king Ptolemy Philopator, an influential personage,—she who was the ruin of the whole kingdom? . . .

 Ptolemy Philopator, B.C. 222-205 @@ -29232,7 +29232,7 @@ Romans. Remembering all this, the general and the officers then present in the council were at a loss to understand what had encouraged them to forget what they then said, and to venture to break their sworn articles of agreement. Hannibal leaves Italy, 23d June, B.C. 203. Plainly it -was this—they trusted in Hannibal and the +was this—they trusted in Hannibal and the forces that had arrived with him. But they were very ill advised. All the world knew that he and his army had been driven these two years past @@ -29444,7 +29444,7 @@ country; while, if you are worsted, you will have been yourself the means of ent glories you have already won. What then is the point that I am seeking to establish by these arguments? It is that the Romans should retain all the countries for which we have -hitherto contended—I mean Sicily, Sardinia, and Iberia; and +hitherto contended—I mean Sicily, Sardinia, and Iberia; and that the Carthaginians should engage never to go to war with Rome for these; and also that all the islands lying between Italy and Libya should belong to Rome. For I am persuaded that such a treaty will be at once safest for the @@ -29476,7 +29476,7 @@ should restore prisoners without ransom, should surrender all their decked vessels, pay five thousand talents, and give hostages for their performance of these articles. These were the terms which I and they mutually agreed upon; we both -despatched envoys to our respective Senates and people,—we +despatched envoys to our respective Senates and people,—we consenting to grant these terms, the Carthaginians begging to have them granted. The Senate agreed: the people ratified the treaty. But though they had got what they asked, the @@ -29513,7 +29513,7 @@ find, or any other occasion on which the prizes proposed by destiny to the combatants were more momentous. For it was not merely of Libya or Europe that the victors in this battle were destined to become masters, but of all other parts of the -world known to history,—a destiny which had not to wait +world known to history,—a destiny which had not to wait long for its fulfilment.

Scipio placed his men on the field in the following order:Scipio's order of battle. the hastati first, with an interval between their @@ -29636,7 +29636,7 @@ usual their war-cry, and clashing their swords against their shields: while the Carthaginian mercenaries uttered a strange confusion of cries, the effect of which was indescribable, for, in the words of the poet,Homer, Iliad, 4, 437. the -"voice of all was not one — +"voice of all was not one — nor one their cry: But manifold their speech as was their race."

 @@ -29679,7 +29679,7 @@ in position was full of blood, wounded men, and dead corpses; and thus the rout of the enemy proved an impediment of a perplexing nature to the Roman general. Everything was calculated -to make an advance in order difficult,—the +to make an advance in order difficult,—the ground slippery with gore, the corpses lying piled up in bloody heaps, and with the corpses arms flung about in every direction. However Scipio caused the wounded @@ -29741,7 +29741,7 @@ the mercenaries in front and the Carthaginians behind them, in order to wear out the bodies of the enemy with fatigue beforehand, and to blunt the edge of their swords by the numbers that would be killed by them; and moreover to compel the Carthaginians, by being in the middle of the army, to stay -where they were and fight, as the poet saysHomer, Iliad, 4, 300.— +where they were and fight, as the poet saysHomer, Iliad, 4, 300.— "That howsoe'er unwilling fight he must." But the most warlike and steady part of his army he held in reserve at some distance, in order that they might not see @@ -29790,7 +29790,7 @@ to which they were to submit.

 Terms Made After the Battle of Zama

The following are the heads of the terms offered Terms imposed on Carthage after the battle of Zama, B. C. 202-201. -them:—The Carthaginians to retain the towns +them:—The Carthaginians to retain the towns in Libya, of which they were possessed before they commenced the last war against Rome, and the territory which they also heretofore held, with @@ -29798,7 +29798,7 @@ its cattle, slaves, and other stock: and from that day should not be subject to acts of hostility, should enjoy their own laws and customs, and not have a Roman garrison in their city. These were the concessions favourable to them. The clauses of an -opposite character were as follows:—The Carthaginians to pay +opposite character were as follows:—The Carthaginians to pay an indemnity to the Romans for all wrongs committed during the truce; to restore all captives and runaway slaves without limit of time; to hand over all their ships of war except ten @@ -29811,7 +29811,7 @@ months, and with pay, until such time as an answer shall be returned from Rome on the subject of the treaty; to pay ten thousand talents of silver in fifty years, two hundred Euboic talents every year; to give a hundred hostages of their good faith, -—such hostages to be selected from the young men of the country +—such hostages to be selected from the young men of the country by the Roman general, and to be not younger than fourteen or older than thirty years.

@@ -29839,8 +29839,8 @@ unaccountable, that any one calling himself a Carthaginian, and being fully aware of the policy which they had individually and collectively adopted against the Romans, should do otherwise than adore the kindness of Fortune for obtaining such favourable terms, when in their power, as a few days ago no -one—considering the extraordinary provocation they had -given—would have ventured to mention, if they had been +one—considering the extraordinary provocation they had +given—would have ventured to mention, if they had been asked what they expected would happen to their country, in case of the Romans proving victorious. Therefore he called upon them now not to debate, but unanimously to accept the @@ -29952,12 +29952,12 @@ Philip had to thank Fortune as well as himself.

For it happened that just when his ambassador was The anger of the Rhodians at the fall of Cius. defending his master before the Rhodians in -the theatre,—enlarging on "the magnanimity of +the theatre,—enlarging on "the magnanimity of Philip," and announcing that "though already in a manner master of Cius, he conceded its safety to the wishes of the Rhodian people; and did so because he desired to refute the calumnies of his enemies, and to establish the -honesty of his intentions in the eyes of Rhodes,"—just then a +honesty of his intentions in the eyes of Rhodes,"—just then a man entered the Prytaneum who had newly arrived in the island, and brought the news of the enslavement of the Cians and the cruelty which Philip had exercised upon them. The @@ -30263,7 +30263,7 @@ his escape by secret flight; but as he had nothing ready for such a measure, thanks to his own imprudence, he had to give up that idea. At another time he set himself to drawing out lists of men likely to assist -him in a bold coup d'état, by which he should put to death +him in a bold coup d'état, by which he should put to death or arrest his enemies, and then possess himself of absolute power. While still meditating these plans he received information that Moeragenes, one of the body-guard, was betraying all the secrets of the palace to Tlepolemus, and was @@ -30363,8 +30363,8 @@ were running backwards and forwards seeking to conceal themselves in houses and now the open spaces round the palace, the stadium, and the street were filled with a motley crowd, as well as the area in front of the Dionysian Theatre. Being informed of this, -Agathocles roused himself from a drunken lethargy,—for he had -just dismissed his drinking party,—and, accompanied by all his +Agathocles roused himself from a drunken lethargy,—for he had +just dismissed his drinking party,—and, accompanied by all his family, with the exception of Philo, went to the king. After a few words of lamentation over his misfortunes addressed to the child, he took him by the hand, and proceeded to the @@ -30427,9 +30427,9 @@ come no more himself. Having dismissed Aristomenes with these words, the Macedonians proceeded to burst open the second door also. When convinced by their proceedings, no less than by the answers they had returned, of the fierce purpose of the Macedonians, the first idea of Agathocles was to -thrust his hand through the latticed door,—while Agathocleia +thrust his hand through the latticed door,—while Agathocleia did the same with her breasts which she said had suckled the -king,—and by every kind of entreaty to beg that the +king,—and by every kind of entreaty to beg that the Macedonians would grant him bare life.

The King Conducted to the Stadium @@ -30449,7 +30449,7 @@ on whom to wreak their vengeance, when Sosibius, who, though a son of the elder Sosibius, was at that time a member of the bodyguard, and as such had a special eye to the safety of the -king and the State,—seeing that the furious desire of the +king and the State,—seeing that the furious desire of the multitude was implacable, and that the child was frightened at the unaccustomed faces that surrounded him and the uproar of the crowd, asked the king whether he would "surrender to @@ -30535,8 +30535,8 @@ was in place, for instance, in the case of the Sicilian monarchs, Agathocles and Dionysius, and certain others who have administered governments with reputation. See 12. 15. For the former of these, starting from a plebeian and -humble position—having been, as Timaeus sneeringly remarks, -a potter—came from the wheel, clay, and smoke, quite a young +humble position—having been, as Timaeus sneeringly remarks, +a potter—came from the wheel, clay, and smoke, quite a young man to Syracuse. And, to begin with, both these men in their respective generations became tyrants of Syracuse, a city that had obtained at that time the greatest reputation and the greatest wealth of any in the world; and afterwards were regarded @@ -30562,7 +30562,7 @@ catastrophes are only worth listening to once; not only are subsequent exhibitions of them unprofitable to ear and eye, but elaborate harping upon soon becomes simply troublesome. For those who are engaged on representing anything either to -eye or ear can have only two objects to aim at,—pleasure and +eye or ear can have only two objects to aim at,—pleasure and profit; and in history, more than in anything else, excessive prolixity on events of tragic interest fails of both these objects. For, in the first place, who would wish to emulate extraordinary @@ -30582,7 +30582,7 @@ those which they happen to have come across themselves or to have heard from others, and they therefore give their attention exclusively to those. They accordingly do not perceive that they are making a mistake in expatiating on events which are -neither novel,—for they have been narrated by others before,— +neither novel,—for they have been narrated by others before,— nor capable of giving instruction or pleasure. So much on this point. . . .

 @@ -30643,7 +30643,7 @@ Theophiliscus (of Rhodes), directly they saw him putting to sea, lost no time in taking action. And although, from their previous conviction that Philip meant to stay where he was, they were not in a position to put to sea quite simultaneously, still by a vigorous use of their oars they managed to -overtake him, and attacked,—Attalus the enemy's right wing, +overtake him, and attacked,—Attalus the enemy's right wing, which was his leading squadron, and Theophiliscus his left. Thus intercepted and surrounded, Philip gave the signal to the ships of his right wing, ordering them to turn their prows towards @@ -30730,13 +30730,13 @@ running sometimes against the blades of their oars so as to hinder the rowing, and sometimes upon their prows, or again upon their sterns, thus hampering the service of steerers and rowers alike. In the direct charges, however, the Rhodians -employed a particular manœuvre. By depressing their bows +employed a particular manœuvre. By depressing their bows they received the blows of the enemy above the water-line, while by staving in the enemy's ships below the water-line they rendered the blows fatal. Still it was rarely that they succeeded in doing this, for, as a rule, they avoided collisions, because the Macedonians fought gallantly from their decks when they came -to close quarters. Their most frequent manœuvre was to row +to close quarters. Their most frequent manœuvre was to row through the Macedonian line, and disable the enemy's ships by breaking off their oars, and then, rowing round into position, @@ -31122,8 +31122,8 @@ the TarentinesSee on 4, 7 the spaces between the elephants with archers and slingers. And finally, that he took up his own station on the rear of the elephants with a squadron of household cavalry and bodyguards." After this preliminary description he continues: "The -younger Antiochus"—whom he had described as being on the -level ground with the heavy-armed cavalry—"charged down +younger Antiochus"—whom he had described as being on the +level ground with the heavy-armed cavalry—"charged down from the high ground and put to flight and pursued the cavalry under Ptolemy, son of Aeropus, who was in command of the Aetolians in the plain on the left wing; but the two lines, @@ -31196,7 +31196,7 @@ lack of information, to make allowances: and I ask it for myself more than others, owing to the size of my history and the extent of ground covered by its transactions. . . .

 -Egypt — Character of Tlepolemus +Egypt — Character of Tlepolemus

Tlepolemus,See 15, 25. the chief minister in the kingdom of Character and extravagance of Tlepolemus. Egypt, was a young man, but one who had @@ -31462,7 +31462,7 @@ reason for the deficiency of enthusiasm is within the power of few. From this point of view one cannot but disparage the inactivity of Attalus and the Rhodians, while regarding with admiration the royal and lofty spirit displayed by Philip, and -his constancy to his purpose,—not meaning to speak in praise +his constancy to his purpose,—not meaning to speak in praise of his character as a whole, but simply commending the vigour with which he acted on this occasion. I make this distinction to prevent any one supposing that I contradict @@ -31504,14 +31504,14 @@ I imagine that it will not be otherwise than useful to remind my readers briefly of the facts, by way of attracting their attention. A man would best realise the advantages of these cities, not by regarding their sites by themselves, but by comparing and contrasting them with those about to be mentioned. For -just as it is impossible to sail from the Ocean,—or as some -call it the Atlantic,—into our sea, except by passing between +just as it is impossible to sail from the Ocean,—or as some +call it the Atlantic,—into our sea, except by passing between the Pillars of Heracles, so is it impossible to sail from our sea into the Propontis and the Pontus except through the channel separating Sestos and Abydos. But as though Fortune had designed these two straits to counterbalance each other, the passage between the Pillars of Heracles is many times as broad -as that of the Hellespont,—the former being sixty, the latter two +as that of the Hellespont,—the former being sixty, the latter two stades; the reason being, as far as one may conjecture, the great superiority in size of the external Ocean to our sea: while the channel at Abydos is more convenient than that at the @@ -32108,9 +32108,9 @@ nephew Quintus Fabius, Quintus Fulvius, and Appius Claudius Nero. From the Aetolians went Alexander Isius, Damocritus of Calydon, Dicaearchus of Trichonium, Polemarchus of -Arsinoe, Lamius of Ambracia, Nicomachus of Acarnania,— +Arsinoe, Lamius of Ambracia, Nicomachus of Acarnania,— one of those who had fled from Thurium and settled in -Ambracia,—and Theodotus of Pherae, an exile from Thessaly +Ambracia,—and Theodotus of Pherae, an exile from Thessaly who settled in Stratus: from the Achaeans Xenophon of Aegium: from King Attalus only Alexander: and from the Athenian people Cephisodorus and his colleagues.

 @@ -32217,7 +32217,7 @@ Daochus and Cineas; in Boeotia, Theogeiton and Timolas: and many more besides he has included in the same category, naming them city by city; and yet all these men have a weighty and obvious plea to urge in defence of their conduct, -and above all those of Arcadia and Messene.Demosthenes, de Corona, §§ 43, +and above all those of Arcadia and Messene.Demosthenes, de Corona, §§ 43, 48, 295. For it was by their bringing Philip into the Peloponnese, and humbling the Lacedaemonians, that these men in the first place enabled all @@ -32281,7 +32281,7 @@ to conceal it at the moment of his crime, yet all have been detected in the course of time. Nor when known has any such ever had a happy life; but, as a rule, they meet with the punishment they deserve from the very persons in whose -favour they act. Demosth. de Corona, § 47. For, indeed, though generals and princes +favour they act. Demosth. de Corona, § 47. For, indeed, though generals and princes constantly employ traitors for their own purposes; yet when they have got all they can out of them, they treat them thenceforth as traitors, as Demosthenes says; very naturally considering that @@ -32328,8 +32328,8 @@ he seems to have visited Sicyon. . . .

Attalus and the Boeotians

The tyrant Nabis, leaving Timocrates of Pellene at The cruelty of Apega, wife of Nabis. -Argos,—because he trusted him more than any -one else and employed him in his most important undertakings,—returned to Sparta: and +Argos,—because he trusted him more than any +one else and employed him in his most important undertakings,—returned to Sparta: and thence, after some few days, despatched his wife with instructions to go to Argos and raise money. On her arrival she far surpassed Nabis himself in cruelty. For she summoned women to her presence either privately or in families, and inflicted @@ -32618,14 +32618,14 @@ having already fallen and the rest slowly retiring, but that hopes of saving himself still remained on the right, Flamininus hastily transferred himself to the latter wing; and when he perceived that -the enemy's force was not well together—part being in contact +the enemy's force was not well together—part being in contact with the actual fighters, part just in the act of mounting the ridge, and part halting on it and not yet beginning to descend,I have given the meaning which I conceive this sentence to have; but the editors generally suspect the loss of a word like a)/prakta or a)pragou=nta after ta\ me\n sunexh= toi=s diagwnizome/nois. This is unnecessary if we regard sunexh= as predicative, and I think this way of taking it gives sufficient sense. Polybius is thinking of the Macedonian army as being so dislocated by the nature of the ground, that, while some parts were in contact with the enemy, -the rest had not arrived on the scene of the fighting.— +the rest had not arrived on the scene of the fighting.— keeping the elephants in front he led the maniples of his right against the enemy. The Macedonians having no one to give @@ -32719,7 +32719,7 @@ former times the Macedonian tactics proved themselves by experience capable of conquering those of Asia and Greece; while the Roman tactics sufficed to conquer the nations of Africa and all those of Western Europe; and since in our -own day there have been numerous opportunities of comparing the men as well as their tactics,—it will be, I think, a +own day there have been numerous opportunities of comparing the men as well as their tactics,—it will be, I think, a useful and worthy task to investigate their differences, and discover why it is that the Romans conquer and carry off the palm from their enemies in the operations of war: that we may not put it all down to Fortune, and congratulate them on their @@ -32766,7 +32766,7 @@ rank will have their sarissae projecting farther beyond the front rank than the men of the fifth, yet even these last will have two cubits of their sarissae beyond the front rank; if only the phalanx is properly formed and the men close up properly both -flank and rear, like the description in HomerIliad, 13, 131.— +flank and rear, like the description in HomerIliad, 13, 131.— "So buckler pressed on buckler; helm on helm; And man on man: and waving horse-hair plumes In polished head-piece mingled, as they swayed @@ -32797,17 +32797,17 @@ the peculiarities and distinctive features of the Roman arms and tactics. Now, a Roman soldier in full armour also requires a space of three square feet. But as their method of fighting admits of -individual motion for each man—because he defends his body +individual motion for each man—because he defends his body with a shield, which he moves about to any point from which a blow is coming, and because he uses his sword both for -cutting and stabbing,—it is evident that each man must have +cutting and stabbing,—it is evident that each man must have a clear space, and an interval of at least three feet both on flank and rear, if he is to do his duty with any effect. The result of this will be that each Roman soldier will face two of the front rank of a phalanx, so that he has to encounter and fight against ten spears, which one man cannot find time even to cut away, when once the two lines are engaged, nor force -his way through easily—seeing that the Roman front ranks are +his way through easily—seeing that the Roman front ranks are not supported by the rear ranks, either by way of adding weight to their charge, or vigour to the use of their swords. Therefore it may readily be understood that, as I said before, it is impossible to confront a charge of the phalanx, so long as it @@ -32845,7 +32845,7 @@ the country: while if it quits its proper ground, from the wish to strike a blow, it will be an easy prey to the enemy. Nay, if a general does descend into the plain, and yet does not risk his whole army upon one charge of the phalanx or upon -one chance, but manœuvres for a time to avoid coming to +one chance, but manœuvres for a time to avoid coming to close quarters in the engagement, it is easy to learn what will be the result from what the Romans are now actually doing.

@@ -32955,13 +32955,13 @@ Flamininus being unable to resist the temptation.

 The disinterestedness of the Romans generally as to money. no hesitation in asserting of the Romans as a nation that they would not be likely to do such -a thing,—I mean in the period before they engaged in wars beyond the sea, and while they retained their +a thing,—I mean in the period before they engaged in wars beyond the sea, and while they retained their own habits and principles uncontaminated.See 6, 56; 32, 11. But in the present times I should not venture to say this of them all; still, as individuals, I should be bold to say of the majority of the men of Rome that they are capable of preserving their honesty in this particular: and as evidence that I am making no impossible assertion, I would quote two names which will command -general assent,—I mean first, Lucius Aemilius +general assent,—I mean first, Lucius Aemilius who conquered Perseus, and won the kingdom of Macedonia.Lucius Aemilius Paulus. In that kingdom, besides all the other splendour and wealth, there was found in the treasury @@ -33054,7 +33054,7 @@ course, to the approval of the Senate: and that the Aetolians were free to take what measures they chose for themselves." Upon Phaeneas attempting to reply that "Everything done hitherto went for nothing; for if Philip managed to extricate himself from his present difficulties, he would at once -find some other occasion for hostilities,"—Flamininus sprang +find some other occasion for hostilities,"—Flamininus sprang at once from his seat, and said, with some heat, "Cease this trifling, Phaeneas! For I will so settle the terms of the peace @@ -33091,7 +33091,7 @@ to be still in force, they had no right to recover or take over such cities as had voluntarily put themselves under the protection of Rome, as the whole of the cities in Thessaly had done, but only such as were taken by force.Livy (33, 13) has mistaken the meaning of Polybius in this passage, representing the quarrel of the Aetolians and Flamininus as being for the -possession of Thebes,—the only town, in fact, on which there was no dispute. +possession of Thebes,—the only town, in fact, on which there was no dispute.

Peace Terms Agreed On @@ -33160,7 +33160,7 @@ and contributes largely to the destruction of body and soul. For few indeed are the souls that are able by the aid of wealth to repel dangers of this description. This king's greatness of mind therefore deserves our admiration, because he never attempted to use his wealth for anything else but the -acquisition of royal power,—an object than which none greater +acquisition of royal power,—an object than which none greater can be mentioned. Moreover he made the first step in this design, not only by doing services to his friends and gaining their affection, but also by achievements in war. For it was @@ -33198,7 +33198,7 @@ Senate for an alliance with Rome; but as some opposition was raised to this at the time, on account of a counter-claim of the Eleians upon Triphylia, and of the Messenians, who were at the time actually in alliance with Rome, upon Asine and -Pylus, and of the Aetolians upon Heraea,—the decision was +Pylus, and of the Aetolians upon Heraea,—the decision was referred to the commission of ten. Such were the proceedings in the Senate. . . .

 @@ -33219,7 +33219,7 @@ to be well disposed to the royal house of Macedonia. Zeuxippus and Peisistratus, heads of the Romanising party, determine to get rid of Brachylles, B. C. 196.They also sent an embassy to Philip to thank him for the return of the young men, thus derogating from the favour done them -by Flamininus,—a measure highly disquieting +by Flamininus,—a measure highly disquieting to Zeuxippus and Peisistratus, and all who were regarded as partisans of Rome; because they foresaw what would happen to themselves and @@ -33258,7 +33258,7 @@ whether in Asia or Europe, to be free and enjoy their own laws; but that Philip should hand over to the Romans those at present under his authority, and all towns in which he had -a garrison, before the Isthmian games; and restore Eurōmus, +a garrison, before the Isthmian games; and restore Eurōmus, Pedasa, Bargylia, Iasus, Abydos, Thasus, Marinus, and Perinthus to freedom, and remove his garrisons from them. That Flamininus should write to Prusias commanding him to liberate Cius, in accordance with the decree of the Senate. @@ -33544,8 +33544,8 @@ was consulting with them, Aristomenes sent some of the royal bodyguards and summoned him to the king's council. Whereupon Scopas was so infatuated that he was neither bold enough to carry out his designs, nor able to make up his mind -to obey the king's summons,—which is in itself the most -extreme step,—until Aristomenes, understanding the blunder +to obey the king's summons,—which is in itself the most +extreme step,—until Aristomenes, understanding the blunder he had made, caused soldiers and elephants to surround his house, and sent Ptolemy son of Eumenes in with some young men, with orders to bring him quietly if he would come, but, if @@ -33680,8 +33680,8 @@ accordingly will give the Roman envoys no satisfactory answer.

B. C. 192: L. Quintius Flamininus, Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, Coss.

The Romans therefore prepare for war. A fleet under the praetor -Atilius is sent against Nabis: commissioners are sent into Greece—T. -Quintius Flamininius, C. Octavius, Cn. Servilius, P. Villius—early in +Atilius is sent against Nabis: commissioners are sent into Greece—T. +Quintius Flamininius, C. Octavius, Cn. Servilius, P. Villius—early in the year: M. Baebius is ordered to hold his army in readiness at Brundisium. Then news is brought to Rome by Attalus of Pergamum (brother of king Eumenes) that Antiochus has crossed the Hellespont, and the Aetolians on the point of joining him. Therefore Baebius is @@ -33705,8 +33705,8 @@ to go to Greece, where he takes over the army of Baebius, and after taking many towns in Thessaly meets and defeats Antiochus at Thermopylae; where the Aetolian league did after all little service to the king, who retires to Ephesus.

-

See Livy, 34, 43—36, 21. See also Plutarch, Philopoemen, and -Flamininus; Appian, Syriacae, 6—21. +

See Livy, 34, 43—36, 21. See also Plutarch, Philopoemen, and +Flamininus; Appian, Syriacae, 6—21.

@@ -33887,8 +33887,8 @@ went out to meet him, and after holding a friendly conversation with him conduct Antiochus wintering in Chalcis, B. C. 192-191. completed his marriage, when he was fifty years old, and had already undertaken his two most -important labours, the liberation of Greece—as -he called it—and the war with Rome. However, having fallen in love with a young lady of Chalcis, he was +important labours, the liberation of Greece—as +he called it—and the war with Rome. However, having fallen in love with a young lady of Chalcis, he was bent on marrying her, though the war was still going on; for he was much addicted to wine and delighted in excesses. The lady was a daughter of Cleoptolemus, a man of rank, and was possessed of extraordinary beauty. He remained in Chalcis all the @@ -33954,9 +33954,9 @@ Aetolians), "and also King Amynander, with such of the Athamanians as accompanied him in his desertion to your side." Here Phaeneas interrupted him by saying: "But it is neither just nor consonant with Greek customs, O Consul, to do what -you order." To which Acilius replied,—not so much because +you order." To which Acilius replied,—not so much because he was angry, as because he wished to show him the dangerous -position in which he stood, and to thoroughly frighten him,— +position in which he stood, and to thoroughly frighten him,— "Do you still presume to talk to me about Greek customs, and about honour and duty, after having committed yourselves to my good faith? Why, I might if I chose put you all in chains and commit you to prison!" With these @@ -34105,9 +34105,9 @@ fell ill and died. . . .

Directly the news of the victory at sea reached Rome, Supplicatio for the victory off Phocaea. the Senate first decreed a public supplicatio for -nine days,—which means a public and universal +nine days,—which means a public and universal holiday, accompanied by the sacrifice of thank -offerings to the gods for the happy success,—and next gave +offerings to the gods for the happy success,—and next gave audience to the envoys from Aetolia and Manius Acilius. Answer to the Aetolian Envoys sent, on the intercession of Flamininus, when When both parties had pleaded their cause at some length, the Senate decreed to offer the @@ -34159,10 +34159,10 @@ they had better put themselves in his hands. At first, all who were present felt very sanguine that the pacification was about to be accomplished. But when, in answer to the Aetolian demand to know on what terms they were to make the peace, -Lucius Scipio explained that they had two alternatives—to +Lucius Scipio explained that they had two alternatives—to submit their entire case unconditionally to the arbitrament of Rome, or to pay a thousand talents down and to make an -offensive and defensive alliance with her—the Aetolians +offensive and defensive alliance with her—the Aetolians present were thrown into the state of the most painful perplexity at the inconsistency of this announcement with the previous talk: but finally they said that they would consult the Aetolians on the terms imposed.

@@ -34447,9 +34447,9 @@ the present war. He added many arguments besides, urging the Romans "Not to tempt fortune too far, as they were but men; nor to extend their empire indefinitely, but rather to keep -it within limits, if possible those of Europe,—for even then +it within limits, if possible those of Europe,—for even then they would have an enormous and unprecedented dominion, -such as no nation before them had attained;—but if they were +such as no nation before them had attained;—but if they were determined at all hazards to grasp parts of Asia also, let them say definitely what parts those were, for the king would go to the utmost stretch of his power to meet their wishes." After @@ -34722,7 +34722,7 @@ public and private relations were of the most friendly description. It was the o honourable course, and the one which above all others would redound to the credit of Rome, was, that the Greeks in Asia should be set free, and should recover that possession dearest -to all mankind—autonomy: but this was the last thing to suit +to all mankind—autonomy: but this was the last thing to suit Eumenes and his brothers. It was the nature of monarchy to hate equality, and to endeavour to have everybody, or at least as many as possible, subject and obedient. But though @@ -35028,10 +35028,10 @@ became ignited lower down. The plan was successfully executed; the volume of smo the peculiar nature of feathers, exceedingly pungent, and was all carried into the faces of the enemy. The Romans, therefore, found themselves in a very distressing and embarrassing position, as they could neither stop nor endure the smoke in -the mines.Smoking out an enemy in a mine was one of the regular manœuvres. +the mines.Smoking out an enemy in a mine was one of the regular manœuvres. See Aen. Tact. 37. It was perhaps suggested by the illegal means taken by workmen in the silver mines to annoy a rival; for we find an Athenian law -directed against it. See Demosth. in Pantaen. § 36. The siege being thus still further protracted the +directed against it. See Demosth. in Pantaen. § 36. The siege being thus still further protracted the Aetolian commander determined to send an envoy to the Consul. . . .

Athens, Rhodes, and Athamania Intercede @@ -35098,8 +35098,8 @@ the Athenian and Rhodian envoys remained where they were, waiting for the decision of the Aetolians. On being informed by Damoteles and his colleagues on their return of the nature of the terms that had been granted them, -the Aetolians consented to the general principle—for they -were in fact much better than they had expected,—but in regard +the Aetolians consented to the general principle—for they +were in fact much better than they had expected,—but in regard to the towns formerly included in their league they hesitated for some time; finally, however, they acquiesced. Marcus Fulvius accordingly took over Ambracia, and allowed the Aetolian @@ -35161,7 +35161,7 @@ measures. But when Thoas and Dicaearchus brought a storm from Asia, and Mnestas and Damocritus from Europe, and, disturbing the calm of the Aetolian masses, compelled -them to become reckless of what they said or did,—then +them to become reckless of what they said or did,—then indeed their good disposition gave way to bad, and while intending to do mischief to you they really inflicted damage upon themselves. It is against these mischief-makers therefore that you should be implacable; while you should take pity on the masses and make peace with them: with the assurance that, if once more left to themselves, with the additional @@ -35226,30 +35226,30 @@ that another war in Asia, that, namely, against the Gauls, was brought to a conclusion, the account of which I am now about to give. . . .

 -Moag&ebreve;Tes of Cibyra -

Moag&ebreve;tes was Tyrant of Cibyra, a cruel and crafty man, +MoagĕTes of Cibyra +

Moagĕtes was Tyrant of Cibyra, a cruel and crafty man, whose career deserves somewhat more than a passing reference. . . .

When Cnaeus Manlius was approaching Cibyra and had -Coss. Cn. Manlius Vulso, M. Fulvius Nobilior, B. C. 189; Moag&ebreve;tes reduced to submission. +Coss. Cn. Manlius Vulso, M. Fulvius Nobilior, B. C. 189; Moagĕtes reduced to submission. sent Helvius to find out the intentions of -Moag&ebreve;tes, the latter begged him by ambassadors not to damage the country, because he was +Moagĕtes, the latter begged him by ambassadors not to damage the country, because he was a friend of Rome, and ready to do anything that was required of him; and, at the same time, he offered Helvius a compliment of fifteen talents. In answer to this, Helvius said that he would refrain from damaging the territory; but that as to the general question -Moag&ebreve;tes must communicate with the Consul, for he was -close behind with his army. Moag&ebreve;tes accordingly sent ambassadors to Cnaeus, his own brother being one of them. +Moagĕtes must communicate with the Consul, for he was +close behind with his army. Moagĕtes accordingly sent ambassadors to Cnaeus, his own brother being one of them. When the Consul met them in the road, he addressed them in threatening and reproachful terms, asserting that "Not only -had Moag&ebreve;tes shown himself the most determined enemy of +had Moagĕtes shown himself the most determined enemy of Rome, of all the princes in Asia, but had done his very best to overthrow their empire, and deserved punishment rather than friendship."The Greek text is corrupt. The sense is given from Livy, 38, 14. Terrified by this display of anger, the ambassadors abstained from delivering the rest of the message with which they were charged, and merely begged him to have -an interview with Moag&ebreve;tes: and when Cnaeus consented they +an interview with Moagĕtes: and when Cnaeus consented they returned to Cibyra. Next morning the Tyrant came out of the town accompanied by his friends, displaying his humility by a mean dress and absence of all pomp; and, in conducting @@ -35259,12 +35259,12 @@ entreated Cnaeus to accept the fifteen talents. Astonished at his assurance, Cnaeus made no answer, except that, "If he did not pay five hundred talents, and be thankful that he was allowed to do so, he would not loot the country, but he would -storm and sack the city." In abject terror Moag&ebreve;tes begged +storm and sack the city." In abject terror Moagĕtes begged him not to do anything of the sort; and kept adding to his offer little by little, until at last he persuaded Cnaeus to take one hundred talents, and one thousand medimni of corn, and admit him to friendship.The dynasty lasted until the time of the Mithridatic wars. The last -Moag&ebreve;tes being deposed by Muraena, when Cibyra was joined to Lycia. +Moagĕtes being deposed by Muraena, when Cibyra was joined to Lycia. Strabo, 13.4.71. . . .

 Pacification of Pamphylia @@ -35509,7 +35509,7 @@ and immediately held a consultation with them on the measures to be taken. The first resolution come to was to confirm the sworn agreement and treaty with Antiochus, about which I need say no more, beyond giving the actual text of -the treaty, which was as follows:—

 +the treaty, which was as follows:—

Treaty With Antiochus

"There shall be perpetual peace between Antiochus @@ -35871,9 +35871,9 @@ a cause, or again between a pretext and a beginning of a war. And since events at the present time recall this distinction I feel compelled to renew my discussion of this subject.See bk. 3, ch. 6. For instance, of the events just referred to, the first -three are pretexts; the last two—the plot against +three are pretexts; the last two—the plot against Eumenes, the murder of the ambassadors, and other similar -things that happened during the same period—are clear beginnings of the war between Rome and Perseus, and of the final +things that happened during the same period—are clear beginnings of the war between Rome and Perseus, and of the final overthrow of the Macedonian kingdom; but not one of them is a cause of these things. I will illustrate by examples. Just as we say that Philip son of Amyntas contemplated and @@ -36085,7 +36085,7 @@ both of the former visit of Marcus Fulvius and the present one of Caecilius on Aristaenus and Diophanes, on the ground that they had invited them on account of their political opposition to Philopoemen; and accordingly the general public felt a certain suspicion of these two men. Such was the state of -the—Peloponnese. . . .

 +the—Peloponnese. . . .

Philopoemen on Archon

Philopoemen had a sharp difference in debate with @@ -36127,14 +36127,14 @@ had sent Apollonidas of Sicyon, and others, to justify themselves to Caecilius for his having received no answer, and generally to inform the Senate on the question of Sparta; and at the same time Areus -and Alcibiades had come from Sparta as ambassadors,—two +and Alcibiades had come from Sparta as ambassadors,—two of the old exiles recently restored by Philopoemen and the Achaeans. And this was a circumstance that particularly roused the anger of the Achaeans; because they thought it the height of ingratitude on the part of the exiles, after receiving so important and recent a service at their hands, to be now sending a hostile embassy, and accusing to the sovereign people those -who had been the authors of their unlooked—for preservation +who had been the authors of their unlooked—for preservation and restoration to their country.

 Another Commission For Greece @@ -36187,7 +36187,7 @@ and he vented his wrath upon the unhappy people of Maroneia. He sent for Onomastus, his governor in Thrace, and communicated with him on the subject. And Onomastus on his return sent Cassander to Maroneia, who, from long -residence there, was familiar with the inhabitants,—for Philip's +residence there, was familiar with the inhabitants,—for Philip's practice had long been to place members of his court in these cities, and accustom the people to their residence among them. Some few days after his arrival, the Thracians having @@ -36547,9 +36547,9 @@ they therefore awaited his arrival without taking any step of any sort. Having landed at Naupactus, Flamininus addressed a despatch to the Strategus and DemiurgiThe ten federal magistrates of the league, who formed a council to act with the general. Their number probably arose from the number of the -Achaean cantons or towns, after two of the twelve—Helice and Olenus—were +Achaean cantons or towns, after two of the twelve—Helice and Olenus—were destroyed. Polybius nowhere else gives them this title in any part of the history -we possess, but its use by Livy, 32, 22, seems to point to his having used it—in +we possess, but its use by Livy, 32, 22, seems to point to his having used it—in other places. It also occurs in a letter of Philip II. (perhaps genuine) quoted in Demosth. de Cor. 157. Polybius calls them also oi( a)/rxontes, a)rxai/, proestw=tes suna/rxontes, sunarxi/ai. See @@ -36578,7 +36578,7 @@ but their colleagues arrived safely at Rome. . . .

 him the formal reply, in which the Romans referred all the favour and confidence which they avowed to their regard for Demetrius, saying that all they had done or would do was for his -sake,—the Macedonians gave Demetrius a +sake,—the Macedonians gave Demetrius a cordial reception, believing that they were relieved from all fear and danger: for they had looked upon war with Rome as all but at their doors, owing to the provocations given by Philip. But Philip and Perseus were far from pleased, and were much offended at the idea of the Romans @@ -36702,7 +36702,7 @@ Macedonians as had been put to death by him, and place them in ward; in which he referred especially to Admetus, Pyrrhicus, and Samus, and those who had perished with them: but he also included all others whosoever that had been put to death by order of the king, quoting -this verse, we are told:—Stasinus fr. +this verse, we are told:—Stasinus fr. "Oh fool! to slay the sire and leave the sons." Most of these men being persons of distinguished families, their fate made a great noise and excited universal pity. But Fortune @@ -36728,7 +36728,7 @@ army with horses fully equipped. . . .

Philip Addresses his Sons

"One should not merely read tragedies, tales, and -Part of a speech of Philip to his two sons after the quarrel at the manœuvres. See Livy, 40, 8. +Part of a speech of Philip to his two sons after the quarrel at the manœuvres. See Livy, 40, 8. histories, but should understand and ponder over them. In all of them one may learn that whenever brothers fall out and allow their quarrel to go any great length, they invariably end not only @@ -36772,7 +36772,7 @@ assistance. But it was, I suppose, a case of the common proverb, "a man may have a stroke of luck, but no man can be lucky always." We must, therefore, call our predecessors fortunate, without pretending that they -were so invariably—for what need is there to flatter Fortune +were so invariably—for what need is there to flatter Fortune by a meaningless and false compliment? It is those who have enjoyed Fortune's smiles in their life for the longest time, and who, when she changes her mind, meet with only @@ -36868,9 +36868,9 @@ no longer able to face the people under this storm of popular odium, yielded to circumstances and retired to their own houses. Thereupon the people, acting under the advice of the older men, and especially under that of Epaenetus and Apollodorus, -the ambassadors from Boeotia,—who, having arrived some +the ambassadors from Boeotia,—who, having arrived some time before to negotiate a peace, happened fortunately to be at -that time at Messene,—appointed and despatched envoys, +that time at Messene,—appointed and despatched envoys, begging forgiveness for their transgressions. The Achaean Strategus, having summoned his colleaguesThat is the ten Demiurgi. to council, and given the envoys a hearing, answered that "There was but @@ -36894,11 +36894,11 @@ and having summoned a meeting of the people, addressed them in terms befitting the occasion, promising that "they would never have reason to repent having committed themselves to the honour of the Achaeans." Summer B. C. 182. The general question of -what was to be done he thus referred to the league,—for it +what was to be done he thus referred to the league,—for it happened conveniently that the Achaeans were just then reassembling at Megalopolis for the second Congress,The second congress of the year seems to mean not that held for election of the Strategus for the next year, which met about 12th May, but the second -regular meeting in August.—but of +regular meeting in August.—but of those who were guilty of the disturbances, he ordered all such as were actually implicated in the summary execution of Philopoemen to put an end to their @@ -36929,7 +36929,7 @@ at Sicyon, and on its assembling, proposed a resolution for the reception of Sparta into the league, alleging that "The Romans had declined the arbitration which had -previously been offered to them in regard to this city,—for +previously been offered to them in regard to this city,—for they had answered that they had now no concern with any of the affairs of Sparta. Those, however, at present in power at Sparta were desirous of being admitted to the privileges @@ -37235,7 +37235,7 @@ political opponents; and, not contented with that, he undertook to rebuke the Se Callicrates, instead of obeying his instructions, denounces his opponents, and persuades the Senate that their interference is necessary. and orders instead of obeying them. For in all the democratic states of the day there were -two parties,—one recommending obedience to +two parties,—one recommending obedience to the Roman rescripts, and holding neither law nor tablet nor anything else to be superior to the will of Rome; the other always quoting oaths and @@ -37244,7 +37244,7 @@ about breaking them. Now the latter policy was by far the most popular in Achaia, and the most influential with the multitude; consequently the Romanisers were discredited and -denounced among the populace—their opponents glorified. +denounced among the populace—their opponents glorified. If then the Senate would give some sign of their interest in the matter, the leaders, in the first place, would quickly change to the Romanising party, and, in the next place, would be @@ -37310,7 +37310,7 @@ but especially to the Achaeans. This nation had still at that time the privilege of dealing on something like equal terms with Rome, because it had kept faith with her from the time that it had elected to maintain the Roman cause, in the hour of her -greatest danger—I mean during the wars with Philip and +greatest danger—I mean during the wars with Philip and Antiochus. . . . The league, too, had made progress in material strength and in every direction from the period from which my history commences; but the audacious proceeding of Callicrates @@ -37363,7 +37363,7 @@ If we have the resolution to withstand them face to face, and can do so, well and good. But if Philopoemen himself does not venture to assert this,Something is lost from the text. . . . why should we lose what is possible in striving for the impossible? There -are but two marks that every policy must aim at—honour and +are but two marks that every policy must aim at—honour and expediency. Those to whom honour is a possible attainment should stick to that, if they have political wisdom; those to whom it is not must take refuge in expediency. To miss @@ -37488,7 +37488,7 @@ a custom common from the earliest times, at any rate as far as Delos and Delphi are concerned. Iton was in Thessaly, and the temple and oracle of Athena there was celebrated throughout Greece, and was the central place of worship for the Thessalians. The town stood in a rich plain on the river -Cuarius, and hence its name—sometimes written Siton—was connected by +Cuarius, and hence its name—sometimes written Siton—was connected by some with sito/foros, "corn-bearing" (Steph. Byz.) Homer calls it mhte/ra mh/lwn, "mother of sheep." Pyrrhus hung up in this temple the spoils of Antigonus and his Gallic soldiers about B. C. 273. [Pausan. 1.13.2], @@ -37595,7 +37595,7 @@ young men. . .

SELEUCUS PHILOPATOR, whom we last heard of as king of Syria, was -assassinated by one of his nobles—Heliodorus—in the twelfth year of his +assassinated by one of his nobles—Heliodorus—in the twelfth year of his reign. Antiochus his younger brother had been a hostage at Rome, and being, according to agreement, exchanged in B. C. 175 for Philopator's son Demetrius, he was returning to Syria. At Athens, on his journey home, he @@ -37658,7 +37658,7 @@ was loud laughter. . . .

The events of the years B.C. 174, 173, 172, which gradually led up to the war with Perseus, to be described in the twenty-seventh book, were briefly -these:—

+these:—

In B.C. 174 Perseus forced the Dolopes, who had appealed against him to Rome, to submit to his authority. After this successful expedition he marched through Central and Northern Greece, visiting Delphi, where he @@ -38016,7 +38016,7 @@ were requested to withdraw, and they deliberated on the proposition thus made to return as stern an answer as possible. For this is a peculiarity of the Romans, which they have inherited from their ancestors, -and are continually displaying,—to show themselves most +and are continually displaying,—to show themselves most peremptory and imperious in the presence of defeat, and most moderate when successful: a very noble peculiarity, as every one will acknowledge; but whether it be feasible under certain @@ -38212,9 +38212,9 @@ entertaining any designs hostile to Rome. Aeto Hippolochus, Nicander, and Lochagus arrested without cause, and conveyed to Rome after the cavalry battle, and that the accusations -made against them by Lyciscus were believed,—Lyciscus +made against them by Lyciscus were believed,—Lyciscus being a leader of the same party in Aetolia as Charops was -in Epirus,—they at length began to be anxious about what +in Epirus,—they at length began to be anxious about what would happen, and to consider their position. They resolved therefore to try every possible means to prevent themselves from being similarly arrested without trial and carried to @@ -38262,7 +38262,7 @@ Phocis), knowing that his brother Eumenes was annoyed in the highest possible degree at the splendid honours which had been awarded to him having been annulled by a public decree of the -Peloponnesians, though he concealed his annoyance from every one,—he took upon himself to +Peloponnesians, though he concealed his annoyance from every one,—he took upon himself to send messages to certain of the Achaeans, urging that not only the statues of honour, but the complimentary inscriptions @@ -38459,7 +38459,7 @@ compliments to the Acarnanians. . . .

Meeting of Achaean statesmen to consider their policy, B. C. 169 required much consideration on their part. They therefore called to council such men as -were of one mind in other political questions,— +were of one mind in other political questions,— Arcesilaus and Ariston of Megalopolis, Stratius of Tritaea, Xenon of Patrae and Apollonides of Sicyon. Lycortas is for complete neutrality. But Lycortas stood firm to his original @@ -38512,8 +38512,8 @@ animosity against the king thought this a good opportunity for revenging themselves upon him; while others again, from spite against those who supported him, were determined that Attalus should not obtain his request. Archon, however, the -Strategus, rose to support the envoys,—for it was a matter -that called for an expression of opinion from the Strategus,— +Strategus, rose to support the envoys,—for it was a matter +that called for an expression of opinion from the Strategus,— but after a few words he stood down, afraid of being thought to be giving his advice from interested motives and the hope of making money, because he had spent a large sum on his @@ -38563,7 +38563,7 @@ Romans, Dardani, Epirotes, and Illyrians up to the present time; and to urge him to make a friendship and alliance with him in Macedonia. These envoys journeyed beyond Mount Scardus, -through Illyria Deserta, as it is called,—a region +through Illyria Deserta, as it is called,—a region a short time back depopulated by the Macedonians, in order to make an invasion of Illyria and Macedonia difficult for the Dardani. Their journey through this region was accompanied @@ -38593,7 +38593,7 @@ started the king himself removed with his army to Hyscana.H Genthius being unpersuaded by the second mission, Perseus sends a third, but still without offering money. having accomplished anything more than the previous envoys, and without any fresh answer; -for Genthius remained of the same mind,— +for Genthius remained of the same mind,— willing to join with Perseus in his war, but professing to be in want of money. Perseus disregarded the hint, and sent another mission under Hippias to conclude the treaty, without taking any notice of the main point, while professing a wish to do whatever @@ -38606,7 +38606,7 @@ For I do not think it will be denied by any man of reflection that, had Perseus at that time been willing to make grants of money either to states as such, or individually to kings and -statesmen, I do not say on a great scale, but even to a moderate extent, they would all—Greeks and kings alike—have +statesmen, I do not say on a great scale, but even to a moderate extent, they would all—Greeks and kings alike—have yielded to the temptation. As it was, he happily did not take that course, which would have given him, if successful, an @@ -38652,13 +38652,13 @@ attacked with three picked maniples: and the first made a protection for their heads by locking their shields together over them so closely, that they presented the appearance of a sloping tiled roof. . . .

-

This manœuvre the Romans used also in mock fights. . . .

+

This manœuvre the Romans used also in mock fights. . . .

While C. Marcius Figulus, the praetor, was engaged in Chalcidice, Q. Marcius sent M. Popilius to besiege Meliboea in Magnesia. Perseus sent Euphranor to relieve it, and, if he succeeded, to enter Demetrias. This he did, and was not -attacked at the latter place by Popilius or Eumenes—scandal +attacked at the latter place by Popilius or Eumenes—scandal saying that the latter was in secret communication with Perseus. Livy, 44, 10-13, B. C. 169.

@@ -38883,7 +38883,7 @@ pretext of re-establishing Philometor. B.C. 171. See < Character of Antiochus IV. (Epiphanes). daring in design, and showed himself worthy of the royal name, except in regard to his -manœuvres at Pelusium. . . .

 +manœuvres at Pelusium. . . .

Envoys Sent to Antiochus

When Antiochus was actually in occupation of Egypt, @@ -38968,7 +38968,7 @@ from his enemies, should not make one effort to save his honour, while in possession too of such abundant resources, and master over such wide territory and such numerous subjects, but should at once without a blow -surrender a most splendid and wealthy kingdom,—is not this +surrender a most splendid and wealthy kingdom,—is not this the sign of a spirit utterly effeminate and corrupted? And if this had been Ptolemy's natural character, we must have laid the blame upon nature and not upon any external influence. @@ -39047,7 +39047,7 @@ alliance; to take from Genthius such hostages as he himself might select, and send them at once to Macedonia; and to allow Genthius to have such hostages from Perseus as he might name in the text of the treaty; further, he was to make arrangements -for the transport of the three hundred talents. Pantauchus immediately started and met Genthius at Mebeōn, in the country of +for the transport of the three hundred talents. Pantauchus immediately started and met Genthius at Mebeōn, in the country of the Labeates, and quickly bought the young monarch over to join in the projects of Perseus. The treaty having been sworn to and reduced to writing, Genthius at once sent the hostages @@ -39237,7 +39237,7 @@ probably his life also, by coming forward as an enemy of the Romans. For if, even as it was, when he accomplished nothing, but only imagined it, he fell into the gravest dangers, what would have happened to him if this design had been -brought to perfection? And again, as to Perseus—who could +brought to perfection? And again, as to Perseus—who could fail to be surprised at his thinking anything of higher importance, or more to his advantage, than to give the money and allow Eumenes to swallow the bait? For if, on the one hand, Eumenes had performed any part of his promises, and had @@ -39404,7 +39404,7 @@ common saying that "war has many a groundless scare."The Ro Sulpicius Gallus, famous for his knowledge of Greek literature and astronomy. He is represented by Cicero as explaining the celestial globe (sphaera) which Marcellus brought from Syracuse. He was consul in B. C. 166. Livy, 44, 37; -Cicero, Brut. § 78; de Repub. 1, § 21. . . .

+Cicero, Brut. § 78; de Repub. 1, § 21. . . .

Perseus finding himself thus on the point of being outflanked retired on Pydna, near which town Aemilius Paulus, after considerable delay, about midsummer inflicted a crushing defeat @@ -39434,7 +39434,7 @@ danger was approaching, and it became necessary to fight a decisive battle, his resolution gave way. . . .

As soon as the battle began, the Macedonian king played the coward and rode off to the town, under the pretext of -sacrificing to Hercules,—who certainly does not accept craven +sacrificing to Hercules,—who certainly does not accept craven gifts from cravens, nor fulfil unworthy prayers. . . .

Ambitious Youth @@ -39451,14 +39451,14 @@ save himself by flight, the Senate determined to admit the ambassadors, who had come from Rhodes to negotiate a peace, to an audience: Fortune thus appearing designedly to parade -the folly of the Rhodians on the stage,—if we may say "of the +the folly of the Rhodians on the stage,—if we may say "of the Rhodians," and not rather "of the individuals who were then in the ascendant at Rhodes." When Agesipolis and his colleagues entered the Senate, they said that "They had come -to arrange an end to the war; for the people of Rhodes,—seeing that the war was become protracted to a considerable length +to arrange an end to the war; for the people of Rhodes,—seeing that the war was become protracted to a considerable length of time, and seeing that it was disadvantageous to all the Greeks, as well as to the Romans themselves, on account of its enormous -expenses,—had come to that conclusion. But as the war was +expenses,—had come to that conclusion. But as the war was already ended, and the wish of the Rhodians was thus fulfilled, they had only to congratulate the Romans." Such was the @@ -39485,7 +39485,7 @@ answer to the Rhodians. . . .

 Perseus, being brought a prisoner before Aemilius Paulus and his council, refuses to reply to his questions. Paulus addresses the king in Greek and then his council in Latin. Livy, 45, 8. the members of his council, "With such a sight -before their eyes,"—pointing to Perseus,—"not +before their eyes,"—pointing to Perseus,—"not to be too boastful in the hour of success, nor to take any extreme or inhuman measures against any one, nor in fact ever to feel confidence in @@ -39617,21 +39617,21 @@ help abroad in public assembly.e)n a) going on with the proposition at the time, seems to have been got over before the meeting at Sicyon; unless, indeed, the latter was considered to be of a different nature in regard to the age of those attending. But we have no information -as to this restriction of thirty years of age,—whether it was universal, +as to this restriction of thirty years of age,—whether it was universal, or confined to particular occasions. This passage would seem to point to the latter alternative. But a short time afterwards a meeting was summoned at Sicyon, which was attended not only by the members of the council, but by all citizens over thirty years of age; and after a lengthened debate, Polybius especially dwelling on -the fact that the Romans did not require assistance,—in which he +the fact that the Romans did not require assistance,—in which he was believed not to be speaking without good reason, as he had spent the previous summer in Macedonia at the headquarters -of Marcius Philippus,—and also alleging that, even supposing +of Marcius Philippus,—and also alleging that, even supposing the Romans did turn out to require their active support, the Achaeans would not be rendered incapable of furnishing it by the two hundred horse and one thousand foot which were to -be despatched to Alexandria,—for they could, without any inconvenience, put thirty or forty thousand men into the field,— +be despatched to Alexandria,—for they could, without any inconvenience, put thirty or forty thousand men into the field,— the majority of the meeting were convinced, and were inclined to the idea of sending the aid. Accordingly, on the second of the two days on which, according to the laws, those who @@ -39643,8 +39643,8 @@ more, on these two motions being put, there was an animated contest; in which, however, Lycortas and Polybius got a considerable majority on their side. For there was a very wide distinction between the claims of the two kingdoms. There were very few instances to be found in past times of any act -of friendship on the part of Syria to the Greeks,—though the -liberality of the present king was well known in Greece,—but +of friendship on the part of Syria to the Greeks,—though the +liberality of the present king was well known in Greece,—but from Egypt the acts of kindness in past times to the Achaeans had been as numerous and important as any one could possibly expect. By dwelling on this point Lycortas made a great @@ -39683,7 +39683,7 @@ the war. . . .

Annoyed by the two Ptolemies thus joining each other, Antiochus renews the war, B.C. 168. began preparing for a renewal of the war against Ptolemy. So true are the words of -Simonides,—"'Tis hard to be good." For to +Simonides,—"'Tis hard to be good." For to have certain impulses towards virtue, and even to hold to it up to a certain point, is easy; but to be uniformly consistent, and to allow no @@ -39825,7 +39825,7 @@ But when, after receiving these marks of favour, he at once left Rome without fulfilling any of its expectations, the Senate, though foiled in its hopes, had nothing else which it could do; but before he had got out of Italy it declared -Aeneus and Maronea free cities,—thus rescinding its promise,—and sent Publius Licinius at +Aeneus and Maronea free cities,—thus rescinding its promise,—and sent Publius Licinius at the head of a mission to the Gauls. Embassy to Galatia. And what instructions these ambassadors had given to them it is not easy to say, but it may be guessed without difficulty from what subsequently happened. And this will be rendered clear from the @@ -39892,12 +39892,12 @@ against their country might be made unknown to them. But when this answer of the Senate was reported at Rhodes, the people, considering -themselves relieved of the worst fear—that, namely, of war— +themselves relieved of the worst fear—that, namely, of war— made light of the rest, though extremely unfavourable. So true it ever is that a dread of worse makes men forget lighter misfortunes. They immediately voted a complimentary crown worth ten thousand gold piecesLivy says viginti millia. By xrusou=s Polybius appears to mean "staters," worth about 20 drachmae (20 francs). This would give a rough -value of the present as £8000, or on Livy's computation twice that amount. to Rome, and appointed +value of the present as £8000, or on Livy's computation twice that amount. to Rome, and appointed Theaetetus at once envoy and navarch to convey it at the beginning of summer, accompanied by an embassy under Rhodophon, to attempt in every possible way to make an alliance with the Romans. They acted thus because they wished that, @@ -40090,7 +40090,7 @@ delivery upon Roman territory. Both peoples obeyed the despatch: and thus Polyaratus eventually came to Rome, after making a spectacle of his folly and cowardice to the best of his ability; and after having been, thanks to his own folly, -four times surrendered—by king Ptolemy, the people of +four times surrendered—by king Ptolemy, the people of Phaselis, the Cibyratae, and the Rhodians.

The reason of my having dwelt at some length on the story of Polyaratus and Deinon is not that I have any desire @@ -40163,7 +40163,7 @@ event. And as now all power tended towards Rome, in every city those who were regarded as of the Romanising party were in the ascendant, and were appointed to embassies -and other services. Accordingly they flocked into Macedonia—from Achaia, Callicrates, Aristodamus, Agesias, and +and other services. Accordingly they flocked into Macedonia—from Achaia, Callicrates, Aristodamus, Agesias, and Philippus; from Boeotia, Mnasippos; from Acarnania, Chremas; from Epirus, Charops and Nicias; from Aetolia, Lyciscus and Tisippus. These all having met, and eagerly vieing with @@ -40181,7 +40181,7 @@ Domitius. They had two reasons for doing so: the first was that they were uneasy lest the Achaeans should refuse to obey the written order, and lest Callicrates and his colleagues should be in absolute danger from being reputed to be the authors -of the accusations against all the Greeks,—which was about +of the accusations against all the Greeks,—which was about true; and in the second place, because in the intercepted despatches nothing distinct had been discovered against any Achaean. Accordingly, after a while, the proconsul sent the @@ -40263,9 +40263,9 @@ of his son, and pleading his defence for having acted on the side of Perseus. The Romans, considering that they had effected their purpose by the successful issue of the war against Perseus, and that they had no need to press their quarrel with Cotys any further, allowed -him to take his son back—who, having been sent as a hostage +him to take his son back—who, having been sent as a hostage to Macedonia, had been captured with the children of Perseus, -—wishing to display their clemency and magnanimity, and with +—wishing to display their clemency and magnanimity, and with the idea at the same time of binding Cotys to themselves by so great a favour. . . .

@@ -40332,9 +40332,9 @@ depressed, while the Gauls were doubly encouraged to press on the war. And it was in fact their desire to humiliate him in every possible way that induced the Senate to adopt this resolution.Winter of B.C. 167-166. These things were going on at the -beginning of the winter: but to all other ambassadors who arrived—and there was no city +beginning of the winter: but to all other ambassadors who arrived—and there was no city or prince or king who had not at that time sent an embassy -of congratulation—the Senate returned a gracious and friendly +of congratulation—the Senate returned a gracious and friendly answer, except to the Rhodians; and these they dismissed with displeasure, and with ambiguous declarations as to the future. As to the Athenians again the Senate hesitated. . . .

 @@ -40355,7 +40355,7 @@ as far as Delos and Lemnos were concerned, for they had of old laid claim to them; but there is good reason for reproaching them in respect to the territory of Haliartus. Haliartus was nearly the most ancient city in -Boeotia; had met with a heavy misfortune: instead of endeavouring in every possible way to restore it,—to contribute +Boeotia; had met with a heavy misfortune: instead of endeavouring in every possible way to restore it,—to contribute to its utter annihilation, and to deprive its dispossessed inhabitants of even their hopes for the future, was an act which would be thought worthy of no Greek nation, and least of all of the Athenians. They open their own territory to all @@ -40394,10 +40394,10 @@ and his party. . . .

An instance of the hatred entertained for Callicrates andUnpopularity of Callicrates, Adronidas, and their party. Adronidas, and the others who agreed with them, was this. The festival of the Antigoneia -was being held at Sicyon,—the baths being all +was being held at Sicyon,—the baths being all supplied with large public bathing tubs, and smaller ones placed by them used by bathers of the better -sort,—if Adronidas or Callicrates entered one of these, not a +sort,—if Adronidas or Callicrates entered one of these, not a single one of the bystanders would get into it any more, until the bathman had let every drop of water run out and filled it with fresh. They did this from the idea that they would be @@ -40575,7 +40575,7 @@ with the Romans. . . .

B. C. 164. Complaints against Eumenes at Rome from Prusias of Bithynia, and other part of Asia. were those with Astymedes from Rhodes, Eureus Anaxidamus and Satyrus from the Achaeans, -and those with Pytho from Prusias,—the Senate +and those with Pytho from Prusias,—the Senate gave audience to these last. The ambassadors from Prusias complained of king Eumenes, alleging that he had taken certain places belonging to their @@ -40668,7 +40668,7 @@ between Rome and Rhodes. . . .

Envoys from Achaia in the Senate

After an interval the envoys of the Achaeans were B. C. 165. Embassy from Achaia asking for the trial or release of -the Achaean détenus, who to the number of over 1000 +the Achaean détenus, who to the number of over 1000 had been summoned to Italy in B. C. 167. See 30, 13. Pausan. 7.10.11. admitted with instructions conformable to the last reply received, which was to the effect that @@ -40807,9 +40807,9 @@ with the additional task of making an inspection of Macedonia; for the Macedonia by popular assembly, were splitting up into hostile factions.The Senatus Consultum de Macedonibus (Livy, 45, 29) had declared all Macedonians free; each city to enjoy its own laws, create its own annual -magistrates, and pay a tribute to Rome—half the amount that it had paid to the +magistrates, and pay a tribute to Rome—half the amount that it had paid to the king. Macedonia was divided into four regions, at the respective capitals of -which—Amphipolis, Thessalonica, Pella, and Pelagonia—the district +which—Amphipolis, Thessalonica, Pella, and Pelagonia—the district assemblies (concilia) were to be held, the revenue of the district was to be collected, and the district magistrates elected; and there was to be no inter-marriage or mutual rights of owning property between the regions. Gnaeus and his colleagues were also to @@ -41038,9 +41038,9 @@ had the charge of Demetrius as a child, and was a man of considerable adroitness, who had besides made a careful inspection of the state of affairs in Syria. He now pointed out to Demetrius that "The confusion caused by the murder of -Octavius,—the people mistrusting Lysias, and Lysias mistrusting the people, while the Senate was convinced that the +Octavius,—the people mistrusting Lysias, and Lysias mistrusting the people, while the Senate was convinced that the lawless murder of their envoy really originated with the -king's friends,—presented a most excellent opportunity for +king's friends,—presented a most excellent opportunity for his appearing on the scene: for the people there would promptly transfer the crown to him, even though he were to arrive attended by but one slave; while the Senate would @@ -41107,7 +41107,7 @@ came, and to bid the cupbearer to give it to Demetrius to read at once. His orders were carried out, and Demetrius read the tablet, which contained the following apophthegmsThe first line is of unknown authorship. The second is from Euripides, Phoeniss. 633. The third apophthegm is again unknown. The last is from -Epicharmus, see 18, 40.:— +Epicharmus, see 18, 40.:— "The ready hand bears off the sluggard's prize." "Night favours all, but more the daring heart." "Be bold: front danger: strike! then lose or win, @@ -41190,11 +41190,11 @@ was to be sent to him. . . .

grown to such a height, and broke out in such extravagances, that there were many instances of men purchasing a jar of Pontic salt-fish for three -hundred drachmae.About £12. In reference to which Marcus Porcius +hundred drachmae.About £12. In reference to which Marcus Porcius Cato once said to the people in indignation, that no better proof could be shown of the degeneracy of the state than that good-looking slavesIn his Censorship (B. C. 184) Cato imposed a tax on slaves under twenty -sold for more than ten sestertia (about £70.) Livy, 39, 44. should fetch more than a farm, and a jar +sold for more than ten sestertia (about £70.) Livy, 39, 44. should fetch more than a farm, and a jar of salt-fish more than a carter. . . .

The Rhodians Lapse in Dignity @@ -41400,7 +41400,7 @@ pieces, and announcing the king's faithful attachment to Rome; and of this they Tiberius and his colleagues as witnesses. Tiberius and his colleagues confirmed their statements: whereupon the Senate accepted the present with warm thanks, and sent back -in return presents, which with them are the most honourable they can give—a sceptre and ivory chair. These +in return presents, which with them are the most honourable they can give—a sceptre and ivory chair. These ambassadors were dismissed at once by the Senate before the winter. Attalus again in Rome early in B. C. 160. Coss. L. Anicius Gallus, M. Cornelius Cathegus. But after them arrived Attalus when the new Consuls had already entered on their office; @@ -41512,16 +41512,16 @@ spoken in some detail. See Polybius has the fear of Roman critics before his eyes. No one then would voluntarily expose himself to @@ -41669,14 +41669,14 @@ prayed for blessings upon him. This act, indeed, would be thought honourable anywhere, but at Rome it was quite astonishing: for there no one ever thinks of giving any of his private property to any one if he can help it. This was the beginning of Scipio's reputation for nobility of character, -and it spread very widely,—for women are talkative and prone +and it spread very widely,—for women are talkative and prone to exaggeration whenever they feel warmly.

 Scipio's Liberality

The next instance was his conduct to the daughters Scipio's liberality to his cousins, sisters to his adoptive father. of the Great Scipio, sisters to his adoptive -father.

The following pedigree will show the various family connexions here alluded to:— +father.

The following pedigree will show the various family connexions here alluded to:—

Publius Cornelius Scipioob. in Spain B. C. 212 @@ -41713,7 +41713,7 @@ first paid within ten months according to custom.ornamenta of a bride, consisting of clothes, jewels, slaves, and other things, in accordance with her station. See Horace, Sat. 2, 3, 214. For the three instalments in which it was necessary to pay dowries, see -Cicero ad Att. ii. 23; 2 Phil. § 113. But +Cicero ad Att. ii. 23; 2 Phil. § 113. But Scipio instructed his banker at once to pay the twenty-five talents to each within the ten months. When, therefore, Tiberius Gracchus and Scipio Nasica, for they were the @@ -41778,9 +41778,9 @@ a haeres, nor take a legacy greater than that of the haeres, or of all the haeredes together. The object of the law was to prevent the transference of the property of one gens to another on a large scale. It was evaded (1) by trusteeships, Gaius, 2, 274; Plutarch, Cic. 41: -(2) by the assent of the haeres, Cic. de Off. 2, § 55. And it was relaxed +(2) by the assent of the haeres, Cic. de Off. 2, § 55. And it was relaxed by Augustus in favour of mothers of three children, Dio Cass. 56, 10. See also -Cicero de Sen. § 14; +Cicero de Sen. § 14; de legg. 2, 20; de Rep. 3, 10; Verr. 2, 1, 42; @@ -41840,7 +41840,7 @@ and endeavouring thereby to ingratiate themselves with the people, Scipio devoted to hunting; and, by continually displaying brilliant and memorable acts of prowess, won a greater reputation than others, whose only chance of gaining credit was -by inflicting some damage on one of their fellow-citizens,—for +by inflicting some damage on one of their fellow-citizens,—for that was the usual result of these law proceedings. Scipio, on the other hand, without inflicting annoyance on any one, gained a popular reputation for manly courage, rivalling @@ -41891,8 +41891,8 @@ Delians were to be binding. . . .

The people of Issa having often sent embassies to Piracies of the Dalmatians on the island of Issa, B. C. 158. Rome, complaining that the Dalmatians damaged -their territory and the cities subject to them,— -meaning thereby Epetium and Tragyrium,—and +their territory and the cities subject to them,— +meaning thereby Epetium and Tragyrium,—and the Daorsi also bringing similar complaints, the Senate sent a commission under Gaius Fannius to inspect the state of Illyria, with special reference to the Dalmatians. @@ -41914,7 +41914,7 @@ vice or virtue of one man. . . .

Though he was a man of the worst character, Lyciscus ended his life by an honourable death; and accordingly, most people with some reason reproach Fortune for sometimes -giving to the worst of men what is the prize of the good—an +giving to the worst of men what is the prize of the good—an easy death. . . .

Tyranny of Charops in Epirus @@ -42056,7 +42056,7 @@ the king visited them privately, presenting in his personal appearance a striking picture of the dangers with which he was surrounded.

Ambassadors also arrived from Demetrius, headed by -Miltiades, prepared to act in two capacities—to defend the +Miltiades, prepared to act in two capacities—to defend the conduct of Demetrius in regard to Ariarathes, and to accuse that king with the utmost bitterness. Orophernes also had sent Timotheus and Diogenes to represent him, conveying a @@ -42131,13 +42131,13 @@ continuance of Sparta in the Achaean league. The date of the original quarrel between Athens and Oropus is not fixed, but the mission of the philosophers was in B.C. 155. See Plutarch, Cato, 22; Pliny, N. H. 7, 112-113; Aulus -Gellius, 6, 14; Cic. ad Att. 12, 23; Tusc. 4, § 5. . . .

+Gellius, 6, 14; Cic. ad Att. 12, 23; Tusc. 4, § 5. . . .

For the most part when things go well men generally get on together; but in times of failure, in their annoyance at events, they become sore and irritable with their friends. And this is what happened to Orophernes, when his affairs began -to take a wrong turn in his relations with Theotimus,—both +to take a wrong turn in his relations with Theotimus,—both indulging in mutual recriminations. . . .

 The Senate Receives Ambassadors from Epirus @@ -42166,7 +42166,7 @@ against the Nicephorium, and destroyed all the temples and sacred enclosures, and plundered all the statues of men and the marble images of the gods. Finally he carried off the statue of Asclepius also, an admirably executed work of -Phyromachus, and transferred it to his own country,—the +Phyromachus, and transferred it to his own country,—the very image before which the day before he had poured libations and offered sacrifice; desiring, it would seem, that the god might in every way be propitious and @@ -42178,7 +42178,7 @@ propitiate heaven by their means, worshipping and uttering the most earnest prayers before holy tables and altars, as Prusias was wont to do, with bendings of the knee and effeminate prostrations, and at the same time to violate these sacred -objects and to flout heaven by their destruction,—can we ascribe +objects and to flout heaven by their destruction,—can we ascribe such conduct to anything but a mind disordered and a spirit lost to sober reason? I am sure this was the case with Prusias: for he led his army off to Elaea, without having performed a @@ -42249,7 +42249,7 @@ by a very narrow majority.It fails by the acti really prevented the release from being carried was Aulus Postumius, who was praetor, and as such presided in the Senate on that occasion. -Three alternatives were proposed—one for +Three alternatives were proposed—one for an absolute release, another for an absolute refusal, and a third for a postponement of the release for the present. The largest numbers @@ -42406,7 +42406,7 @@ and anchors. War ordered with the Oxybii and D attended to with all possible care; but when the Senate was informed of the transaction, it immediately ordered one of the consuls, Quintus Opimius, to lead an army against the Oxybii and Deciatae.Ligurian tribes -between Nice and Marseilles. Pliny, N. H. 3, § 47.

 +between Nice and Marseilles. Pliny, N. H. 3, § 47.

Ligurian War

Having collected his army at Placentia, Quintus @@ -42740,8 +42740,8 @@ poems with a view to having any serious meaning, or to seek for history in them.

It is better, again, to take the lineOdyss. 9, 82. "Thence for nine days the foul winds drave us on," -to mean that he made but a short distance—for foul winds do -not favour a straight course—than to imagine him to have got +to mean that he made but a short distance—for foul winds do +not favour a straight course—than to imagine him to have got into the open ocean as running before favouring winds. The distance from Malea to the Pillars is twenty-two thousand five hundred stades. If we suppose this to have been accomplished @@ -42781,7 +42781,7 @@ Eratosthenes doubted this part of his story, though he believed what he said about Britain, and Gades, and Iberia. I would much rather believe the Messenian (Euhemerus) than him. The latter is content with saying that he sailed to one country -which he calls Panchaia;Panchaia or Panchēa, the fabulous island or country in the Red Sea or +which he calls Panchaia;Panchaia or Panchēa, the fabulous island or country in the Red Sea or Arabian gulf, in which Euhemerus asserted that he had discovered the inscriptions which proved the reputed gods to have been famous generals or kings. Plutarch, Is. et Osir. 23, Diodor. fr. 6. 1. The Roman poets used the word as equivalent to "Arabian." See Verg. Georg. 2, 139. while the former asserts that he has @@ -42866,7 +42866,7 @@ the Tanais is at the former, and the Pillars are at the western equinox, and between them lies Europe, while Asia occupies the northern semicircle between the Tanais and equinoctial sunrise. . . .

-

Southern Europe is divided into five peninsulas—Iberia;Polybius's fivefold division of the European peninsulas, as opposed to the threefold division of Eratosthenes. +

Southern Europe is divided into five peninsulas—Iberia;Polybius's fivefold division of the European peninsulas, as opposed to the threefold division of Eratosthenes. Italy; a third ending in the Capes Malea and Sunium, in which are included Greece and Illyria, and a part of Thrace; a fourth called @@ -42894,13 +42894,13 @@ pig weighing a hundred minae costs five drachmae, and a sheep two. A talent of figs is sold for three obols, a calf for five drachmae, a draught-ox for ten. The flesh of wild animals is not thought worth fixing a price upon at all, but the -people give it to each other for nothing and as a present.To enable the reader to follow this list of prices, a short table is here sub-joined of Greek weights and money,—though he must be warned that values -varied at different times and places,—with approximate values in English +people give it to each other for nothing and as a present.To enable the reader to follow this list of prices, a short table is here sub-joined of Greek weights and money,—though he must be warned that values +varied at different times and places,—with approximate values in English weights and money. 1 obol =1/40 oz. =1/8 shilling. 6 obol =I drachma =3/20 oz. . . . 9d. -100 drachmac = 1 mina =151/2 oz. . . . £3:18:6. -60 minae =1 talent =57 lbs. . . £235. +100 drachmac = 1 mina =151/2 oz. . . . £3:18:6. +60 minae =1 talent =57 lbs. . . £235. A medimnus =11 gals. 4 pts. (dry measure). A metreta =8 gals. 5 pts. (liquid measure). . . .

@@ -42962,7 +42962,7 @@ to feed, for they are exceedingly fond of the root of the agrostis, and have thus made the whole plain full of subterranean fish, which people dig up and take. . . .

The Rhone has not five, but two mouths. . . .

-

The Liger discharges itself between the Pict&obreve;nes and Namnitae. Britain is quite unknown to the southern Gauls. There was in ancient times an emporiumThe Loire between Poitou and Nantes. Coiron. +

The Liger discharges itself between the Pictŏnes and Namnitae. Britain is quite unknown to the southern Gauls. There was in ancient times an emporiumThe Loire between Poitou and Nantes. Coiron. on this river called Corbilo, but none of its inhabitants, nor those of Massalia or Narbo, could give ScipioWhich member of the Cornelian gens this was is unknown. He appears to have been at Marseilles in the 4th century B. C. inquiring as to centres of @@ -42989,9 +42989,9 @@ thoroughly well. Accordingly, on the Italians joining the barbarians in working this mine, in two months the price of gold went down a third throughout Italy: and when the Taurisci found out that, they expelled their Italian fellowworkers and kept the monopoly themselves. . . .

-

If we compare the mountains in Greece—Taygetus,The four passes of the Alps,—the Cornice, Argentière, Genèvre (Val d'Aosta), Cenis. +

If we compare the mountains in Greece—Taygetus,The four passes of the Alps,—the Cornice, Argentière, Genèvre (Val d'Aosta), Cenis. Lycaeus, Parnassus, Olympus, Pelion, Ossa, and those in -Thrace—Haemus, Rhodope, Dunax, with the Alps, we +Thrace—Haemus, Rhodope, Dunax, with the Alps, we may state the case thus. Each one of the former may be ascended or skirted by an active traveller in a single day; but no one could ascend the Alps even in five days, the distance @@ -43000,7 +43000,7 @@ stades. Lago di Garda, Lago di Como.Varro (Serv. ad Æn. 10, 13) adds a fifth by the Graian Alps, i.e. Little +and the last by the Rhaeti,Varro (Serv. ad Æn. 10, 13) adds a fifth by the Graian Alps, i.e. Little St. Bernard. all of them excessively precipitous. There are several lakes in the mountains, three of great size, the Benacus, five hundred by one @@ -43009,7 +43009,7 @@ Mincius flows; the Larius, four hundred stades long, and somewhat narrower than the Benacus, discharging the Addua; and thirdly, the Verbanus, about three hundred stades by thirty, from which comes a considerable - river—the Ticinus. All these three rivers discharge + river—the Ticinus. All these three rivers discharge themselves into the Padus. . . .

Islands Off the Italian Coast @@ -43076,7 +43076,7 @@ The whole road is called the Egnatia, but its first part has got a name from Candavia, a mountain of Illyria, and leads through the town of Lycnidus, and through Pylon, which is the point on the road where Illyria and Macedonia -join. Thessalonica half-way to the Hebrus form Apollonia. Thence it leads over Mount Barnūs, +join. Thessalonica half-way to the Hebrus form Apollonia. Thence it leads over Mount Barnūs, through Heracleia, Lyncestia, and Eordea, to Edessa and Pella, and finally to Thessalonica; and the number of miles is altogether two @@ -43087,7 +43087,7 @@ five hundred stades. . . .

you do not follow the indentations, is four thousand stades. . . .

The distance from Cape Malea to the IsterFrom C. Malea to the Danube. -is ten thousand stades.Strabo, however, supports the measurement of Artemidorus—6500, explaining that Polybius is taking some practical measurement of a voyage, not +is ten thousand stades.Strabo, however, supports the measurement of Artemidorus—6500, explaining that Polybius is taking some practical measurement of a voyage, not the shortest. . . .

@@ -43099,7 +43099,7 @@ Artemidorus. . . .

 State of Alexandria

A personal visit to Alexandria filled me with disgust at the state of the city. It is inhabited by three -distinct races,—native Egyptians, an acute and +distinct races,—native Egyptians, an acute and civilised race; secondly, mercenary soldiers (for the custom of hiring and supporting men-at-arms is an ancient one), who have learnt to rule rather than obey owing to the @@ -43113,7 +43113,7 @@ become almost extinct, thanks to Euergetes Physcon, in whose reign I visited Alexandria; for that king being troubled with seditions, frequently exposed the common people to the fury of the soldiery and caused their destruction. So that in this -state of the city the poet's words only expressed the truth—Homer, Odyss. 4, 485. +state of the city the poet's words only expressed the truth—Homer, Odyss. 4, 485. "To Egypt 'tis a long and toilsome road."

@@ -43140,7 +43140,7 @@ under the walls of which Nobilior sustained further losses. He was superseded in and partly by administrative skill and conciliation, restored the Roman fortunes to a better position. The Belli and Titthi became allies of Rome, and the Arevacae at least thought it worth while to ask for a truce -to enable them to send envoys to Rome to arrange peace.—Appian, +to enable them to send envoys to Rome to arrange peace.—Appian, Hispan. 44-50.

The "Fiery War" @@ -43270,9 +43270,9 @@ up and bade them send him to Iberia, either as military tribune or legatus, for he was ready to serve in either capacity. "Though, as far as I am concerned," he said, "my mission -to Macedonia would be safer and more appropriate"—for it +to Macedonia would be safer and more appropriate"—for it happened that at that time Scipio was personally and by name invited by the Macedonians to come and settle the disputes which -were raging among them—"yet the needs of my own country +were raging among them—"yet the needs of my own country are the more pressing of the two, and imperatively summon to Iberia all who have a genuine love of honour." This offer shames others into doing the same. This offer was unexpected by all, both from the youth of @@ -43563,8 +43563,8 @@ Romans for their wise and statesmanlike policy in regard to that kingdom. For the removal of a perpetual menace, and the utter destruction of a city which had disputed the supremacy with them, and could even then if it got an opportunity have -still been disputing it,—thus securing the supremacy for their -own country,—were the actions of sensible and far-sighted men. +still been disputing it,—thus securing the supremacy for their +own country,—were the actions of sensible and far-sighted men. Others contradicted this, and asserted that the Romans had no such policy in view when they obtained their supremacy; and that they had gradually and insensibly become perverted to @@ -43593,7 +43593,7 @@ deceit, and regarding open and face-to-face combats as alone becoming to their character: but that in the present instance their whole campaign against the Carthaginians had been conducted by means of stratagem and deceit. Little by -little,—by holding out inducements here, and practising concealment there,—they had deprived them of all hopes of +little,—by holding out inducements here, and practising concealment there,—they had deprived them of all hopes of assistance from their allies. This was a line of conduct more appropriate by rights to the intriguing chicanery of a monarchy, than to a republican and Roman policy. Again, there were @@ -43602,8 +43602,8 @@ it were really true that, before the Carthaginians had made the surrender, the Romans had behaved as alleged, holding out inducements here, and making half revelations there, they would be justly liable to such charges; but if, on the contrary, it was only after the Carthaginians had themselves made -the surrender,—acknowledging the right of the Romans to take -what measures they chose concerning them,—that the latter in +the surrender,—acknowledging the right of the Romans to take +what measures they chose concerning them,—that the latter in the exercise of their undoubted right had imposed and enjoined what they determined upon, then this action must cease to be looked on as partaking of the nature of impiety or treachery. @@ -43664,7 +43664,7 @@ back to the Peloponnese. . . . Polybius's Self-References

It should not excite surprise that I sometimes designate myself by my proper name, and at other times by the common -forms of expression—for instance, "when I had said this," or +forms of expression—for instance, "when I had said this," or "we had agreed to this." For as I was much personally involved in the transactions about to be related, it becomes necessary to vary the methods of indicating myself; that I may @@ -43763,7 +43763,7 @@ population, owing to which the cities were denuded of inhabitants, and a failure there were no long-continued wars or serious pestilences among us. If, then, any one had advised our sending to ask the gods in regard to this, what we were to do or say in order to -become more numerous and better fill our cities,—would he +become more numerous and better fill our cities,—would he not have seemed a futile person, when the cause was manifest and the cure in our own hands? For this evil grew upon us rapidly, and without attracting attention, by our men becoming @@ -43809,7 +43809,7 @@ will be rendered evident from what remains to be told. . . .

 best man of all the kings of our time, and the most completely fortunate; for he reigned more than sixty years in the soundest health and -to extreme old age,—for he was ninety when +to extreme old age,—for he was ninety when he died. He was, besides, the most powerful man physically of all his contemporaries: for instance, when it was necessary to stand, he would do so without moving a @@ -43836,7 +43836,7 @@ settled everything properly and fairly.Massanissa, feeling He left his sons strict injunctions to submit the arrangements of the succession and division of his kingdom to Scipio. Appian, Punica, 105; Livy, Ep. 50. Livy has adopted the statement of Polybius as to the age of Massanissa at his -death; and Cicero (de Sen. § 34) has made Cato take the same reckoning, +death; and Cicero (de Sen. § 34) has made Cato take the same reckoning, perhaps from Polybius also. But it does not agree with another statement of Livy himself, who (24, 49) speaks of him as being seventeen in B. C. 213, in which case he would be in his eighty-second year in B. C. 148. It is, however, @@ -43877,15 +43877,15 @@ I beg of you both to abstain from harming this wretched city." Then said Gulussa: "Your demand appears to me to be quite childish! Why, my good sir, what you failed to get by your embassies from the Romans, who were then quietly encamped -at Utica, and before a blow had been struck,—how can you +at Utica, and before a blow had been struck,—how can you expect to have granted you now, when you have been completely invested by sea and land, and have almost given up every hope of safety?" To which Hasdrubal replied that "Gulussa was ill informed; for they still had good hopes of their outside -allies,"—for he had not yet heard about the Mauretani, and +allies,"—for he had not yet heard about the Mauretani, and thought that the forces in the country were still unconquered,The task of subduing the country in B. C. 147 was entrusted to the proconsul Culpurnius Piso, while Scipio was engaged in completing the investment of Carthage. Appian, Pun. 113-126. -—"nor were they in despair as to their own ultimate safety. +—"nor were they in despair as to their own ultimate safety. And above all, they trusted in the support of the gods, and in what they might expect from them; for they believed that they would not disregard the flagrant violation of treaty from @@ -43981,7 +43981,7 @@ theirs. And in proportion as we regard those who live in pain as more pitiable than those who lose their lives at the moment of their misfortunes, in that proportion must the disasters of the Greeks be regarded as more pitiable than those of the -Carthaginians,—unless a man thinks nothing of dignity and +Carthaginians,—unless a man thinks nothing of dignity and honour, and gives his opinion from a regard only to material advantage. To prove the truth of what I say, one has only to remember and compare the misfortunes in Greece reputed @@ -44095,7 +44095,7 @@ readers ought to admit his authority only so far as he adheres to this principle. At the actual hour of danger it is only right that Greeks should help Greeks in every possible way, by protecting them, veiling their errors or deprecating -the wrath of the sovereign people,—and this I genuinely did +the wrath of the sovereign people,—and this I genuinely did for my part at the actual time: but it is also right, in regard to the record of events to be transmitted to posterity, to leave them unmixed with any falsehood: so that readers should not @@ -44115,7 +44115,7 @@ took up arms: and Diaeus professing that the league was not at war with Sparta, but with certain factious citizens of that city, named four of its chief men who were to be banished. They fled to Rome, where the Senate ordered their restoration. Embassies went from Achaia and from Sparta to Rome to state their -respective cases; and on their return gave false reports,—Diaeus +respective cases; and on their return gave false reports,—Diaeus assuring the Achaeans that the Senate had ordered the Spartans to obey the league; Menalchidas telling the Spartans that the @@ -44140,7 +44140,7 @@ the Achaeans, and disowned by his fellow-citizens, he took poison. The Roman commissioners arrived, led by L. Aurelius Orestes, in B.C. 147, and summoning the magistrates of the Achaean towns and the Strategus Diaeus before them at Corinth, announced the -decision of the Senate—separating Lacedaemon, Corinth, Argos, +decision of the Senate—separating Lacedaemon, Corinth, Argos, Heraclea near Aete, and Orchomenus in Arcadia from the Achaean league, as not being united by blood, and only being subsequent additions. The magistrates, without answering, @@ -44211,8 +44211,8 @@ Rome; but the majority, though they had not a word to say against the justice of the injunctions of Sextus Julius, and were quite silent, yet remained deeply tainted with disaffection. Action of Diaeus and Critolaus and their party. And Diaeus and Critolaus, and all who shared their -sentiments,—and they consisted of all the greatest rascals in every city, men at war with the gods, -and pests of the community, carefully selected,—took, as the +sentiments,—and they consisted of all the greatest rascals in every city, men at war with the gods, +and pests of the community, carefully selected,—took, as the proverb has it, with the left hand what the Romans gave with the right, and went utterly and entirely wrong in their calculations. For they supposed that the Romans, owing to the troubles in Libya and Iberia, feared a war with the Achaeans @@ -44242,7 +44242,7 @@ party, having held a conference, decided that all the rest should avoid the meeting, and that Critolaus should go alone to Tegea.contrives to avoid a settlement When Sextus and his fellow-commissioners therefore had almost given them up, Critolaus arrived; and when the meeting with the Lacedaemonians took place, he would settle -nothing,—alleging that he had no authority to make any arrangement without the consent of the people at large; but that he +nothing,—alleging that he had no authority to make any arrangement without the consent of the people at large; but that he would bring the matter before the Achaeans at their next congress, which must be held six months from that time. Sextus and his fellow-commissioners, therefore, convinced of the ill disposition of Critolaus, and much annoyed at his conduct, @@ -44382,7 +44382,7 @@ attention and study act as rests to laborious men.

Accordingly the most learned of the ancient historians have, as it seems to me, taken intervals of rest in this way: some by digressions on myths and tales, and others by -digressions on historical facts,—not confining themselves to +digressions on historical facts,—not confining themselves to Greek history, but introducing disquisitions on points of foreign history as well. As, for instance, when, in the course of a history of Thessaly and the campaigns of Alexander of Pherae, they @@ -44455,9 +44455,9 @@ advanced in front of the deserters, dressed in noble and dignified attire herself, but holding in her hands, on either side, her two boys dressed only in short tunics and shielded under her own robes.meta\ tw=n i)di/wn e)nduma/twn. The German translator Kraz gives up these -words in despair. Kampe translated them in ihrer gewöhnlicher Tracht. Mr. +words in despair. Kampe translated them in ihrer gewöhnlicher Tracht. Mr. Strachan-Davidson says, "proseilhfui=a, etc., 'folding them in her own robe with her hands,'" which seems straining the meaning of proseilhfui=a. The -French translator says, deux enfans suspendus à ses vétemens. First she addressed Hasdrubal by his name, and when +French translator says, deux enfans suspendus à ses vétemens. First she addressed Hasdrubal by his name, and when he said nothing but remained with his head bowed to the ground, she began by calling on the name of the gods, and next thanked @@ -44485,7 +44485,7 @@ one and all, as it does every one of us men. This, he thought, had befallen Ilium, once a powerful city, and the once mighty empires of the Assyrians, Medes, Persians, and that of Macedonia lately so splendid. And unintentionally or -purposely he quoted,—the words perhaps escaping him unconsciously,—Homer, Il. 6, 448. +purposely he quoted,—the words perhaps escaping him unconsciously,—Homer, Il. 6, 448. "The day shall be when holy Troy shall fall And Priam, lord of spears, and Priam's folk." And on my asking him boldly (for I had been his tutor) what @@ -44570,7 +44570,7 @@ and pitied those who were now starting to take part in it; and everybody was in tears as though they foresaw only too well what was going to happen. They were especially annoyed at the insolent demeanour and neglect of their duties on the part -of the slaves,—airs which they assumed as having been recently +of the slaves,—airs which they assumed as having been recently liberated, or, in the case of others, because they were excited by the prospect of freedom. Moreover the men were compelled @@ -44779,9 +44779,9 @@ sent from Rome to settle the whole of Greece. Pausanias, 7, works of art and the consecrated statues. I saw with my own eyes pictures thrown on the ground and soldiers playing dice on them; among -them was a picture of Dionysus by Aristeides—in reference +them was a picture of Dionysus by Aristeides—in reference to which they say that the proverbial saying arose, "Nothing -to the Dionysus,"—and the Hercules tortured by the shirt of +to the Dionysus,"—and the Hercules tortured by the shirt of Deianeira. . . .

Respect for Philopoemen @@ -44837,7 +44837,7 @@ to superintend the selling of Diaeus's property, to allow Polybius to select anything he chose from the goods and present it to him as a free gift, and to sell the rest to the highest bidders. But, so far from accepting any such present, Polybius urged his friends not to covet -anything whatever of the goods sold by the Quaestor anywhere:—for he was going a round of the cities and selling the +anything whatever of the goods sold by the Quaestor anywhere:—for he was going a round of the cities and selling the property of all those who had been partisans of Diaeus, as well of such as had been condemned, except those who left children or parents. Some of these friends did not take his @@ -44939,11 +44939,11 @@ I laid down at the commencement of my history, and then to give a summary of the entire subject. I announced then at starting that I should begin my narrative at the point where Timaeus left off, and that going cursorily over the events in -Italy, Sicily, and Libya—since that writer has only composed a -history of those places,—when I came to the time when Hannibal took over the command of the Carthaginian army; Philip +Italy, Sicily, and Libya—since that writer has only composed a +history of those places,—when I came to the time when Hannibal took over the command of the Carthaginian army; Philip son of Demetrius the kingdom of Macedonia; Cleomenes of Sparta was banished from Greece; Antiochus succeeded to the -kingdom in Syria, and Ptolemy Philopator to that in Egypt,—I +kingdom in Syria, and Ptolemy Philopator to that in Egypt,—I promised that starting once more from that period, namely the 139th Olympiad, I would give a general history of the world: marking out the periods of the Olympiads, separating the @@ -44978,7 +44978,7 @@ are those of Hultsch's text.

B. C. 751.I believe Rome to have been founded in the second year of the 7th Olympiad.

Dionysius Hal. (1, 74) quotes this statement of Polybius with the remark that it is founded on a single tablet in the custody of the Pontifices. Various -calculations as to the date were:— +calculations as to the date were:—

Eratosthenes followed by Olymp. 7, 1 B. C. 752.Apollodorus Olymp. 7, 1 B. C. 752. @@ -45058,8 +45058,8 @@ and good word of all, and finally obtained the throne. . . .

(6, 1) An impossible lie admits of no defence even.

-

(6, 1) It is the act of a wise and sensible man to recognise—as -Hesiod puts it—"how much greater the half is than the whole."Hesiod, Works and Days, 40, nh/pioi, ou)de\ i)/sasin o(/sw| ple/on h(/misu panto/s.

+

(6, 1) It is the act of a wise and sensible man to recognise—as +Hesiod puts it—"how much greater the half is than the whole."Hesiod, Works and Days, 40, nh/pioi, ou)de\ i)/sasin o(/sw| ple/on h(/misu panto/s.

VII (6, 1)

To learn sincerity towards the Gods is a kind of image of @@ -45163,7 +45163,7 @@ Cappadocia extending from Caesarea (Neo-Caesarea), and Mount Taurus to the Pontus, bounded on the south-west by the Halys and on the east by Melitene.

 XXI (95) -

The Celtiberians have a peculiar manœuvre in war. +

The Celtiberians have a peculiar manœuvre in war. When they see their infantry hard pressed, they dismount and leave their horses standing in their places. They have small pegs attached to their leading reins, and having fixed them @@ -45183,8 +45183,8 @@ has never perhaps been surpassed even to our day.

 XXIII (102)

The Roman praetor MarcusSee 35, 2-4. wished to get rid of the war -against the Lusitani, and laying aside war altogether, to shirk— -as the saying is—"the men's hall for the women's bower," +against the Lusitani, and laying aside war altogether, to shirk— +as the saying is—"the men's hall for the women's bower," because of the recent defeat of the praetor by the Lusitani.

(103)

But those of the Ligurians who fought against Mago were @@ -45541,7 +45541,7 @@ constitution as established by law.

He said that we should not let the enemy escape, or encourage their boldness by shirking a battle. . . .

Conceiving a slight hope from the besieged garrison, he made the most of it. . . .

-

Pretending warm friendship, he tried every manœuvre +

Pretending warm friendship, he tried every manœuvre whereby he might promote the enemy's interests, and surround us by the gravest perils. . . .