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optical character recognition

- - - - - - - - English - Greek - - - - - 5/10 - - RS - - - tagged and parsed - - - - - - - - HOW THE YOUNG SHOULD STUDY POETRY (QUOMODO ADOLESCENS POETAS AUDIRE DEBEAT) INTRODUCTION -

Plutarch's essay on the study of poetry is not a discussion of the essentials - of poetry, nor an analysis of its various kinds after the manner of - Aristotle's Poetics, but it is concerned with poetry only as a means of - training the young in preparation for the study of philosophy later. Some - experience with the adumbrations of philosophic doctrines which are to be - found in poetry will, in the opinion of the author, make such doctrines seem - less strange when they are met later in the actual study of philosophy.

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This training is to be imparted, not by confining the reading to selected - passages, but by teaching the young to recognize and ignore the false and - fabulous in poetry, to choose always the better interpretation, and, in - immoral passages where art is employed for art's sake, not to be deluded - into approving vicious sentiments because of their artistic presentation. - Such passages may be offset by other passages from the same author or from - another author, and, as a last resort, one may try his hand at emending - unsavoury lines to make them conform to a higher ethical standard. This last - proposal seems to the modern reader a weak subterfuge, but it was a practice - not unknown even before Plutarch's time.

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Philology, in the narrower sense, Plutarch says, is a science in itself, and - a knowledge of it is not essential to an understanding of - literature (a fact enunciated from time to time by modern educators as a new - discovery). But, on the other hand, Plutarch strongly insists that an exact - appreciation of words and of their meanings in different contexts is - indispensable to the understanding of any work of poetry.

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The various points in the essay are illustrated by plentiful quotations drawn - in the main from Homer, Hesiod, Archilochus, Pindar, Simonides, Theognis, - Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Menander. These are accompanied by many - keen and intelligent observations (such, for example, as that regarding - Paris), which attest Plutarch's wide and careful reading in the classical - authors.

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The fact that Plutarch does not use the methods of historical criticism will - not escape the reader, and, although this seems to us a great defect in the - essay, it is wholly in keeping with the spirit of Plutarch's age. On the - other hand there is well shown the genial and kindly Plutarch, who wishes to - believe only good of all men, including the poets, however much they may - fall short of the standards set by the divine Homer.

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If, my dear Marcus Sedatus, it is true, as the poet Philoxenus used to say, - that of meats those that are not meat, and of fish those that are not fish, - have the best flavour, let us leave the expounding of this matter to those - persons of whom Cato said that their palates are more sensitive than their - minds. And so of philosophical discourses it is clear to us that those - seemingly not at all philosophical, or even serious, are found more - enjoyable by the very young, who present themselves at such lectures as - willing and submissive hearers. For in perusing not only Aesop's Fables, and - Tales from the Poets, but even the Abaris of Heracleides, the Lycon of - Ariston, and philosophic doctrines about the soul when these are combined - with tales from mythology,Plutarch probably has Plato in mind, and is - thinking of passages like The Last Judgement (Gorgias, 523 ff.). they get inspiration as well as - pleasure. Wherefore we ought not only to keep the young decorous in the - pleasures of eating and drinking, but, even more, in connexion with what - they hear and read, by using in moderation, as a relish, that which gives - pleasure, we should accustom them to seek what is useful and salutary - therein. For close-shut gates do not preserve a city from - capture if it admit the enemy through one; nor does continence in the other - pleasures of sense save a young man, if he unwittingly abandon himself to - that which comes through hearing. On the contrary, inasmuch as this form of - pleasure engages more closely the man that is naturally given to thought and - reason, so much the more, if neglected, does it injure and corrupt him that - receives it. Since, then, it is neither possible, perhaps, nor profitable to - debar from poetry a boy as old as my Soclarus and your Cleander now are, let - us keep a very close watch over them, in the firm belief that they require - oversight in their reading even more than in the streets. Accordingly, I - have made up my mind to commit to writing and to send to you some thoughts - on poetry which it occurred to me recently to express. I beg that you will - take them and peruse them, and if they seem to you to be no worse than the - things called amethysts - Preventitives of intoxication; herbs or - seeds (Plutarch, Symp. 647 B, Athenaeus, 24 C), - or nuts (Plutarch, Symp. 624 C) which were - eaten, or stones (Pliny, N.H. xxxvii. 9. 124) - which were hung about the neck, in the belief that they would resist - drunkenness. which some persons on convivial occasions hang upon - their persons or take beforehand, then impart them to Cleander, and thus - forestall his natural disposition, which, because it is slow in nothing, but - impetuous and lively in everything, is more subject to such influences. - Bad may be found in the head of the - cuttle-fish; good there is also, - Cf. - Leutsch and Schneidewin, Paroemiographi - Graeci, i. p. 299; Plutarch, Moralia, 734 E. - because it is very pleasant - to eat but it makes one's sleep full of bad dreams and subject to strange - and disturbing fancies, as they say. Similarly also in the art of poetry - there is much that is pleasant and nourishing for the mind of a youth, but - quite as much that is disturbing and misleading, unless - in the hearing of it he have proper oversight. For it may be said, as it - seems, not only of the land of the Egyptians but also of poetry, that it - yields Drugs, and some are good when mixed and - others banefulHomer, Od. iv. - 230. - to those who cultivate it. Hidden therein are love and desire and winning converse, Suasion that - steals away the mind of the very wisest.Homer, Il. xiv. 216. - For the element of deception - in it does not gain any hold on utterly witless and foolish persons. This is - the ground of Simonides' answer to the man who said to him, Why are - the Thessalians the only people whom you do not deceive ? His - answer was, Oh, they are too ignorant to be deceived by me - ; and Gorgias called tragedy a deception wherein he who deceives is more - honest than he who does not deceive, and he who is deceived is wiser than he - who is not deceived. Shall we then stop the ears of the young, as those of - the Ithacans were stopped, with a hard and unyielding wax, and force them to - put to sea in the Epicurean boat, and avoid poetry and steer their course - clear of it; or rather shall we set them against some upright standard of - reason and there bind them fast, guiding and guarding their judgement, that - it may not be carried away from the course by pleasure towards that which - will do them hurt ? No, not even Lycurgus, the - mighty son of DryasHomer, Il. vi. - 130. - had sound sense, because, when many became drunk - and violent, he went about uprooting the grapevines instead of bringing the - springs of water nearer, and thus chastening the - frenzied god, as Plato says, through correction by - another, a sober, god. - Plato, Laws, - 773 D. For the tempering of wine with water removes its - harmfulness without depriving it at the same time of its usefulness. So let - us not root up or destroy the Muses' vine of poetry, but where the mythical - and dramatic part grows all riotous - Cf. - Theophrastus, De causis plantarum, iii. 1. - 5. and luxuriant, through pleasure unalloyed, which gives it - boldness and obstinacy in seeking acclaim, let us take it in hand and prune - it and pinch it back. But where with its grace it approaches a true kind of - culture, and the sweet allurement of its language is not fruitless or - vacuous, there let us introduce philosophy and blend it with poetry. For as - the mandragora, when it grows beside the vine and imparts its influence to - the wine, makes this weigh less heavily on those who drink it, so poetry, by - taking up its themes from philosophy and blending them with fable, renders - the task of learning light and agreeable for the young. Wherefore poetry - should not be avoided by those who are intending to pursue philosophy, but - they should use poetry as an introductory exercise in philosophy, by - training themselves habitually to seek the profitable in what gives - pleasure, and to find satisfaction therein ; and if there be nothing - profitable, to combat such poetry and be dissatisfied with it. For this is - the beginning of education, If one begin each task - in proper way So is it likely will the ending be,Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. - 747. - as Sophocles says.

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First of all, then, the young man should be introduced into poetry with - nothing in his mind so well imprinted, or so ready at - hand, as the saying, Many the lies the poets - tell, - Proverbial; cf. Aristotle, - Metaphysics, i. 2. some intentionally - and some unintentionally; intentionally, because for the purpose of giving - pleasure and gratification to the ear (and this is what most people look for - in poetry) they feel that the truth is too stern in comparison with fiction. - For the truth, because it is what actually happens, does not deviate from - its course, even though the end be unpleasant; whereas fiction, being a - verbal fabrication, very readily follows a roundabout route, and turns aside - from the painful to what is more pleasant. For not metre nor figure of - speech nor loftiness of diction nor aptness of metaphor nor unity of - composition has so much allurement and charm, as a clever interweaving of - fabulous narrative. But, just as in pictures, colour is more stimulating - than line-drawing because it is life-like, and creates an illusion, so in - poetry falsehood combined with plausibility is more striking, and gives more - satisfaction, than the work which is elaborate in metre and diction, but - devoid of myth and fiction. This explains why Socrates, being induced by - some dreams to take up poetry, since he was not himself a plausible or - naturally clever workman in falsehood, inasmuch as he had been the champion - of truth all his life, put into verse the fables of Aesop, - Cf. Plato, Phaedo, 60 - A. assuming that there can be no poetic composition which has no - addition of falsehood. It is true that we know of sacrifices without dancing - or flute, but we do not know of any poetic composition without fable or - without falsehood. The verses of Empedocles and of Parmenides, the Antidotes - against Poisons of Nicander, and the maxims of Theognis, are merely - compositions which have borrowed from poetic art its - metre and lofty style as a vehicle in order to avoid plodding along in - prose. Whenever, therefore, in the poems of a man of note and repute some - strange and disconcerting statement either about gods or lesser deities or - about virtue is made by the author, he who accepts the statement as true is - carried off his feet, and has his opinions perverted; whereas he who always - remembers and keeps clearly in mind the sorcery of the poetic art in dealing - with falsehood, who is able on every such occasion to say to it, - “Device more subtly cunning than the lynx,a why knit your brows - when jesting, why pretend to instruct when practising deception - ?” - Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., adesp. No. - 349. - will not suffer any dire effects or even acquire any base beliefs, - but he will check himself when he feels afraid of Poseidon Homer, Iliad, xx. 60. and is in terror lest the - god rend the earth asunder and lay bare the nether world; he will check - himself when he is feeling wroth at Apollo in behalf of the foremost of the - Achaeans, Whose praises he himself did sing, - himself Was present at the feast, these words he spoke Himself, and yet - himself brought death to him;Spoken by Thetis of the death of her - son Achilles, as we are told by Plato, Republic, ii. p. 383 B, who quotes the passage more fully. - Cf. Nauck, Trag. - Graec. Frag., Aeschylus, No. 350. - he will - cease to shed tears over the dead Achilles and over Agamemnon Homer, - Od. xi. 470 and 360. in the nether - world, as they stretch out their impotent and feeble arms in their desire to - be alive ; and if, perchance, he is beginning to be disturbed by their - suffering and overcome by the enchantment, he will not hesitate to say to - himself, - Hasten eager to the light, and all you saw here Lay - to heart that you may tell your wife hereafter.Homer, Od. xi. 223. - Certainly Homer - has put this gracefully in reference to the visit to the shades, indicating - that it is fit stuff for a woman's ear because of the element of fable in - it.

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Such things as this are what the poets fabricate intentionally, but more - numerous are the things which they do not fabricate, but think and believe - in their own hearts, and then impart to us in their false colouring. Take - for example what Homer has said relating to Zeus: In the scales he placed two fates of Death so grievous, One of Achilles - and the other of horse-taming Hector; Grasping the middle he poised it, - and Hector's fated day descended. Down to Hades he went, and Phoebus - Apollo forsook him.Homer, Il. xxii. - 210. - Now Aeschylus has fitted a whole tragedy to this - story, giving it the title of The Weighing of Souls, and has placed beside - the scales of Zeus on the one side Thetis, and on the other Dawn, entreating - for their sons who are fighting. But it is patent to everybody that this is - a mythical fabrication which has been created to please or astound the - hearer. But in the lines Zeus, appointed to decide the - outcome of men's fighting - Ibid. iv. - 84. - and A fault doth God create - in men Whene'er he wills to crush a house in woe,From the Niobe, of Aeschylus; Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Aeschylus, No. - 156. - we have at last statements in accord with their - opinion and belief, as they thus publish to us and try to make us share - their delusion and ignorance regarding the gods. Then - again the monstrous tales of visits to the shades, and the descriptions, - which in awful language create spectres and pictures of blazing rivers and - hideous places and grim punishments, do not blind very many people to the - fact that fable and falsehood in plenty have been mingled with them like - poison in nourishing food. And not Homer nor Pindar nor Sophocles really - believed that these things are so when they wrote : From there the slow-moving rivers of dusky night Belch forth a darkness - immeasurable,Pindar, Frag. 130 - Christ. - and On past Ocean's - streams they went and the headland of Leucas,Homer, Od. xxiv. 11. - and The narrow throat of Hades and the refluent - depths. - Cf. Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. - 748. - However, take the case of those who, bewailing - and fearing death as something piteous, or want of burial as something - terrible, have given utterance to sentiments like these : Go not hence and leave me behind unwept, - unburied,Homer, Od. xi. - 72. - and Forth from his body went - his soul on wing to Hades, Mourning its fate and leaving its vigour and - manhood,Homer, Il. xvi. 856 and xxii. - 362. - and Destroy me not - untimely ; for 'tis sweet To see the light. Compel me not to gaze Upon - the regions underneath the earth.Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis, 1218. - These are the - voices of persons affected by emotion and prepossessed by - opinions and delusions. For this reason such sentiments take a more powerful - hold on us and disturb us the more, inasmuch as we become infected by their - emotions and by the weakness from whence they proceed. Against these - influences, then, once more let us equip the young from the very outset to - keep ever sounding in their ears the maxim, that the art of poetry is not - greatly concerned with the truth, and that the truth about these matters, - even for those who have made it their sole business to search out and - understand the verities, is exceedingly hard to track down and hard to get - hold of, as they themselves admit; and let these words of Empedocles be - constantly in mind: Thus no eye of man hath seen - nor ear hath heard this, Nor can it be comprehended by the - mind,The passage is quoted more fully by Sextus Empiricus, Adv. math. vii. 122-4; cf. Diels, Poetarum Philosophorum - Fragmenta, Empedocles, No. 2 - and the words - of Xenophanes: Never yet was born a man nor ever - shall be Knowing the truth about the gods and what I say of all - things,Quoted with two additional lines by Sextus Empiricus, - Adv. math. vii. 49; cf. Diels, Poet. Philos. Frag., - Xenophanes, No. 34. - and by all means the - words of Socrates, in Plato,Plato, Phaedo, 69 - D. when he solemnly disavows all acquaintance with these - subjects. For young people then will give less heed to the poets, as having - some knowledge of these matters, when they see that such questions stagger - the philosophers.

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We shall steady the young man still more if, at his first entrance into - poetry, we give a general description of the poetic art as an imitative art - and faculty analogous to painting. And let him not merely - be acquainted with the oft-repeated saying that poetry is articulate - painting, and painting is inarticulate poetry, but let us teach - him in addition that when we see a lizard or an ape or the face of Thersites - in a picture, we are pleased with it and admire it, not as a beautiful - thing, but as a likeness. For by its essential nature the ugly cannot become - beautiful ; but the imitation, be it concerned with what is base or with - what is good, if only it attain to the likeness, is commended. If, on the - other hand, it produces a beautiful picture of an ugly body, it fails to - give what propriety and probability require. Some painters even depict - unnatural acts, as Timomachus painted a picture of Medea slaying her - children, and Theon of Orestes slaying his mother, and Parrhasius of the - feigned madness of Odysseus, and Chaerephanes of the lewd commerce of women - with men. In these matters it is especially necessary that the young man - should be trained by being taught that what we commend is not the action - which is the subject of the imitation, but the art, in case the subject in - hand has been properly imitated. Since, then, poetry also often gives an - imitative recital of base deeds, or of wicked experiences and characters, - the young man must not accept as true what is admired and successful - therein, nor approve it as beautiful, but should simply commend it as - fitting and proper to the character in hand. For just as when we hear the - squealing of a pig, the creaking of a windlass, the whistling of the winds, - and the booming of the sea, we are uneasy and annoyed ; but if anybody gives - a plausible imitation of these, as Parmeno imitated a pig, and Theodorus a - windlass, we are pleased ; and just as we avoid a diseased and ulcerous - person as an unpleasant sight, but take delight in seeing - Aristophon's Philoctetes and Silanion's Jocasta, who are represented on the - stage as pining away or dying ; so too the young man, as he reads what - Thersites the buffoon, or Sisyphus the seducer of women, or Batrachus the - bawd, is represented as saying or doing, must be taught to commend the - faculty and art which imitates these things, but to repudiate and condemn - the disposition and the actions which it imitates. For it is not the same - thing at all to imitate something beautiful and something beautifully, since - beautifully means fittingly and properly - and ugly things are fitting and proper for the - ugly. Witness the boots made for the crippled feet of Damonidas, who prayed - once, when he had lost them, that the man who had stolen them might have - feet which they would fit; they were sorry boots, it is true, but they - fitted their owner. Consider the following lines : If one must needs do wrong, far best it were To do it for a kingdom's - sake,Euripides, Phoenissae, - 324. - and Achieve the just - man's good repute, but deeds That fit the knave ; therein shall be your - gain,From lines spoken by Ixion in an unknown play; cf. Nauck, Trag. Graec. - Frag., adesp. No. 4. - and A talent dowry ! Shall I not accept ? Can I still live - if I should overlook A talent ? Shall I ever sleep again If I should - give it up ? In Hell shall I Not suffer for impiety to gold ? From - an unknown poet of the new comedy; cf. Kock, - Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta, iii. - 430. - These, it is true, are wicked and fallacious - sentiments, but fitting respectively for Eteocles, Ixion, - and an old usurer. If then we remind our sons that authors write them, not - because they commend or approve them, but with the idea of investing mean - and unnatural characters and persons with unnatural and mean sentiments, - they could not be harmed by the opinions of poets ; nay, on the contrary, - the suspicion felt against the person in question discredits both his - actions and words, as being mean because spoken or done by a mean man. Of - such sort is the account of Paris in his wife's arms after his cowardly - escape from battle.Homer, Il. iii. 369 ff. and - 441 ff. For since the poet represents no other save this - licentious and adulterous man as dallying with a woman in the daytime, it is - clear that he classes such sensuality as a shame and reproach.

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In these passages, close attention must be given to see whether the poet - himself gives any hints against the sentiments expressed to indicate that - they are distasteful to himself; just as Menander in the prologue of his - Thais has written : Oh, sing to me, my muse, of - such a girl, One bold and fair, and of persuasive tongue, Unjust, - exclusive, and demanding much, In love with none, but always feigning - love.Kock, Com. Att. Frag., Menander, - No. 217, and Allinson, Menander, in L.C.L., - p. 356. - But Homer has best employed this method ; for - he in advance discredits the mean and calls our attention to the good in - what is said. His favourable introductions are after this manner : Then at once he spoke ; his words were gentle and - winningHomer, Od. vi. - 148. - and - He would stand by his side, and speak soft words to - restrain him.Homer, Il. ii. - 189. - But in discrediting in advance, he all but protests - and proclaims that we are not to follow or heed the sentiments expressed, as - being unjustifiable and mean. For example, when he is on the point of - narrating Agamemnon's harsh treatment of the priest, he says in advance, - Yet Agamemnon, Atreus' son, at heart did not - like it; Harshly he sent him away ; - Ibid. - i. 24. - that is to say, savagely and wilfully and - contrary to what he should have done ; and in Achilles' mouth he puts the - bold words, Drunken sot, with eyes of a dog and the - wild deer's courage, - Ibid. i. - 225. - but he intimates his own judgement in saying, Then once more with vehement words did the son of - Peleus Speak to the son of Atreus, nor ceased as yet from his anger; - - Ibid. i. 223. - hence - it is likely that nothing spoken with anger and severity can be good. In - like manner also, he comments upon actions : Thus - he spoke, and Hector divine he treated unseemly, Stretching him prone in - the dust by the bier of the son of Menoetius. - Ibid., xxiii. 24. - He also employs his - closing lines to good purpose, as though adding a sort of verdict of his own - to what is done or said. Of the adultery of Ares, he represents the gods as - saying, Evil deeds do not succeed: the swift by the - slow is taken,Homer, Od., viii. - 329. - and on the occasion of Hector's great arrogance - and boasting he says, - Thus he spoke in boast; queen Hera's wrath was - kindledHomer, Il. viii. - 198. - and regarding Pandarus's archery, Thus Athena spoke, and the mind of the fool she - persuaded. - Ibid. iv. - 104. - Now these declarations and opinions contained in the - words of the text may be discovered by anybody who will pay attention, but - from the actions themselves the poets supply other lessons : as, for - example, Euripides is reported to have said to those who railed at his Ixion - as an impious and detestable character, But I did not remove him - from the stage until I had him fastened to the wheel. In Homer - this form of instruction is given silently, but it leaves room for a - reconsideration, which is helpful in the case of those stories which have - been most discredited. By forcibly distorting these stories through what - used to be termed deeper meanings, but are nowadays called - allegorical interpretations, some persons say that the - Sun is represented as giving information about Aphrodite in the arms of - Ares, because the conjunction of the planet Mars with Venus portends births - conceived in adultery, and when the sun returns in his course and discovers - these, they cannot be kept secret. And Hera's beautifying of herself for - Zeus's eyes, - Ibid. xiv. 166 ff. and the - charms connected with the girdle, such persons will have it, are a sort of - purification of the air as it draws near the fiery element;—as though the - poet himself did not afford the right solutions. For, in the account of - Aphrodite, he teaches those who will pay attention that vulgar music, coarse - songs, and stories treating of vile themes, create licentious characters, - unmanly lives, and men that love luxury, soft living, intimacy with women, - and - Changes of clothes, warm baths, and the genial bed of - enjoyment.Homer, Od. viii. - 239. - This too is the reason why he has represented - Odysseus as bidding the harper Come now, change the - theme and sing how the horse was builded, - Ibid. viii. 492. - thus admirably indicating - the duty of musicians and poets to take the subjects of their compositions - from the lives of those who are discreet and sensible. And in his account of - Hera, he has shown excellently well how the favour that women win by - philters and enchantments and the attendant deceit in their relations with - their husbands, not only is transitory and soon sated and unsure, but - changes also to anger and enmity, so soon as the pleasurable excitement has - faded away. Such, in fact, are Zeus's angry threats as he speaks to Hera in - this wise : So you may see if aught you gain from the - love and caresses Won by your coming afar from the gods to deceive - me.Homer, Il. xv. 32. - - For the description and portrayal of mean actions, if it also represent as - it should the disgrace and injury resulting to the doers thereof, benefits - instead of injuring the hearer. Philosophers, at any rate, for admonition - and instruction, use examples taken from known facts; but the poets - accomplish the same result by inventing actions of their own imagination, - and by recounting mythical tales. Thus it was Melanthius who said, whether - in jest or in earnest, that the Athenian State was perpetually preserved by - the quarrelling and disorder among its public speakers ; for they were not - all inclined to crowd to the same side of the boat, and so, in the - disagreement of the politicians, there was ever some - counterpoise to the harmful. And so the mutual contrarieties of the poets, - restoring our belief to its proper balance, forbid any strong turning of the - scale toward the harmful. When therefore a comparison of passages makes - their contradictions evident, we must advocate the better side, as in the - following examples : Oft do the gods, my child, - cause men to fail,From Euripides, Archelaus, Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., - Euripides, No. 254. The second line is again quoted by - Plutarch, Moralia, 1049 F. - as - compared with You've named the simplest way; just - blame the gods; From Euripides, Archelaus, - Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. - 254. The second line is again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 1049 F. - and again You may rejoice in wealth, but these may - not,Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., - Euripides, No. 1069. - as compared with 'Tis loutish to be rich, and know naught - else;Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., - Euripides, No. 1069. - and What need to sacrifice when you must die ? - Ibid., Adesp., No. 350. - as - compared with 'Tis better thus ; God's worship is not - toil. - Ibid., Adesp., No. - 350. - For such passages as these admit of solutions - which are obvious, if, as has been said, we direct the young, by the use of - criticism, toward the better side. But whenever anything said by such - authors sounds preposterous, and no solution is found close at hand, we must - nullify its effect by something said by them elsewhere to the opposite - effect, and we should not be offended or angry at the poet, but with the - words, which are spoken in character and with humorous intent. As an obvious - illustration, if you wish, over against Homer's accounts of the gods being cast forth by one another, their being wounded by - men, their disagreements, and their displays of ill-temper, you may set the - line : Surely you know how to think of a saying - better than this one,Homer, Il. vii. 358 - and xii. 232. - and indeed elsewhere you do think of - better things and say more seemly things, such as these : Gods at their ease ever living, - Ibid. vi. 138; Od. - iv. 805 and v. 122. - and There the blessed gods pass all their days in enjoyment,Homer, - Od. vi. 46. - and Thus the gods have spun the fate of unhappy mortals - Ever to live in distress, but themselves are free from all - trouble.Homer, Il. xxiv. 525 (again - quoted, infra, 22 B). - These, - then, are sound opinions about gods, and true, but those other accounts have - been fabricated to excite men's astonishment. Again, when Euripides says, - By many forms of artifice the gods Defeat our - plans, for they are stronger far,Nauck, Trag. - Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 972. - it is not - bad to subjoin, If gods do aught that's base, they - are no gods,From Euripides, Bellerophon, - according to Stobaeus, Florilegium, c. 3, - who quotes also six preceding lines; cf. - Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. - 292. 7. - which is a better saying of his. And when - Pindar very bitterly and exasperatingly has said, Do what you will, so you vanquish your foe,Pindar, Isthmian Odes, iv. 48. - - Yet, we may reply, you yourself say that - Most bitter the end Must surely await Sweet - joys that are gained By a means unfair. - Pindar, Isthmian Odes, vii. 47. - a= - And when Sophocles has said, Sweet is the pelf though - gained by falsity.Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., - Sophocles, No. 749. - - Indeed, - we may say, but we have heard from you that False words unfruitful prove when harvested. - - Ibid., No. 750. - And over - against those statements about wealth : Clever is - wealth at finding ways to reach Both hallowed and unhallowed ground, and - where A poor man, though he even gain access, Could not withal attain - his heart's desire. An ugly body, hapless with its tongue, Wealth makes - both wise and comely to behold,From Sophocles, Aleadae; quoted with additional lines by Stobaeus, Florilegium, xci. 27; cf. Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., - Sophocles, No 85. - he will set many of - Sophocles' words, among which are the following : E'en without wealth a man may be esteemed,Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. - 761. - and To beg doth not - degrade a noble mind, - Ibid., No. - 752. - and In the blessings of - plenty What enjoyment is there, If blest wealth owe its increase To - base-brooding care ?Perhaps from the Tereus of Sophocles; cf. Nauck, - Trag. Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. - 534. - And Menander certainly exalted the love of - pleasure, with a suggestion of boastfulness too, in - these glowing lines that refer to love : All things - that live and see the self-same sun That we behold, to pleasure are - enslaved.Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii. - Menander, No. 611, and Allinson, Menander, in L.C.L. p. 506. - - But at another time he turns us about and draws us towards the good, and - uproots the boldness of licentiousness, by saying: A - shameful life, though pleasant, is disgrace.Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii., Menander, No. 756. - The latter sentiment is - quite opposed to the former, and it is better and more useful. Such - comparison and consideration of opposing sentiments will result in one of - two ways : it will either guide the youth over toward the better side, or - else cause his belief to revolt from the worse.

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In case the authors themselves do not offer solutions of their unjustifiable - sayings, it is not a bad idea to put on the other side declarations of other - writers of repute, and, as in a balance, make the scales incline toward the - better side. For example, if Alexis stirs some people when he says, The man of sense must gather pleasure's fruits, And three - there are which have the potency Truly to be of import for this life— To - eat and drink and have one's way in love, All else must be declared - accessory, - Ibid. ii., Alexis, No. 271. - we must - recall to their minds that Socrates used to say just the opposite—that - base men live to eat and drink, and good men - eat and drink to live. And he who wrote Not useless 'gainst the knave is knavery,Source unknown; quoted - again by Plutarch in Moralia, 534 - A. - thus bidding us, in a way, to make ourselves like - knaves, may be confronted with the saying of Diogenes ; for, being asked how - one might defend himself against his adversary, he said, By proving - honourable and upright himself. We should use Diogenes against - Sophocles, too; for Sophocles has filled hosts of men with despondency by - writing these lines about the mysteries : Thrice - blest are they Who having seen these mystic rites shall pass To Hades' - house ; for them alone is life Beyond ; for others all is evil - there.Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., - Sophocles, No. 753. - But Diogenes, hearing - some such sentiment as this, said, What! Do you mean to say that - Pataecion, the robber, will have a better portion after death than - Epaminondas, just because he is initiate ? And when Timotheus, - in a song in the theatre, spoke of Artemis as Ecstatic - Bacchic frantic fanatic,Bergk, Poet. Lyr. - Gr. iii. p. 620; cf. Plutarch, Moralia, 170 A. - Cinesias at - once shouted back, May you have a daughter like that I Neat - too is Bion s retort to Theognis, who said: - Any man that is subject to poverty never is able - Either to speak or to act; nay, but his tongue is tied.Theognis, - 177. - - How is it, then, said Bion, that you, who are poor, - can talk much nonsense, and weary us with this rubbish ? -

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We must not neglect, either, the means for rectifying a statement which are - afforded by the words that lie near, or by the context; but just as - physicians, in spite of the fact that the blister-fly is deadly, think that - its feet and wings are helpful to counteract its potent effect, so in poetry - if a noun or adjective or a verb by its position next to another word blunts - the point which the passage, in its worse interpretation, would have, we - should seize upon it and add explanation, as some do in the case of the - following: Thus, at the last, can honour be paid by - miserable mortals Cutting the hair from their heads while the tears - stream down their faces,Homer, Od. iv. - 197. - and Thus, then, the - gods have spun the fate of unhappy mortals Ever to live in - distress.Homer, Il. xxiv. 525 (quoted - supra, 20 F). - For he did - not say that absolutely and to all mankind a grievous life has been allotted - by the gods, but to the silly and foolish, whom, since they are wretched and - pitiable on account of wickedness, he is wont to call by the name of - unhappy and miserable. -

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Another method, again, which transfers from the worse to the better sense - suspicious passages in poetry, is that which works through the normal usage - of words, in which it were better to have the young man - trained than in what are called glosses. - Strange of obsolete words. It is indeed learned, and not - unpleasing, to know that rhigedanos - Homer, Il. xix. 325. means - dying miserably (for the Macedonians call death danos - ), that the Aeolians call a victory won by patience and perseverance - an outlasting, - - Ibid. xxii. 257 and xxiii. 661. that - the Dryopians call the divinities popoi. - There was a tradition, preserved in the scholia, that w)= po/poi, often found in Homer, was the - equivalent of w)= qeoi/ - gods. - - But it is necessary and useful, if we are to be helped and not harmed by - poetry, to know how the poets employ the names of the gods, and again the - names of bad and of good things, and what they mean when they speak of - Fortune or of Fate, and whether these belong to the class of words which in - their writings are used in one sense only or in several senses, as the case - is with many other words. For, to illustrate, they apply the term - house sometimes to a dwelling house, as Into the lofty house,Homer, Od. v. 42, vii. 77, and perhaps x. 474. - and - sometimes to property, as My house is being - devoured; - Ibid. iv. 318. - - and the term living they apply sometimes to life, as But dark-haired Poseidon Thwarted his spear, nor would - let him end his foeman's living,Homer, Il. - xiii. 562. - and sometimes to possessions, as And others are eating my living;Homer, Od. xiii. 419. - and the expression be distraught is used sometimes - instead of be chagrined and be at one's wits' end - : - Thus he spoke, and she departed distraught and - sore troubledHomer, Il. v. 352. - and at other times, instead of to be arrogant - and be delighted, as Are you now distraught since - you vanquished Irus, the vagrant ? Homer, Od. xviii. 332, 392. - and by huddle they - mean either be in motion, as Euripides says :From the Andromeda of Euripides, Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 145. A monster - huddling from th' Atlantic's surge, or sit down and - be seated, as Sophocles - Oedipus Tyrannus, 2. says : What means your huddling in - these places here With suppliant garlands on the boughs ye bear ? It is a - graceful accomplishment also to adapt the usage of the words to fit the - matter in hand, as the grammarians teach us to do, taking a word for one - signification at one time, and at another time for another, as for example, - Better commend a small ship, but put your goods on a big one.Hesiod, Works and Days, 643. - For by - commend is meant recommend, and the - very expression of recommend to another is used nowadays - instead of deprecating for one's self, as in everyday speech we say, - It's very kind, and Very welcome, when we do not - want a thing and do not accept it. In this way also some persons will have - it that it must be commendable Persephone because she is - deprecated.

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Let us then observe closely this distinction and discrimination of words in - greater and more serious matters, and let us begin with the gods, in - teaching - the young that when the poets employ the names of the - gods, sometimes they apprehend in their conception the gods themselves, and - at other times they give the same appellation to certain faculties of which - gods are the givers and authors. To take an obvious example, it is clear - that Archilochus, when he says in his prayer, Hear my praver, O Lord - Hephaestus, and propitious Lend thy aid, and bestow what thy mercy bestows,Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Gr. ii. p. 703. - - is calling on the god himself; but when, lamenting his sister's husband who - was lost at sea and received no formal burial, he says that he could have - borne the calamity with greater moderation, If upon his head and his body so - fair, All in garments clean, Hephaestus had done his office, - Ibid. p. 687. - it is fire - that he called by this name and not the god. And again when Euripides - Phoenissae, 1006. said - in an oath, By Zeus amidst the stars and Ares murderous, he named the gods - themselves ; but when Sophocles Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. 574; again cited by Plutarch, Moralia, 757 B. says, Blind and unseeing Ares, worthy - dames, With snout like that of swine upturns all ills, the name is to be - understood as meaning war ; just as again it suggests weapons of bronze in - the passage where Homer Homer, Il. vii. 329. says, Dark red blood of these men by the - fair-flowing river Scamander Keen-edged Ares has shed. Since, then, many - words are used in this way, it is - necessary to know and to remember that under the name - Zeus also (or Zen) the poets address sometimes the god, sometimes Fortune, - and oftentimes Fate. For when they say, Father Zeus, enthroned on Ida, most - glorious and mighty, Grant to Ajax victory,Homer, Il. iii. 276, vii. 202, xxiv. 308. - and O Zeus ! who boasts to be - more wise than thou ? Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Adesp. No. 351. - they mean the god himself; but when they apply the - name of Zeus to the causes of all that happens, and say, Many valiant souls - it sent to the realm of Hades, Goodly men, and their bodies gave to the dogs - as ravin And to birds a feast—the design of Zeus in fulfilment,Homer, Il. i. 3. - they mean - Fate. For the poet does not imagine that it is the god who contrives evils - for mankind, but by the name he rightly implies the compelling force of - circumstances, that States and armies and leaders, if they show - self-control, are destined to succeed and to prevail over their enemies, but - if they fall into passions and errors, if they disagree and quarrel among - themselves, as these heroes did, then are they destined to act discreditably - and to become disorganized and to come to a bad end, as Sophocles says Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Adesp. No. 352.: - For fated is it that from evil plans An evil recompense shall mortals reap ; - and certainly Hesiod Hesiod, Works and Days, 86. in representing Prometheus as exhorting Epimetheus - - - Never to welcome Any gifts from Zeus of Olympus, but - always return them, employs the name of Zeus as a synonym for the power of - Fortune. For he has given the name of gifts of Zeus to the - blessings of Fortune, such as wealth, marriage, office, and, in a word, all - outward things, the possession of which is unprofitable to those who cannot - make good use of them. Wherefore he thinks that Epimetheus, who is a - worthless man and a fool, ought to be on his guard against any piece of good - fortune, and be fearful of it, as he is likely to be injured and corrupted - by it. And again when the poet says, Never dare to reproach any man for - accursed and woeful Poverty, gift of the blessed gods whose life is for - ever,Hesiod, Works and Days, 717. - he now speaks of what happens by chance as godgiven, with the - suggestion that it is not meet to impugn those who are poor through - misfortune, but to reproach the penury that is accompanied by laziness, soft - living, and extravagance, since then it is disgraceful and reprehensible. - For at a time when men did not as yet use the name Fortune, - but knew the force of causation as it traverses its irregular and - indeterminate course, so strong, so impossible for human reason to guard - against, they tried to express this by the names of the gods, exactly as we - are wont to call deeds and characters, and in fact even words and men, - divine and godlike. In this manner, then, - a corrective is to be found for most of the seemingly unjustifiable - statements regarding Zeus, among which are the following : Fixed on Zeus' - floor two massive urns stand ever, Filled with happy lives the one, the - other with sorrows,The quotation follows Plato, Republic, 379 D, and not Homer, Il. xxiv. 528. The original, however, is quoted in the Moralia, 105 C. - and - Cronos' son, enthroned on high, - hath made naught of our pledges, But for both our hosts with evil thought is - planning,Homer, Il. vii. 69. - and Then rolled forth the beginning of trouble Both on Trojans - and Greeks through designs of Zeus the almighty.Homer, Od. viii. 81. - These are to be - interpreted as referring to Fortune or Fate, in which guise are denoted - those phases of causation which baffle our logic, and are, in a word, beyond - us. But wherever there is appropriateness, reason, and probability in the - use of the name, let us believe that there the god himself is meant, as in - the following : But he ranged to and fro 'gainst the lines of the rest of - the fighters; Only with Ajax, Telamon's son, he avoided a conflict, Seeing - that Zeus was wroth if he fight with a man far better,Homer, Il. xi. 540, 542. The third line is not found in the MSS. of Homer, but on the authority of this passage and 36 A and Aristotle, Rhetoric, ii. 9, and the life of Homer ascribed to Plutarch, it has commonly been printed as line 542 in the editions of Homer. - and For Zeus takes - thought for mortals' greatest weal; The little things he leaves to other - gods.Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Adesp. No. 353. - -

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Particular attention must be paid to the other words also, when their - signification is shifted about and changed by the poets according to various - circumstances. An example is the word virtue. For inasmuch - as virtue not only renders men sensible, honest, and upright in actions and - words, but also often enough secures for them repute and influence, - the poets, following this notion, make good repute and - influence to be virtue, giving them this name in exactly the same way that - the products of the olive and the chestnut are called olives - and chestnuts, the same names as the trees that - bear them. So then when poets say, Sweat the gods have set before the - attainment of virtue,Hesiod, Works and Days, 289. - and Then the Greeks by their virtue broke the line of - their foemen,Homer, Il. xi. 90. - and If to die be our fate, Thus to die is our right Merging - our lives into virtue,Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 994. Again quoted by Plutarch, Pelopidas, 317 E. - let our young man at once feel that these sayings - relate to the best and godliest estate to which we can attain, which we - think of as correctness of reasoning, the height of good sense, and a - disposition of soul in full agreement therewith. But when at another time, - in his reading, he finds this line, Zeus makes virtue in men both to - increase and diminish,Homer, Il. xx. 242. - or this, Virtue and glory are attendant on riches,Hesiod, Works and Days, 313. - - let him not sit astounded and amazed at - the rich, as though they were able to purchase virtue without ado for money, - nor let him believe either that the increase or diminution of his own wisdom - rests with Fortune, but let him consider that the poet has employed - virtue instead of repute, or influence, or good fortune, or the - like. For assuredly - by evil the poets sometimes signify - badness in its strict sense, and wickedness of soul, as when Hesiod Hesiod, Works and Days, 287. says, - Evil may always be had by all mankind in abundance, and sometimes some other - affliction or misfortune, as when Homer Homer, Od. xix. 360. says, Since full soon do mortals - who live in evil grow aged. And so too anybody would be sadly deceived, - should he imagine that the poets give to happiness the - sense which the philosophers give to it, namely, that of complete possession - or attainment of good, or the perfection of a life gliding smoothly along in - accord with nature, and that the poets do not oftentimes by a perversion of - the word call the rich man happy and blessed, and call influence or repute - happiness. Now Homer - Ibid. iv. 93. has used the words correctly : No delight Logically, we should expect here a word meaning happy. See the critical note on the opposite page. have I in - ruling these possessions, and so has Menander :Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii. p. 184, and Allinson, Menander in L.C.L. p. 506. - A great estate have I, and - rich am called By all, but I am called by no man blest. But Euripides Euripides, Medea, 603. works - much disturbance and confusion when he says, May I ne'er have a painful - happy life, and - - Why do you honour show to tyranny, Happy iniquity ? Euripides, Phoenissae, 549. - - unless, as has been said, one follows the figurative and perverted use of - the words. This, then, is enough on this subject.

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There is a fact, however, which we must recall to the minds of the young not - once merely, but over and over again, by pointing out to them that while - poetry, inasmuch as it has an imitative basis, employs embellishment and - glitter in dealing with the actions and characters that form its groundwork, - yet it does not forsake the semblance of truth, since imitation depends upon - plausibility for its allurement. This is the reason why the imitation that - does not show an utter disregard of the truth brings out, along with the - actions, indications of both vice and virtue commingled ; as is the case - with that of Homer, which emphatically says good-bye to the Stoics, who will - have it that nothing base can attach to virtue, and nothing good to vice, - but that the ignorant man is quite wrong in all things, while, on the other - hand, the man of culture is right in everything. These are the doctrines - that we hear in the schools ; but in the actions and in the life of most - men, according to Euripides, From the Aeolus of Euripides; quoted again Moralia, 369 B and 474 A. Cf. Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 21. - The good and bad cannot be kept apart But - there is some commingling. But when poetic art is divorced from the truth, - then chiefly it employs variety and diversity. For it is the sudden changes - that give to its stories the elements of the emotional, the surprising, and - the unexpected, and these are attended by very great astonishment and - enjoyment; but sameness is unemotional and prosaic. - Therefore poets do not represent the same people as always victorious or - prosperous or successful in everything ; no, not even the gods, when they - project themselves into human activities, are represented in the poets' - usage as free from emotion or fault, that the perturbing and exciting - element in the poetry shall nowhere become idle and dull, for want of danger - and struggle.

- - -

Now since this is so, let the young man, when we set him to reading poems, - not be prepossessed with any such opinions about those good and great names, - as, for instance, that the men were wise and honest, consummate kings, and - standards of all virtue and uprightness. For he will be greatly injured if - he approves everything, and is in a state of wonderment over it, but resents - nothing, refusing even to listen or accept the opinion of him who, on the - contrary, censures persons that do and say such things as these: This I - would, O Zeus, Athena, and Apollo, That not one escape death of all the - Trojans living And of the Greeks; but that you and I elude destruction, So - that we alone may raze Troy's sacred bulwarks,Homer, Il. xvi. 97. - and Saddest of all the sad - sounds that I heard was the cry of Cassandra Priam's daughter, whom - Clytemnestra craftily planning Slew o'er my body,Homer, Od. xi. 421. - and That I seduce the - girl and ensure her hate for my father. So I obeyed her and did it,Homer, Il. ix. 452. - and - - - Father Zeus, none other of the gods is more baleful.Homer, Il. iii. 365. - - Let the young man, then, not get into the habit of commending anything like - this, nor let him be plausible and adroit in making excuses or in contriving - some specious quibbles to explain base actions, but rather let him cherish - the belief that poetry is an imitation of character and lives, and of men - who are not perfect or spotless or unassailable in all respects, but - pervaded by emotions, false opinions, and sundry forms of ignorance, who yet - through inborn goodness frequently change their ways for the better. For if - the young man is so trained, and his understanding so framed, that he feels - elation and a sympathetic enthusiasm over noble words and deeds, and an - aversion and repugnance for the mean, such training will render his perusal - of poetry harmless. But the man who admires everything, and accommodates - himself to everything, whose judgement, because of his preconceived opinion, - is enthralled by the heroic names, will, like those who copy Plato's stoop - or Aristotle's lisp, unwittingly become inclined to conform to much that is - base. One ought not timorously, or as though under the spell of religious - dread in a holy place, to shiver with awe at everything, and fall prostrate, - but should rather acquire the habit of exclaiming with confidence - wrong and improper no less than right - and proper. For example, Achilles summons an - assembly of the soldiers, who are suffering from an illness, since he is - most impatient of all over the slow progress of the war because of his - conspicuous position and reputation on the field; moreover, because he has - some knowledge of medicine, and perceives now after the ninth day, on which these maladies naturally reach their crisis, that - the disease is out of the ordinary and not the result of familiar causes, he - does not harangue the multitude when he rises to speak, but makes himself an - adviser to the king : Son of Atreus, now, as I think, are we destined to - wander Back to seek our homes again.Homer, Il. i. 59. - Rightly, moderately, and properly is - this put. But after the seer has said that he fears the wrath of the most - powerful of the Greeks, Achilles no longer speaks rightly and moderately, - when he swears that nobody shall lay hands on the seer while he himself is - alive, No, not though you name Agamemnon, - Ibid. 90. - thus making plain his slight - regard and his contempt for the leader. A moment later his irritation - becomes more acute, and his impulse is to draw his sword with intent to do - murder ; not rightly, either for honour or for expediency. Again, later, - repenting, Back he thrust his massive blade once more to its scabbard, Nor - ignored Athena's words, - Ibid. 220. - this time rightly and honourably, because, although - he could not altogether eradicate his anger, yet before doing anything - irreparable he put it aside and checked it by making it obedient to his - reason. Then again, although Agamemnon is ridiculous in his actions and - words at the Assembly, yet in the incidents touching Chryseis he is more - dignified and kingly. For whereas Achilles, as Briseis was being led away, - - - Burst into tears and withdrawing apart sat aloof from - his comrades,Homer, Il. i. 349. - Agamemnon, as he in person put aboard the ship, and gave up - and sent away, the woman of whom, a moment before, he has said that he cared - more for her than for his wedded wife, committed no amorous or disgraceful - act. Then again, Phoenix, cursed by his father on account of the concubine, - says : True in my heart I had purposed to slay him with keenpointed dagger, - Save that one of the deathless gods put an end to my anger, Bringing to mind - the people's talk and men's many reproaches, Lest I be known among the - Greeks as my father's slayer.These lines are not found in any MS. of Homer, but on the authority of this quotation they have been printed in practically all editions since that of Barnes (1711) as lines 458-61 of Book IX. of the Iliad. Plutarch cites the second and part of the third line in the Life of Coriolanus, chap. 32 (229 B), and the last line in Moralia, 72 B. - Now Aristarchus removed these lines from the - text through fear, but they are right in view of the occasion, since Phoenix - is trying to teach Achilles what sort of a thing anger is, and how many wild - deeds men are ready to do from temper, if they do not use reason or hearken - to those who try to soothe them. So also the poet introduces Meleager angry - at his fellow-citizens, and later mollified, and he rightly finds fault with - his emotions, but, on the other hand, his refusal to yield, his resistance, - his mastery over them, and his change of heart the poet commends as good and - expedient. Now in these cases the difference is manifest; but in cases where - Homer's judgement is not made clear, a distinction is to be drawn by - directing the young man's attention in some such manner as the following : - If, on the one hand, Nausicaa, after merely looking at a strange man, - Odysseus, and experiencing Calypso's emotions toward him, being, as she was, - - a wanton child and at the age for marriage, utters such - foolish words as these to her maid-servants, How I wish that a man like this - might be called my husband, Living here with us, and be contented to tarry,Homer, Od. vi. 244. - - then are her boldness and lack of restraint to be blamed. But if, on the - other hand, she sees into the character of the man from his words, and - marvels at his conversation, so full of good sense, and then prays that she - may be the consort of such a person rather than of some sailor man or - dancing man of her own townsmen, then it is quite right to admire her. And - again, when Penelope enters into conversation with the suitors, not holding - herself aloof, and they favour her with gifts of garments and other apparel, - Odysseus is pleased Since she had coaxed all these gifts from them, and had - cozened their senses. - Ibid. xviii. 282. - If, on the one hand, he rejoices at the receipt of - the presents and the profit, then in his prostitution of his wife he outdoes - Poliager, who is satirized in the comedy as Poliager blest Who keeps a - Cyprian goat to yield him wealth.Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii. 299. Cf. Alciphro, Epist. iii. 62. The reference is probably to the goat Amalthea, the fabled nurse of the infant Zeus, but Pantazides thinks that Uranium (*ou)ra/nion) may have been the woman's name. - But if, on the other hand, he thinks that - he shall have them more in his power, while they are confident because of - their hopes and blind to the future, then his pleasure and confidence has a - reasonable justification. Similarly, in the enumeration of his possessions - which the Phaeacians had put ashore with him before they sailed away, if on - the one hand, upon finding himself in such solitude and in such uncertainty - and ambiguity regarding his surroundings, he really fears about his - possessions, - Lest the men on the ship had sailed away - with something,Homer, Od. xiii. 216. - then it is quite right to pity or indeed even to loathe his - avarice. But if, on the other hand, he, as some say, being of two minds - whether he were in Ithaca, thinks that the safety of his possessions is a - demonstration of the rectitude of the Phaeacians (for otherwise they would - not have carried him for nothing, put him ashore in a strange land, and left - him there, at the same time keeping their hands off his possessions), then - he makes use of no mean proof, and it is quite right to praise his - forethought. But some critics find fault also with the very act of putting - him ashore, if this really was done while he was asleep, and assert that the - Etruscans still preserve a tradition that Odysseus was naturally sleepy, and - that for this reason most people found him difficult to converse with. Yet - if his sleep was not real, but if, being ashamed to send away the Phaeacians - without gifts and entertainment, and at the same time unable to elude his - enemies if the Phaeacians were in company with him, he provided himself with - a cloak for his embarrassment in feigning himself asleep, then they find - this acceptable. By indicating these things to the young, we shall not allow - them to acquire any leaning toward such characters as are mean, but rather - an emulation of the better, and a preference for them, if we unhesitatingly - award censure to the one class and commendation to the other. It is - particularly necessary to do this with tragedies in which plausible and - artful words are framed to accompany disreputable and knavish actions. For - the statement of Sophocles Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Sophocles No. 755. is not altogether true when he says : - From unfair deed fair word cannot proceed. For, as a - fact, he is wont to provide for mean characters and unnatural actions - alluring words and humane reasons. And you observe also that his - companion-at-arms in the dramatic art has represented Phaedra Presumably in the Hippolytus Veiled; cf. Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Eurip., 491. as preferring - the charge against Theseus that it was because of his derelictions that she - fell in love with Hippolytus. Of such sort, too, are the frank lines, aimed - against Hecuba, which in the Trojan Women Euripides, The Trojan Women, 919. he gives to Helen, who there - expresses her feeling that Hecuba ought rather to be the one to suffer - punishment because she brought into the world the man who was the cause of - Helen's infidelity. Let the young man not form the habit of regarding any - one of these things as witty and adroit, and let him not smile indulgently, - either, at such displays of verbal ingenuity, but let him loathe the words - of licentiousness even more than its deeds.

- - -

Now in all cases it is useful also to seek after the cause of each thing that - is said. Cato, for example, used, even as a child, to do whatever the - attendant in charge of him ordered, yet he also demanded to know the ground - and reason for the order. And so the poets are not to be obeyed as though - they were our keepers or law-givers, unless their subject matter be - reasonable ; and this it will be if it be good, but if it be vile, it will - be seen to be vacuous and vain. But most people are sharp in demanding the - reasons for trivial things like the following, and insist on knowing in what - sense they are intended : Never ought the ladle atop of the bowl to be - rested While the bout is on, Hesiod, Works and Days, 744. - - and Whoso from his car can - reach the car of another Let him thrust with his spear.Homer, Il. iv. 306. - But in far - weightier matters they take things on faith without testing them at all, - such, for example, as these : A man, though bold, is made a slave whene'er - He learns his mother's or his sire's disgrace,Euripides, Hippolytus, 424; cited also by Plutarch in Moralia, 1 C. - and Who prospers not must be - of humble mind.Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 957. - And yet these sentiments affect our characters and disorder - our lives, by engendering in us mean judgements and ignoble opinions, unless - from habit we can say in answer to each of them, Why must the man - who has ' not prospered be of humble mind,' and why must he not rather - rise up against Fortune, and make himself exalted and not humbled ? And - why, though I be the son of a bad and foolish father, yet if I myself am - good and sensible, is it unbecoming for me to take pride in my good - qualities, and why should I be dejected and humble on account of my - father's crassness ? For he who thus meets and resists, and - refuses to entrust himself broadside on to every breath of doctrine, as to a - wind, but believes in the correctness of the saying that a fool is - wont to be agog at every word that's said - A dictum of Heracleitus. It is again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 41 A; cf. Diels, Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, i. p. 95. will thrust aside a - good deal of what is not true or profitable therein. This, then, will take - away all danger of harm from the perusal of poetry. - -

- - -

But, just as amid the luxuriant foliage and branches of a vine the fruit is - often hidden and unnoticed from being in the shadow, so also amid the poetic - diction and the tales that hang clustered about, much that is helpful and - profitable escapes a young man. This, however, ought not to happen to him, - nor should he allow his attention to be diverted from the facts, but he - should cling especially close to those that lead toward virtue and have the - power to mould character. In which regard it may not be a bad thing to treat - this topic briefly, touching summarily the principal points, but leaving any - extended and constructive treatment, and long list of examples, to those who - write more for display. In the first place, then, as the young man takes - note of good and bad characters and personages, let him pay attention to the - lines and the actions which the poet assigns to them as respectively - befitting. For example, Achilles says to Agamemnon, although he speaks with - anger : Never a prize like yours is mine whene'er the Achaeans Capture and - sack some goodly and populous town of the Trojans.Homer, Il. i. 163. - But Thersites in - reviling the same man says : Full of bronze are your quarters, and many, - too, are the women, Chosen from all the captives for you, and these we - Achaeans Give to you first of all whenever we capture a city. - Ibid. ii. 226. - And on - another occasion Achilles says, If perchance Zeus ever Grants to us that we - plunder Troy, the well-walled city, - Ibid. i. 128. - but Thersites, - One - that I or another Achaean may bring in as captive.Homer, Il. ii. 231. - At another time, in the - Inspection, when Agamemnon upbraided Diomede, the latter made no answer, - Showing respect for the stern rebuke of a king so respected. - Ibid. iv. 402. - But Sthenelus, - a man of no account, says : Son of Atreus, speak not to deceive, knowing how - to speak clearly; We can avow ourselves to be better far than our fathers. - Ibid. 404. - - A difference of this sort then, if not overlooked, will teach the young man - to regard modesty and moderation as a mark of refinement, but to be on his - guard against boasting and self-assertion as a mark of meanness. It is - useful to note also the behaviour of Agamemnon in this case ; for Sthenelus - he passed by without a word, but Odysseus he did not disregard, but made - answer and addressed him, When he saw he was wroth, and tried to retract his - saying. - Ibid. 357. - For to defend one's actions to everybody smacks of servility, not - of dignity, while to despise everybody is arrogant and foolish. And most - excellently does Diomede in the battle hold his peace, although upbraided by - the king, but after the battle he uses plain speech to him : First let me - say that you 'mid the Danaans slighted my prowess - Ibid. ix. 34. - -

-

It is well, too, not to miss a difference that exists between a man of sense - and a seer who courts popularity. For example, Calchas - Ibid. i. 94-5. had no regard to the - occasion, and made nothing of accusing the king before the multitude, - alleging that he had - brought the pestilence upon them; but Nestor, though - anxious to put in a word for the reconciliation with Achilles, yet, in order - that he may not seem to discredit Agamemnon with the multitude as having - made a mistake and indulged in anger, says, Give a feast for the elders; - 'tis fitting and not unbefitting; Then, when many are gathered, whoever - shall offer best counsel Him you will follow,Homer, Il. ix. 70, and 74-5. - and after the dinner he sends - forth the envoys. For this was the way to amend an error; the other was - arraignment and foul abuse.

-

Moreover, the difference between the two peoples should be observed, their - behaviour being as follows : the Trojans advance with shouting and - confidence, but the Achaeans Silently, fearing their captains. - Ibid. iv. 431. - For to fear - one's commanders when at close quarters with the enemy is a sign of bravery - and of obedience to authority as well. Wherefore Plato - Cf. Platp, Apology, 28 F and E. tries to establish - the habit of fearing blame and disgrace more than toils and dangers, and - Cato - Cf. Plutarch, Life of Cato, chap. 9 (341 C). used to say that he liked people that blushed better than those that - blanched. There is also in the promises of the heroes a special character. - For Dolon promises : Straight to the midst of their host shall I go till I - come to the vessel Which Agamemnon commands.Homer, Il. x. 325. - Diomede, - Ibid. 222. however, promises - nothing, but says that he should be less frightened if he were sent in - company with another man. Prudence, then, is - characteristic of a Greek and of a man of refinement, - while presumption is barbaric and cheap : the one should be emulated and the - other detested. And it is not unprofitable to consider how the Trojans and - Hector were affected, at the time when Ajax was about to engage with him i - single combat. Once when a boxer at the Isthmian games was struck in the - face, and a clamour arose, Aeschylus - Cf. Plutarch, Moralia, 79 D. said, What a thing is - training. The onlookers cry out; it is the man who is struck who says - nothing. In like manner, when the poet says Homer, Il. vii. 214. that when Ajax - appeared resplendent in his armour, the Greeks rejoiced at seeing him, - whereas Dreadful trembling seized on the limbs of every Trojan ; Even Hector - himself felt his heart beat quick in his bosom, who could fail to admire the - difference ? For the heart of the man who is facing the danger only throbs, - as though indeed he were simply going to wrestle or run a race, while the - onlookers tremble and shiver in their whole bodies through loyalty and fear - for their king. Here, too, one should carefully consider the difference - between the very valiant man and the craven. For Thersites Hateful was most - of all to Achilles as well as Odysseus,Ibid. ii. 220. while Ajax was always friendly to - Achilles, and says to Hector regarding him— Now alone from one man alone - shall you learn quite clearly What sort of men with us are the Danaans' - chieftains Even after the smiter of men, lion-hearted Achilles. - Ibid. vii. 226. - This is the - compliment paid to Achilles, but these succeeding lines in behalf of all are - put in such a way as to be useful: - - Yet are we of such sort as are ready to face you, Yea, - and many of us,Homer, Il. vii. 231. - thereby declaring himself not the only man or the best, but - only one among many equally capable of offering defence. This is enough on - the subject of differences, unless perhaps we desire to add, that of the - Trojans many were taken alive, but none of the Achaeans ; and that of the - Trojans some fell down at the feet of the enemy, as did Adrastus, - Ibid. vi. 37. the sons - Ibid. xi. 122. - of Antimachus, Lycaon, - Ibid. xxi. 64. and Hector - Ibid. xxii. 337. himself begging Achilles for burial, but - of the Achaeans none, because of their conviction that it is a trait of - barbarian peoples to make supplication and to fall at the enemy's feet in - combat, but of Greeks to conquer or to die fighting.

- - -

Now just as in pasturage the bee seeks the flower, the goat the tender shoot, - the swine the root, and other animals the seed and the fruit, so in the - reading of poetry one person culls the flowers of the story, another rivets - his attention upon the beauty of the diction and the arrangement of the - words, as Aristophanes Kock, Com. Att. Frag. i. p. 513. says of Euripides, I use the rounded neatness of his - speech ; but as for those who are concerned with what is said as being - useful for character (and it is to these that our present discourse is - directed), let us remind them how strange it is if the lover of fables does - not fail to observe the novel and unusual points in the story, and the - student of language does not allow faultless and elegant forms of expression - to escape him, whereas he that affects what is honourable and good, - who takes up poetry not for amusement but for education, - should give but a slack and careless hearing to utterances that look toward - manliness or sobriety or uprightness, such, for example, as the following : - Son of Tydeus, what has made us forget our swift prowess ? Hither, stand, my - friend, by me. Disgrace will befall us If yon Hector, gleaming-helmed, shall - capture our vessels.Homer, Il. xi. 313; the first line is quoted infra, 71 F. - For to observe that the most wise and prudent man, - when he is in danger of being destroyed and lost, together with the whole - host, fears shame and disapprobation, but not death, will make the young man - keenly alive to the moral virtues. And by the line, Glad was Athena because - of the man that was prudent and honest,Homer, Od. iii. 52. - the poet permits us to draw a - similar conclusion in that he represents the goddess as taking delight, not - in some rich man or in one who is physically handsome or strong, but in one - who is wise and honest. And again when she says that she does not overlook - Odysseus, much less desert him, Since he is courteous and clever of mind and - prudent, - Ibid. xiii. 332. - her words indicate that the only one of our attributes that is - dear to the gods and divine is a virtuous mind, if it be true that it is the - nature of like to delight in like.

-

Since it seems to be, and really is, a great thing to master one's anger, - and since a greater thing is the exercise of precaution and forethought so - as not to become involved in anger or to be made captive by - it, we must make a point of indicating to our young - readers such matters as this : that Achilles, being not tolerant or mild in - temper, bids Priam in these words to be quiet and not to exasperate him : - Anger me now no more, old man (to ransom your Hector I myself am disposed; - from Zeus has come such a message), Lest, old man, even here 'neath my roof - I leave you not scatheless Suppliant though you are, and sin against Zeus's - commandments,Homer, Il. xxiv. 560-1, 569-70. - and having washed and shrouded the body of Hector, he places - it with his own hands on the wagon before its disfigurement was seen by the - father, Lest with heart so distressed he fail to master his anger, Seeing - his son, and Achilles' heart be stirred with resentment, So that he slay him - there, and sin against Zeus's commandments. - Ibid. 584. - For it is mark of a wondrous - foresight for a man whose hold on his temper is uncertain, who is naturally - rough and quick-tempered, not to be blind to his own weakness, but to - exercise caution, and to be on his guard against possible grounds for anger, - and to forestall them by reason long beforehand, so that he may not even - inadvertently become involved in such emotions. After the same manner should - he that is fond of wine be on his guard against drunkenness, and he that is - amorous against love. So did Agesilaus,Xenophon, Agesilaus, v. 4. who would not submit to being - kissed by the handsome boy who approached him, so did Cyrus,Xenophon, Cyropaedia, v. 1. 4. who durst not - even to look at Pantheia ; but the uneducated, on the contrary, gather fuel - to kindle their passions, casting themselves headlong into those wherein - they are weakest and least sure of themselves. Yet Odysseus not only - restrains himself when enraged, but perceiving from some - words of Telemachus that he too is angry and filled with hatred of the - wicked, labours to mitigate his feelings and prepares him well beforehand to - keep quiet and restrain himself, bidding him, Even if they within my own - house shall dishonour me sorely, Let your heart within you endure all the - wrongs that I suffer: Though through the house they should drag me out by - the feet to the open, Yea, or with missiles smite me, still you must patient - behold it.Homer, Od. xvi. 274. - For just as drivers do not curb their horses during the race, - but before the race, so with those persons who are quick-tempered and hard - to hold back when dangers threaten, we first gain control over them by - reasoning, and make them ready beforehand, and then lead them into the - strife. While it is also necessary not to pass over the words carelessly, - yet one should eschew the puerility of Cleanthes ; for there are times when - he uses a mock seriousness in pretending to interpret the words, Father - Zeus, enthroned on Ida,Homer, Il. iii. 320; vii. 202; xxiv. 208 - and Zeus, lord of Dodona, bidding us in the latter - case to read the last two words as one - Ibid. xvi. 233. It is of inerest that this reading is attested also in scholia on the passage. (taking the word lord - as the preposition up) as though the vapour - exhaled from the earth were updonative because of its being - rendered up! And Chrysippus also is often quite petty, although he does not - indulge in jesting, but wrests the words ingeniously, yet without carrying - conviction, as when he would force the phrase wide-seeing - son of Cronos - Ibid. i. 498. to signify clever in conversation, that is to - say, with a widespread power of speech. -

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It is better, however, to turn these matters over to the grammarians, and to - hold fast rather to those in which is to be found both usefulness and - probability, such as Nor does my heart so bid me, for I have learned to be - valiant,Homer, Il. vi. 444. - and For towards all he understood the way to be gentle. - Ibid. xvii. 671. - For by - declaring that bravery is a thing to be learned, and by expressing the - belief that friendly and gracious intercourse with others proceeds from - understanding, and is in keeping with reason, the poet urges us not to - neglect our own selves, but to learn what is good, and to give heed to our - teachers, intimating that both boorishness and cowardice are but ignorance - and defects of learning. With this agrees very well what he says regarding - Zeus and Poseidon : Both, indeed, were of one descent and of the same - birthplace, Yet was Zeus the earlier born and his knowledge was wider. - Ibid. xiii. 354. - For - he declares understanding to be a most divine and kingly thing, to which he - ascribes the very great superiority of Zeus, inasmuch as he believes that - all the other virtues follow upon this one.

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At the same time, the young man must get the habit of perusing with a mind - wide awake such sayings as these : Falsehood he will not utter because he is - very prudent,Homer, Od. iii. 20 and 328. and What an act Is this, Antilochus, - prudent aforetime! You have put my skill to disgrace and hindered my - horses,Homer, Il. xxiii. 570. - and Glaucus, what cause has a man like you for words so disdainful - ? Truly I thought, my friend, that in sense you excelled all the others, - Ibid. xvii. 170. - - the implication being that men of sense do not lie or contend unfairly in - games, or make unwarranted accusations against other people. And from the - poet's saying - Ibid. vi. 104. that Pandarus was persuaded because of his want of sense to - bring to naught the sworn agreement, he clearly shows his opinion that the - man of sense would not do wrong. It is also possible to give similar - intimations in regard to self-control, by directing the young man's - attention to statements like these : Mad for him was Proetus' royal wife - Anteia Lusting to make him her lover in secret, but could not persuade him, - Since the wise Bellerophon thought more of virtue, - Ibid. vi. 160. - and She at the first - would not consent to a deed so unseemly, Royal Clytemnestra, since her - thoughts were for virtue.Homer, Od. iii. 265. - In these lines the poet attributes to - understanding the cause of self-control; and in his exhortations to battle - he says on the several occasions : Shame, men of Lycia, whither now flee ye - ? Now be ye valiant,Homer, Il. xvi. 422. - and But let all your minds be imbued with Shame and - resentment, for now, as you see, great strife has arisen, - Ibid. xiii. 121. - - and thereby he appears to represent the men of self-control as brave - because of their being ashamed of disgrace, and as able to overcome - pleasures and to undergo dangerous adventures. Timotheus Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Gr. iii. 622; Timotheus, Frag. 14 ed. Wilamowitz. also adopted this - point of view, when in his Persians he urged the Greeks, not infelicitously, - to have Respect for shame that helps the brave in war ; and Aeschylus Aeschylus, Seven Against Thebes, 599; the lines are quoted also, in whole or in part, by Plutarch, Moralia, 8 B, 186 B, and the Life of Aristeides, chap. iii. (320 B). sets - it down as a point of good sense not to be puffed up with fame, nor to be - excited and elated by popular praise, when he writes of Amphiaraus, His wish - is not to seem, but be, the best, Reaping the deep-sown furrow of his mind - In which all goodly counsels have their root. For to take pride in oneself - and in one's state of mind when it is altogether good, marks the man of good - sense; and since everything may be referred to understanding, it follows - that every form of virtue is added unto him from reason and instruction. -

- - -

Now the bee, in accordance with nature's laws, discovers amid the most - pungent flowers and the roughest thorns the smoothest and most palatable - honey ; so children, if they be rightly nurtured amid poetry, will in some - way or other learn to draw some wholesome and profitable doctrine even from - passages that are suspect of what is base and improper. For example, - Agamemnon is suspected of having, for a bribe, released from service in the - army the rich man who made him a present of the mare Aetha, - - Gift so he fare not with him to Troy where the wind - never ceaseth, But enjoy himself at home; for wealth in abundance Zeus had - bestowed upon him.Homer, Il. xxiii. 297. - But, as Aristotle Presumably in his Homeric Questions. - observes, he did quite right in - preferring a good mare to a man of that type. For a coward, and a weakling, - made dissolute by wealth and soft living, is not, I swear, worth a dog or - even an ass. Again, it appears most shameful in Thetis Homer, Il. xxiv. 130. when she incites her - son to pleasures and reminds him of love. But even there we must contrast - Achilles' mastery of himself, that although he is in love with Briseis, who - has come back to him, and although he knows that the end of his life is - near, yet he does not make haste to enjoy love's pleasures, nor, like most - men, mourn for his friend by inactivity and omission of his duties, but as - he refrains from such pleasures because of his grief, so he bestirs himself - in the business of his command. Again, Archilochus cannot be commended, - because while grieving over his sister's husband, who was lost at sea, he is - minded to fight against his grief by means of wine and amusement; he has, - however, alleged a cause that has some appearance of reason, By my tears I - shall not cure it, nor worse make it By pursuing joys, yea, and - festivities.Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Gr. ii. p. 687. - For if he thought that he should not make matters worse - by pursuing joys, yea, and festivities, how shall our present - condition be any the worse if we engage in the study of philosophy or take - part in public life, if we go out to the market-place or down to the - Academy, or if we pursue our farming ? Wherefore the corrected versions - which Cleanthes - and Antisthenes employed are themselves not without - value. Antisthenes, observing that the Athenians had raised an uproar in the - theatre at the line, What's shameful if its doer think not so ? From the Aeolus of Euripides, Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 17. - at once - interpolated, A shame's a shame, though one think so or no and Cleanthes, - taking the lines about riches, Give to your friends, and when your body's - ill, Save it by spending,Euripides, Electra, 428. - rewrote them in this manner, To harlots give, and - when your body's ill Waste it by spending. And Zeno in amending the lines of - Sophocles, Whoever comes to traffic with a king To him is slave however free - he come,Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. 789; quoted by Plutarch also in Moralia, 204 D and the Life of Pompey chap. lxxviii. (661 A). - rewrote it thus : Is not a slave if only free he come, by the word - free as he now uses it designating the man who is - fearless, high-minded, and unhumbled. What, then, is to hinder us also from - encouraging the young to take the better course by means of similar - rejoinders, dealing with the citations something like this : Most enviable - is the lot of him The shaft of whose desire hits what he would.Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Adesp. No. 354. - - Not - so, will be our retort, but - The shaft of whose desire hits what is - good. - For to gain and achieve one's wish, if what one wishes is - not right, is pitiable and unenviable. Again, Not for good and no ill came - thy life from thy sire, Agamemnon, but joy Thou shalt find interwoven with - grief.Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis, 29; quoted also in Moralia, 103 B. - - No, indeed, we shall say, but you must find - joy and not grief if your lot be but moderate, since Not for good and no - ill came thy life from thy sire, Agamemnon; - and : Alas, from God - this evil comes to men, When, knowing what is good, one does it not.From the Chrysippus of Euripides; Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 841; again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 446 A. - - No, rather is it bestial, we reply, and - irrational and pitiable that a man who knows the better should be led - astray by the worse as a result of a weak will and soft living. - And again : 'Tis character persuades, and not the speech.Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii. p. 135; again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 801 C. - - No, - rather it is both character and speech, or character by means of speech, - just as a horseman uses a bridle, or a helmsman uses a rudder, since - virtue has no instrument so humane or so akin to itself as - speech. And: - - To women more than men is he inclined ? Where there is - beauty, either suits him best.Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Adesp. No, 355; again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 766 F. - But it were better to say - Where - there is virtue, either suits him best, of a truth, and there is no - difference in his inclination ; but the man who is influenced by - pleasure or outward beauty to shift his course hither and thither is - incompetent and inconstant. Again : God's doings make the wise - to feel afraid.Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Adesp. No. 356. - - Not so by any means, but God's doings make the wise - to feel assured, but they do make the silly and foolish and ungrateful - to feel afraid, because such persons suspect and fear the power which is - the cause and beginning of every good thing, as though it did - harm. Such then is the system of amendment.

- - -

Chrysippus has rightly indicated how the poet's statements can be given a - wider application, saying that what is serviceable should be taken over and - made to apply to like situations. For when Hesiod Hesiod, Works and Days, 348. says, Nor would even an - ox disappear were there not a bad neighbour, he says the same thing also - about a dog and about an ass and about all things which in a similar way can - disappear. And again when Euripides Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 958; again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 106 D. Cf. CIcero, Ad Atticum, ix. 2a, 2. says, What man who - recks not death can be a slave ? we must understand that he makes the same - statement - also about trouble and disease. For, as physicians who - have learnt the efficacy of a drug adapted to one malady take it over and - use it for every similar malady, so also when a statement has a general and - universal value, we ought not to suffer it to be fixed upon one matter - alone, but we ought to apply it to all the like, and inure the young men to - see its general value, and quickly to carry over what is appropriate, and by - many examples to give themselves training and practice in keen appreciation - ; so that when Menander says, Blest is the man who has both wealth and - sense,From the Bridal Manager of Menander, cf. Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii. Menander, No. 114, and Allinson, Menander in L.C.L. p. 342. - they may think of the statement as holding good also about repute - and leadership and facility in speaking ; and so also that when they hear - the rebuke which was administered by Odysseus to Achilles as he sat among - the maidens in Scyrus, Dost thou, to dim the glory of thy race, Card wool, - son of the noblest man in Greece ? Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Adesp. No. 9; again quoted by Plutarch with variant reading, Moralia, 72 E. - they may imagine it to be addressed - also to the profligate and the avaricious and the heedless and the ill-bred, - as, for example, Dost drink, son of the noblest man in Greece, or gamble, or - follow quail-fighting, The Greeks were very fond, not only of cock-fights, but also of quail-fights. Another form of the latter sport known as o)rtugokopi/a is often referred to by Greek writers and is perhaps best described by Pollus ix. 102 and 107. The quails were put into an enclosed ring, and their courage was tested by tapping them on the head with the finger or by pulling the feathers on op of their heads. If a bird showed fight, its owner won. Plutarch in the present passage, without doubt, uses o)rtugokopi/a to cover all forms of the sport. or petty trading, or the exacting of usury, without - a thought of what is magnanimous or worthy of your noble parentage ? - - - Speak not of Wealth. I can't admire a god Whose ready - favour basest men secure.From the Aeolus of Euripides. Nauck, TGF., Euripides, No. 20; cf. Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, v. 16. - Therefore speak not of repute, either, or of - personal beauty, or the general's cloak, or the priestly crown, to all which - we see the worst of men attaining. For ugly is the brood of cowardice,Nauck, TGF., Adesp. No. 357. - and - the same we may also aver of licentiousness, superstition, envy, and all the - other pestilent disorders. Most excellently has Homer said Paris, poor - wretch, excelling in looks,Homer, Il. iii. 39. - and Hector, excelling in looks - Ibid. xvii. 142. - (for he - declares the man deserving of censure and reproach who is endowed with no - good quality better than personal comeliness), and this we must make to - apply to similar cases, thereby curtailing the pride of those who plume - themselves on things of no worth, and teaching the young to regard as a - disgrace and reproach such phrases as excelling in wealth - and excelling in dinners and excelling in children - or oxen, and in fact even the use of the word - excelling in such a connexion. For we ought to aim at - the pre-eminence which comes from noble qualities, and we should strive to - be first in matters of first importance, and to be great in the greatest: - but the repute which comes from small and petty things is disreputable and - paltry.

-

This illustration at once reminds us to consider carefully instances of - censure and commendation, particularly in Homer's poems. For he gives us - expressly to understand that bodily and adventitious - characteristics are unworthy of serious attention. For, - to begin with, in their greetings and salutations, they do not call one - another handsome or rich or strong, but they employ such fair words as - these— Heaven-sprung son of Laertes, Odysseus of many devices,Homer, Il. ii. 173. - and Hector, - son of Priam, peer of Zeus in counsel, - Ib. vii. 47. - and Son of Peleus, Achilles, great - glory to the Achaeans, - Ib. xix. 216. - and Noble son of Menoetius, in whom my soul finds - pleasure. - Ib. xi. 608. - In the second place they reproach without touching at all upon - bodily characteristics, but they direct their censure to faults : Drunken - sot, with eyes of a dog and the wild deer's courage, - Ib. i. 225. - and Ajax, excelling at - wrangling, ill advised, - Ib. xxiii. 483. - and Why, Idomeneus do you brag so soon ? Unfitting - Is it for you to be braggart, - Ib. xxiii. 474, 478. - and Ajax, blundering boaster, - Ib. xiii. 824. - and finally - Thersites is reproached - Ib. ii. 246. by Odysseus, not as lame or bald or hunchbacked, - but as indiscreet in his language, while on the other hand the mother of - Hephaestus affectionately drew an epithet from his lameness when she - addressed him thus : - - Up with you, club-foot, my child !Homer, Il. xxi. 331. - Thus Homer ridicules - those who feel ashamed of lameness or blindness, in that he does not regard - as blameworthy that which is not shameful, or as shameful that which is - brought about, not through our own acts, but by fortune. Plainly, then, two - great advantages accrue to those who accustom themselves carefully to peruse - works of poetry : the first is conducive to moderation, that we do not - odiously and foolishly reproach anybody with his fortune ; while the second - is conducive to magnanimity, that when we ourselves have met with chances - and changes we be not humiliated or even disturbed, but bear gently with - scoffings and revilings and ridicule, having especially before us the words - of Philemon : There's naught more pleasing or in better taste Than having - strength to bear when men revile.From the Epidicazomenus of Philemon; cf. Kock, Com. Att. Frag. ii. p. 484. - But if anybody is plainly in need of - reprehension, we should reprehend his faults and his giving way to emotion, - after the fashion in which Adrastus of the tragedy, when Alcmaeon said to - him, You are the kin of her who slew her spouse,Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Adesp. No. 358; again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 88 F. - replied And you have - murdered her who gave you birth. - Ibidem. - - For just as those who scourge the clothes - do not - touch the body,Plutarch says (Moralia, 173 D) that Artaxerxes (Longhand) ordained that nobles who had offended should lay off their clothes, and their clothes should be scourged instead of their bodies. Considerable corroborative evidence is cited by Wyttenbach in his note on Moralia, 565 A. so those who scoff at misfortune or low - birth, do but vainly and foolishly assail externals, never touching the soul - or even such matters as really need correction and stinging reproof.

- - -

Moreover, just as in what we have said above we felt that by setting against - cheap and harmful poems the sayings and maxims of statesmen and men of - repute, we were inducing a revolt and revulsion of faith from such poetry, - so whenever we find any edifying sentiment neatly expressed in the poets we - ought to foster and amplify it by means of proofs and testimonies from the - philosophers, at the same time crediting these with the discovery. For this - is right and useful, and our faith gains an added strength and dignity - whenever the doctrines of Pythagoras and of Plato are in agreement with what - is spoken on the stage or sung to the lyre or studied at school, and when - the precepts of Chilon and of Bias lead to the same conclusions as our - children's readings in poetry. Hence it is a duty to make a point of - indicating that the lines You, my child, have not the gift of arms in - battle, Your concern must be for loving arms in wedlock,Homer, Il. v. 428. - and Seeing - that Zeus is wroth if you fight with a man far better,Not found in the MSS. of Homer but often printed as Iliad, xi. 543. See note on 24 C supra. - - do not differ - from Know thyself, but have the same purport as this ; - and the lines, - - Fools ! They know not how much more than all a half is,Hesiod, Works and Days, 40. - - and Evil counsel is the worst for him who gives it - Ibid. 265. - are identical with the - doctrines of Plato in the Gorgias Plato, Gorgias, 473 A ff. and the Republic Plato, Republic, end of Book I. and Book IV.; cf. also 335 B. upon the principle that - to do wrong is worse than to be wronged and to - do evil is more injurious than to suffer evil. And on the words - of Aeschylus, Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Aeschylus, No. 352. - Fear not; great stress of pain is not for long, we ought to - remark that this is the oft repeated and much admired statement originating - with Epicurus,One of the leading principles of Epicurus; cf. Diogenes Laertius, x. 140. namely that great pains shortly spend their force, - and long continued pains have no magnitude. Of these two ideas - Aeschylus has perspicuously stated the one and the other is a corollary - thereto ; for if great and intense pain is not lasting, then that which does - not last is not great or hard to endure. Take these lines of Thespis Nothing by Thespis has been preserved, although a few lines attributed to him were current. See Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag. p. 833.: You - see that Zeus is first of gods in this, Not using lies or boast or silly - laugh ; With pleasure he alone is unconcerned. What difference is there - between this and the statement, for the Divine Being sits throned - afar from pleasure and pain, as Plato Plato, Letters, iii. 315 C. has put it ? Consider - what is said by Bacchylides Bacchylides, i. 21.: - - I shall assert that virtue hath the highest fame, But - wealth with even wretched men is intimate, and again by Euripides Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 959. to much - the same effect: There's naught that I hold In a higher esteem Than a - virtuous life ; 'Twill ever be joined With those that are good. and Why seek - vain possessions ? Do ye think Virtue by wealth to compass ? Wretched amid - your comforts shall ye sit.Plutarch, as was often his practice (e.g. Moralia, 25 C or 646 C), seems to have condensed this quotation. The original of the first portion appears to have been given by Satyrus in his Life of Euripides (Oxyrhynchus Papyri, ix. 142), Why have you mortals acquired in vain many possessions, and think that by wealth you shall compass virtue? What boots it, should you have in your ancestral halls some fragment of Aetna's cliff or Parian stone, gold-wrought, which you have secured? - Cf. Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 960. - Is not this a proof of what the philosophers - say regarding wealth and external advantages, that without virtue they are - useless and unprofitable for their owners ?

-

This method of conjoining and reconciling such sentiments with the doctrines - of philosophers brings the poet's work out of the realm of myth and - impersonation, and, moreover, invests with seriousness its helpful sayings. - Besides, it opens and stimulates in advance the mind of the youth by the - sayings in philosophy. For he comes to it thus not altogether without a - foretaste of it, nor without having heard of it, nor indiscriminately - stuffed with what he has heard always from his mother and nurse, and, I - - dare say, from his father and his tutor as well, who all - beatify and worship the rich, who shudder at death and pain, who regard - virtue without money and repute as quite undesirable and a thing of naught. - But when they hear the precepts of the philosophers, which go counter to - such opinions, at first astonishment and confusion and amazement take hold - of them, since they cannot accept or tolerate any such teaching, unless, - just as if they were now to look upon the sun after having been in utter - darkness, they have been made accustomed, in a reflected light, as it were, - in which the dazzling rays of truth are softened by combining truth with - fable, to face facts of this sort without being distressed, and not to try - to get away from them.The whole passage is a reminiscence of Plato, Republic, vii. chap. 2 (515 E). For if they have previously heard or read in poetry - such thoughts as these : To mourn the babe for th' ills to which he comes; - But him that's dead, and from his labours rests, To bear from home with joy - and cheering words,Celebrated lines from the Cresphontes of Euripides. Nauck, TGF., Eurip. No. 449; cf. Cicero, Tusc. Disp. i. 48. 115. - and What needs have mortals save two things alone, - Demeter's grain and draught from water-jar ?Nauck, ibid., Eurip. No. 892 (again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 1043 E, 1044 B and F). - and O Tyranny, beloved of - barbarous folk, - Ibid., Adesp. o 359. - and And mortal men's felicity Is gained by such of them as - feel least grief, - Ibid., Adesp. No. 360. - they are less confused and disquieted upon hearing at the - lectures of the philosophers that Death is nothing to us, - One of Epicurus's leading principles, Diogenes Laertius, x. 139. - and The wealth allowed by Nature - is definitely limited, - Another of Epicurus's leading principles, Diogenes Laertius, x. 144. and - Happiness and blessedness do not consist in vast possessions or exalted - occupations or offices or authority, but on impassivity, calmness, and a - disposition of the soul that sets its limitations to accord with - Nature. - Also from Epicurus, without much doubt, but not to be found in just this form; cf., however, Diogenes Laertius, x. 139, 141, 144. -

-

Wherefore, both because of these considerations and because of those already - adduced, the young man has need of good pilotage in the matter of reading, - to the end that, forestalled with schooling rather than prejudice, in a - spirit of friendship and goodwill and familiarity, he may be convoyed by - poetry into the realm of philosophy. -

- - - - \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/tlg0007/tlg068/tlg0007.tlg068.perseus-eng2.tracking.json b/data/tlg0007/tlg068/tlg0007.tlg068.perseus-eng2.tracking.json deleted file mode 100644 index 12e87b0fd..000000000 --- a/data/tlg0007/tlg068/tlg0007.tlg068.perseus-eng2.tracking.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14 +0,0 @@ -{ - "epidoc_compliant": false, - "fully_unicode": true, - "git_repo": "canonical-greekLit", - "has_cts_metadata": false, - "has_cts_refsDecl": false, - "id": "2008.01.0142", - "last_editor": "", - "note": "", - "src": "texts/Classics/Plutarch/opensource/plut.068_goodwin_eng.xml", - "status": "migrated", - "target": "canonical-greekLit/data/tlg0007/tlg068/tlg0007.tlg068.perseus-eng2.xml", - "valid_xml": false -} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/tlg0007/tlg068/tlg0007.tlg068.perseus-eng2.xml b/data/tlg0007/tlg068/tlg0007.tlg068.perseus-eng2.xml deleted file mode 100644 index c695f1c1a..000000000 --- a/data/tlg0007/tlg068/tlg0007.tlg068.perseus-eng2.xml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3039 +0,0 @@ - - - -%PersProse; -]> - - - - - Quomodo adolescens poetas audire debeat - Machine readable text - Plutarch - Goodwin&responsibility;&fund.NEH; - About 100Kb&Perseus.publish; - - - Plutarch - Plutarch's Morals. - - Translated from the Greek by several hands. Corrected and revised by - William W. Goodwin, PH. D. - - - Boston - Little, Brown, and Company - Cambridge - Press Of John Wilson and son - 1874 - - 2 - - - - - - - - - - - English - Greek - - - - - 2006 - - GRC - tagging - - - - - - - - How a young man ought to hear poems. - - -

It may be allowed to be a question fit for the determination of those concerning whom Cato said, Their - palates are more sensitive than their hearts, whether that - saying of Philoxenus the poet be true or no, The most - savory flesh is that which is no flesh, and fish that is no fish. - Yet this to me, Marcus Sedatus, is out of question, that - those precepts of philosophy which seem not to be delivered with a designed gravity, such as becomes philosophers, - take most with persons that are very young, and meet - with a more ready acceptance and compliance from them. - Whence it is that they do not only read through Esop's - fables and the fictions of poets and the Abaris of Heraclides and Ariston's Lyco; but they also read such doctrines - as relate to the souls of men, if something fabulous be - mixed with them, with an excess of pleasure that borders on - enthusiasm. Wherefore we are not only to govern their - appetites in the delights of eating and drinking, but also - (and much more) to inure them to a like temperance in - reading and hearing, that, while they make use of pleasure - as a sauce, they may pursue that which is wholesome and - profitable in those things which they read. For neither - can a city be secure if but one gate be left open to receive - the enemy, though all the rest be shut; nor a young man - safe, though he be sufficiently fortified against the assaults - of all other pleasures, whilst he is without any guard against - those of the ear. Yea, the nearer the commerce is betwixt - - - - the delights of that sense and those of the mind and reason, - by so much the more, when he lies open on that side, is he - apt to be debauched and corrupted thereby. Seeing therefore we cannot (and perhaps would not if we could) debar - young men of the size of my Soclarus and thy Cleander - altogether from the reading of poets, yet let us keep the - stricter guard upon them, as those who need a guide to - direct them in their reading more than in their walks. - Upon which consideration, I find myself disposed to send - thee at present in writing that discourse concerning Poetry - which I had lately an occasion to deliver by word of mouth; - that, when thou hast read it over thyself, thou mayst also - make such use of it, if thou judgest it may be serviceable - to that purpose, as those which are engaged to drink hard - do of amethysts (or preservatives against drunkenness),— - that is, that thou mayst communicate it to Cleander, to - prepossess him therewith; seeing he is naturally endowed - with a brisk, piercing, and daring wit, and therefore more - prone to be inveigled by that sort of study.

-

They say of the fish called polypus that - - - His head in one respect is very good, - - But in another very naughty food; - - -

-

because, though it be very luscious to eat, yet it is thought - to disturb the fancy with frightful and confused dreams. - And the like observation may be made concerning poetry, - that it affords sweet and withal wholesome nourishment to - the minds of young men, but yet it contains likewise no - less matter of disturbance and emotion to them that want - a right conduct in the study thereof. For of it also, as well - as of Egypt, may it be said that (to those who will use it) - - - Its over-fertile and luxuriant field - - Medicines and poisons intermixt doth yield; - - -

-

for therein - - - Love with soft passions and rich language drest - - Oft steals the heart out of th' ingenuous breast. - Odyss. IV. 230; Il. XIV. 216. - - -

- -

And indeed such only are endangered thereby, for the - charms of that art ordinarily affect not those that are - downright sots and naturally incapable of learning. Wherefore, when Simonides was asked why of all men he could - not deceive the Thessalians, his answer was, Because they - are not so well bred as to be capable of being cajoled by - me. And Gorgias used to call tragical poems cheats, - wherein he that did cheat was juster than he that did not - cheat, and he that was cheated was wiser than he that was - not cheated.

-

It deserves therefore our consideration, whether we shall - put young men into Epicurus's boat,—wherein, having - their ears stopped with wax, as those of the men of Ithaca - were, they shall be obliged to sail by and not so much as - touch at poetry,—or rather keep a guard on them, so as - to oblige their judgments by principles of right reason to - use it aright, and preserve them from being seduced to - their hurt by that which affords them so much delight. - For neither did Lycurgus, the valiant son of Dryas (as - HomerI1. VI 130. calls him) act like a man of sound reason in the - course which he took to reform his people that were much - inclined to drunkenness, by travelling up and down to destroy all the vines in the country; whereas he should have - ordered that every vine should have a well of water near it, - that (as Plato saith) the drunken deity might be reduced to - temperance by a sober one. For water mixed with wine - takes away the hurtful spirits, while it leaves the useful - ones in it. Neither should we cut down or destroy the - Muses' vine, poetry; but where we perceive it luxuriates - and grows wild through an ungoverned appetite of applause, there ought we to prune away or keep under the - fabulous and theatrical branches thereof; and where we - find any of the Graces linked to any of the Muses,—that - is, where the lusciousness and tempting charms of language - - - - are not altogether barren and unprofitable,—there - let us bring in philosophy to incorporate with it.

-

For as, where the mandrake grows near the vine and so - communicates something of its force thereto, the wine that - is made of its grapes makes the sleep of those that drink - it more refreshing; so doth the tempering poetry with the - principles of philosophy and allaying their roughness with - its fictions render the study of them more easy and the - relish of them more grateful to young learners. Wherefore those that would give their minds to philosophical - studies are not obliged to avoid poetry altogether, but - rather to prepare themselves for philosophy by poems, - accustoming themselves to search for and embrace that - which may profit in that which pleaseth them, and rejecting and discarding that wherein they find nothing of this - nature. For this discrimination is the first step to learning; and when this is attained, then, according to what - Sophocles saith,— - - - To have begun well what we do intend - - Gives hope and prospect of as good an end. - - -

- - -

Let us therefore in the first place possess those whom - we initiate in the study of poetry with this notion (as one - which they ought always to have at hand), that - - - 'Tis frequently the poet's guise - - To intermingle truth with lies;— - - -

-

which they do sometimes with and sometimes against - their wills. They do it with their wills, because they find - strict truth too rigid to comply with that sweetness and - gracefulness of expression, which most are taken with, so - readily as fiction doth. For real truth, though it disgust - never so much, must be told as it is, without alteration; - but that which is feigned in a discourse can easily yield - and shift its garb from the distasteful to that which is more - pleasing. And indeed, neither the measures nor the tropes - nor the grandeur of words nor the aptness of metaphors - - - - nor the harmony of the composition gives such a degree - of elegance and gracefulness to a poem as a well-ordered - and artificial fiction doth. But as in pictures the colors - are more delightful to the eye than the lines, because - those give them a nearer resemblance to the persons they - were made for, and render them the more apt to deceive - the beholder; so in poems we are more apt to be smitten - and fall in love with a probable fiction than with the greatest accuracy that can be observed in measures and phrases, - where there is nothing fabulous or fictitious joined with it. - Wherefore Socrates, being induced by some dreams to attempt something in poetry, and finding himself unapt, by - reason that he had all his lifetime been the champion of - severe truth, to hammer out of his own invention a likely - fiction, made choice of Esop's fables to turn into verse; as - judging nothing to be true poetry that had in it nothing - of falsehood. For though we have known some sacrifices - performed without pipes and dances, yet we own no poetry - which is utterly destitute of fable and fiction. Whence the - verses of Empedocles and Parmenides, the Theriaca of - Nicander, and the sentences of Theognis, are rather to be - accounted speeches than poems, which, that they might not - walk contemptibly on foot, have borrowed from poetry the - chariot of verse, to convey them the more creditably through - the world. Whensoever therefore any thing is spoken in - poems by any noted and eminently famous man, concerning - Gods or Daemons or virtue, that is absurd or harsh, he that - takes such sayings for truths is thereby misled in his apprehension and corrupted with an erroneous opinion. But - he that constantly keeps in his mind and maintains as his - principle that the witchcraft of poetry consists in fiction, - he that can at all turns accost it in this language,— - - - Riddle of art! like which no sphinx beguiles; - - Whose face on one side frowns while th' other smiles! - - Why cheat'st thou, with pretence to make us wise, - - And bid'st sage precepts in a fool's disguise?— - - -

- -

such a one, I say, will take no harm. by it, nor admit from - it any absurd thing into his belief. But when he meets in - poetry with expressions of Neptune's rending the earth to - pieces and discovering the infernal regions,See. Il. XX. 57. he will be - able to check his fears of the reality of any such accident; - and he will rebuke himself for his anger against Apollo for - the chief commander of the Greeks,— - - - Whom at a banquet, whiles he sings his praise - - And speaks him fair, yet treacherously he slays. - From Aeschylus. The whole passage is quoted in Plato's Republic, end of - Book II. (G.) - - - - - - Yea, he will repress his tears for Achilles and Agamemnon, - while they are represented as mourning after their death, - and stretching forth their limber and feeble hands to express their desire to live again. And if at any time the - charms of poetry transport him into any disquieting passions, he will quickly say to himself, as Homer very elegantly (considering the propension of women to listen after - fables) says in his Necyia, or relation of the state of - the dead,— - - - But from the dark dominions speed thy way, - - And climb the steep ascent to upper day; - - To thy chaste bride the wondrous story tell, - - The woes, the horrors, and the laws of hell. - Odyss. XI. 223. - - -

-

Such things as I have touched upon are those which the - poets willingly feign. But more there are which they do - not feign, but believing them themselves as their own - proper judgments, they put fictitious colors upon them to - ingratiate them to us. As when Homer says of Jupiter,— - - - Jove lifts the golden balances, that show - - The fates of mortal men, and things below. - - Here each contending hero's lot he tries, - - And weighs with equal hand their destinies. - - Low sinks the scale surcharged with Hector's fate; - - Heavy with death it sinks, and hell receives the weight. - Il. XXII. 210. - - -

-

To this fable Aeschylus hath accommodated a whole tragedy - - - - which he calls Psychostasia, wherein he introduceth - Thetis and Aurora standing by Jupiter's balances, and - deprecating each of them the death of her son engaged - in a duel. Now there is no man but sees that this fable is - a creature of the poet's fancy, designed to delight or scare - the reader. But this other passage,— - - - Great Jove is made the treasurer of wars; - Il. IV. 84. - - -

-

and this other also,— - - - When a God means a noble house to raze, - - He frames one rather than he'll want a cause: - From the Niobe of Aeschylus, Frag. 151. - - -

-

these passages, I say, express the judgment and belief of - poets who thereby discover and suggest to us the ignorant - or mistaken apprehensions they had of the Deities. Moreover, almost every one knows nowadays, that the portentous fancies and contrivances of stories concerning the state - of the dead are accommodated to popular apprehensions, - —that the spectres and phantasms of burning rivers and - horrid regions and terrible tortures expressed by frightful - names are all mixed with fable and fiction, as poison with - food; and that neither Homer nor Pindar nor Sophocles - ever believed themselves when they wrote at this rate:— - - - There endless floods of shady darkness stream - - From the vast caves, where mother Night doth teem; - - -

-

and, - - - There ghosts o'er the vast ocean's waves did glide, - - By the Leucadian promontory's side; - Odyss. XXIV. 11. - - -

-

and, - - - There from th' unfathomed gulf th' infernal lake - - Through narrow straits recurring tides doth make. - - -

-

And yet, as many of them as deplore death as a lamentable - thing, or the want of burial after death as a calamitous - condition, are wont to break out into expressions of this - nature:— - - - O pass not by, my friend; nor leave me here - - Without a grave, and on that grave a tear; - Odyss. XI. 72. - - -

- -

and, - - - Then to the ghosts the mournful soul did fly, - - Sore grieved in midst of youth and strength to die; - Il. XVI. 856. - - -

-

and again, - - - 'Tis sweet to see the light. O spare me then, - - Till I arrive at th' usual age of men: - - Nor force my unfledged soul from hence, to know - - The doleful state of dismal shades below. - Eurip. Iph. Aul. 1218. - - -

-

These, I say, are the speeches of men persuaded of these - things, as being possessed by erroneous opinions; and - therefore they touch us the more nearly and torment us - inwardly, because we ourselves are full of the same impotent passion from which they were uttered. To fortify us - therefore against expressions of this nature, let this principle continually ring in our ears, that poetry is not at all - solicitous to keep to the strict measure of truth. And - indeed, as to what that truth in these matters is, even - those men themselves who make it their only study to - learn and search it out confess that they can hardly discover any certain footsteps to guide them in that enquiry. - Let us therefore have these verses of Empedocles, in this - case, at hand:— - - - No sight of man's so clear, no ear so quick, - - No mind so piercing, that's not here to seek; - - -

-

as also those of Xenophanes:— - - - The truth about the Gods and world, no man - - E'er was or shall be that determine can; - - -

-

and lastly, that passage concerning Socrates, in Plato, - where he by the solemnity of an oath disclaims all knowledge of those things. For those who perceive that the - searching into such matters makes the heads of philosophers themselves giddy cannot but be the less inclined to - regard what poets say concerning them.

- - -

And we shall fix our young man yet the more if, - when we enter him in the poets, we first describe poetry - - - - to him, and tell him that it is an imitating art and doth in - many respects correspond to painting; not only acquainting - him with that common saying, that poetry is vocal painting and painting silent poetry, but teaching him, moreover, that when we see a lizard or an ape or the face of - a Thersites in a picture, we are surprised with pleasure - and wonder at it, not because of any beauty in the things, - but for the likeness of the draught. For it is repugnant - to the nature of that which is itself foul to be at the same - time fair; and therefore it is the imitation—be the thing - imitated beautiful or ugly—that, in case it do express it - to the life, is commended; and on the contrary, if the - imitation make a foul thing to appear fair, it is dispraised - because it observes not decency and likeness. Now some - painters there are that paint uncomely actions; as Timotheus drew Medea killing her children; Theon, Orestes - murdering his mother; and Parrhasius, Ulysses counterfeiting madness; yea, Chaerephanes expressed in picture - the unchaste converse of women with men. Now in such - cases a young man is to be familiarly acquainted with this - notion, that, when men praise such pictures, they praise - not the actions represented but only the painter's art, - which doth so lively express what was designed in them. - Wherefore, in like manner, seeing poetry many times describes by imitation foul actions and unseemly passions - and manners, the young student must not in such descriptions (although performed never so artificially and commendably) believe all that is said as true or embrace it as - good, but give its due commendation so far only as it suits - the subject treated of. For as, when we hear the grunting - of hogs and the shrieking of pulleys and the rustling of - wind and the roaring of seas, we are, it may be, disturbed - and displeased, and yet when we hear any one imitating - these or the like noises handsomely (as Parmenio did that - of an hog, and Theodorus that of a pulley), we are well - - - - pleased; and as we avoid (as an unpleasing spectacle) the - sight of sick persons and of a lazar full of ulcers, and yet - are delighted to be spectators of the Philoctetes of Aristophon and the Jocasta of Silanion, wherein such wasting and dying persons are well acted; so must the young - scholar, when he reads in a poem of Thersites the buffoon or Sisyphus the whoremaster or Batrachus the bawd - speaking or doing any thing, so praise the artificial managery of the poet, adapting the expressions to the persons, - as withal to look on the discourses and actions so expressed as odious and abominable. For the goodness of - things themselves differs much from the goodness of the - imitation of them; the goodness of the latter consisting - only in propriety and aptness to represent the former. - Whence to foul actions foul expressions are most suitable - and proper. As the shoes of Demonides the cripple - (which, when he had lost them, he wished might suit the - feet of him that stole them) were but unhandsome shoes, - but yet fit for the man they were made for; so we may - say of such expressions as these:— - - - 'Tis worth the while an unjust act to own, - - When it sets him that does it on a throne; - Eurip. Phoeniss. 524. - - - Get the repute of Just for a disguise, - - And in it do all things whence gain may rise; - - - A talent dowry ! Could I close my eyes - - In sleep, or live, if thee I should despise ? - - And should I not in hell tormented be, - - Could I be guilty of profaning thee? - From Menander. - - -

-

These, it is true, are wicked as well as false speeches, but - yet are decent enough in the mouth of an Eteocles, an - Ixion, and an old griping usurer. If therefore we mind - our children that the poets write not such things as praising and approving them, but do really account them base - and vicious and therefore accommodate such speeches to - - - - base and vicious persons, they will never be damnified by - them from the esteem they have of the poets in whom they - meet with them. But, on the contrary, the suspicions insinuated into them of the persons will render the words - and actions ascribed to them suspected for evil, because - proceeding from such evil men. And of this nature is - Homer's representation of Paris, when he describes him - running out of the battle into Helen's bed. For in that he - attributes no such indecent act to any other, but only to - that incontinent and adulterous person, he evidently declares that he intends that relation to import a disgrace - and reproach to such intemperance.

- - -

In such passages therefore we are carefully to observe whether or not the poet himself do anywhere give - any intimation that he dislikes the things he makes such - persons say; which, in the prologue to his Thais Menander does, in these words:— - - - Therefore, my Muse, describe me now a whore, - - Fair, bold, and furnished with a nimble tongue; - - One that ne'er scruples to do lovers wrong; - - That always craves, and denied shuts her door; - - That truly loves no man, yet, for her ends, - - Affection true to every man pretends. - - -

-

But Homer of all the poets does it best. For he doth - beforehand, as it were, bespeak dislike of the evil things - and approbation of the good things he utters. Of the - latter take these instances:— - - - He readily did the occasion take, - - And sweet and comfortable words he spake; - Odyss. VI. 148. - - -

-

- - - By him he stood, and with soft speeches quelled - - The wrath which in his heated bosom swelled. - Il. II. 189. - - -

-

And for the former, he so performs it as in a manner - solemnly to forbid us to use or heed such speeches as - those he mentions, as being foolish and wicked. For example, being to tell us how uncivilly Agamemnon treated - the priest, he premises these words of his own,— - - - - - - Not so Atrides: he with kingly pride - - Repulsed the sacred sire, and thus replied; - Il. I. 24. - - -

-

intimating the insolency and unbecomingness of his answer. And when he attributes this passionate speech to Achilles,— - - - O monster, mix'd of insolence and fear, - - Thou dog in forehead, and in heart a deer! - Il. I. 225. - - -

-

he accompanies it with this censure,— - - - Nor yet the rage his boiling breast forsook, - - Which thus redoubling on Atrides broke; - Il. I. 223. - - -

-

for it was unlikely that speaking in such anger he should - observe any rules of decency.

-

And he passeth like censures on actions. As on - Achilles's foul usage of Hector's carcass,— - - - Gloomy he said, and (horrible to view) - - Before the bier the bleeding Hector threw. - Il. XXIII. 24. - - -

-

And in like manner he doth very decently shut up relations of things said or done, by adding some sentence - wherein he declares his judgment of them. As when he - personates some of the Gods saying, on the occasion of - the adultery of Mars and Venus discovered by Vulcan's - artifice,— - - - See the swift God o'ertaken by the lame ! - - Thus ill acts prosper not, but end in shame. - Odyss. VIII. 329. - - -

-

And thus concerning Hecter's insolent boasting he says,— - - - With such big words his mind proud sector eased, - - But venerable Juno lie displeased. - Il. VIII. 198. - - -

-

And when he speaks of Pandarus's shooting, he adds,— - - - He heard, and madly at the motion pleased, - - His polish'd bow with hasty rashness seized. - Il. IV. 104. - - -

-

Now these verbal intimations of the minds and judgments - of poets are not difficult to be understood by any one that - will heedfully observe them. But besides these, they give - - - - us other hints from actions. As Euripides is reported, - when some blamed him for bringing such an impious and - flagitious villain as Ixion upon the stage, to have given - this answer: But yet I brought him not off till I had fastened him to a torturing wheel. This same way of teaching by mute actions is to be found in Homer also, affording us useful contemplations upon those very fables which - are usually most disliked in him. These some men offer - force to, that they may reduce them to allegories (which - the ancients called u(po/noiai), and tell us that Venus committing adultery with Mars, discovered by the Sun, is to be - understood thus: that when the star called Venus is in - conjunction with that which hath the name of Mars, bastardly births are produced, and by the Sun's rising and - discovering them they are not concealed. So will they - have Juno's dressing herself so accurately to tempt Jupiter, - and her making use of the girdle of Venus to inflame his - love, to be nothing else but the purification of that part of - the air which draweth nearest to the nature of fire. As - if we were not told the meaning of those fables far better - by the poet himself. For he teacheth us in that of Venus, - if we heed it, that light music and wanton songs and discourses which suggest to men obscene fancies debauch - their manners, and incline them to an unmanly way of - living in luxury and wantonness, of continually haunting - the company of women, and of being - - - Given to fashions, that their garb may please, - - Hot baths, and couches where they loll at ease. - - -

-

And therefore also he brings in Ulysses directing the musician thus,— - - - Leave this, and sing the horse, out of whose womb - - The gallant knights that conquered Troy did come; - Odyss. VIII. 249 and 492. - - -

-

evidently teaching us that poets and musicians ought to - receive the arguments of their songs from sober and understanding - - - - men. And in the other fable of Juno he excellently shows that the conversation of women with men. - and the favors they receive from them procured by sorcery, - witchcraft, or other unlawful arts, are not only short, unstable, and soon cloying, but also in the issue easily turned - to loathing and displeasure, when once the pleasure is - over. For so Jupiter there threatens Juno, when he tells - her,— - - - Hear this, remember, and our fury dread, - - Nor pull the unwilling vengeance on thy head; - - Lest arts and blandishments successless prove - - Thy soft deceits and well dissembled love. - Il. XV. 32. - - -

-

For the fiction and representation of evil acts, when it - withal acquaints us with the shame and damage befalling - the doers, hurts not but rather profits him that reads them. - For which end philosophers make use of examples for our - instruction and correction out of historical collections; - and poets do the very same thing, but with this difference, - that they invent fabulous examples themselves. There - was one Melanthius, who (whether in jest or earnest he - said it, it matters not much) affirmed that the city of - Athens owed its preservation to the dissensions and factions that were among the orators, giving withal this - reason for his assertion, that thereby they were kept from - inclining all of them to one side, so that by means of the - differences among those statesmen there were always some - that drew the saw the right way for the defeating of destructive counsels. And thus it is too in the contradictions - among poets, which, by lessening the credit of what they - say, render them the less powerful to do mischief; and - therefore, when comparing one saying with another we - discover their contrariety, we ought to adhere to the better - side. As in these instances:— - - - The Gods, my son, deceive poor men oft-times. - - - Ans. 'Tis easy, sir, on God to lay our crimes. - - -

- -

- - - 'Tis comfort to thee to be rich, is't not! - - - Ans. No, sir, 'tis bad to be a wealthy sot. - - - Die rather than such toilsome pains to take. - - - Ans. To call God's service toil's a foul mistake. - - -

-

Such contrarieties as these are easily solved, if (as I said) - we teach youth to judge aright and to give the better saying preference. But if we chance to meet with any absurd - passages without any others at their heels to confute them, - we are then to overthrow them with such others as elsewhere are to be found in the author. Nor must we be - offended with the poet or grieved at him, but only at the - speeches themselves, which he utters either according to - the vulgar manner of speaking or, it may be, but in drollery. So, when thou readest in Homer of Gods thrown - out of heaven headlong one by another, or Gods wounded - by men and quarrelling and brawling with each other, thou - mayest readily, if thou wilt, say to him,— - - - Sure thy invention here was sorely out, - - Or thou hadst said far better things, no doubt; - Il. VIII. 358. - - -

-

yea, and thou dost so elsewhere, and according as thou - thinkest, to wit, in these passages of thine:— - - - The Gods, removed from all that men doth grieve, - - A quiet and contented life do live. - - - Herein the immortal Gods for ever blest - - Feel endless joys and undisturbed rest. - - -

-

- - - The Gods, who have themselves no cause to grieve, - - For wretched man a web of sorrow weave. - Il. VI. 138; Odyss. VI. 46; Il. XXIV. 526. - - -

-

For these argue sound and true opinions of the Gods; but - those other were only feigned to raise passions in men. - Again, when Euripides speaks at this rate,— - - - The Gods are better than we men by far, - - And yet by them we oft deceived are,— - - -

-

we may do well to quote him elsewhere against himself, - where he says better,— - - - If Gods do wrong, surely no Gods there are. - - -

- -

So also, when Pindar saith bitterly and keenly, - - - No law forbids us any thing to do, - - Whereby a mischief may befall a foe, - - -

-

tell him: But, Pindar, thou thyself sayest elsewhere, - - - The pleasure which injurious acts attends - - Always in bitter consequences ends. - - -

-

And when Sophocles speaks thus, - - - Sweet is the gain, wherein to lie and cheat - - Adds the repute of wit to what we get, - - -

-

tell him: But we have heard thee say far otherwise, - - - When the account's cast up, the gain's but poor - - Which by a lying tongue augments the store. - - -

-

And as to what he saith of riches, to wit: - - - Wealth, where it minds to go, meets with no stay; - - For where it finds not, it can make a way; - - Many fair offers doth the poor let go, - - And lose his prize because his purse is low; - - The fair tongue makes, where wealth can purchase it, - - The foul face beautiful, the fool a wit:— - - -

-

here the reader may set in opposition divers other sayings - of the same author. For example, - - - From honor poverty doth not debar, - - Where poor men virtuous and deserving are. - - - Whate'er fools think, a man is ne'er the worse - - If he be wise, though with an empty purse. - - - The comfort which he gets who wealth enjoys, - - The vexing care by which 'tis kept destroys. - - -

-

And Menander also somewhere magnifies a voluptuous - life, and inflames the minds of vain persons with these - amorous strains, - - - The glorious sun no living thing doth see, - - But what's a slave to love as well as we. - - -

-

But yet elsewhere, on the other side, he fastens on us and - pulls us back to the love of virtue, and checks the rage - of lust, when he says thus, - - - The life that is dishonorably spent, - - Be it ne'er so pleasant, yields no true content. - - -

- -

For these lines are contrary to the former, as they are also - better and more profitable; so that by comparing them - considerately one cannot but either be inclined to the better side, or at least flag in the belief of the worse.

-

But now, supposing that any of the poets themselves - afford no such correcting passages to solve what they have - said amiss, it will then be advisable to confront them with - the contrary sayings of other famous men, and therewith to - sway the scales of our judgment to the better side. As, - when Alexis tempts to debauchery in these verses, - - - The wise man knows what of all things is best, - - Whilst choosing pleasure he slights all the rest. - - He thinks life's joys complete in these three sorts, - - To drink and eat, and follow wanton sports; - - And what besides seems to pretend to pleasure, - - If it betide him, counts it over measure, - - -

-

we must remember that Socrates said the contrary, to wit: - Bad men live that they may eat and drink, whereas good - men eat and drink that they may live. And against the - man that wrote in this manner, - - - He that designs to encounter with a knave, - - An equal stock of knavery must have, - - -

-

seeing he herein advises us to follow other vicious examples, that of Diogenes may well be returned, who being - asked by what means a man might revenge himself upon - his enemy, answered, By becoming himself a good and - honest man. And the same Diogenes may be quoted also - against Sophocles, who, writing thus of the sacred mysteries, caused great grief and despair to multitudes of - men: - - - Most happy they whose eyes are blest to see - - The mysteries which here contained be, - - Before they die ! For only they have joy - - In th' other world; the rest all ills annoy. - - -

-

This passage being read to Diogenes, What then! says - he, shall the condition of Pataecion, the notorious robber, - after death be better than that of Epaminondas, merely for - - - - his being initiated in these mysteries? In like manner, - when one Timotheus on the theatre, in the praise of the - Goddess Diana, called her furious, raging, possessed, - mad, Cinesias presently cried out to him aloud, May thy - daughter, Timotheus, be such a Goddess! And witty - also was that of Bion to Theognis, who said,— - - - One can not say nor do, if poor he be; - - His tongue is bound to th' peace, as well as he. - Theognis, vss. 177, 178. - - -

-

How comes it to pass then, said he, Theognis, that thou - thyself being so poor pratest and gratest our ears in this - manner?

- - -

Nor are we to omit in our reading those hints which, - from some other words or phrases bordering on those that - offend us, may help to rectify our apprehensions. But as - physicians use cantharides, believing that, though their - bodies be deadly poison, yet their feet and wings are medicinal and can even kill the poison of the flies themselves, - so must we deal with poems. If any noun or verb near at - hand may assist to the correction of any such saying, and - preserve us from putting a bad construction upon it, we - should take hold of it and employ it to assist a more favorable interpretation. As some do in reference to those - verses of Homer,— - - - Sorrows and tears most commonly are seen - - To be the Gods' rewards to wretched men :— - - - The Gods, who have no cause themselves to grieve, - - For wretched man a web of sorrow weave. - Odyss. IV. 197; Il. XXIV. 526. - - -

-

For, they say, he says not of men simply, or of all men, - that the Gods weave for them the fatal web of a sorrowful - life; but he affirms it only of foolish and imprudent men, - whom, because their vices make them such, he therefore - calls wretched and miserable.

- - -

Another way whereby those passages which are suspicious in poets may be transferred to a better sense may - - - - be taken from the common use of words, which a young - man ought indeed to be more exercised in than in the use - of strange and obscure terms. For it will be a point of - philology which it will not be unpleasant to him to understand, that when he meets with r(igedanh/ in a poet, that word - signifies an evil death; for the Macedonians use the word - da/nos to signify death. So the Aeolians call victory gotten - by patient endurance of hardships kammoni/h; and the Dryopians call daemons po/poi.

-

But of all things it is most necessary, and no less profitable if we design to receive profit and not hurt from the - poets, that we understand how they make use of the names - of Gods, as also of the terms of Evil and Good; and what - they mean by Fortune and Fate; and whether these words - be always taken by them in one and the same sense or - rather in various senses, as also many other words are. - For so the word oi)=kos sometimes signifies a material house, - as, Into the high-roofed house; and sometimes estate, as, - My house is devoured. So the word bo/otos sometimes signifies life, and sometimes wealth. And a)lu/ein is sometimes - taken for being uneasy and disquieted in mind, as in - - w(s e)/faq' h( d' a)lu/ous' a)pebh/sato, tei/reto d' ai)nw=s, - Il. V. 352. - - - - and elsewhere for boasting and rejoicing, as in - - )\H a)lu/eis, dti )=Iron e)ne/khsas to\n a)lh/thn. - Odyss. XVIII. 333. - - - - In like manner qoa/zein signifies either to move, as in Euripides when he saith, - - Kh=tos qoa/zon e)k )Atlantikh=s a(lo/s,— - -

-

or to sit, as in Sophocles when he writes thus, - - - Ti/nas po/q' e(/dras ta/sde moi qoa/zete, - - (Ikthri/ois kla/doisin e)cestemme/noi. - Soph. Oed. Tyr. 2. - - -

-

It is elegant also when they adapt to the present matter, as grammarians teach, the use of words which are commonly of another signification. As here:— - - - - - Nh=' o)li/ghn ai/nei=n, mega/lh| d'ni\ forti/a qe/sqai. - -

-

For here ai)nei=n signifies to praise (instead of e)painei=n), and to - praise is used for to refuse. So in conversation it is common with us to say, kalw=s e)/xei, it is well (i.e., No, I thank - you), and to bid any thing fare well (xai/rein); by which forms - of speech we refuse a thing which we do not want, or receive it not, but still with a civil compliment. So also - some say that Proserpina is called e)painh/ in the notion of - paraithth/, to be deprecated, because death is by all men - shunned.

-

And the like distinction of words we ought to observe - also in things more weighty and serious. To begin with - the Gods, we should teach our youth that poets, when they - use the names of Gods, sometimes mean properly the - Divine Beings so called, but otherwhiles understand by - those names certain powers of which the Gods are the - donors and authors, they having first led us into the use of - them by their own practice. As when Archilochus prays, - - - King Vulcan, hear thy suppliant, and grant - - That which thou'rt wont to give and I to want, - - -

-

it is plain that he means the God himself whom he invokes. But when elsewhere he bewails the drowning of - his sister's husband, who had not obtained lawful burial, - and says, - - - Had Vulcan his fair limbs to ashes turned, - - I for his loss had with less passion mourned, - - -

-

he gives the name of Vulcan to the fire and not to the - Deity. Again, Euripides, when he says, - - - No; by great Jove I swear, enthroned on high, - - And bloody Mars, - Eurip. Phoeniss. 1006. - - -

-

means the Gods themselves who bare those names. But - when Sophocles saith, - - - Blind Mars doth mortal men's affairs confound, - - As the swine's snout doth quite deface the ground, - - -

- -

we are to understand the word Mars to denote not the God - so called, but war. And by the same word we are to understand also weapons made of hardened brass, in those verses - of Homer, - - - These are the gallant men whose noble blood - - Keen Mars did shed near swift Scamander's flood. - Il. VII. 329. - - -

-

Wherefore, in conformity to the instances given, we must - conceive and bear in mind that by the names of Jupiter - also sometimes they mean the God himself, sometimes Fortune, and oftentimes also Fate. For when they say,— - - - Great Jupiter, who from the lofty hill - - Of Ida govern'st all the world at will; - Il. III. 276. - - -

-

- - - That wrath which hurled to Pluto's gloomy realm - - The souls of mighty chiefs :— - - Such was the sovereign doom, and such the will of Jove; - Il. I. 3 and 5. - - -

-

- - - For who (but who himself too fondly loves) - - Dares lay his wisdom in the scale with Jove's?— - - -

-

they understand Jupiter himself. But when they ascribe - the event of all things done to Jupiter as the cause, saying - of him,— - - - Many brave souls to hell Achilles sent, - - And Jove's design accomplished in th' event,— - - -

-

they mean by Jove no more but Fate. For the poet doth - not conceive that God contrives mischief against mankind, - but he soundly declares the mere necessity of the things - themselves, to wit, that prosperity and victory are destined - by Fate to cities and armies and commanders who govern - themselves with sobriety, but if they give way to passions - and commit errors, thereby dividing and crumbling themselves into factions, as those of whom the poet speaks did, - they do unhandsome actions, and thereby create great disturbances, such as are attended with sad consequences. - - - For to all unadvised acts, in fine, - - The Fates unhappy issues do assign. - From Euripides. - - -

-

But when Hesiod brings in Prometheus thus counselling - his brother Epimetheus, - - - - - - Brother, if Jove to thee a present make, - - Take heed that from his hands thou nothing take, - Hesiod, Works and Days, 86. - - -

-

he useth the name of Jove to express Fortune; for he calls - the good things which come by her (such as riches, and - marriages, and empires, and indeed all external things the - enjoyment whereof is unprofitable to them who know not - how to use them well) the gifts of Jove. And therefore he - adviseth Epimetheus (an ill man, and a fool withal) to stand - in fear of and to guard himself from prosperity, as that - which would be hurtful and destructive to him.

-

Again, where he saith, - - - Reproach thou not a man for being poor; - - His poverty's God's gift, as is thy store, - Hesiod, Works and Days, 717. - - -

-

he calls that which befalls men by Fortune God's gift, and - intimates that it is an unworthy thing to reproach any man - for that poverty which he falls into by Fortune, whereas - poverty is then only a matter of disgrace and reproach - when it is attendant on sloth and idleness, or wantonness - and prodigality. For, before the name of Fortune was - used, they knew there was a powerful cause, which moved - irregularly and unlimitedly and with such a force that no - human reason could avoid it; and this cause they called by - the names of Gods. So we are wont to call divers things - and qualities and discourses, and even men themselves, - divine. And thus may we rectify many such sayings concerning Jupiter as would otherwise seem very absurd. As - these, for instance:— - - - Before Jove's door two fatal hogsheads, filled - - With human fortunes, good and bad luck yield:— - Il. XXIV. 527 - - -

-

- - - Of violated oaths Jove took no care, - - But spitefully both parties crushed by war:— - Il. VII. 69 - - -

-

- - - To Greeks and Trojans both this was the rise - - Of mischief, suitable to Jove's device. - Odyss. VIII. 81. - - -

- -

These passages we are to interpret as spoken concerning - Fortune or Fate, of the causality of both which no account - can be given by us, nor do their effects fall under our power. - But where any thing is said of Jupiter that is suitable, - rational, and probable, there we are to conceive that the - names of that God is used properly. As in these instances:— - - - Through others' ranks he conquering did range, - - But shunned with Ajax any blows t' exchange; - - But Jove's displeasure on him he had brought, - - Had he with one so much his better fought. - Il. XI. 540. - - - For though great matters are Jove's special care, - - Small things t' inferior daemons trusted are. - - -

-

And other words there are which the poets remove and - translate from their proper sense by accommodation to - various things, which deserve also our serious notice. Such - a one, for instance, is a)reth/, virtue. For because virtue - does not only render men prudent, just, and good, both in - their words and deeds, but also oftentimes purchaseth to - them honor and power, therefore they call likewise these - by that name. So we are wont to call both the olive-tree - and the fruit e)lai/a, and the oak-tree and its acorn fhgo/s, - communicating the name of the one to the other. Therefore, when our young man reads in the poets such passages - as these,— - - - This law th' immortal Gods to us have set, - - That none arrive at virtue but by sweat; - Hesiod, Works and Days, 289. - - -

-

- - - The adverse troops then did the Grecians stout - - By their mere virtue profligate and rout; - Il. XI. 90. - - - If now the Fates determined have our death, - - To virtue we'll consign our parting breath;— - - -

-

let him presently conceive that these things are spoken of - that most excellent and divine habit in us which we understand to be no other than right reason, or the highest - attainment of the reasonable nature, and most agreeable - - - - to the constitution thereof. And again, when he reads - this, - - - Of virtue Jupiter to one gives more, - - And lessens, when he lifts, another's store; - - -

-

and this, - - - Virtue and honor upon wealth attend; - Il. XX. 242; Hesiod, Works and Days, 313. - - - - - - let him not sit down in an astonishing admiration of rich - men, as if they were enabled by their wealth to purchase - virtue, nor let him imagine that it is in the power of Fortune to increase or lessen his own wisdom; but let him - conceive that the poet by virtue meant either glory or power - or prosperity or something of like import. For poets use - the same ambiguity also in the word kako/ths, evil, which - sometimes in them properly signifies a wicked and malicious disposition of mind, as in that of Hesiod, - - - Evil is soon acquired; for everywhere - - There's plenty on't and t'all men's dwellings near; - Hesiod, Works and Days, 287. - - -

-

and sometimes some evil accident or misfortune, as when - Homer says, - - - Sore evils, when they haunt us in our prime, - - Hasten old age on us before our time. - Odyss. XIX. 360. - - -

-

So also in the word eu)daimoni/a, he would be sorely deceived - who should imagine that, wheresoever he meets with it in - poets, it means (as it does in philosophy) a perfect habitual - enjoyment of all good things or the leading a life every - way agreeable to Nature, and that they do not withal by - the abuse of such words call rich men happy or blessed, - and power or glory felicity. For, though Homer rightly - useth terms of that nature in this passage,— - - - Though of such great estates I am possest, - - Yet with true inward joy I am not blest; - Odyss. IV. 93. - - -

-

and Menander in this,— - - - So great's th' estate I am endowed withal: - - All say I'm rich, but none me happy call;— - - -

- -

yet Euripides discourseth more confusedly and perplexedly - when he writes after this manner,— - - - May I ne'er live that grievous blessed life;— - - -

-

- - - But tell me, man, why valuest thou so high - - Th' unjust beatitude of tyranny ? - Eurip. Medea, 598; Phoeniss. 549. - - -

-

except, as I said, we allow him the use of these words in a - metaphorical and abusive sense. But enough hath been - spoken of these matters.

- - -

Nevertheless, this principle is not once only but often - to be inculcated and pressed on young men, that poetry, - when it undertakes a fictitious argument by way of imitation, though it make use of such ornament and illustration - as suit the actions and manners treated of, yet disclaims not - all likelihood of truth, seeing the force of imitation, in - order to the persuading of men, lies in probability. Wherefore such imitation as does not altogether shake hands with - truth carries along with it certain signs of virtue and vice - mixed together in the actions which it doth represent. And - of this nature is Homer's poetry, which totally bids adieu - to Stoicism, the principles whereof will not admit any vice - to come near where virtue is, nor virtue to have any thing to - do where any vice lodgeth, but affirms that he that is not - a wise man can do nothing well, and he that is so can do - nothing amiss. Thus they determine in the schools. But - in human actions and the affairs of common life the judgment of Euripides is verified, that - - - Virtue and vice ne'er separately exist, - - But in the same acts with each other twist. - From the Aeolus of Euripides. - - -

-

Next, it is to be observed that poetry, waiving the truth of - things, does most labor to beautify its fictions with variety and - multiplicity of contrivance. For variety bestows upon fable - all that is pathetical, unusual, and surprising, and thereby - makes it more taking and graceful; whereas what is void of - variety is unsuitable to the nature of fable, and so raiseth no - - - - passions at all. Upon which design of variety it is, that the - poets never represent the same persons always victorious or - prosperous or acting with the same constant tenor of virtue ;—yea, even the Gods themselves, when they engage - in human actions, are not represented as free from passions - and errors;—lest, for the want of some difficulties and - cross passages, their poems should be destitute of that - briskness which is requisite to move and astonish the minds - of men.

- - -

These things therefore so standing, we should, when - we enter a young man into the study of the poets, endeavor to free his mind from that degree of esteem of the - good and great personages in them described as may incline - him to think them to be mirrors of wisdom and justice, the - chief of princes, and the exemplary measures of all virtue - and goodness. For he will receive much prejudice, if he - shall approve and admire all that comes from such persons - as great, if he dislike nothing in them himself, nor will - endure to hear others blame them, though for such words - and actions as the following passages import:— - - - Oh! would to all the immortal powers above, - - Apollo, Pallas, and almighty Jove! - - That not one Trojan might be left alive, - - And not a Greek of all the race survive. - - Might only we the vast destruction shun, - - And only we destroy the accursed town! - - -

-

- - - Her breast all gore, with lamentable cries, - - The bleeding innocent Cassandra dies, - - Murdered by Clytemnestra's faithless hand: - - -

-

- - - Lie with thy father's whore, my mother said, - - That she th' old man may loathe; and I obeyed: - - -

-

- - - Of all the Gods, O father Jove, there's none - - Thus given to mischief but thyself alone. - Il. XVI. 97; Odyss. XI. 421; Il. IX. 452; Il. III. 365. - - -

-

Our young man is to be taught not to commend such - things as these, no, nor to show the nimbleness of his wit - or subtlety in maintaining an argument by finding out plausible colors and pretences to varnish over a bad matter. But - - - - we should teach him rather to judge that poetry is an - imitation of the manners and lives of such men as are not - perfectly pure and unblamable, but such as are tinctured - with passions, misled by false opinions, and muffled with - ignorance; though oftentimes they may, by the help of a - good natural temper, change them for better qualities. - For the young man's mind, being thus prepared and disposed, will receive no damage by such passages when he - meets with them in poems, but will on the one side be - elevated with rapture at those things which are well said - or done, and on the other, will not entertain but dislike - those which are of a contrary character. But he that admires and is transported with every thing, as having his - judgment enslaved by the esteem he hath for the names of - heroes, will be unawares wheedled into many evil things, - and be guilty of the same folly with those who imitate the - crookedness of Plato or the lisping of Aristotle. Neither - must he carry himself timorously herein, nor, like a superstitious person in a temple, tremblingly adore all he meets - with; but use himself to such confidence as may enable - him openly to pronounce, This was ill or incongruously - said, and, That was bravely and gallantly spoken. For example, Achilles in Homer, being offended at the spinning - out that war by delays, wherein he was desirous by feats - of arms to purchase to himself glory, calls the soldiers together when there was an epidemical disease among them. - But having himself some smattering skill in physic, and - perceiving after the ninth day, which useth to be decretory - in such cases, that the disease was no usual one nor proceeding from ordinary causes, when he stands up to speak, - he waives applying himself to the soldiers, and addresseth - himself as a councillor to the general, thus:— - - - Why leave we not the fatal Trojan shore, - - And measure back the seas we cross'd before? - For this and the four following quotations, see Il. I. 59, 90, 220, 349; IX. 458. - - -

- -

And he spake well, and with due moderation and decorum. - But when the soothsayer Chalcas had told him that he - feared the wrath of the most potent among the Grecians, - after an oath that while he lived no man should lay violent - hands on him, he adds, but not with like wisdom and - moderation, - - - Not e'en the chief by whom our hosts are led, - - The king of kings, shall touch that sacred head; - - -

-

in which speech he declares his low opinion or rather his - contempt of his chief commander. And then, being farther - provoked, he drew his weapon with a design to kill him, - which attempt was neither good nor expedient. And therefore by and by he repented his rashness,— - - - He said, observant of the blue-eyed maid; - - Then in the sheath returned the shining blade; - - -

-

wherein again he did rightly and worthily, in that, though - he could not altogether quell his passion, yet he restrained - and reduced it under the command of reason, before it - brake forth into such an irreparable act of mischief. Again, - even Agamemnon himself talks in that assembly ridiculously, but carries himself more gravely and more like a - prince in the matter of Chryseis. For whereas Achilles, - when his Briseis was taken away from him, - - - In sullenness withdraws from all his friends, - - And in his tent his time lamenting spends; - - -

-

Agamemnon himself hands into the ship, delivers to her - friends, and so sends from him, the woman concerning - whom a little before he declared that he loved her better - than his wife; and in that action did nothing unbecoming or savoring of fond affection. Also Phoenix, when - his father bitterly cursed him for having to do with one - that was his own harlot, says, - - - Him in my rage I purposed to have killed, - - But that my land some God in kindness held; - - And minded me that Greeks would taunting say, - - Lo, here's the man that did his father slav. - - -

- -

It is true that Aristarchus was afraid to permit these verses - to stand in the poet, and therefore censured them to be - expunged. But they were inserted by Homer very aptly - to the occasion of Phoenix's instructing Achilles what a - pernicious thing anger is, and what foul acts men do by its - instigation, while they are capable neither of making use - of their own reason nor of hearing the counsel of others. - To which end he also introduceth Meleager at first highly - offended with his citizens, and afterwards pacified; justly - therein reprehending disordered passions, and praising it - as a good and profitable thing not to yield to them, but to - resist and overcome them, and to repent when one hath - been overcome by them.

-

Now in these instances the difference is manifest. But - where a like clear judgment cannot be passed, there we - are to settle the young man's mind thus, by way of distinction. If Nausicaa, having cast her eyes upon Ulysses, - a stranger, and feeling the same passion for him as Calypso - had before, did (as one that was ripe for a husband) out - of wantonness talk with her maidens at this foolish rate,— - - - O Heaven ! in my connubial hour decree - - This man my spouse, or such a spouse as he! - Odyss. VI. 251. - - -

-

she is blameworthy for her impudence and incontinence. - But if, perceiving the man's breeding by his discourse, and - admiring the prudence of his addresses, she rather wisheth - to have such a one for a husband than a merchant or a - dancing gallant of her fellow-citizens, she is to be commended. And when Ulysses is represented as rejoicing at - Penelope's jocular conversation with her wooers, and - at their presenting her with rich garments and other ornaments, - - - Because she cunningly the fools cajoled, - - And bartered light words for their heavy gold; - Odyss. XVIII. 282. - - -

-

if that joy were occasioned by greediness and covetous - - - - ness, he discovers himself to be a more sordid prostituter - of his own wife than Poliager is wont to be represented on - the stage to have been, of whom it is said,— - - - Happy man he, whose wife, like Capricorn, - - Stores him with riches from a golden horn ! - - -

-

But if through foresight he thought thereby to get them - the more within his power, as being lulled asleep in security for the future by the hopes she gave them at present, - this rejoicing, joined with confidence in his wife, was rational. Again, when he is brought in numbering the goods - which the Phaeacians had set on shore together with himself and departed; if indeed, being himself left in such a - solitude, so ignorant where he was, and having no security there for his own person, he is yet solicitous for his - goods, lest - - - The sly Phaeacians, when they stole to sea, - - Had stolen some part of what they brought away; - Odyss. XIII. 216. - - -

-

the covetousness of the man deserved in truth to be pitied, - or rather abhorred. But if, as some say in his defence, - being doubtful whether or no the place where he was - landed were Ithaca, he made use of the just tale of his - goods to infer thence the honesty of the Phaeacians,—because it was not likely they would expose him in a strange - place and leave him there with his goods by him untouched, - so as to get nothing by their dishonesty,—then he makes - use of a very fit test for this purpose, and deserves commendation for his wisdom in that action. Some also there - are who find fault with that passage of the putting him on - shore when he was asleep, if it really so happened, and - they tell us that the people of Tuscany have still a traditional story among them concerning Ulysses, that he was - naturally sleepy, and therefore a man whom many men - could not freely converse with. But if his sleep was but - feigned, and he made use of this pretence only of a natural - - - - infirmity, by counterfeiting a nap, to hide the strait he was - in at that time in his thoughts, betwixt the shame of sending away the Phaeacians without giving them a friendly - collation and hospitable gifts, and the fear he had of being - discovered to his enemies by the treating such a company - of men together, they then approve it.

-

Now, by showing young men these things, we shall preserve them from being carried away to any corruption in - their manners. and dispose them to the election and imitation of those that are good, as being before instructed - readily to disapprove those and commend these. But this - ought with the most care to be done in the reading of - tragedies wherein probable and subtle speeches are made - use of in the most foul and wicked actions. For that is - not always true which Sophocles saith, that - From naughty acts good words can ne'er proceed. -

-

For even he himself is wont to apply pleasant reasonings - and plausible arguments to those manners and actions - which are wicked or unbecoming. And in another of - his fellow-tragedians, we may see even Phaedra herself - represented as justifying her unlawful affection for Hippolytus by accusing Theseus of ill-carriage towards her. And - in his Troades, he allows Helen the same liberty of speech - against Hecuba, whom she judgeth to be more worthy of - punishment than herself for her adultery, because she was - the mother of Paris that tempted her thereto. A young - man therefore must not be accustomed to think any thing - of that nature handsomely or wittily spoken, nor to be - pleased with such colorable inventions; but rather more to - abhor such words as tend to the defence of wanton acts - than the very acts themselves.

- - -

And lastly, it will be useful likewise to enquire into - the cause why each thing is said. For so Cato, when he - was a boy, though he was wont to be very observant of all - his master's commands, yet withal used to ask the cause - - - - or reason why he so commanded. But poets are not to be - obeyed as pedagogues and lawgivers are, except they have - reason to back what they say. And that they will not - want, when they speak well; and if they speak ill, what - they say will appear vain and frivolous. But nowadays - most young men very briskly demand the reason of such - trivial speeches as these, and enquire in what sense they - are spoken: - - - It bodes ill luck, when vessels you set up, - - To place the ladle on the mixing-cup. - - - Who from his chariot to another's leaps, - - Seldom his seat without a combat keeps. - Hesiod, Works and Days, 744; Il. IV. 306. - - -

-

But to those of greater moment they give credence without - examination, as to those that follow: - - - The boldest men are daunted oftentimes, - - When they're reproached with their parents' crimes: - Eurip. Hippol. 424. - - - When any man is crushed by adverse fate, - - His spirit should be low as his estate. - - -

-

And yet such speeches relate to manners, and disquiet - men's lives by begetting in them evil opinions and unworthy sentiments, except they have learned to return - answer to each of them thus: Wherefore is it necessary - that a man who is crushed by adverse fate should have a - dejected spirit? Yea, why rather should he not struggle - against Fortune, and raise himself above the pressures of - his low circumstances? Why, if I myself be a good and - wise son of an evil and foolish father, does it not rather - become me to bear myself confidently upon the account of - my own virtue, than to be dejected and dispirited because - of my father's defects? For he that can encounter such - speeches and oppose them after this manner, not yielding - himself up to be overset with the blast of every saying, - but approving that speech of Heraclitus, that - - - - - - Whate'er is said, though void of sense and wit, - - The size of a fool's intellect doth fit, - - -

-

will reject many such things as falsely and idly spoken.

- - -

These things therefore may be of use to preserve - us from the hurt we might get by the study of poems. - Now, as on a vine the fruit oftentimes lies shadowed and - hidden under its large leaves and luxuriant branches, so - in the poet's phrases and fictions that encompass them - there are also many profitable and useful things concealed - from the view of young men. This, however, ought not to - be suffered; nor should we be led away from things themselves thus, but rather adhere to such of them as tend to - the promoting of virtue and the well forming of our manners. It will not be altogether useless therefore, to treat - briefly in the next place of passages of that nature. - Wherein I intend to touch only at some particulars, leaving all longer discourses, and the brimming up and furnishing them with a multitude of instances, to those who write - more for show and ostentation.

-

First, therefore, let our young man be taught to understand good and bad manners and persons, and from thence - apply his mind to the words and deeds which the poet - decently assigns to either of them. For example, Achilles, - though in some wrath, speaks to Agamemnon thus decently: - - - Nor, when we take a Trojan town, can I - - With thee in spoils and splendid prizes vie; - For this and the five following quotations, see Il. I. 163; II. 226; I. 128; II - 231; IV. 402 and 404. - - -

-

whereas Thersites to the same person speaks reproachfully - in this manner:— - - - 'Tis thine whate'er the warrior's breast inflames, - - The golden spoil, and thine the lovely dances. - - With all the wealth our wars and blood bestow, - - Thy tents are crowded and thy chests o'erflow. - - -

- -

Again, Achilles thus:— - - - Whene'er, by Jove's decree, our conquering powers - - Shall humble to the dust Troy's lofty towers; - - -

-

but Thersites thus:— - Whom I or some Greek else as captive bring. -

-

Again, Diomedes, when Agamemnon taking a view of the - army spoke reproachfully to him, - - - To his hard words forbore to make reply, - - For the respect he bare to majesty; - - -

-

whereas Sthenelus, a man of small note, replies on him - thus:— - - - Sir, when you know the truth, what need to lie? - - For with our fathers we for valor vie. - - -

-

Now the observation of such difference will teach the - young man the decency of a modest and moderate temper, - and the unbecoming nauseousness of the contrary vices of - boasting and cracking of a man's own worth. And it is - worth while also to take notice of the demeanor of Agamemnon in the same passage. For he passeth by Sthenelus unspoken to; but perceiving Ulysses to be offended, - he neglects not him, but applies himself to answer him:— - Struck with his generous wrath, the king replies.Il. IV. 357. For the four following, see Il. IX. 34 and 70; IV. 431; X. 325. - -

-

For to have apologized to every one had been too servile - and misbecoming the dignity of his person; whereas - equally to have neglected every one had been an act of - insolence and imprudence. And very handsome it is that - Diomedes, though in the heat of the battle he answers the - king only with silence, yet after the battle was over useth - more liberty towards him, speaking thus:— - You called me coward, sir, before the Greeks. -

-

It is expedient also to take notice of the different carriage - of a wise man and of a soothsayer popularly courting the - multitude. For Chalcas very unseasonably makes no scruple - - - - to traduce the king before the people, as having been - the cause of the pestilence that was befallen them. But - Nestor, intending to bring in a discourse concerning the - reconciling Achilles to him, that he might not seem to - charge Agamemnon before the multitude with the miscarriage his passion had occasioned, only adviseth him - thus:— - - - But thou, O king, to council call the old.... - - Wise weighty counsels aid a state distress'd, - - And such a monarch as can choose the best; - - -

-

which done, accordingly after supper he sends his ambassadors. Now this speech of Nestor tended to the rectifying - of what he had before done amiss; but that of Chalcas, - only to accuse and disparage him.

-

There is likewise consideration to be had of the different - manners of nations, such as these. The Trojans enter into - battle with loud outcries and great fierceness; but in the - army of the Greeks, - - - Sedate and silent move the numerous bands; - - No sound, no whisper, but the chief's commands; - - Those only heard, with awe the rest obey. - - -

-

For when soldiers are about to engage an enemy, the awe - they stand in of their officers is an argument both of courage and obedience. For which purpose Plato teacheth us - that we ought to inure ourselves to fear blame and disgrace - more than labor and danger. And Cato was wont to say - that he liked men that were apt to blush better than those - that looked pale.

-

Moreover, there is a particular character to be noted of - the men who undertake for any action. For Dolon thus - promiseth:— - - - I'll pass through all their lost in a disguise - - To their flag-ship, where she at anchor lies. - - -

-

But Diomedes promiseth nothing, but only tells them he - shall fear the less if they send a companion with him; - whereby is intimated, that discreet foresight is Grecian and - - - - civil, but rash confidence is barbarous and evil; and the - former is therefore to be imitated, and the latter to be - avoided.

-

It is a matter too of no unprofitable consideration, how - the minds of the Trojans and of Hector too were affected - when he and Ajax were about to engage in a single combat. - For Aeschylus, when, upon one of the fighters at fisticuffs - in the Isthmian games receiving a blow on the face, there - was made a great outcry among the people, said: What a - thing is practice! See how the lookers-on only cry out, - but the man that received the stroke is silent. But when - the poet tells us, that the Greeks rejoiced when they saw - Ajax in his glistering armor, but - - - The Trojans' knees for very fear did quake, - - And even Hector's heart began to ache; - Il. VII. 215. For the three following, see Il. II. 220; VII. 226 and 231. - - -

-

who is there that wonders not at this difference,—when - the heart of him that was to run the risk of the combat - only beats inwardly, as if he were to undertake a mere - wrestling or running match, but the very bodies of the - spectators tremble and shake, out of the kindness and fear - which they had for their king?

-

In the same poet also we may observe the difference - betwixt the humor of a coward and a valiant man. For - Thersites - - - Against Achilles a great malice had, - - And wise Ulysses he did hate as bad; - - -

-

but Ajax is always represented as friendly to Achilles; and - particularly he speaks thus to Hector concerning him:— - - - Hector! approach my arm, and singly know - - What strength thou last, and what the Grecian foe. - - Achilles shuns the fight; yet some there are - - Not void of soul, and not unskill'd in war: - - -

-

wherein he insinuates the high commendation of that valiant man. And in what follows, he speaks like handsome - things of his fellow-soldiers in general, thus:— - - - - - - Whole troops of heroes Greece has yet to boast, - - And sends thee one, a sample of her host; - - -

-

wherein he doth not boast himself to be the only or the - best champion, but one of those, among many others, who - were fit to undertake that combat.

-

What hath been said is sufficient upon the point of dissimilitudes; except we think fit to add this, that many of - the Trojans came into the enemy's power alive, but none - of the Grecians; and that many of the Trojans supplicated - to their enemies,—as (for instance) Adrastus, the sons of - Antimachus, Lycaon,—and even Hector himself entreats - Achilles for a sepulture; but not one of these doth so, as - judging it barbarous to supplicate to a foe in the field, and - more Greek-like either to conquer or die.

- - -

But as, in the same plant, the bee feeds on the flower, - the goat on the bud, the hog on the root, and other living - creatures on the seed and the fruit; so in reading of poems, - one man singleth out the historical part, another dwells - upon the elegancy and fit disposal of words, as Aristophanes - says of Euripides,— - - - His gallant language runs so smooth and round, - - That I am ravisht with th' harmonious sound; - See Aristophanes, Frag. 397. - - -

-

but others, to whom this part of my discourse is directed, - mind only such things as are useful to the bettering of - manners. And such we are to put in mind that it is an - absurd thing, that those who delight in fables should not - let any thing slip them of the vain and extravagant stories - they find in poets, and that those who affect language should - pass by nothing that is elegantly and floridly expressed; - and that only the lovers of honor and virtue, who apply - themselves to the study of poems not for delight but for - instruction's sake, should slightly and negligently observe - what is spoken in them relating to valor, temperance, or - justice. Of this nature is the following:— - - - - - - And stand we deedless, O eternal shame! - - Till Hector's arm involve the ships in flame? - - Haste, let us join, and combat side by side. - Il. XI. 313. For the four following, see Odyss. III. 52; Il. XXIV. 560 and 584; Odyss. XVI. 274 - - -

-

For to see a man of the greatest wisdom in danger of being - totally cut off with all those that take part with him, and - yet affected less with fear of death than of shame and dishonor, must needs excite in a young man a passionate - affection for virtue. And this, - - - Joyed was the Goddess, for she much did prize - - A man that was alike both just and wise, - - -

-

teacheth us to infer that the Deity delights not in a rich or - a proper or a strong man, but in one that is furnished with - wisdom and justice. Again, when the same Goddess (Minerva) saith that the reason why she did not desert or neglect Ulysses was that he was - Gentle, of ready wit, of prudent mind, -

-

she therein tells us that, of all things pertaining to us, - nothing is dear to the Gods and divine but our virtue, seeing like naturally delights in like.

-

And seeing, moreover, that it both seemeth and really is - a great thing to be able to moderate a man's anger, but a - greater by far to guard a man's self beforehand by prudence, that he fall not into it nor be surprised by it, therefore also such passages as tend that way are not slightly to - be represented to the readers; for example, that Achilles - himself—who was a man of no great forbearance, nor inclined to such meekness—yet warns Priam to be calm and - not to provoke him, thus, - - - Move me no more (Achilles thus replies, - - While kindling anger sparkled in his eyes), - - Nor seek by tears my steady soul to bend: - - To yield thy Hector I myself intend: - - Cease; lest, neglectful of high Jove's command, - - I show thee, king, thou tread'st on hostile land; - - -

- -

and that he himself first washeth and decently covereth the - body of Hector and then puts it into a chariot, to prevent - his father's seeing it so unworthily mangled as it was,— - - - Lest the unhappy sire, - - Provoked to passion, once more rouse to ire - - The stern Pelides; and nor sacred age, - - Nor Jove's command, should check the rising rage. - - -

-

For it is a piece of admirable prudence for a man so prone - to anger, as being by nature hasty and furious, to understand himself so well as to set a guard upon his own - inclinations, and by avoiding provocations to keep his passion at due distance by the use of reason, lest he should - be unawares surprised by it. And after the same manner - must the man that is apt to be drunken forearm himself - against that vice; and he that is given to wantonness, - against lust, as Agesilaus refused to receive a kiss from - a beautiful person addressing to him, and Cyrus would not - so much as endure to see Panthea. Whereas, on the contrary, those that are not virtuously bred are wont to gather - fuel to inflame their passions, and voluntarily to abandon - themselves to those temptations to which of themselves they - are endangered. But Ulysses does not only restrain his own - anger, but (perceiving by the discourse of his son Telemachus, that through indignation conceived against such evil - men he was greatly provoked) he blunts his passion too - beforehand, and composeth him to calmness and patience, thus:— - - - There, if base scorn insult my reverend age, - - Bear it, my son! repress thy rising rage. - - If outraged, cease that outrage to repel; - - Bear it, my son! howe'er thy heart rebel. - - -

-

For as men are not wont to put bridles on their horses - when they are running in full speed, but bring them bridled - beforehand to the race; so do they use to preoccupy and - predispose the minds of those persons with rational considerations to enable them to encounter passion, whom they - - - - perceive to be too mettlesome and unmanageable upon the - sight of provoking objects.

-

Furthermore, the young man is not altogether to neglect - names themselves when he meets with them; though he is - not obliged to give much heed to such idle descants as those - of Cleanthes, who, while he professeth himself an interpreter, plays the trifler, as in these passages of Homer: - *zeu= pa/ter )/*idhqen mede/wn, and *zeu= a)/na *dwdwnai=e.Il. III. 320; XVI. 233. For he will needs - read the last two of these words joined into one, and make - them a)nadwdwnai=e; for that the air evaporated from the earth - by exhalation (a)na/dosis) is so called. Yea, and Chrysippus too, though he does not so trifle, yet is very jejune, - while he hunts after improbable etymologies. As when - he will need force the words eu)ru/opa *kroni/dhn to import Jupiter's excellent faculty in speaking and powerfulness to - persuade thereby.

-

But such things as these are fitter to be left to the examination of grammarians; and we are rather to insist upon - such passages as are both profitable and persuasive. Such, - for instance, as these:— - - - My early youth was bred to martial pains, - - My soul impels me to the embattled plains! - - - How skill'd he was in each obliging art; - - The mildest manners, and the gentlest heart. - Il. VI. 444; XVII. 671. - - -

-

For while the author tells us that fortitude may be taught, - and that an obliging and graceful way of conversing with - others is to be gotten by art and the use of reason, he exhorts us not to neglect the improvement of ourselves, but - by observing our teachers' instructions to learn a becoming carriage, as knowing that clownishness and cowardice - argue ill-breeding and ignorance. And very suitable to - what hath been said is that which is said of Jupiter and - Neptune:— - - - - - - Gods of one source, of one ethereal race, - - Alike divine, and heaven their native place; - - But Jove the greater; first born of the skies, - - And more than men or Gods supremely wise. - Il. XIII. 354. - - -

-

For the poet therein pronounceth wisdom to be the most - divine and royal quality of all; as placing therein the - greatest excellency of Jupiter himself, and judging all - virtues else to be necessarily consequent thereunto. We - are also to accustom a young man attentively to hear such - things as these:— - - - Urge him with truth to frame his fair replies: - - And sure he will, for wisdom never lies: - - - The praise of wisdom, in thy youth obtain'd, - - An act so rash, Antilochus, has stain'd: - - - Say, is it just, my friend, that Hector's ear - - From such a warrior such a speech should hear? - - I deemed thee once the wisest of thy kind, - - But ill this insult suits a prudent mind. - Odyss. III. 20; Il. XXIII. 570; XVII. 170. - - -

-

These speeches teach us that it is beneath wise men to lie - or to deal otherwise than fairly, even in games, or to blame - other men without just cause. And when the poet attributes Pindarus's violation of the truce to his folly, he - withal declares his judgment that a wise man will not be - guilty of an unjust action. The like may we also infer - concerning continence, taking our ground for it from these - passages:— - - - For him Antaea burn'd with lawless flame, - - And strove to tempt him from the paths of fame: - - In vain she tempted the relentless youth, - - Endued with wisdom, sacred fear, and truth: - - - At first, with worthy shame and decent pride, - - The royal dame his lawless suit denied ! - - For virtue's image yet possessed her mind: - Il. VI. 160; Odyss. III. 265. - - -

-

in which speeches the poet assigns wisdom to be the cause - of continence. And when in exhortations made to encourage soldiers to fight, he speaks in this manner:— - - - - - - What mean you, Lycians? Stand! O stand, for shame ! - - - Yet each reflect who prizes fame or breath, - - On endless infamy, on instant death; - - For, lo ! the fated time, the appointed shore; - - Hark ! the gates burst, the brazen barriers roar ! - Il. XVI. 422; XIII. 121. - - -

-

he seems to intimate that continent men are valiant men; - because they fear the shame of base actions, and can - trample on pleasures and stand their ground in the greatest hazards. Whence Timotheus, in the play called Persae, - takes occasion handsomely to exhort the Grecians thus:— - - - Brave soldiers of just shame in awe should stand; - - For the blushing face oft helps the fighting hand. - - -

-

And Aeschylus also makes it a point of wisdom not to be - blown up with pride when a man is honored, nor to be - moved or elevated with the acclamations of a multitude, - writing thus of Amphiaraus:— - - - His shield no emblem bears; his generous soul - - Wishes to be, not to appear, the best; - - While the deep furrows of his noble mind - - Harvests of wise and prudent counsel bear. - See note on the same passage of Aeschylus (Sept. 591), vol. I. p. 210. (G.) - - -

-

For it is the part of a wise man to value himself upon the - consciousness of his own true worth and excellency. - Whereas, therefore, all inward perfections are reducible - to wisdom, it appears that all sorts of virtue and learning - are included in it.

- - -

Again, boys may be instructed, by reading the poets - as they ought, to draw something that is useful and profitable even from those passages that are most suspected as - wicked and absurd; as the bee is taught by Nature to - gather the sweetest and most pleasant honey from the - harshest flowers and sharpest thorns. It does indeed at - the first blush cast a shrewd suspicion on Agamemnon of - taking a bribe, when Homer tells us that he discharged - that rich man from the wars who presented him with his - fleet mare Aethe:— - - - - - - Whom rich Echepolus, more rich than brave, - - To 'scape the wars, to Agamemnon gave - - (Aethe her name), at home to end his days; - - Base wealth preferring to eternal praise. - Il. XXIII. 297. - - -

-

Yet, as saith Aristotle, it was well done of him to prefer a - good beast before such a man. For, the truth is, a dog or - ass is of more value than a timorous and cowardly man - that wallows in wealth and luxury. Again, Thetis seems - to do indecently, when she exhorts her son to follow his - pleasures and minds him of companying with women. But - even here, on the other side, the continency of Achilles is - worthy to be considered; who, though he dearly loved - Briseis—newly returned to him too,—yet, when he - knew his life to be near its end, does not hasten to the - fruition of pleasures, nor, when he mourns for his friend - Patroclus, does he (as most men are wont) shut himself up - from all business and neglect his duty, but only bars himself from recreations for his sorrow's sake, while yet he - gives himself up to action and military employments. - And Archilochus is not praiseworthy either, who, in the - midst of his mourning for his sister's husband drowned - in the sea, contrives to dispel his grief by drinking and - merriment. And yet he gives this plausible reason to - justify that practice of his, - - - To drink and dance, rather than mourn, I choose; - - Nor wrong I him, whom mourning can't reduce. - - -

-

For, if he judged himself to do nothing amiss when he - followed sports and banquets, sure, we shall not do worse, - if in whatever circumstances we follow the study of philosophy, or manage public affairs, or go to the market or - to the Academy, or follow our husbandry. Wherefore - those corrections also are not to be rejected which - Cleanthes and Antisthenes have made use of. For Antisthenes, seeing the Athenians all in a tumult in the theatre, and justly, upon the pronunciation of this verse,— - - - - Except what men think base, there's nothing ill,From the Aeolus of Euripides, Frag. 19. - -

-

presently subjoined this corrective, - What's base is base,—believe men what they will. -

-

And Cleanthes, hearing this passage concerning wealth: - - - Great is th' advantage that great wealth attends, - - For oft with it we purchase health and friends; - Eurip. Electra, 428. - - -

-

presently altered it thus: - - - Great disadvantage oft attends on wealth; - - We purchase whores with't and destroy our health. - - -

-

And Zeno corrected that of Sophocles, - - - The man that in a tyrant's palace dwells - - His liberty for's entertainment sells, - - -

-

after this manner: - - - No: if he came in free, he cannot lose - - His liberty, though in a tyrant's house; - - -

-

meaning by a free man one that is undaunted and magnanimous, and one of a spirit too great to stoop beneath - itself. And why may not we also, by some such acclamations as those, call off young men to the better side, by - using some things spoken by poets after the same manner? - For example, it is said, - - - 'Tis all that in this life one can require, - - To hit the mark he aims at in desire. - - -

-

To which we may reply thus: - - - 'Tis false; except one level his desire - - At what's expedient, and no more require. - - -

-

For it is an unhappy thing and not to be wished, for a - man to obtain and be master of what he desires if it be - inexpedient. Again this saying, - - - Thou, Agamemnon, must thyself prepare - - Of joy and grief by turns to take thy share: - - Thy father, Atreus, sure, ne'er thee begat, - - To be an unchanged favorite of Fate: - Eurip. Iphig. Aul. 29. - - -

- -

we may thus invert: - - - Thy father, Atreus, never thee begat, - - To be an unchanged favorite of Fate: - - Therefore, if moderate thy fortunes are, - - Thou shouldst rejoice always, and grief forbear. - - -

-

Again it is said, - - - Alas! this ill comes from the powers divine, - - That oft we see what's good, yet it decline. - From the Chrysippus of Euripides, Frag. 838. - - -

-

Yea, rather, say we, it is a brutish and irrational and - wretched fault of ours, that when we understand better - things, we are carried away to the pursuit of those which - are worse, through our intemperance and effeminacy. - Again, one says, - 'Tis not the teacher's speech but practice moves.From Menander. - -

-

Yea, rather, say we, both the speech and practice,—or - the practice by the means of speech,—as the horse is - managed with the bridle, and the ship with the helm. - For virtue hath no instrument so suitable and agreeable to - human nature to work on men withal, as that of rational - discourse. Again, we meet with this character of some - person: - A. Is he more prone to male or female loves ? - B. He's flexible both ways, where beauty moves. -

-

But it had been better said thus: - He's flexible to both, where virtue moves. -

-

For it is no commendation of a man's dexterity to be - tossed up and down as pleasure and beauty move him, - but an argument rather of a weak and unstable disposition. Once more, this speech, - - - religion damps the courage of our minds, - - And ev'n wise men to cowardice inclines, - - -

-

is by no means to be allowed; but rather the contrary, - - - Religion truly fortifies men's minds, - - And a wise man to valiant acts inclines, - - -

- -

and gives not occasion of fear to any but weak and foolish - persons and such as are ungrateful to the Deity, who are - apt to look on that divine power and principle which is - the cause of all good with suspicion and jealousy, as being - hurtful unto them. And so much for that which I call - correction of poets' sayings.

- - -

There is yet another way of improving poems, - taught us well by Chrysippus; which is, by accommodation of any saying, to transfer that which is useful and - serviceable in it to divers things of the same kind. For - whereas Hesiod saith, - - - If but a cow be lost, the common fame - - Upon the next ill neighbor lays the blame; - Hesiod, Works and Days, 348. - - -

-

the same may be applied to a man's dog or ass or any - other beast of his which is liable to the like mischance. - Again, Euripides saith, - - - How can that man be called a slave, who slights - - Ev'n death itself, which servile spirits frights? - - -

-

the like whereof may be said of hard labor or painful - sickness. For as physicians, finding by experience the - force of any medicine in the cure of some one disease, - make use of it by accommodation, proportionably to every - other disease of affinity thereto, so are we to deal with - such speeches as are of a common import and apt to communicate their value to other things; we must not confine - them to that one thing only to which they were at first - adapted, but transfer them to all other of like nature, and - accustom young men by many parallel instances to see - the communicableness of them, and exercise the promptness of their wits in such applications. So that when - Meander says, - Happy is he who wealth and wisdom hath, -

-

they may be able to judge that the same is fitly applicable - to glory and authority and eloquence also. And the reproof - - - - which Ulysses gives Achilles, when he found him - sitting in Scyrus in the apartment of the young ladies, - - - Thou, who from noblest Greeks deriv'st thy race, - - Dost thou with spinning wool thy birth disgrace? - - -

-

may be as well given to the prodigal, to him that undertakes any dishonest way of living, yea, to the slothful and - unlearned person, thus: - - - Thou, who from noblest Greeks deriv'st thy race, - - Dost thou with fuddling thy great birth disgrace ? - - -

-

or dost thou spend thy time in dicing, or quail-striking,The word here used (o)rtugokopei=n) denotes a game among - the Grecians, which Suidas describes to be the setting of quails in a - round compass or ring, and striking at the heads of them; and he that - in the ring struck down one had liberty to strike at the rest in - order, but he that missed was obliged to set up quails for others; - and this they did by turns. or - deal in adulterate wares or griping usury, not minding any - thing that is great and worthy thy noble extraction? So - when they read, - - - For Wealth, the God most serve, I little care, - - Since the worst men his favors often wear, - From the Aeolus of Euripides, Frag. 20. - - -

-

they may be able to infer, therefore, as little regard is to be - had to glory and bodily beauty and princely robes and - priestly garlands, all which also we see to be the enjoyments of very bad men. Again, when they read this passage, - - - A coward father propagates his vice, - - And gets a son heir to his cowardice, - - -

-

they may in truth apply the same to intemperance, to - superstition, to envy, and all other diseases of men's minds. - Again, whereas it is handsomely said of Homer, - Unhappy Paris, fairest to behold ! -

-

and - Hector, of noble form,Il. III. 39; XVII. 142. - -

-

for herein he shows that a man who hath no greater excellency than that of beauty to commend him deserves to - - - - have it mentioned with contempt and ignominy,—such expressions we should make use of in like cases to repress the - insolence of such as bear themselves high upon the account of such things as are of no real value, and to teach - young men to look upon such compellations as O thou - richest of men, and O thou that excellest in feasting, in - multitudes of attendants, in herds of cattle, yea, and in - eloquent speaking itself, to be (as they are indeed) expressions that import reproach and infamy. For, in truth, a - man that designs to excel ought to endeavor it in those - things that are in themselves most excellent, and to become - chief in the chiefest, and great in the greatest things. - Whereas glory that ariseth from things in themselves small - and inconsiderable is inglorious and contemptible. To - mind us whereof we shall never be at a loss for instances, - if, in reading Homer especially, we observe how he applieth the expressions that import praise or disgrace; - wherein we have clear proof that he makes small account - of the good things either of the body or Fortune. And - first of all, in meetings and salutations, men do not call - others fair or rich or strong, but use such terms of commendation as these: - - - Son of Laertes, from great Jove deriving - - Thy pedigree, and skilled in wise contriving; - - - Hector, thou son of Priam, whose advice - - With wisest Jove's men count of equal price; - - - Achilles, son of' Peleus, whom all story - - Shall mention as the Grecians' greatest glory; - - - Divine Patroclus, for thy worth thou art, - - Of all the friends I have, lodged next my heart. - Il. II. 173; VII. 47; XIX. 216; XI. 608. - - -

-

And moreover, when they speak disgracefully of any person, they touch not at bodily defects, but direct all their reproaches to vicious actions; as for instance: - - - A dogged-looking, drunken beast thou art, - - And in thy bosom hast a deer's faint heart; - - -

- -

- - - Ajax, at brawling valiant still, - - Whose tongue is used to speaking ill; - - - A tongue so loose hung, and so vain withal, - - Idomeneus, becomes thee not at all; - - - Ajax, thy tongue doth oft offend; - - For of thy boasting there's no end. - Il. I. 225; XXIII. 483 and 474-479; XIII. 824. - - -

-

Lastly, when Ulysses reproacheth Thersites, he objecteth - not to him his lameness nor his baldness nor his hunched - back, but the vicious quality of indiscreet babbling. On - the other side, when Juno means to express a dalliance or - motherly fondness to her son Vulcan, she courts him with - an epithet taken from his halting, thus, - Rouse thee, my limping son!Il. XXI. 331. - -

-

In this instance, Homer does (as it were) deride those - who are ashamed of their lameness or blindness, as not - thinking any thing a disgrace that is not in itself disgraceful, nor any person liable to a reproach for that which is - not imputable to himself but to Fortune. These two great - advantages may be made by those who frequently study - poets;—the learning moderation, to keep them from unseasonable and foolish reproaching others with their misfortunes, when they themselves enjoy a constant current of - prosperity; and magnanimity, that under variety of accidents they be not dejected nor disturbed, but meekly bear - the being scoffed at, reproached, and drolled upon. Especially, let them have that saying of Philemon ready at - hand in such cases: - - - That spirit's well in tune, whose sweet repose - - No railer's tongue can ever discompose. - - -

-

And yet, if one that so rails do himself deserve reprehension, thou mayst take occasion to retort upon him his - own vices and inordinate passions; as when 'Adrastus in - the tragedy is assaulted thus by Alcmaeon, - Thy sister's one that did her husband kill, -

- -

he returns him this answer, - But thou thyself thy mother's blood did spill. -

-

For as they who scourge a man's garments do not touch - the body, so those that turn other men's evil fortunes or - mean births to matter of reproach do only with vanity and - folly enough lash their external circumstances, but touch - not their internal part, the soul, nor those things which - truly need correction and reproof.

- - -

Moreover, as we have above taught you to abate and - lessen the credit of evil and hurtful poems by setting in - opposition to them the famous speeches and sentences of - such worthy men as have managed public affairs, so will it - be useful to us, where we find any things in them of civil - and profitable import, to improve and strengthen them by - testimonies and proofs taken from philosophers, withal giving these the credit of being the first inventors of them. - For this is both just and profitable to be done, seeing by - this means such sayings receive an additional strength and - esteem, when it appears that what is spoken on the stage - or sung to the harp or occurs in a scholar's lesson is - agreeable to the doctrines of Pythagoras and Plato, and - that the sentences of Chilo and Bias tend to the same issue - with those that are found in the authors which children - read. Therefore must we industriously show them that - these poetical sentences, - - - Not these, O daughter, are thy proper cares, - - Thee milder arts befit, and softer wars; - - Sweet smiles are thine, and kind endearing charms; - - To Mars and Pallas leave the deeds of arms; - - - Jove's angry with thee, when thy unmanaged rage - - With those that overmatch thee doth engage; - Il. V. 428; XI. 513. - - -

-

differ not in substance but bear plainly the same sense - with that philosophical sentence, Know thyself. And - these, - - - - - - Fools, who by wrong seek to augment their store, - - And know not how much half than all is more; - - - Of counsel giv'n to mischievous intents, - - The man that gives it most of all repents; - Hesiod, Works and Days, 40 and 266. - - -

-

are of near kin to what we find in the determination of - Plato, in his books entitled Gorgias and Concerning the - Commonwealth, to wit, that it is worse to do than to - suffer injury, and that a man more endamageth himself - when he hurts another, than he would be damnified if he - were the sufferer. And that of Aeschylus, - - - Cheer up, friend; sorrows, when they highest climb, - - What they exceed in measure want in time, - - -

-

we must inform them, is but the same famous sentence - which is so much admired in Epicurus, that great griefs - are but short, and those that are of long continuance are - but small. The former clause whereof is that which Aeschylus here saith expressly, and the latter but the consequent of that. For if a great and intense sorrow do not - last, then that which doth last is not great nor hard to be - borne. And those words of Thespis, - - - Seest not how Jove,—because he cannot lie - - Nor vaunt nor laugh at impious drollery, - - And pleasure's charms are things to him unknown,— - - Among the Gods wears the imperial crown? - - -

-

wherein differ they from what Plato says, that the divine - nature is seated far from both joy and grief? And that - saying of Bacchylides, - - - Virtue alone doth lasting honor gain, - - But men of wretched souls oft wealth attain; - - -

-

and those of Euripides much of the same import, - - - Hence temperance in my esteem excels, - - Because it constantly with good men dwells; - - - How much soe'er to honor thou aspire, - - And strive by riches virtue to acquire, - - Still shall thy lot to good men wretched seem; - - -

- -

do they not evidently confirm to us what the philosophers - say of riches and other external good things, that without - virtue they are fruitless and unprofitable enjoyments?

-

Now thus to accommodate and reconcile poetry to the - doctrines of philosophy strips it of its fabulous and personated parts, and makes those things which it delivers - usefully to acquire also the reputation of gravity; and over - and above, it inclines the soul of a young man to receive the - impressions of philosophical precepts. For he will hereby - be enabled to come to them not altogether destitute of some - sort of relish of them, not as to things that he has heard - nothing of before, nor with an head confusedly full of the - false notions which he hath sucked in from the daily tattle - of his mother and nurse,—yea, sometimes too of his - father and pedant,—who have been wont to speak of rich - men as the happy men and mention them always with - honor, and to express themselves concerning death and - pain with horror, and to look on virtue without riches - and glory as a thing of nought and not to be desired. - Whence it comes to pass, that when such youths first do - hear things of a quite contrary nature from philosophers, - they are surprised with a kind of amazement, trouble, and - stupid astonishment, which makes them afraid to entertain - or endure them, except they be dealt with as those who - come out of very great darkness into the light of the bright - sun, that is, be first accustomed for a while to behold those - doctrines in fabulous authors, as in a kind of false light, which - hath but a moderate brightness and is easy to be looked on - and borne without disturbance to the weak sight. For - having before heard or read from poets such things as - these are,— - - - Mourn at one's birth, as th' inlet t' all that grieves; - - But joy at death, as that which man relieves; - - - Of worldly things a mortal needs but twain; - - The spring supplies his drink, the earth his grain: - - -

- -

- - - O tyranny, to barbarous nations dear! - - - This in all human happiness is chief, - - To know as little as we can of grief; - The first two quotations are from Euripides (the first from his Cresphontes); the other two are from unknown tragic poets. (G.) - - -

-

they are the less disturbed and offended when they hear - from philosophers that no man ought to be much concerned - about death; that the riches of nature are defined and - limited; that the happiness of man's life doth not consist in - the abundance of wealth or vastness of employments or - height of authority and power, but in freedom from sorrow, - in moderation of passions, and in such a temper of mind as - measures all things by the use of Nature.

-

Wherefore, upon all these accounts, as well as for all - the reasons before mentioned, youth stands in need of good - government to manage it in the reading of poetry, that being - free from all prejudicate opinions, and rather instructed - beforehand in conformity thereunto, it may with more calmness, friendliness, and familiarity pass from thence to the - study of philosophy.

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- HOW THE YOUNG SHOULD STUDY POETRY (QUOMODO ADOLESCENS POETAS AUDIRE DEBEAT) INTRODUCTION -

Plutarch's essay on the study of poetry is not a discussion of the essentials - of poetry, nor an analysis of its various kinds after the manner of - Aristotle's Poetics, but it is concerned with poetry only as a means of - training the young in preparation for the study of philosophy later. Some - experience with the adumbrations of philosophic doctrines which are to be - found in poetry will, in the opinion of the author, make such doctrines seem - less strange when they are met later in the actual study of philosophy.

-

This training is to be imparted, not by confining the reading to selected - passages, but by teaching the young to recognize and ignore the false and - fabulous in poetry, to choose always the better interpretation, and, in - immoral passages where art is employed for art's sake, not to be deluded - into approving vicious sentiments because of their artistic presentation. - Such passages may be offset by other passages from the same author or from - another author, and, as a last resort, one may try his hand at emending - unsavoury lines to make them conform to a higher ethical standard. This last - proposal seems to the modern reader a weak subterfuge, but it was a practice - not unknown even before Plutarch's time.

-

Philology, in the narrower sense, Plutarch says, is a science in itself, and - a knowledge of it is not essential to an unstanding of - literature (a fact enunciated from time to time by modern educators as a new - discovery). But, on the other hand, Plutarch strongly insists that an exact - appreciation of words and of their meanings in different contexts is - indispensable to the understanding of any work of poetry.

-

The various points in the essay are illustrated by plentiful quotations drawn - in the main from Homer, Hesiod, Archilochus, Pindar, Simonides, Theognis, - Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Menander. These are accompanied by many - keen and intelligent observations (such, for example, as that regarding - Paris), which attest Plutarch's wide and careful reading in the classical - authors.

-

The fact that Plutarch does not use the methods of historical criticism will - not escape the reader, and, although this seems to us a great defect in the - essay, it is wholly in keeping with the spirit of Plutarch's age. On the - other hand there is well shown the genial and kindly Plutarch, who wishes to - believe only good of all men, including the poets, however much they may - fall short of the standards set by the divine Homer.

-
- -
-

If, my dear Marcus Sedatus, it is true, as the poet Philoxenus used to say, - that of meats those that are not meat, and of fish those that are not fish, - have the best flavour, let us leave the expounding of this matter to those - persons of whom Cato said that their palates are more sensitive than their - minds. And so of philosophical discourses it is clear to us that those - seemingly not at all philosophical, or even serious, are found more - enjoyable by the very young, who present themselves at such lectures as - willing and submissive hearers. For in perusing not only Aesop's Fables, and - Tales from the Poets, but even the Abaris of Heracleides, the Lycon of - Ariston, and philosophic doctrines about the soul when these are combined - with tales from mythology,Plutarch probably has Plato in mind, and is - thinking of passages like The Last Judgement ( Gorgias, 523 ff.). they get inspiration as well as - pleasure. Wherefore we ought not only to keep the young decorous in the - pleasures of eating and drinking, but, even more, in connexion with what - they hear and read, by using in moderation, as a relish, that which gives - pleasure, we should accustom them to seek what is useful and salutary - therein. For close-shut gates do not preserve a city from - capture if it admit the enemy through one; nor does continence in the other - pleasures of sense save a young man, if he unwittingly abandon himself to - that which comes through hearing. On the contrary, inasmuch as this form of - pleasure engages more closely the man that is naturally given to thought and - reason, so much the more, if neglected, does it injure and corrupt him that - receives it. Since, then, it is neither possible, perhaps, nor profitable to - debar from poetry a boy as old as my Soclarus and your Cleander now are, let - us keep a very close watch over them, in the firm belief that they require - oversight in their reading even more than in the streets. Accordingly, I - have made up my mind to commit to writing and to send to you some thoughts - on poetry which it occurred to me recently to express. I beg that you will - take them and peruse them, and if they seem to you to be no worse than the - things called amethysts - Preventitives of intoxication; herbs or - seeds (Plutarch,Symp.. 647 B, Athenaeus, 24 C), - or nuts (Plutarch,Symp.. 624 C) which were - eaten, or stones (Pliny, N.H. xxxvii. 9. 124) - which were hung about the neck, in the belief that they would resist - drunkenness. which some persons on convivial occasions hang upon - their persons or take beforehand, then impart them to Cleander, and thus - forestall his natural disposition, which, because it is slow in nothing, but - impetuous and lively in everything, is more subject to such influences. - Bad may be found in the head of the - cuttle-fish; good there is also, - Cf. - Leutsch and Schneidewin, Paroemiographi - Graeci, i. p. 299; Plutarch, Moralia, 734 E. - because it is very pleasant - to eat but it makes one's sleep full of bad dreams and subject to strange - and disturbing fancies, as they say. Similarly also in the art of poetry - there is much that is pleasant and nourishing for the mind of a youth, but - quite as much that is disturbing and misleading, unless - in the hearing of it he have proper oversight. For it may be said, as it - seems, not only of the land of the Egyptians but also of poetry, that it - yields Drugs, and some are good when mixed and - others banefulHomer, Od. iv. - 230. - to those who cultivate it. Hidden therein are love and desire and winning converse, Suasion that - steals away the mind of the very wisest.Homer, Il. xiv. 216. - For the element of deception - in it does not gain any hold on utterly witless and foolish persons. This is - the ground of Simonides' answer to the man who said to him, Why are - the Thessalians the only people whom you do not deceive? His - answer was, Oh, they are too ignorant to be deceived by me - ; and Gorgias called tragedy a deception wherein he who deceives is more - honest than he who does not deceive, and he who is deceived is wiser than he - who is not deceived. Shall we then stop the ears of the young, as those of - the Ithacans were stopped, with a hard and unyielding wax, and force them to - put to sea in the Epicurean boat, and avoid poetry and steer their course - clear of it; or rather shall we set them against some upright standard of - reason and there bind them fast, guiding and guarding their judgement, that - it may not be carried away from the course by pleasure towards that which - will do them hurt? No, not even Lycurgus, the - mighty son of DryasHomer, Il. vi. - 130. - had sound sense, because, when many became drunk - and violent, he went about uprooting the grapevines instead of bringing the - springs of water nearer, and thus chastening the - frenzied god, as Plato says, through correction by - another, a sober, god. - Plato, Laws, - 773 D. For the tempering of wine with water removes its - harmfulness without depriving it at the same time of its usefulness. So let - us not root up or destroy the Muses' vine of poetry, but where the mythical - and dramatic part grows all riotous - Cf. - Theophrastus, De causis plantarum, iii. 1. - 5. and luxuriant, through pleasure unalloyed, which gives it - boldness and obstinacy in seeking acclaim, let us take it in hand and prune - it and pinch it back. But where with its grace it approaches a true kind of - culture, and the sweet allurement of its language is not fruitless or - vacuous, there let us introduce philosophy and blend it with poetry. For as - the mandragora, when it grows beside the vine and imparts its influence to - the wine, makes this weigh less heavily on those who drink it, so poetry, by - taking up its themes from philosophy and blending them with fable, renders - the task of learning light and agreeable for the young. Wherefore poetry - should not be avoided by those who are intending to pursue philosophy, but - they should use poetry as an introductory exercise in philosophy, by - training themselves habitually to seek the profitable in what gives - pleasure, and to find satisfaction therein; and if there be nothing - profitable, to combat such poetry and be dissatisfied with it. For this is - the beginning of education, If one begin each task - in proper way So is it likely will the ending be,Nauck,Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. - 747. - as Sophocles says.

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First of all, then, the young man should be introduced into poetry with - nothing in his mind so well imprinted, or so ready at - hand, as the saying, Many the lies the poets - tell, - Proverbial; cf. Aristotle, - Metaphysics, i. 2. some intentionally - and some unintentionally; intentionally, because for the purpose of giving - pleasure and gratification to the ear (and this is what most people look for - in poetry) they feel that the truth is too stern in comparison with fiction. - For the truth, because it is what actually happens, does not deviate from - its course, even though the end be unpleasant; whereas fiction, being a - verbal fabrication, very readily follows a roundabout route, and turns aside - from the painful to what is more pleasant. For not metre nor figure of - speech nor loftiness of diction nor aptness of metaphor nor unity of - composition has so much allurement and charm, as a clever interweaving of - fabulous narrative. But, just as in pictures, colour is more stimulating - than line-drawing because it is life-like, and creates an illusion, so in - poetry falsehood combined with plausibility is more striking, and gives more - satisfaction, than the work which is elaborate in metre and diction, but - devoid of myth and fiction. This explains why Socrates, being induced by - some dreams to take up poetry, since he was not himself a plausible or - naturally clever workman in falsehood, inasmuch as he had been the champion - of truth all his life, put into verse the fables of Aesop, - Cf. Plato, Phaedo, 60 - A. assuming that there can be no poetic composition which has no - addition of falsehood. It is true that we know of sacrifices without dancing - or flute, but we do not know of any poetic composition without fable or - without falsehood. The verses of Empedocles and of Parmenides, the Antidotes - against Poisons of Nicander, and the maxims of Theognis, are merely - compositions which have borrowed from poetic art its - metre and lofty style as a vehicle in order to avoid plodding along in - prose. Whenever, therefore, in the poems of a man of note and repute some - strange and disconcerting statement either about gods or lesser deities or - about virtue is made by the author, he who accepts the statement as true is - carried off his feet, and has his opinions perverted; whereas he who always - remembers and keeps clearly in mind the sorcery of the poetic art in dealing - with falsehood, who is able on every such occasion to say to it, - “Device more subtly cunning than the lynx,a why knit your brows - when jesting, why pretend to instruct when practising deception - ?” - Nauck,Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp., No. - 349. - will not suffer any dire effects or even acquire any base beliefs, - but he will check himself when he feels afraid of Poseidon Homer, Iliad, xx. 60. and is in terror lest the - god rend the earth asunder and lay bare the nether world; he will check - himself when he is feeling wroth at Apollo in behalf of the foremost of the - Achaeans, Whose praises he himself did sing, - himself Was present at the feast, these words he spoke Himself, and yet - himself brought death to him;Spoken by Thetis of the death of her - son Achilles, as we are told by Plato, Republic, ii. p. 383 B, who quotes the passage more fully. - Cf. Nauck,Trag. - Graec. Frag., Aeschylus, No. 350. - he will - cease to shed tears over the dead Achilles and over Agamemnon Homer, - Od. xi. 470 and 360. in the nether - world, as they stretch out their impotent and feeble arms in their desire to - be alive; and if, perchance, he is beginning to be disturbed by their - suffering and overcome by the enchantment, he will not hesitate to say to - himself, - Hasten eager to the light, and all you saw here Lay - to heart that you may tell your wife hereafter.Homer, Od. xi. 223. - Certainly Homer - has put this gracefully in reference to the visit to the shades, indicating - that it is fit stuff for a woman's ear because of the element of fable in - it.

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Such things as this are what the poets fabricate intentionally, but more - numerous are the things which they do not fabricate, but think and believe - in their own hearts, and then impart to us in their false colouring. Take - for example what Homer has said relating to Zeus: In the scales he placed two fates of Death so grievous, One of Achilles - and the other of horse-taming Hector; Grasping the middle he poised it, - and Hector's fated day descended. Down to Hades he went, and Phoebus - Apollo forsook him.Homer, Il. xxii. - 210. - Now Aeschylus has fitted a whole tragedy to this - story, giving it the title of The Weighing of Souls, and has placed beside - the scales of Zeus on the one side Thetis, and on the other Dawn, entreating - for their sons who are fighting. But it is patent to everybody that this is - a mythical fabrication which has been created to please or astound the - hearer. But in the lines Zeus, appointed to decide the - outcome of men's fighting - Ibid. iv. - 84. - and A fault doth God create - in men Whene'er he wills to crush a house in woe,From the Niobe, of Aeschylus; Nauck,Trag.Graec. Frag., Aeschylus, No. - 156. - we have at last statements in accord with their - opinion and belief, as they thus publish to us and try to make us share - their delusion and ignorance regarding the gods. Then - again the monstrous tales of visits to the shades, and the descriptions, - which in awful language create spectres and pictures of blazing rivers and - hideous places and grim punishments, do not blind very many people to the - fact that fable and falsehood in plenty have been mingled with them like - poison in nourishing food. And not Homer nor Pindar nor Sophocles really - believed that these things are so when they wrote: From there the slow-moving rivers of dusky night Belch forth a darkness - immeasurable,Pindar, Frag. 130 - Christ. - and On past Ocean's - streams they went and the headland of Leucas,Homer, Od. xxiv. 11. - and The narrow throat of Hades and the refluent - depths. - Cf. Nauck,Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. - 748. - However, take the case of those who, bewailing - and fearing death as something piteous, or want of burial as something - terrible, have given utterance to sentiments like these: Go not hence and leave me behind unwept, - unburied,Homer, Od. xi. - 72. - and Forth from his body went - his soul on wing to Hades, Mourning its fate and leaving its vigour and - manhood,Homer, Il. xvi. 856 and xxii. - 362. - and Destroy me not - untimely; for 'tis sweet To see the light. Compel me not to gaze Upon - the regions underneath the earth.Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis, 1218. - These are the - voices of persons affected by emotion and prepossessed by - opinions and delusions. For this reason such sentiments take a more powerful - hold on us and disturb us the more, inasmuch as we become infected by their - emotions and by the weakness from whence they proceed. Against these - influences, then, once more let us equip the young from the very outset to - keep ever sounding in their ears the maxim, that the art of poetry is not - greatly concerned with the truth, and that the truth about these matters, - even for those who have made it their sole business to search out and - understand the verities, is exceedingly hard to track down and hard to get - hold of, as they themselves admit; and let these words of Empedocles be - constantly in mind: Thus no eye of man hath seen - nor ear hath heard this, Nor can it be comprehended by the - mind,The passage is quoted more fully by Sextus Empiricus, Adv. math. vii. 122-4; cf. Diels, Poetarum Philosophorum - Fragmenta, Empedocles, No. 2 - and the words - of Xenophanes: Never yet was born a man nor ever - shall be Knowing the truth about the gods and what I say of all - things,Quoted with two additional lines by Sextus Empiricus, - Adv. math. vii. 49; cf. Diels, Poet. Philos. Frag., - Xenophanes, No. 34. - and by all means the - words of Socrates, in Plato,Plato, Phaedo, 69 - D. when he solemnly disavows all acquaintance with these - subjects. For young people then will give less heed to the poets, as having - some knowledge of these matters, when they see that such questions stagger - the philosophers.

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We shall steady the young man still more if, at his first entrance into - poetry, we give a general description of the poetic art as an imitative art - and faculty analogous to painting. And let him not merely - be acquainted with the oft-repeated saying that poetry is articulate - painting, and painting is inarticulate poetry, but let us teach - him in addition that when we see a lizard or an ape or the face of Thersites - in a picture, we are pleased with it and admire it, not as a beautiful - thing, but as a likeness. For by its essential nature the ugly cannot become - beautiful; but the imitation, be it concerned with what is base or with - what is good, if only it attain to the likeness, is commended. If, on the - other hand, it produces a beautiful picture of an ugly body, it fails to - give what propriety and probability require. Some painters even depict - unnatural acts, as Timomachus painted a picture of Medea slaying her - children, and Theon of Orestes slaying his mother, and Parrhasius of the - feigned madness of Odysseus, and Chaerephanes of the lewd commerce of women - with men. In these matters it is especially necessary that the young man - should be trained by being taught that what we commend is not the action - which is the subject of the imitation, but the art, in case the subject in - hand has been properly imitated. Since, then, poetry also often gives an - imitative recital of base deeds, or of wicked experiences and characters, - the young man must not accept as true what is admired and successful - therein, nor approve it as beautiful, but should simply commend it as - fitting and proper to the character in hand. For just as when we hear the - squealing of a pig, the creaking of a windlass, the whistling of the winds, - and the booming of the sea, we are uneasy and annoyed; but if anybody gives - a plausible imitation of these, as Parmeno imitated a pig, and Theodorus a - windlass, we are pleased; and just as we avoid a diseased and ulcerous - person as an unpleasant sight, but take delight in seeing - Aristophon's Philoctetes and Silanion's Jocasta, who are represented on the - stage as pining away or dying; so too the young man, as he reads what - Thersites the buffoon, or Sisyphus the seducer of women, or Batrachus the - bawd, is represented as saying or doing, must be taught to commend the - faculty and art which imitates these things, but to repudiate and condemn - the disposition and the actions which it imitates. For it is not the same - thing at all to imitate something beautiful and something beautifully, since - beautifully means fittingly and properly - and ugly things are fitting and proper for the - ugly. Witness the boots made for the crippled feet of Damonidas, who prayed - once, when he had lost them, that the man who had stolen them might have - feet which they would fit; they were sorry boots, it is true, but they - fitted their owner. Consider the following lines: If one must needs do wrong, far best it were To do it for a kingdom's - sake,Euripides, Phoenissae, - 324. - and Achieve the just - man's good repute, but deeds That fit the knave; therein shall be your - gain,From lines spoken by Ixion in an unknown play; cf. Nauck, Trag. Graec. - Frag., adesp., No. 4. - and A talent dowry! Shall I not accept? Can I still live - if I should overlook A talent? Shall I ever sleep again If I should - give it up? In Hell shall I Not suffer for impiety to gold? From - an unknown poet of the new comedy; cf. Kock, - Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta, iii. - 430. - These, it is true, are wicked and fallacious - sentiments, but fitting respectively for Eteocles, Ixion, - and an old usurer. If then we remind our sons that authors write them, not - because they commend or approve them, but with the idea of investing mean - and unnatural characters and persons with unnatural and mean sentiments, - they could not be harmed by the opinions of poets; nay, on the contrary, - the suspicion felt against the person in question discredits both his - actions and words, as being mean because spoken or done by a mean man. Of - such sort is the account of Paris in his wife's arms after his cowardly - escape from battle.Homer, Il. iii. 369 ff. and - 441 ff. For since the poet represents no other save this - licentious and adulterous man as dallying with a woman in the daytime, it is - clear that he classes such sensuality as a shame and reproach.

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In these passages, close attention must be given to see whether the poet - himself gives any hints against the sentiments expressed to indicate that - they are distasteful to himself; just as Menander in the prologue of his - Thais has written: Oh, sing to me, my muse, of - such a girl, One bold and fair, and of persuasive tongue, Unjust, - exclusive, and demanding much, In love with none, but always feigning - love.Kock, Com. Att. Frag., Menander, - No. 217, and Allinson, Menander, in L.C.L., - p. 356. - But Homer has best employed this method; for - he in advance discredits the mean and calls our attention to the good in - what is said. His favourable introductions are after this manner: Then at once he spoke; his words were gentle and - winningHomer, Od. vi. - 148. - and - He would stand by his side, and speak soft words to - restrain him.Homer, Il. ii. - 189. - But in discrediting in advance, he all but protests - and proclaims that we are not to follow or heed the sentiments expressed, as - being unjustifiable and mean. For example, when he is on the point of - narrating Agamemnon's harsh treatment of the priest, he says in advance, - Yet Agamemnon, Atreus' son, at heart did not - like it; Harshly he sent him away; - Ibid. - i. 24. - that is to say, savagely and wilfully and - contrary to what he should have done; and in Achilles' mouth he puts the - bold words, Drunken sot, with eyes of a dog and the - wild deer's courage, - Ibid. i. - 225. - but he intimates his own judgement in saying, Then once more with vehement words did the son of - Peleus Speak to the son of Atreus, nor ceased as yet from his anger; - - Ibid. i. 223. - hence - it is likely that nothing spoken with anger and severity can be good. In - like manner also, he comments upon actions: Thus - he spoke, and Hector divine he treated unseemly, Stretching him prone in - the dust by the bier of the son of Menoetius. - Ibid., xxiii. 24. - He also employs his - closing lines to good purpose, as though adding a sort of verdict of his own - to what is done or said. Of the adultery of Ares, he represents the gods as - saying, Evil deeds do not succeed: the swift by the - slow is taken,Homer, Od., viii. - 329. - and on the occasion of Hector's great arrogance - and boasting he says, - Thus he spoke in boast; queen Hera's wrath was - kindledHomer, Il. viii. - 198. - and regarding Pandarus's archery, Thus Athena spoke, and the mind of the fool she - persuaded. - Ibid. iv. - 104. - Now these declarations and opinions contained in the - words of the text may be discovered by anybody who will pay attention, but - from the actions themselves the poets supply other lessons: as, for - example, Euripides is reported to have said to those who railed at his Ixion - as an impious and detestable character, But I did not remove him - from the stage until I had him fastened to the wheel. In Homer - this form of instruction is given silently, but it leaves room for a - reconsideration, which is helpful in the case of those stories which have - been most discredited. By forcibly distorting these stories through what - used to be termed deeper meanings, but are nowadays called - allegorical interpretations, some persons say that the - Sun is represented as giving information about Aphrodite in the arms of - Ares, because the conjunction of the planet Mars with Venus portends births - conceived in adultery, and when the sun returns in his course and discovers - these, they cannot be kept secret. And Hera's beautifying of herself for - Zeus's eyes, - Ibid. xiv. 166 ff. and the - charms connected with the girdle, such persons will have it, are a sort of - purification of the air as it draws near the fiery element;—as though the - poet himself did not afford the right solutions. For, in the account of - Aphrodite, he teaches those who will pay attention that vulgar music, coarse - songs, and stories treating of vile themes, create licentious characters, - unmanly lives, and men that love luxury, soft living, intimacy with women, - and - Changes of clothes, warm baths, and the genial bed of - enjoyment.Homer, Od. viii. - 239. - This too is the reason why he has represented - Odysseus as bidding the harper Come now, change the - theme and sing how the horse was builded, - Ibid. viii. 492. - thus admirably indicating - the duty of musicians and poets to take the subjects of their compositions - from the lives of those who are discreet and sensible. And in his account of - Hera, he has shown excellently well how the favour that women win by - philters and enchantments and the attendant deceit in their relations with - their husbands, not only is transitory and soon sated and unsure, but - changes also to anger and enmity, so soon as the pleasurable excitement has - faded away. Such, in fact, are Zeus's angry threats as he speaks to Hera in - this wise: So you may see if aught you gain from the - love and caresses Won by your coming afar from the gods to deceive - me.Homer, Il. xv. 32. - - For the description and portrayal of mean actions, if it also represent as - it should the disgrace and injury resulting to the doers thereof, benefits - instead of injuring the hearer. Philosophers, at any rate, for admonition - and instruction, use examples taken from known facts; but the poets - accomplish the same result by inventing actions of their own imagination, - and by recounting mythical tales. Thus it was Melanthius who said, whether - in jest or in earnest, that the Athenian State was perpetually preserved by - the quarrelling and disorder among its public speakers; for they were not - all inclined to crowd to the same side of the boat, and so, in the - disagreement of the politicians, there was ever some - counterpoise to the harmful. And so the mutual contrarieties of the poets, - restoring our belief to its proper balance, forbid any strong turning of the - scale toward the harmful. When therefore a comparison of passages makes - their contradictions evident, we must advocate the better side, as in the - following examples: Oft do the gods, my child, - cause men to fail,From Euripides, Archelaus, Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 254. The second line is again quoted by - Plutarch, Moralia, 1049 F. - as - compared with You've named the simplest way; just - blame the gods; From Euripides, Archelaus, - Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. - 254. The second line is again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 1049 F. - and again You may rejoice in wealth, but these may - not,Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, - No. 1069. - as compared with 'Tis loutish to be rich, and know naught - else;Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., - No. 1069. - and What need to sacrifice when you must die? - Ibid., Adesp., No. 350. - as - compared with 'Tis better thus; God's worship is not - toil. - Ibid., Adesp., No. - 350. - For such passages as these admit of solutions - which are obvious, if, as has been said, we direct the young, by the use of - criticism, toward the better side. But whenever anything said by such - authors sounds preposterous, and no solution is found close at hand, we must - nullify its effect by something said by them elsewhere to the opposite - effect, and we should not be offended or angry at the poet, but with the - words, which are spoken in character and with humorous intent. As an obvious - illustration, if you wish, over against Homer's accounts of the gods being cast forth by one another, their being wounded by - men, their disagreements, and their displays of ill-temper, you may set the - line: Surely you know how to think of a saying - better than this one,Homer, Il. vii. 358 - and xii. 232. - and indeed elsewhere you do think of - better things and say more seemly things, such as these: Gods at their ease ever living, - Ibid. vi. 138; Od. - iv. 805 and v. 122. - and There the blessed gods pass all their days in enjoyment,Homer, - Od. vi. 46. - and Thus the gods have spun the fate of unhappy mortals - Ever to live in distress, but themselves are free from all - trouble.Homer, Il. xxiv. 525 (again - quoted, infra, 22 B). - These, - then, are sound opinions about gods, and true, but those other accounts have - been fabricated to excite men's astonishment. Again, when Euripides says, - By many forms of artifice the gods Defeat our - plans, for they are stronger far,Nauck, Trag. - Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 972. - it is not - bad to subjoin, If gods do aught that's base, they - are no gods,From Euripides, Bellerophon, - according to Stobaeus, Florilegium, c. 3, - who quotes also six preceding lines; cf. - Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. - 292. 7. - which is a better saying of his. And when - Pindar very bitterly and exasperatingly has said, Do what you will, so you vanquish your foe,Pindar, Isthmian Odes, iv. 48. - - Yet, we may reply, you yourself say that - Most bitter the end Must surely await Sweet - joys that are gained By a means unfair. - Pindar, Isthmian Odes, vii. 47. - a= - And when Sophocles has said, Sweet is the pelf though - gained by falsity.Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles - , No. 749. - - Indeed, - we may say, but we have heard from you that False words unfruitful prove when harvested. - - Ibid., No. 750. - And over - against those statements about wealth: Clever is - wealth at finding ways to reach Both hallowed and unhallowed ground, and - where A poor man, though he even gain access, Could not withal attain - his heart's desire. An ugly body, hapless with its tongue, Wealth makes - both wise and comely to behold,From Sophocles, Aleadae; quoted with additional lines by Stobaeus, Florilegium, xci. 27; cf. Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, - No 85. - he will set many of - Sophocles' words, among which are the following: E'en without wealth a man may be esteemed,Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. - 761. - and To beg doth not - degrade a noble mind, - Ibid., No. - 752. - and In the blessings of - plenty What enjoyment is there, If blest wealth owe its increase To - base-brooding care?Perhaps from the Tereus of Sophocles; cf. Nauck, - Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. - 534. - And Menander certainly exalted the love of - pleasure, with a suggestion of boastfulness too, in - these glowing lines that refer to love: All things - that live and see the self-same sun That we behold, to pleasure are - enslaved.Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii., Menander - , No. 611, and Allinson, Menander, in L.C.L. p. 506. - - But at another time he turns us about and draws us towards the good, and - uproots the boldness of licentiousness, by saying: A - shameful life, though pleasant, is disgrace.Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii., Menander, No. 756. - The latter sentiment is - quite opposed to the former, and it is better and more useful. Such - comparison and consideration of opposing sentiments will result in one of - two ways: it will either guide the youth over toward the better side, or - else cause his belief to revolt from the worse.

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In case the authors themselves do not offer solutions of their unjustifiable - sayings, it is not a bad idea to put on the other side declarations of other - writers of repute, and, as in a balance, make the scales incline toward the - better side. For example, if Alexis stirs some people when he says, The man of sense must gather pleasure's fruits, And three - there are which have the potency Truly to be of import for this life— To - eat and drink and have one's way in love, All else must be declared - accessory, - Ibid. ii., Alexis, No. 271. - we must - recall to their minds that Socrates used to say just the opposite—that - base men live to eat and drink, and good men - eat and drink to live. And he who wrote Not useless 'gainst the knave is knavery,Source unknown; quoted - again by Plutarch in Moralia, 534 - A. - thus bidding us, in a way, to make ourselves like - knaves, may be confronted with the saying of Diogenes; for, being asked how - one might defend himself against his adversary, he said, By proving - honourable and upright himself. We should use Diogenes against - Sophocles, too; for Sophocles has filled hosts of men with despondency by - writing these lines about the mysteries: Thrice - blest are they Who having seen these mystic rites shall pass To Hades' - house; for them alone is life Beyond; for others all is evil - there.Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, - No. 753. - But Diogenes, hearing - some such sentiment as this, said, What! Do you mean to say that - Pataecion, the robber, will have a better portion after death than - Epaminondas, just because he is initiate? And when Timotheus, - in a song in the theatre, spoke of Artemis as Ecstatic - Bacchic frantic fanatic,Bergk, Poet. Lyr. - Gr. iii. p. 620; cf. Plutarch, Moralia, 170 A. - Cinesias at - once shouted back, May you have a daughter like that I Neat - too is Bion s retort to Theognis, who said: - Any man that is subject to poverty never is able - Either to speak or to act; nay, but his tongue is tied.Theognis, - 177. - - How is it, then, said Bion, that you, who are poor, - can talk much nonsense, and weary us with this rubbish? -

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We must not neglect, either, the means for rectifying a statement which are - afforded by the words that lie near, or by the context; but just as - physicians, in spite of the fact that the blister-fly is deadly, think that - its feet and wings are helpful to counteract its potent effect, so in poetry - if a noun or adjective or a verb by its position next to another word blunts - the point which the passage, in its worse interpretation, would have, we - should seize upon it and add explanation, as some do in the case of the - following: Thus, at the last, can honour be paid by - miserable mortals Cutting the hair from their heads while the tears - stream down their faces,Homer, Od. iv. - 197. - and Thus, then, the - gods have spun the fate of unhappy mortals Ever to live in - distress.Homer, Il. xxiv. 525 (quoted - supra, 20 F). - For he did - not say that absolutely and to all mankind a grievous life has been allotted - by the gods, but to the silly and foolish, whom, since they are wretched and - pitiable on account of wickedness, he is wont to call by the name of - unhappy and miserable. -

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Another method, again, which transfers from the worse to the better sense - suspicious passages in poetry, is that which works through the normal usage - of words, in which it were better to have the young man - trained than in what are called glosses. - Strange of obsolete words. It is indeed learned, and not - unpleasing, to know that rhigedanos - Homer, Il. xix. 325. means - dying miserably (for the Macedonians call death danos - ), that the Aeolians call a victory won by patience and perseverance - an outlasting, - - Ibid. xxii. 257 and xxiii. 661. that - the Dryopians call the divinities popoi. - There was a tradition, preserved in the scholia, that ὦ πόποι, often found in Homer, was the - equivalent of ὦ θεοί - gods. - - But it is necessary and useful, if we are to be helped and not harmed by - poetry, to know how the poets employ the names of the gods, and again the - names of bad and of good things, and what they mean when they speak of - Fortune or of Fate, and whether these belong to the class of words which in - their writings are used in one sense only or in several senses, as the case - is with many other words. For, to illustrate, they apply the term - house sometimes to a dwelling house, as Into the lofty house,Homer, Od. v. 42, vii. 77, and perhaps x. 474. - and - sometimes to property, as My house is being - devoured; - Ibid. iv. 318. - - and the term living they apply sometimes to life, as But dark-haired Poseidon Thwarted his spear, nor would - let him end his foeman's living,Homer, Il. - xiii. 562. - and sometimes to possessions, as And others are eating my living;Homer, Od. xiii. 419. - and the expression be distraught is used sometimes - instead of be chagrined and be at one's wits' end - : - Thus he spoke, and she departed distraught and - sore troubledHomer, Il. v. 352. - and at other times, instead of to be arrogant - and be delighted, as Are you now distraught since - you vanquished Irus, the vagrant? Homer, Od. xviii. 332, 392. - and by huddle they - mean either be in motion, as Euripides says:From the Andromeda of Euripides, Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 145. A monster - huddling from th' Atlantic's surge, or sit down and - be seated, as Sophocles - Oedipus Tyrannus, 2. says: What means your huddling in - these places here With suppliant garlands on the boughs ye bear? It is a - graceful accomplishment also to adapt the usage of the words to fit the - matter in hand, as the grammarians teach us to do, taking a word for one - signification at one time, and at another time for another, as for example, - Better commend a small ship, but put your goods on a big one.Hesiod, Works and Days, 643. - For by - commend is meant recommend, and the - very expression of recommend to another is used nowadays - instead of deprecating for one's self, as in everyday speech we say, - It's very kind, and Very welcome, when we do not - want a thing and do not accept it. In this way also some persons will have - it that it must be commendable Persephone because she is - deprecated.

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Let us then observe closely this distinction and discrimination of words in - greater and more serious matters, and let us begin with the gods, in - teaching - the young that when the poets employ the names of the - gods, sometimes they apprehend in their conception the gods themselves, and - at other times they give the same appellation to certain faculties of which - gods are the givers and authors. To take an obvious example, it is clear - that Archilochus, when he says in his prayer, Hear my praver, O Lord - Hephaestus, and propitious Lend thy aid, and bestow what thy mercy bestows,Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Gr. ii. p. 703. - - is calling on the god himself; but when, lamenting his sister's husband who - was lost at sea and received no formal burial, he says that he could have - borne the calamity with greater moderation, If upon his head and his body so - fair, All in garments clean, Hephaestus had done his office, - Ibid. p. 687. - it is fire - that he called by this name and not the god. And again when Euripides - Phoenissae, 1006. said - in an oath, By Zeus amidst the stars and Ares murderous, he named the gods - themselves; but when Sophocles Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. 574; again cited by Plutarch, Moralia, 757 B. says, Blind and unseeing Ares, worthy - dames, With snout like that of swine upturns all ills, the name is to be - understood as meaning war; just as again it suggests weapons of bronze in - the passage where Homer Homer, Il. vii. 329. says, Dark red blood of these men by the - fair-flowing river Scamander Keen-edged Ares has shed. Since, then, many - words are used in this way, it is - necessary to know and to remember that under the name - Zeus also (or Zen) the poets address sometimes the god, sometimes Fortune, - and oftentimes Fate. For when they say, Father Zeus, enthroned on Ida, most - glorious and mighty, Grant to Ajax victory,Homer, Il. iii. 276, vii. 202, xxiv. 308. - and O Zeus! who boasts to be - more wise than thou? Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp., No. 351. - they mean the god himself; but when they apply the - name of Zeus to the causes of all that happens, and say, Many valiant souls - it sent to the realm of Hades, Goodly men, and their bodies gave to the dogs - as ravin And to birds a feast—the design of Zeus in fulfilment,Homer, Il. i. 3. - they mean - Fate. For the poet does not imagine that it is the god who contrives evils - for mankind, but by the name he rightly implies the compelling force of - circumstances, that States and armies and leaders, if they show - self-control, are destined to succeed and to prevail over their enemies, but - if they fall into passions and errors, if they disagree and quarrel among - themselves, as these heroes did, then are they destined to act discreditably - and to become disorganized and to come to a bad end, as Sophocles says Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp., No. 352.: - For fated is it that from evil plans An evil recompense shall mortals reap; - and certainly Hesiod Hesiod, Works and Days, 86. in representing Prometheus as exhorting Epimetheus - - - Never to welcome Any gifts from Zeus of Olympus, but - always return them, employs the name of Zeus as a synonym for the power of - Fortune. For he has given the name of gifts of Zeus to the - blessings of Fortune, such as wealth, marriage, office, and, in a word, all - outward things, the possession of which is unprofitable to those who cannot - make good use of them. Wherefore he thinks that Epimetheus, who is a - worthless man and a fool, ought to be on his guard against any piece of good - fortune, and be fearful of it, as he is likely to be injured and corrupted - by it. And again when the poet says, Never dare to reproach any man for - accursed and woeful Poverty, gift of the blessed gods whose life is for - ever,Hesiod, Works and Days, 717. - he now speaks of what happens by chance as godgiven, with the - suggestion that it is not meet to impugn those who are poor through - misfortune, but to reproach the penury that is accompanied by laziness, soft - living, and extravagance, since then it is disgraceful and reprehensible. - For at a time when men did not as yet use the name Fortune, - but knew the force of causation as it traverses its irregular and - indeterminate course, so strong, so impossible for human reason to guard - against, they tried to express this by the names of the gods, exactly as we - are wont to call deeds and characters, and in fact even words and men, - divine and godlike. In this manner, then, - a corrective is to be found for most of the seemingly unjustifiable - statements regarding Zeus, among which are the following: Fixed on Zeus' - floor two massive urns stand ever, Filled with happy lives the one, the - other with sorrows,The quotation follows Plato, Republic, 379 D, and not Homer, Il. xxiv. 528. The original, however, is quoted in the Moralia, 105 C. - and - Cronos' son, enthroned on high, - hath made naught of our pledges, But for both our hosts with evil thought is - planning,Homer, Il. vii. 69. - and Then rolled forth the beginning of trouble Both on Trojans - and Greeks through designs of Zeus the almighty.Homer, Od. viii. 81. - These are to be - interpreted as referring to Fortune or Fate, in which guise are denoted - those phases of causation which baffle our logic, and are, in a word, beyond - us. But wherever there is appropriateness, reason, and probability in the - use of the name, let us believe that there the god himself is meant, as in - the following: But he ranged to and fro 'gainst the lines of the rest of - the fighters; Only with Ajax, Telamon's son, he avoided a conflict, Seeing - that Zeus was wroth if he fight with a man far better,Homer, Il. xi. 540, 542. The third line is not found in the MSS. of Homer, but on the authority of this passage and 36 A and Aristotle, Rhetoric, ii. 9, and the life of Homer ascribed to Plutarch, it has commonly been printed as line 542 in the editions of Homer. - and For Zeus takes - thought for mortals' greatest weal; The little things he leaves to other - gods.Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp., No. 353. - -

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Particular attention must be paid to the other words also, when their - signification is shifted about and changed by the poets according to various - circumstances. An example is the word virtue. For inasmuch - as virtue not only renders men sensible, honest, and upright in actions and - words, but also often enough secures for them repute and influence, - the poets, following this notion, make good repute and - influence to be virtue, giving them this name in exactly the same way that - the products of the olive and the chestnut are called olives - and chestnuts, the same names as the trees that - bear them. So then when poets say, Sweat the gods have set before the - attainment of virtue,Hesiod, Works and Days, 289. - and Then the Greeks by their virtue broke the line of - their foemen,Homer, Il. xi. 90. - and If to die be our fate, Thus to die is our right Merging - our lives into virtue,Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 994. Again quoted by Plutarch, Pelopidas, 317 E. - let our young man at once feel that these sayings - relate to the best and godliest estate to which we can attain, which we - think of as correctness of reasoning, the height of good sense, and a - disposition of soul in full agreement therewith. But when at another time, - in his reading, he finds this line, Zeus makes virtue in men both to - increase and diminish,Homer, Il. xx. 242. - or this, Virtue and glory are attendant on riches,Hesiod, Works and Days, 313. - - let him not sit astounded and amazed at - the rich, as though they were able to purchase virtue without ado for money, - nor let him believe either that the increase or diminution of his own wisdom - rests with Fortune, but let him consider that the poet has employed - virtue instead of repute, or influence, or good fortune, or the - like. For assuredly - by evil the poets sometimes signify - badness in its strict sense, and wickedness of soul, as when Hesiod Hesiod, Works and Days, 287. says, - Evil may always be had by all mankind in abundance, and sometimes some other - affliction or misfortune, as when Homer Homer, Od. xix. 360. says, Since full soon do mortals - who live in evil grow aged. And so too anybody would be sadly deceived, - should he imagine that the poets give to happiness the - sense which the philosophers give to it, namely, that of complete possession - or attainment of good, or the perfection of a life gliding smoothly along in - accord with nature, and that the poets do not oftentimes by a perversion of - the word call the rich man happy and blessed, and call influence or repute - happiness. Now Homer - Ibid. iv. 93. has used the words correctly: No delight Logically, we should expect here a word meaning happy. See the critical note on the opposite page. have I in - ruling these possessions, and so has Menander:Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii. p. 184, and Allinson, Menander in L.C.L. p. 506. - A great estate have I, and - rich am called By all, but I am called by no man blest. But Euripides Euripides, Medea, 603. works - much disturbance and confusion when he says, May I ne'er have a painful - happy life, and - - Why do you honour show to tyranny, Happy iniquity? Euripides, Phoenissae, 549. - - unless, as has been said, one follows the figurative and perverted use of - the words. This, then, is enough on this subject.

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There is a fact, however, which we must recall to the minds of the young not - once merely, but over and over again, by pointing out to them that while - poetry, inasmuch as it has an imitative basis, employs embellishment and - glitter in dealing with the actions and characters that form its groundwork, - yet it does not forsake the semblance of truth, since imitation depends upon - plausibility for its allurement. This is the reason why the imitation that - does not show an utter disregard of the truth brings out, along with the - actions, indications of both vice and virtue commingled; as is the case - with that of Homer, which emphatically says good-bye to the Stoics, who will - have it that nothing base can attach to virtue, and nothing good to vice, - but that the ignorant man is quite wrong in all things, while, on the other - hand, the man of culture is right in everything. These are the doctrines - that we hear in the schools; but in the actions and in the life of most - men, according to Euripides, From the Aeolus of Euripides; quoted again Moralia, 369 B and 474 A. Cf. Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 21. - The good and bad cannot be kept apart But - there is some commingling. But when poetic art is divorced from the truth, - then chiefly it employs variety and diversity. For it is the sudden changes - that give to its stories the elements of the emotional, the surprising, and - the unexpected, and these are attended by very great astonishment and - enjoyment; but sameness is unemotional and prosaic. - Therefore poets do not represent the same people as always victorious or - prosperous or successful in everything; no, not even the gods, when they - project themselves into human activities, are represented in the poets' - usage as free from emotion or fault, that the perturbing and exciting - element in the poetry shall nowhere become idle and dull, for want of danger - and struggle.

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Now since this is so, let the young man, when we set him to reading poems, - not be prepossessed with any such opinions about those good and great names, - as, for instance, that the men were wise and honest, consummate kings, and - standards of all virtue and uprightness. For he will be greatly injured if - he approves everything, and is in a state of wonderment over it, but resents - nothing, refusing even to listen or accept the opinion of him who, on the - contrary, censures persons that do and say such things as these: This I - would, O Zeus, Athena, and Apollo, That not one escape death of all the - Trojans living And of the Greeks; but that you and I elude destruction, So - that we alone may raze Troy's sacred bulwarks,Homer, Il. xvi. 97. - and Saddest of all the sad - sounds that I heard was the cry of Cassandra Priam's daughter, whom - Clytemnestra craftily planning Slew o'er my body,Homer, Od. xi. 421. - and That I seduce the - girl and ensure her hate for my father. So I obeyed her and did it,Homer, Il. ix. 452. - and - - - Father Zeus, none other of the gods is more baleful.Homer, Il. iii. 365. - - Let the young man, then, not get into the habit of commending anything like - this, nor let him be plausible and adroit in making excuses or in contriving - some specious quibbles to explain base actions, but rather let him cherish - the belief that poetry is an imitation of character and lives, and of men - who are not perfect or spotless or unassailable in all respects, but - pervaded by emotions, false opinions, and sundry forms of ignorance, who yet - through inborn goodness frequently change their ways for the better. For if - the young man is so trained, and his understanding so framed, that he feels - elation and a sympathetic enthusiasm over noble words and deeds, and an - aversion and repugnance for the mean, such training will render his perusal - of poetry harmless. But the man who admires everything, and accommodates - himself to everything, whose judgement, because of his preconceived opinion, - is enthralled by the heroic names, will, like those who copy Plato's stoop - or Aristotle's lisp, unwittingly become inclined to conform to much that is - base. One ought not timorously, or as though under the spell of religious - dread in a holy place, to shiver with awe at everything, and fall prostrate, - but should rather acquire the habit of exclaiming with confidence - wrong and improper no less than right - and proper. For example, Achilles summons an - assembly of the soldiers, who are suffering from an illness, since he is - most impatient of all over the slow progress of the war because of his - conspicuous position and reputation on the field; moreover, because he has - some knowledge of medicine, and perceives now after the ninth day, on which these maladies naturally reach their crisis, that - the disease is out of the ordinary and not the result of familiar causes, he - does not harangue the multitude when he rises to speak, but makes himself an - adviser to the king: Son of Atreus, now, as I think, are we destined to - wander Back to seek our homes again.Homer, Il. i. 59. - Rightly, moderately, and properly is - this put. But after the seer has said that he fears the wrath of the most - powerful of the Greeks, Achilles no longer speaks rightly and moderately, - when he swears that nobody shall lay hands on the seer while he himself is - alive, No, not though you name Agamemnon, - Ibid. 90. - thus making plain his slight - regard and his contempt for the leader. A moment later his irritation - becomes more acute, and his impulse is to draw his sword with intent to do - murder; not rightly, either for honour or for expediency. Again, later, - repenting, Back he thrust his massive blade once more to its scabbard, Nor - ignored Athena's words, - Ibid. 220. - this time rightly and honourably, because, although - he could not altogether eradicate his anger, yet before doing anything - irreparable he put it aside and checked it by making it obedient to his - reason. Then again, although Agamemnon is ridiculous in his actions and - words at the Assembly, yet in the incidents touching Chryseis he is more - dignified and kingly. For whereas Achilles, as Briseis was being led away, - - - Burst into tears and withdrawing apart sat aloof from - his comrades,Homer, Il. i. 349. - Agamemnon, as he in person put aboard the ship, and gave up - and sent away, the woman of whom, a moment before, he has said that he cared - more for her than for his wedded wife, committed no amorous or disgraceful - act. Then again, Phoenix, cursed by his father on account of the concubine, - says: True in my heart I had purposed to slay him with keenpointed dagger, - Save that one of the deathless gods put an end to my anger, Bringing to mind - the people's talk and men's many reproaches, Lest I be known among the - Greeks as my father's slayer.These lines are not found in any MS. of Homer, but on the authority of this quotation they have been printed in practically all editions since that of Barnes (1711) as lines 458-61 of Book IX. of the Iliad. Plutarch cites the second and part of the third line in the Life of Coriolanus, chap. 32 (229 B), and the last line in Moralia, 72 B. - Now Aristarchus removed these lines from the - text through fear, but they are right in view of the occasion, since Phoenix - is trying to teach Achilles what sort of a thing anger is, and how many wild - deeds men are ready to do from temper, if they do not use reason or hearken - to those who try to soothe them. So also the poet introduces Meleager angry - at his fellow-citizens, and later mollified, and he rightly finds fault with - his emotions, but, on the other hand, his refusal to yield, his resistance, - his mastery over them, and his change of heart the poet commends as good and - expedient. Now in these cases the difference is manifest; but in cases where - Homer's judgement is not made clear, a distinction is to be drawn by - directing the young man's attention in some such manner as the following: - If, on the one hand, Nausicaa, after merely looking at a strange man, - Odysseus, and experiencing Calypso's emotions toward him, being, as she was, - - a wanton child and at the age for marriage, utters such - foolish words as these to her maid-servants, How I wish that a man like this - might be called my husband, Living here with us, and be contented to tarry,Homer, Od. vi. 244. - - then are her boldness and lack of restraint to be blamed. But if, on the - other hand, she sees into the character of the man from his words, and - marvels at his conversation, so full of good sense, and then prays that she - may be the consort of such a person rather than of some sailor man or - dancing man of her own townsmen, then it is quite right to admire her. And - again, when Penelope enters into conversation with the suitors, not holding - herself aloof, and they favour her with gifts of garments and other apparel, - Odysseus is pleased Since she had coaxed all these gifts from them, and had - cozened their senses. - Ibid. xviii. 282. - If, on the one hand, he rejoices at the receipt of - the presents and the profit, then in his prostitution of his wife he outdoes - Poliager, who is satirized in the comedy as Poliager blest Who keeps a - Cyprian goat to yield him wealth.Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii. 299. Cf. Alciphro, Epist. iii. 62. The reference is probably to the goat Amalthea, the fabled nurse of the infant Zeus, but Pantazides thinks that Uranium (Οὐράνιον) may have been the woman's name. - But if, on the other hand, he thinks that - he shall have them more in his power, while they are confident because of - their hopes and blind to the future, then his pleasure and confidence has a - reasonable justification. Similarly, in the enumeration of his possessions - which the Phaeacians had put ashore with him before they sailed away, if on - the one hand, upon finding himself in such solitude and in such uncertainty - and ambiguity regarding his surroundings, he really fears about his - possessions, - Lest the men on the ship had sailed away - with something,Homer, Od. xiii. 216. - then it is quite right to pity or indeed even to loathe his - avarice. But if, on the other hand, he, as some say, being of two minds - whether he were in Ithaca, thinks that the safety of his possessions is a - demonstration of the rectitude of the Phaeacians (for otherwise they would - not have carried him for nothing, put him ashore in a strange land, and left - him there, at the same time keeping their hands off his possessions), then - he makes use of no mean proof, and it is quite right to praise his - forethought. But some critics find fault also with the very act of putting - him ashore, if this really was done while he was asleep, and assert that the - Etruscans still preserve a tradition that Odysseus was naturally sleepy, and - that for this reason most people found him difficult to converse with. Yet - if his sleep was not real, but if, being ashamed to send away the Phaeacians - without gifts and entertainment, and at the same time unable to elude his - enemies if the Phaeacians were in company with him, he provided himself with - a cloak for his embarrassment in feigning himself asleep, then they find - this acceptable. By indicating these things to the young, we shall not allow - them to acquire any leaning toward such characters as are mean, but rather - an emulation of the better, and a preference for them, if we unhesitatingly - award censure to the one class and commendation to the other. It is - particularly necessary to do this with tragedies in which plausible and - artful words are framed to accompany disreputable and knavish actions. For - the statement of Sophocles Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. 755. is not altogether true when he says: - From unfair deed fair word cannot proceed. For, as a - fact, he is wont to provide for mean characters and unnatural actions - alluring words and humane reasons. And you observe also that his - companion-at-arms in the dramatic art has represented Phaedra Presumably in the Hippolytus Veiled; cf. Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Eurip., 491. as preferring - the charge against Theseus that it was because of his derelictions that she - fell in love with Hippolytus. Of such sort, too, are the frank lines, aimed - against Hecuba, which in the Trojan Women Euripides, The Trojan Women, 919. he gives to Helen, who there - expresses her feeling that Hecuba ought rather to be the one to suffer - punishment because she brought into the world the man who was the cause of - Helen's infidelity. Let the young man not form the habit of regarding any - one of these things as witty and adroit, and let him not smile indulgently, - either, at such displays of verbal ingenuity, but let him loathe the words - of licentiousness even more than its deeds.

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Now in all cases it is useful also to seek after the cause of each thing that - is said. Cato, for example, used, even as a child, to do whatever the - attendant in charge of him ordered, yet he also demanded to know the ground - and reason for the order. And so the poets are not to be obeyed as though - they were our keepers or law-givers, unless their subject matter be - reasonable; and this it will be if it be good, but if it be vile, it will - be seen to be vacuous and vain. But most people are sharp in demanding the - reasons for trivial things like the following, and insist on knowing in what - sense they are intended: Never ought the ladle atop of the bowl to be - rested While the bout is on, Hesiod, Works and Days, 744. - - and Whoso from his car can - reach the car of another Let him thrust with his spear.Homer, Il. iv. 306. - But in far - weightier matters they take things on faith without testing them at all, - such, for example, as these: A man, though bold, is made a slave whene'er - He learns his mother's or his sire's disgrace,Euripides, Hippolytus, 424; cited also by Plutarch in Moralia, 1 C. - and Who prospers not must be - of humble mind.Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 957. - And yet these sentiments affect our characters and disorder - our lives, by engendering in us mean judgements and ignoble opinions, unless - from habit we can say in answer to each of them, Why must the man - who has ' not prospered be of humble mind,' and why must he not rather - rise up against Fortune, and make himself exalted and not humbled? And - why, though I be the son of a bad and foolish father, yet if I myself am - good and sensible, is it unbecoming for me to take pride in my good - qualities, and why should I be dejected and humble on account of my - father's crassness? For he who thus meets and resists, and - refuses to entrust himself broadside on to every breath of doctrine, as to a - wind, but believes in the correctness of the saying that a fool is - wont to be agog at every word that's said - A dictum of Heracleitus. It is again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 41 A; cf. Diels, Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, i. p. 95. will thrust aside a - good deal of what is not true or profitable therein. This, then, will take - away all danger of harm from the perusal of poetry. - -

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But, just as amid the luxuriant foliage and branches of a vine the fruit is - often hidden and unnoticed from being in the shadow, so also amid the poetic - diction and the tales that hang clustered about, much that is helpful and - profitable escapes a young man. This, however, ought not to happen to him, - nor should he allow his attention to be diverted from the facts, but he - should cling especially close to those that lead toward virtue and have the - power to mould character. In which regard it may not be a bad thing to treat - this topic briefly, touching summarily the principal points, but leaving any - extended and constructive treatment, and long list of examples, to those who - write more for display. In the first place, then, as the young man takes - note of good and bad characters and personages, let him pay attention to the - lines and the actions which the poet assigns to them as respectively - befitting. For example, Achilles says to Agamemnon, although he speaks with - anger: Never a prize like yours is mine whene'er the Achaeans Capture and - sack some goodly and populous town of the Trojans.Homer, Il. i. 163. - But Thersites in - reviling the same man says: Full of bronze are your quarters, and many, - too, are the women, Chosen from all the captives for you, and these we - Achaeans Give to you first of all whenever we capture a city. - Ibid. ii. 226. - And on - another occasion Achilles says, If perchance Zeus ever Grants to us that we - plunder Troy, the well-walled city, - Ibid. i. 128. - but Thersites, - One - that I or another Achaean may bring in as captive.Homer, Il. ii. 231. - At another time, in the - Inspection, when Agamemnon upbraided Diomede, the latter made no answer, - Showing respect for the stern rebuke of a king so respected. - Ibid. iv. 402. - But Sthenelus, - a man of no account, says: Son of Atreus, speak not to deceive, knowing how - to speak clearly; We can avow ourselves to be better far than our fathers. - Ibid. 404. - - A difference of this sort then, if not overlooked, will teach the young man - to regard modesty and moderation as a mark of refinement, but to be on his - guard against boasting and self-assertion as a mark of meanness. It is - useful to note also the behaviour of Agamemnon in this case; for Sthenelus - he passed by without a word, but Odysseus he did not disregard, but made - answer and addressed him, When he saw he was wroth, and tried to retract his - saying. - Ibid. 357. - For to defend one's actions to everybody smacks of servility, not - of dignity, while to despise everybody is arrogant and foolish. And most - excellently does Diomede in the battle hold his peace, although upbraided by - the king, but after the battle he uses plain speech to him: First let me - say that you 'mid the Danaans slighted my prowess - Ibid. ix. 34. - -

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It is well, too, not to miss a difference that exists between a man of sense - and a seer who courts popularity. For example, Calchas - Ibid. i. 94-5. had no regard to the - occasion, and made nothing of accusing the king before the multitude, - alleging that he had - brought the pestilence upon them; but Nestor, though - anxious to put in a word for the reconciliation with Achilles, yet, in order - that he may not seem to discredit Agamemnon with the multitude as having - made a mistake and indulged in anger, says, Give a feast for the elders; - 'tis fitting and not unbefitting; Then, when many are gathered, whoever - shall offer best counsel Him you will follow,Homer, Il. ix. 70, and 74-5. - and after the dinner he sends - forth the envoys. For this was the way to amend an error; the other was - arraignment and foul abuse.

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Moreover, the difference between the two peoples should be observed, their - behaviour being as follows: the Trojans advance with shouting and - confidence, but the Achaeans Silently, fearing their captains. - Ibid. iv. 431. - For to fear - one's commanders when at close quarters with the enemy is a sign of bravery - and of obedience to authority as well. Wherefore Plato - Cf. Plato, Apology, 28 F and E. tries to establish - the habit of fearing blame and disgrace more than toils and dangers, and - Cato - Cf. Plutarch, Life of Cato, chap. 9 (341 C). used to say that he liked people that blushed better than those that - blanched. There is also in the promises of the heroes a special character. - For Dolon promises: Straight to the midst of their host shall I go till I - come to the vessel Which Agamemnon commands.Homer, Il. x. 325. - Diomede, - Ibid. 222. however, promises - nothing, but says that he should be less frightened if he were sent in - company with another man. Prudence, then, is - characteristic of a Greek and of a man of refinement, - while presumption is barbaric and cheap: the one should be emulated and the - other detested. And it is not unprofitable to consider how the Trojans and - Hector were affected, at the time when Ajax was about to engage with him i - single combat. Once when a boxer at the Isthmian games was struck in the - face, and a clamour arose, Aeschylus - Cf. Plutarch, Moralia, 79 D. said, What a thing is - training. The onlookers cry out; it is the man who is struck who says - nothing. In like manner, when the poet says Homer, Il. vii. 214. that when Ajax - appeared resplendent in his armour, the Greeks rejoiced at seeing him, - whereas Dreadful trembling seized on the limbs of every Trojan; Even Hector - himself felt his heart beat quick in his bosom, who could fail to admire the - difference? For the heart of the man who is facing the danger only throbs, - as though indeed he were simply going to wrestle or run a race, while the - onlookers tremble and shiver in their whole bodies through loyalty and fear - for their king. Here, too, one should carefully consider the difference - between the very valiant man and the craven. For Thersites Hateful was most - of all to Achilles as well as Odysseus,Ibid. ii. 220. while Ajax was always friendly to - Achilles, and says to Hector regarding him— Now alone from one man alone - shall you learn quite clearly What sort of men with us are the Danaans' - chieftains Even after the smiter of men, lion-hearted Achilles. - Ibid. vii. 226. - This is the - compliment paid to Achilles, but these succeeding lines in behalf of all are - put in such a way as to be useful: - - Yet are we of such sort as are ready to face you, Yea, - and many of us,Homer, Il. vii. 231. - thereby declaring himself not the only man or the best, but - only one among many equally capable of offering defence. This is enough on - the subject of differences, unless perhaps we desire to add, that of the - Trojans many were taken alive, but none of the Achaeans; and that of the - Trojans some fell down at the feet of the enemy, as did Adrastus, - Ibid. vi. 37. the sons - Ibid. xi. 122. - of Antimachus, Lycaon, - Ibid. xxi. 64. and Hector - Ibid. xxii. 337. himself begging Achilles for burial, but - of the Achaeans none, because of their conviction that it is a trait of - barbarian peoples to make supplication and to fall at the enemy's feet in - combat, but of Greeks to conquer or to die fighting.

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Now just as in pasturage the bee seeks the flower, the goat the tender shoot, - the swine the root, and other animals the seed and the fruit, so in the - reading of poetry one person culls the flowers of the story, another rivets - his attention upon the beauty of the diction and the arrangement of the - words, as Aristophanes Kock, Com. Att. Frag. i. p. 513. says of Euripides, I use the rounded neatness of his - speech; but as for those who are concerned with what is said as being - useful for character (and it is to these that our present discourse is - directed), let us remind them how strange it is if the lover of fables does - not fail to observe the novel and unusual points in the story, and the - student of language does not allow faultless and elegant forms of expression - to escape him, whereas he that affects what is honourable and good, - who takes up poetry not for amusement but for education, - should give but a slack and careless hearing to utterances that look toward - manliness or sobriety or uprightness, such, for example, as the following: - Son of Tydeus, what has made us forget our swift prowess? Hither, stand, my - friend, by me. Disgrace will befall us If yon Hector, gleaming-helmed, shall - capture our vessels.Homer, Il. xi. 313; the first line is quoted infra, 71 F. - For to observe that the most wise and prudent man, - when he is in danger of being destroyed and lost, together with the whole - host, fears shame and disapprobation, but not death, will make the young man - keenly alive to the moral virtues. And by the line, Glad was Athena because - of the man that was prudent and honest,Homer, Od. iii. 52. - the poet permits us to draw a - similar conclusion in that he represents the goddess as taking delight, not - in some rich man or in one who is physically handsome or strong, but in one - who is wise and honest. And again when she says that she does not overlook - Odysseus, much less desert him, Since he is courteous and clever of mind and - prudent, - Ibid. xiii. 332. - her words indicate that the only one of our attributes that is - dear to the gods and divine is a virtuous mind, if it be true that it is the - nature of like to delight in like.

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Since it seems to be, and really is, a great thing to master one's anger, - and since a greater thing is the exercise of precaution and forethought so - as not to become involved in anger or to be made captive by - it, we must make a point of indicating to our young - readers such matters as this: that Achilles, being not tolerant or mild in - temper, bids Priam in these words to be quiet and not to exasperate him: - Anger me now no more, old man (to ransom your Hector I myself am disposed; - from Zeus has come such a message), Lest, old man, even here 'neath my roof - I leave you not scatheless Suppliant though you are, and sin against Zeus's - commandments,Homer, Il. xxiv. 560-1, 569-70. - and having washed and shrouded the body of Hector, he places - it with his own hands on the wagon before its disfigurement was seen by the - father, Lest with heart so distressed he fail to master his anger, Seeing - his son, and Achilles' heart be stirred with resentment, So that he slay him - there, and sin against Zeus's commandments. - Ibid. 584. - For it is mark of a wondrous - foresight for a man whose hold on his temper is uncertain, who is naturally - rough and quick-tempered, not to be blind to his own weakness, but to - exercise caution, and to be on his guard against possible grounds for anger, - and to forestall them by reason long beforehand, so that he may not even - inadvertently become involved in such emotions. After the same manner should - he that is fond of wine be on his guard against drunkenness, and he that is - amorous against love. So did Agesilaus,Xenophon, Agesilaus, v. 4. who would not submit to being - kissed by the handsome boy who approached him, so did Cyrus,Xenophon, Cyropaedia, v. 1. 4. who durst not - even to look at Pantheia; but the uneducated, on the contrary, gather fuel - to kindle their passions, casting themselves headlong into those wherein - they are weakest and least sure of themselves. Yet Odysseus not only - restrains himself when enraged, but perceiving from some - words of Telemachus that he too is angry and filled with hatred of the - wicked, labours to mitigate his feelings and prepares him well beforehand to - keep quiet and restrain himself, bidding him, Even if they within my own - house shall dishonour me sorely, Let your heart within you endure all the - wrongs that I suffer: Though through the house they should drag me out by - the feet to the open, Yea, or with missiles smite me, still you must patient - behold it.Homer, Od. xvi. 274. - For just as drivers do not curb their horses during the race, - but before the race, so with those persons who are quick-tempered and hard - to hold back when dangers threaten, we first gain control over them by - reasoning, and make them ready beforehand, and then lead them into the - strife. While it is also necessary not to pass over the words carelessly, - yet one should eschew the puerility of Cleanthes; for there are times when - he uses a mock seriousness in pretending to interpret the words, Father - Zeus, enthroned on Ida,Homer, Il. iii. 320; vii. 202; xxiv. 208 - and Zeus, lord of Dodona, bidding us in the latter - case to read the last two words as one - Ibid. xvi. 233. It is of inerest that this reading is attested also in scholia on the passage. (taking the word lord - as the preposition up) as though the vapour - exhaled from the earth were updonative because of its being - rendered up! And Chrysippus also is often quite petty, although he does not - indulge in jesting, but wrests the words ingeniously, yet without carrying - conviction, as when he would force the phrase wide-seeing - son of Cronos - Ibid. i. 498. to signify clever in conversation, that is to - say, with a widespread power of speech. -

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It is better, however, to turn these matters over to the grammarians, and to - hold fast rather to those in which is to be found both usefulness and - probability, such as Nor does my heart so bid me, for I have learned to be - valiant,Homer, Il. vi. 444. - and For towards all he understood the way to be gentle. - Ibid. xvii. 671. - For by - declaring that bravery is a thing to be learned, and by expressing the - belief that friendly and gracious intercourse with others proceeds from - understanding, and is in keeping with reason, the poet urges us not to - neglect our own selves, but to learn what is good, and to give heed to our - teachers, intimating that both boorishness and cowardice are but ignorance - and defects of learning. With this agrees very well what he says regarding - Zeus and Poseidon: Both, indeed, were of one descent and of the same - birthplace, Yet was Zeus the earlier born and his knowledge was wider. - Ibid. xiii. 354. - For - he declares understanding to be a most divine and kingly thing, to which he - ascribes the very great superiority of Zeus, inasmuch as he believes that - all the other virtues follow upon this one.

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At the same time, the young man must get the habit of perusing with a mind - wide awake such sayings as these: Falsehood he will not utter because he is - very prudent,Homer, Od. iii. 20 and 328. and What an act Is this, Antilochus, - prudent aforetime! You have put my skill to disgrace and hindered my - horses,Homer, Il. xxiii. 570. - and Glaucus, what cause has a man like you for words so disdainful - ? Truly I thought, my friend, that in sense you excelled all the others, - Ibid. xvii. 170. - - the implication being that men of sense do not lie or contend unfairly in - games, or make unwarranted accusations against other people. And from the - poet's saying - Ibid. vi. 104. that Pandarus was persuaded because of his want of sense to - bring to naught the sworn agreement, he clearly shows his opinion that the - man of sense would not do wrong. It is also possible to give similar - intimations in regard to self-control, by directing the young man's - attention to statements like these: Mad for him was Proetus' royal wife - Anteia Lusting to make him her lover in secret, but could not persuade him, - Since the wise Bellerophon thought more of virtue, - Ibid. vi. 160. - and She at the first - would not consent to a deed so unseemly, Royal Clytemnestra, since her - thoughts were for virtue.Homer, Od. iii. 265. - In these lines the poet attributes to - understanding the cause of self-control; and in his exhortations to battle - he says on the several occasions: Shame, men of Lycia, whither now flee ye - ? Now be ye valiant,Homer, Il. xvi. 422. - and But let all your minds be imbued with Shame and - resentment, for now, as you see, great strife has arisen, - Ibid. xiii. 121. - - and thereby he appears to represent the men of self-control as brave - because of their being ashamed of disgrace, and as able to overcome - pleasures and to undergo dangerous adventures. Timotheus Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Gr. iii. 622; Timotheus, Frag. 14 ed. Wilamowitz. also adopted this - point of view, when in his Persians he urged the Greeks, not infelicitously, - to have Respect for shame that helps the brave in war; and Aeschylus Aeschylus, Seven Against Thebes, 599; the lines are quoted also, in whole or in part, by Plutarch, Moralia, 8 B, 186 B, and the Life of Aristeides, chap. iii. (320 B). sets - it down as a point of good sense not to be puffed up with fame, nor to be - excited and elated by popular praise, when he writes of Amphiaraus, His wish - is not to seem, but be, the best, Reaping the deep-sown furrow of his mind - In which all goodly counsels have their root. For to take pride in oneself - and in one's state of mind when it is altogether good, marks the man of good - sense; and since everything may be referred to understanding, it follows - that every form of virtue is added unto him from reason and instruction. -

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Now the bee, in accordance with nature's laws, discovers amid the most - pungent flowers and the roughest thorns the smoothest and most palatable - honey; so children, if they be rightly nurtured amid poetry, will in some - way or other learn to draw some wholesome and profitable doctrine even from - passages that are suspect of what is base and improper. For example, - Agamemnon is suspected of having, for a bribe, released from service in the - army the rich man who made him a present of the mare Aetha, - - Gift so he fare not with him to Troy where the wind - never ceaseth, But enjoy himself at home; for wealth in abundance Zeus had - bestowed upon him.Homer, Il. xxiii. 297. - But, as Aristotle Presumably in his Homeric Questions. - observes, he did quite right in - preferring a good mare to a man of that type. For a coward, and a weakling, - made dissolute by wealth and soft living, is not, I swear, worth a dog or - even an ass. Again, it appears most shameful in Thetis Homer, Il. xxiv. 130. when she incites her - son to pleasures and reminds him of love. But even there we must contrast - Achilles' mastery of himself, that although he is in love with Briseis, who - has come back to him, and although he knows that the end of his life is - near, yet he does not make haste to enjoy love's pleasures, nor, like most - men, mourn for his friend by inactivity and omission of his duties, but as - he refrains from such pleasures because of his grief, so he bestirs himself - in the business of his command. Again, Archilochus cannot be commended, - because while grieving over his sister's husband, who was lost at sea, he is - minded to fight against his grief by means of wine and amusement; he has, - however, alleged a cause that has some appearance of reason, By my tears I - shall not cure it, nor worse make it By pursuing joys, yea, and - festivities.Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Gr. ii. p. 687. - For if he thought that he should not make matters worse - by pursuing joys, yea, and festivities, how shall our present - condition be any the worse if we engage in the study of philosophy or take - part in public life, if we go out to the market-place or down to the - Academy, or if we pursue our farming? Wherefore the corrected versions - which Cleanthes - and Antisthenes employed are themselves not without - value. Antisthenes, observing that the Athenians had raised an uproar in the - theatre at the line, What's shameful if its doer think not so? From the Aeolus of Euripides, Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, Euripides, No. 17. - at once - interpolated, A shame's a shame, though one think so or no and Cleanthes, - taking the lines about riches, Give to your friends, and when your body's - ill, Save it by spending,Euripides, Electra, 428. - rewrote them in this manner, To harlots give, and - when your body's ill Waste it by spending. And Zeno in amending the lines of - Sophocles, Whoever comes to traffic with a king To him is slave however free - he come,Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag. Sophocles, No. 789; quoted by Plutarch also in Moralia, 204 D and the Life of Pompey chap. lxxviii. (661 A). - rewrote it thus: Is not a slave if only free he come, by the word - free as he now uses it designating the man who is - fearless, high-minded, and unhumbled. What, then, is to hinder us also from - encouraging the young to take the better course by means of similar - rejoinders, dealing with the citations something like this: Most enviable - is the lot of him The shaft of whose desire hits what he would.Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp. No. 354. - - Not - so, will be our retort, but - The shaft of whose desire hits what is - good. - For to gain and achieve one's wish, if what one wishes is - not right, is pitiable and unenviable. Again, Not for good and no ill came - thy life from thy sire, Agamemnon, but joy Thou shalt find interwoven with - grief.Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis, 29; quoted also in Moralia, 103 B. - - No, indeed, we shall say, but you must find - joy and not grief if your lot be but moderate, since Not for good and no - ill came thy life from thy sire, Agamemnon; - and: Alas, from God - this evil comes to men, When, knowing what is good, one does it not.From the Chrysippus of Euripides; Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 841; again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 446 A. - - No, rather is it bestial, we reply, and - irrational and pitiable that a man who knows the better should be led - astray by the worse as a result of a weak will and soft living. - And again: 'Tis character persuades, and not the speech.Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii. p. 135; again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 801 C. - - No, - rather it is both character and speech, or character by means of speech, - just as a horseman uses a bridle, or a helmsman uses a rudder, since - virtue has no instrument so humane or so akin to itself as - speech. And: - - To women more than men is he inclined? Where there is - beauty, either suits him best.Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp. No, 355; again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 766 F. - But it were better to say - Where - there is virtue, either suits him best, of a truth, and there is no - difference in his inclination; but the man who is influenced by - pleasure or outward beauty to shift his course hither and thither is - incompetent and inconstant. Again: God's doings make the wise - to feel afraid.Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp. No. 356. - - Not so by any means, but God's doings make the wise - to feel assured, but they do make the silly and foolish and ungrateful - to feel afraid, because such persons suspect and fear the power which is - the cause and beginning of every good thing, as though it did - harm. Such then is the system of amendment.

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Chrysippus has rightly indicated how the poet's statements can be given a - wider application, saying that what is serviceable should be taken over and - made to apply to like situations. For when Hesiod Hesiod, Works and Days, 348. says, Nor would even an - ox disappear were there not a bad neighbour, he says the same thing also - about a dog and about an ass and about all things which in a similar way can - disappear. And again when Euripides Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 958; again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 106 D. Cf. Cicero, Ad Atticum, ix. 2a, 2. says, What man who - recks not death can be a slave? we must understand that he makes the same - statement - also about trouble and disease. For, as physicians who - have learnt the efficacy of a drug adapted to one malady take it over and - use it for every similar malady, so also when a statement has a general and - universal value, we ought not to suffer it to be fixed upon one matter - alone, but we ought to apply it to all the like, and inure the young men to - see its general value, and quickly to carry over what is appropriate, and by - many examples to give themselves training and practice in keen appreciation - ; so that when Menander says, Blest is the man who has both wealth and - sense,From the Bridal Manager of Menander, cf. Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii. Menander, No. 114, and Allinson, Menander in L.C.L. p. 342. - they may think of the statement as holding good also about repute - and leadership and facility in speaking; and so also that when they hear - the rebuke which was administered by Odysseus to Achilles as he sat among - the maidens in Scyrus, Dost thou, to dim the glory of thy race, Card wool, - son of the noblest man in Greece? Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp. No. 9; again quoted by Plutarch with variant reading, Moralia, 72 E. - they may imagine it to be addressed - also to the profligate and the avaricious and the heedless and the ill-bred, - as, for example, Dost drink, son of the noblest man in Greece, or gamble, or - follow quail-fighting, The Greeks were very fond, not only of cock-fights, but also of quail-fights. Another form of the latter sport known as ὀρτυγοκοπία is often referred to by Greek writers and is perhaps best described by Pollus ix. 102 and 107. The quails were put into an enclosed ring, and their courage was tested by tapping them on the head with the finger or by pulling the feathers on op of their heads. If a bird showed fight, its owner won. Plutarch in the present passage, without doubt, uses ὀρτυγοκοπία to cover all forms of the sport. or petty trading, or the exacting of usury, without - a thought of what is magnanimous or worthy of your noble parentage? - - - Speak not of Wealth. I can't admire a god Whose ready - favour basest men secure.From the Aeolus of Euripides. Nauck, TGF., Euripides, No. 20; cf. Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, v. 16. - Therefore speak not of repute, either, or of - personal beauty, or the general's cloak, or the priestly crown, to all which - we see the worst of men attaining. For ugly is the brood of cowardice,Nauck, TGF., Adesp. No. 357. - and - the same we may also aver of licentiousness, superstition, envy, and all the - other pestilent disorders. Most excellently has Homer said Paris, poor - wretch, excelling in looks,Homer, Il. iii. 39. - and Hector, excelling in looks - Ibid. xvii. 142. - (for he - declares the man deserving of censure and reproach who is endowed with no - good quality better than personal comeliness), and this we must make to - apply to similar cases, thereby curtailing the pride of those who plume - themselves on things of no worth, and teaching the young to regard as a - disgrace and reproach such phrases as excelling in wealth - and excelling in dinners and excelling in children - or oxen, and in fact even the use of the word - excelling in such a connexion. For we ought to aim at - the pre-eminence which comes from noble qualities, and we should strive to - be first in matters of first importance, and to be great in the greatest: - but the repute which comes from small and petty things is disreputable and - paltry.

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This illustration at once reminds us to consider carefully instances of - censure and commendation, particularly in Homer's poems. For he gives us - expressly to understand that bodily and adventitious - characteristics are unworthy of serious attention. For, - to begin with, in their greetings and salutations, they do not call one - another handsome or rich or strong, but they employ such fair words as - these— Heaven-sprung son of Laertes, Odysseus of many devices,Homer, Il. ii. 173. - and Hector, - son of Priam, peer of Zeus in counsel, - Ib. vii. 47. - and Son of Peleus, Achilles, great - glory to the Achaeans, - Ib. xix. 216. - and Noble son of Menoetius, in whom my soul finds - pleasure. - Ib. xi. 608. - In the second place they reproach without touching at all upon - bodily characteristics, but they direct their censure to faults: Drunken - sot, with eyes of a dog and the wild deer's courage, - Ib. i. 225. - and Ajax, excelling at - wrangling, ill advised, - Ib. xxiii. 483. - and Why, Idomeneus do you brag so soon? Unfitting - Is it for you to be braggart, - Ib. xxiii. 474, 478. - and Ajax, blundering boaster, - Ib. xiii. 824. - and finally - Thersites is reproached - Ib. ii. 246. by Odysseus, not as lame or bald or hunchbacked, - but as indiscreet in his language, while on the other hand the mother of - Hephaestus affectionately drew an epithet from his lameness when she - addressed him thus: - - Up with you, club-foot, my child!Homer, Il. xxi. 331. - Thus Homer ridicules - those who feel ashamed of lameness or blindness, in that he does not regard - as blameworthy that which is not shameful, or as shameful that which is - brought about, not through our own acts, but by fortune. Plainly, then, two - great advantages accrue to those who accustom themselves carefully to peruse - works of poetry: the first is conducive to moderation, that we do not - odiously and foolishly reproach anybody with his fortune; while the second - is conducive to magnanimity, that when we ourselves have met with chances - and changes we be not humiliated or even disturbed, but bear gently with - scoffings and revilings and ridicule, having especially before us the words - of Philemon: There's naught more pleasing or in better taste Than having - strength to bear when men revile.From the Epidicazomenus of Philemon; cf. Kock, Com. Att. Frag. ii. p. 484. - But if anybody is plainly in need of - reprehension, we should reprehend his faults and his giving way to emotion, - after the fashion in which Adrastus of the tragedy, when Alcmaeon said to - him, You are the kin of her who slew her spouse,Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp. No. 358; again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 88 F. - replied And you have - murdered her who gave you birth. - Ibidem. - - For just as those who scourge the clothes - do not - touch the body,Plutarch says (Moralia, 173 D) that Artaxerxes (Longhand) ordained that nobles who had offended should lay off their clothes, and their clothes should be scourged instead of their bodies. Considerable corroborative evidence is cited by Wyttenbach in his note on Moralia, 565 A. so those who scoff at misfortune or low - birth, do but vainly and foolishly assail externals, never touching the soul - or even such matters as really need correction and stinging reproof.

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Moreover, just as in what we have said above we felt that by setting against - cheap and harmful poems the sayings and maxims of statesmen and men of - repute, we were inducing a revolt and revulsion of faith from such poetry, - so whenever we find any edifying sentiment neatly expressed in the poets we - ought to foster and amplify it by means of proofs and testimonies from the - philosophers, at the same time crediting these with the discovery. For this - is right and useful, and our faith gains an added strength and dignity - whenever the doctrines of Pythagoras and of Plato are in agreement with what - is spoken on the stage or sung to the lyre or studied at school, and when - the precepts of Chilon and of Bias lead to the same conclusions as our - children's readings in poetry. Hence it is a duty to make a point of - indicating that the lines You, my child, have not the gift of arms in - battle, Your concern must be for loving arms in wedlock,Homer, Il. v. 428. - and Seeing - that Zeus is wroth if you fight with a man far better,Not found in the MSS. of Homer but often printed as Iliad, xi. 543. See note on 24 C supra. - - do not differ - from Know thyself, but have the same purport as this; - and the lines, - - Fools! They know not how much more than all a half is,Hesiod, Works and Days, 40. - - and Evil counsel is the worst for him who gives it - Ibid. 265. - are identical with the - doctrines of Plato in the Gorgias Plato, Gorgias, 473 A ff. and the Republic Plato, Republic, end of Book I. and Book IV.; cf. also 335 B. upon the principle that - to do wrong is worse than to be wronged and to - do evil is more injurious than to suffer evil. And on the words - of Aeschylus, Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Aeschylus, No. 352. - Fear not; great stress of pain is not for long, we ought to - remark that this is the oft repeated and much admired statement originating - with Epicurus,One of the leading principles of Epicurus; cf. Diogenes Laertius, x. 140. namely that great pains shortly spend their force, - and long continued pains have no magnitude. Of these two ideas - Aeschylus has perspicuously stated the one and the other is a corollary - thereto; for if great and intense pain is not lasting, then that which does - not last is not great or hard to endure. Take these lines of Thespis Nothing by Thespis has been preserved, although a few lines attributed to him were current. See Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag. p. 833.: You - see that Zeus is first of gods in this, Not using lies or boast or silly - laugh; With pleasure he alone is unconcerned. What difference is there - between this and the statement, for the Divine Being sits throned - afar from pleasure and pain, as Plato Plato, Letters, iii. 315 C. has put it? Consider - what is said by Bacchylides Bacchylides, i. 21.: - - I shall assert that virtue hath the highest fame, But - wealth with even wretched men is intimate, and again by Euripides Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 959. to much - the same effect: There's naught that I hold In a higher esteem Than a - virtuous life; 'Twill ever be joined With those that are good. and Why seek - vain possessions? Do ye think Virtue by wealth to compass? Wretched amid - your comforts shall ye sit.Plutarch, as was often his practice (e.g.Moralia, 25 C or 646 C), seems to have condensed this quotation. The original of the first portion appears to have been given by Satyrus in his Life of Euripides (Oxyrhynchus Papyri, ix. 142), Why have you mortals acquired in vain many possessions, and think that by wealth you shall compass virtue? What boots it, should you have in your ancestral halls some fragment of Aetna's cliff or Parian stone, gold-wrought, which you have secured? - Cf. Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 960. - Is not this a proof of what the philosophers - say regarding wealth and external advantages, that without virtue they are - useless and unprofitable for their owners?

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This method of conjoining and reconciling such sentiments with the doctrines - of philosophers brings the poet's work out of the realm of myth and - impersonation, and, moreover, invests with seriousness its helpful sayings. - Besides, it opens and stimulates in advance the mind of the youth by the - sayings in philosophy. For he comes to it thus not altogether without a - foretaste of it, nor without having heard of it, nor indiscriminately - stuffed with what he has heard always from his mother and nurse, and, I - - dare say, from his father and his tutor as well, who all - beatify and worship the rich, who shudder at death and pain, who regard - virtue without money and repute as quite undesirable and a thing of naught. - But when they hear the precepts of the philosophers, which go counter to - such opinions, at first astonishment and confusion and amazement take hold - of them, since they cannot accept or tolerate any such teaching, unless, - just as if they were now to look upon the sun after having been in utter - darkness, they have been made accustomed, in a reflected light, as it were, - in which the dazzling rays of truth are softened by combining truth with - fable, to face facts of this sort without being distressed, and not to try - to get away from them.The whole passage is a reminiscence of Plato, Republic, vii. chap. 2 (515 E). For if they have previously heard or read in poetry - such thoughts as these: To mourn the babe for th' ills to which he comes; - But him that's dead, and from his labours rests, To bear from home with joy - and cheering words,Celebrated lines from the Cresphontes of Euripides. Nauck, TGF., Eurip. No. 449; cf. Cicero, Tusc. Disp. i. 48. 115. - and What needs have mortals save two things alone, - Demeter's grain and draught from water-jar?Nauck, ibid., Eurip. No. 892 (again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 1043 E, 1044 B and F). - and O Tyranny, beloved of - barbarous folk, - Ibid., Adesp. o 359. - and And mortal men's felicity Is gained by such of them as - feel least grief, - Ibid., Adesp. No. 360. - they are less confused and disquieted upon hearing at the - lectures of the philosophers that Death is nothing to us, - One of Epicurus's leading principles, Diogenes Laertius, x. 139. - and The wealth allowed by Nature - is definitely limited, - Another of Epicurus's leading principles, Diogenes Laertius, x. 144. and - Happiness and blessedness do not consist in vast possessions or exalted - occupations or offices or authority, but on impassivity, calmness, and a - disposition of the soul that sets its limitations to accord with - Nature. - Also from Epicurus, without much doubt, but not to be found in just this form; cf., however, Diogenes Laertius, x. 139, 141, 144. -

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Wherefore, both because of these considerations and because of those already - adduced, the young man has need of good pilotage in the matter of reading, - to the end that, forestalled with schooling rather than prejudice, in a - spirit of friendship and goodwill and familiarity, he may be convoyed by - poetry into the realm of philosophy. -

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+ HOW THE YOUNG SHOULD STUDY POETRY (QUOMODO ADOLESCENS POETAS AUDIRE DEBEAT) + INTRODUCTION +

Plutarch’s essay on the study of poetry is not a discussion of the essentials of poetry, nor an analysis of its various kinds after the manner of Aristotle’s Poetics, but it is concerned with poetry only as a means of training the young in preparation for the study of philosophy later. Some experience with the adumbrations of philosophic doctrines which are to be found in poetry will, in the opinion of the author, make such doctrines seem less strange when they are met later in the actual study of philosophy.

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This training is to be imparted, not by confining the reading to selected passages, but by teaching the young to recognize and ignore the false and fabulous in poetry, to choose always the better interpretation, and, in immoral passages where art is employed for art’s sake, not to be deluded into approving vicious sentiments because of their artistic presentation. Such passages may be offset by other passages from the same author or from another author, and, as a last resort, one may try his hand at emending unsavoury lines to make them conform to a higher ethical standard. This last proposal seems to the modern reader a weak subterfuge, but it was a practice not unknown even before Plutarch’s time.

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rend="indent"Philology, in the narrower sense, Plutarch says, is a science in itself, and a knowledge of it is not essential to an unstanding of literature (a fact enunciated from time to time by modern educators as a new discovery). But, on the other hand, Plutarch strongly insists that an exact appreciation of words and of their meanings in different contexts is indispensable to the understanding of any work of poetry.

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The various points in the essay are illustrated by plentiful quotations drawn in the main from Homer, Hesiod, Archilochus, Pindar, Simonides, Theognis, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Menander. These are accompanied by many keen and intelligent observations (such, for example, as that regarding Paris), which attest Plutarch’s wide and careful reading in the classical authors.

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The fact that Plutarch does not use the methods of historical criticism will not escape the reader, and, although this seems to us a great defect in the essay, it is wholly in keeping with the spirit of Plutarch’s age. On the other hand there is well shown the genial and kindly Plutarch, who wishes to believe only good of all men, including the poets, however much they may fall short of the standards set by the divine Homer.

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If, my dear Marcus Sedatus, it is true, as the poet Philoxenus used to say, that of meats those that are not meat, and of fish those that are not fish, have the best flavour, let us leave the expounding of this matter to those persons of whom Cato said that their palates are more sensitive than their minds. And so of philosophical discourses it is clear to us that those seemingly not at all philosophical, or even serious, are found more enjoyable by the very young, who present themselves at such lectures as willing and submissive hearers. For in perusing not only Aesop’s Fables, and Tales from the Poets, but even the Abaris of Heracleides, the Lycon of Ariston, and philosophic doctrines about the soul when these are combined with tales from mythology,Plutarch probably has Plato in mind, and is thinking of passages like The Last Judgement ( Gorgias, 523 ff.). they get inspiration as well as pleasure. Wherefore we ought not only to keep the young decorous in the pleasures of eating and drinking, but, even more, in connexion with what they hear and read, by using in moderation, as a relish, that which gives pleasure, we should accustom them to seek what is useful and salutary therein. For close-shut gates do not preserve a city from capture if it admit the enemy through one; nor does continence in the other pleasures of sense save a young man, if he unwittingly abandon himself to that which comes through hearing. On the contrary, inasmuch as this form of pleasure engages more closely the man that is naturally given to thought and reason, so much the more, if neglected, does it injure and corrupt him that receives it. Since, then, it is neither possible, perhaps, nor profitable to debar from poetry a boy as old as my Soclarus and your Cleander now are, let us keep a very close watch over them, in the firm belief that they require oversight in their reading even more than in the streets. Accordingly, I have made up my mind to commit to writing and to send to you some thoughts on poetry which it occurred to me recently to express. I beg that you will take them and peruse them, and if they seem to you to be no worse than the things called amethysts Preventitives of intoxication; herbs or seeds (Plutarch,Symp.. 647 B, Athenaeus, 24 C), or nuts (Plutarch,Symp.. 624 C) which were eaten, or stones (Pliny, N.H. xxxvii. 9. 124) which were hung about the neck, in the belief that they would resist drunkenness. which some persons on convivial occasions hang upon their persons or take beforehand, then impart them to Cleander, and thus forestall his natural disposition, which, because it is slow in nothing, but impetuous and lively in everything, is more subject to such influences. Bad may be found in the head of the cuttle-fish; good there is also, Cf. Leutsch and Schneidewin, Paroemiographi Graeci, i. p. 299; Plutarch, Moralia, 734 E. because it is very pleasant to eat but it makes one’s sleep full of bad dreams and subject to strange and disturbing fancies, as they say. Similarly also in the art of poetry there is much that is pleasant and nourishing for the mind of a youth, but quite as much that is disturbing and misleading, unless in the hearing of it he have proper oversight. For it may be said, as it seems, not only of the land of the Egyptians but also of poetry, that it yields Drugs, and some are good when mixed and others banefulHomer, Od. iv. 230. to those who cultivate it. Hidden therein are love and desire and winning converse, Suasion that steals away the mind of the very wisest.Homer, Il. xiv. 216. For the element of deception in it does not gain any hold on utterly witless and foolish persons. This is the ground of Simonides’ answer to the man who said to him, Why are the Thessalians the only people whom you do not deceive? His answer was, Oh, they are too ignorant to be deceived by me ; and Gorgias called tragedy a deception wherein he who deceives is more honest than he who does not deceive, and he who is deceived is wiser than he who is not deceived. Shall we then stop the ears of the young, as those of the Ithacans were stopped, with a hard and unyielding wax, and force them to put to sea in the Epicurean boat, and avoid poetry and steer their course clear of it; or rather shall we set them against some upright standard of reason and there bind them fast, guiding and guarding their judgement, that it may not be carried away from the course by pleasure towards that which will do them hurt? No, not even Lycurgus, the mighty son of DryasHomer, Il. vi. 130. had sound sense, because, when many became drunk and violent, he went about uprooting the grapevines instead of bringing the springs of water nearer, and thus chastening the frenzied god, as Plato says, through correction by another, a sober, god. Plato, Laws, 773 D. For the tempering of wine with water removes its harmfulness without depriving it at the same time of its usefulness. So let us not root up or destroy the Muses’ vine of poetry, but where the mythical and dramatic part grows all riotous Cf. Theophrastus, De causis plantarum, iii. 1. 5. and luxuriant, through pleasure unalloyed, which gives it boldness and obstinacy in seeking acclaim, let us take it in hand and prune it and pinch it back. But where with its grace it approaches a true kind of culture, and the sweet allurement of its language is not fruitless or vacuous, there let us introduce philosophy and blend it with poetry. For as the mandragora, when it grows beside the vine and imparts its influence to the wine, makes this weigh less heavily on those who drink it, so poetry, by taking up its themes from philosophy and blending them with fable, renders the task of learning light and agreeable for the young. Wherefore poetry should not be avoided by those who are intending to pursue philosophy, but they should use poetry as an introductory exercise in philosophy, by training themselves habitually to seek the profitable in what gives pleasure, and to find satisfaction therein; and if there be nothing profitable, to combat such poetry and be dissatisfied with it. For this is the beginning of education, If one begin each task in proper way So is it likely will the ending be,Nauck,Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. 747. as Sophocles says.

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First of all, then, the young man should be introduced into poetry with nothing in his mind so well imprinted, or so ready at hand, as the saying, Many the lies the poets tell, Proverbial; cf. Aristotle, Metaphysics, i. 2. some intentionally and some unintentionally; intentionally, because for the purpose of giving pleasure and gratification to the ear (and this is what most people look for in poetry) they feel that the truth is too stern in comparison with fiction. For the truth, because it is what actually happens, does not deviate from its course, even though the end be unpleasant; whereas fiction, being a verbal fabrication, very readily follows a roundabout route, and turns aside from the painful to what is more pleasant. For not metre nor figure of speech nor loftiness of diction nor aptness of metaphor nor unity of composition has so much allurement and charm, as a clever interweaving of fabulous narrative. But, just as in pictures, colour is more stimulating than line-drawing because it is life-like, and creates an illusion, so in poetry falsehood combined with plausibility is more striking, and gives more satisfaction, than the work which is elaborate in metre and diction, but devoid of myth and fiction. This explains why Socrates, being induced by some dreams to take up poetry, since he was not himself a plausible or naturally clever workman in falsehood, inasmuch as he had been the champion of truth all his life, put into verse the fables of Aesop, Cf. Plato, Phaedo, 60 A. assuming that there can be no poetic composition which has no addition of falsehood. It is true that we know of sacrifices without dancing or flute, but we do not know of any poetic composition without fable or without falsehood. The verses of Empedocles and of Parmenides, the Antidotes against Poisons of Nicander, and the maxims of Theognis, are merely compositions which have borrowed from poetic art its metre and lofty style as a vehicle in order to avoid plodding along in prose. Whenever, therefore, in the poems of a man of note and repute some strange and disconcerting statement either about gods or lesser deities or about virtue is made by the author, he who accepts the statement as true is carried off his feet, and has his opinions perverted; whereas he who always remembers and keeps clearly in mind the sorcery of the poetic art in dealing with falsehood, who is able on every such occasion to say to it, “Device more subtly cunning than the lynx,a why knit your brows when jesting, why pretend to instruct when practising deception ?” Nauck,Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp., No. 349. will not suffer any dire effects or even acquire any base beliefs, but he will check himself when he feels afraid of Poseidon Homer, Iliad, xx. 60. and is in terror lest the god rend the earth asunder and lay bare the nether world; he will check himself when he is feeling wroth at Apollo in behalf of the foremost of the Achaeans, Whose praises he himself did sing, himself Was present at the feast, these words he spoke Himself, and yet himself brought death to him;Spoken by Thetis of the death of her son Achilles, as we are told by Plato, Republic, ii. p. 383 B, who quotes the passage more fully. Cf. Nauck,Trag. Graec. Frag., Aeschylus, No. 350. he will cease to shed tears over the dead Achilles and over Agamemnon Homer, Od. xi. 470 and 360. in the nether world, as they stretch out their impotent and feeble arms in their desire to be alive; and if, perchance, he is beginning to be disturbed by their suffering and overcome by the enchantment, he will not hesitate to say to himself, Hasten eager to the light, and all you saw here Lay to heart that you may tell your wife hereafter.Homer, Od. xi. 223. Certainly Homer has put this gracefully in reference to the visit to the shades, indicating that it is fit stuff for a woman’s ear because of the element of fable in it.

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Such things as this are what the poets fabricate intentionally, but more numerous are the things which they do not fabricate, but think and believe in their own hearts, and then impart to us in their false colouring. Take for example what Homer has said relating to Zeus: In the scales he placed two fates of Death so grievous, One of Achilles and the other of horse-taming Hector; Grasping the middle he poised it, and Hector’s fated day descended. Down to Hades he went, and Phoebus Apollo forsook him.Homer, Il. xxii. 210. Now Aeschylus has fitted a whole tragedy to this story, giving it the title of The Weighing of Souls, and has placed beside the scales of Zeus on the one side Thetis, and on the other Dawn, entreating for their sons who are fighting. But it is patent to everybody that this is a mythical fabrication which has been created to please or astound the hearer. But in the lines Zeus, appointed to decide the outcome of men’s fighting Ibid. iv. 84. and A fault doth God create in men Whene’er he wills to crush a house in woe,From the Niobe, of Aeschylus; Nauck,Trag.Graec. Frag., Aeschylus, No. 156. we have at last statements in accord with their opinion and belief, as they thus publish to us and try to make us share their delusion and ignorance regarding the gods. Then again the monstrous tales of visits to the shades, and the descriptions, which in awful language create spectres and pictures of blazing rivers and hideous places and grim punishments, do not blind very many people to the fact that fable and falsehood in plenty have been mingled with them like poison in nourishing food. And not Homer nor Pindar nor Sophocles really believed that these things are so when they wrote: From there the slow-moving rivers of dusky night Belch forth a darkness immeasurable,Pindar, Frag. 130 Christ. and On past Ocean’s streams they went and the headland of Leucas,Homer, Od. xxiv. 11. and The narrow throat of Hades and the refluent depths. Cf. Nauck,Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. 748. However, take the case of those who, bewailing and fearing death as something piteous, or want of burial as something terrible, have given utterance to sentiments like these: Go not hence and leave me behind unwept, unburied,Homer, Od. xi. 72. and Forth from his body went his soul on wing to Hades, Mourning its fate and leaving its vigour and manhood,Homer, Il. xvi. 856 and xxii. 362. and Destroy me not untimely; for ’tis sweet To see the light. Compel me not to gaze Upon the regions underneath the earth.Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis, 1218. These are the voices of persons affected by emotion and prepossessed by opinions and delusions. For this reason such sentiments take a more powerful hold on us and disturb us the more, inasmuch as we become infected by their emotions and by the weakness from whence they proceed. Against these influences, then, once more let us equip the young from the very outset to keep ever sounding in their ears the maxim, that the art of poetry is not greatly concerned with the truth, and that the truth about these matters, even for those who have made it their sole business to search out and understand the verities, is exceedingly hard to track down and hard to get hold of, as they themselves admit; and let these words of Empedocles be constantly in mind: Thus no eye of man hath seen nor ear hath heard this, Nor can it be comprehended by the mind,The passage is quoted more fully by Sextus Empiricus, Adv. math. vii. 122-4; cf. Diels, Poetarum Philosophorum Fragmenta, Empedocles, No. 2 and the words of Xenophanes: Never yet was born a man nor ever shall be Knowing the truth about the gods and what I say of all things,Quoted with two additional lines by Sextus Empiricus, Adv. math. vii. 49; cf. Diels, Poet. Philos. Frag., Xenophanes, No. 34. and by all means the words of Socrates, in Plato,Plato, Phaedo, 69 D. when he solemnly disavows all acquaintance with these subjects. For young people then will give less heed to the poets, as having some knowledge of these matters, when they see that such questions stagger the philosophers.

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We shall steady the young man still more if, at his first entrance into poetry, we give a general description of the poetic art as an imitative art and faculty analogous to painting. And let him not merely be acquainted with the oft-repeated saying that poetry is articulate painting, and painting is inarticulate poetry, but let us teach him in addition that when we see a lizard or an ape or the face of Thersites in a picture, we are pleased with it and admire it, not as a beautiful thing, but as a likeness. For by its essential nature the ugly cannot become beautiful; but the imitation, be it concerned with what is base or with what is good, if only it attain to the likeness, is commended. If, on the other hand, it produces a beautiful picture of an ugly body, it fails to give what propriety and probability require. Some painters even depict unnatural acts, as Timomachus painted a picture of Medea slaying her children, and Theon of Orestes slaying his mother, and Parrhasius of the feigned madness of Odysseus, and Chaerephanes of the lewd commerce of women with men. In these matters it is especially necessary that the young man should be trained by being taught that what we commend is not the action which is the subject of the imitation, but the art, in case the subject in hand has been properly imitated. Since, then, poetry also often gives an imitative recital of base deeds, or of wicked experiences and characters, the young man must not accept as true what is admired and successful therein, nor approve it as beautiful, but should simply commend it as fitting and proper to the character in hand. For just as when we hear the squealing of a pig, the creaking of a windlass, the whistling of the winds, and the booming of the sea, we are uneasy and annoyed; but if anybody gives a plausible imitation of these, as Parmeno imitated a pig, and Theodorus a windlass, we are pleased; and just as we avoid a diseased and ulcerous person as an unpleasant sight, but take delight in seeing Aristophon’s Philoctetes and Silanion’s Jocasta, who are represented on the stage as pining away or dying; so too the young man, as he reads what Thersites the buffoon, or Sisyphus the seducer of women, or Batrachus the bawd, is represented as saying or doing, must be taught to commend the faculty and art which imitates these things, but to repudiate and condemn the disposition and the actions which it imitates. For it is not the same thing at all to imitate something beautiful and something beautifully, since beautifully means fittingly and properly and ugly things are fitting and proper for the ugly. Witness the boots made for the crippled feet of Damonidas, who prayed once, when he had lost them, that the man who had stolen them might have feet which they would fit; they were sorry boots, it is true, but they fitted their owner. Consider the following lines: If one must needs do wrong, far best it were To do it for a kingdom’s sake,Euripides, Phoenissae, 324. and Achieve the just man’s good repute, but deeds That fit the knave; therein shall be your gain,From lines spoken by Ixion in an unknown play; cf. Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., adesp., No. 4. and A talent dowry! Shall I not accept? Can I still live if I should overlook A talent? Shall I ever sleep again If I should give it up? In Hell shall I Not suffer for impiety to gold? From an unknown poet of the new comedy; cf. Kock, Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta, iii. 430. These, it is true, are wicked and fallacious sentiments, but fitting respectively for Eteocles, Ixion, and an old usurer. If then we remind our sons that authors write them, not because they commend or approve them, but with the idea of investing mean and unnatural characters and persons with unnatural and mean sentiments, they could not be harmed by the opinions of poets; nay, on the contrary, the suspicion felt against the person in question discredits both his actions and words, as being mean because spoken or done by a mean man. Of such sort is the account of Paris in his wife’s arms after his cowardly escape from battle.Homer, Il. iii. 369 ff. and 441 ff. For since the poet represents no other save this licentious and adulterous man as dallying with a woman in the daytime, it is clear that he classes such sensuality as a shame and reproach.

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In these passages, close attention must be given to see whether the poet himself gives any hints against the sentiments expressed to indicate that they are distasteful to himself; just as Menander in the prologue of his Thais has written: Oh, sing to me, my muse, of such a girl, One bold and fair, and of persuasive tongue, Unjust, exclusive, and demanding much, In love with none, but always feigning love.Kock, Com. Att. Frag., Menander, No. 217, and Allinson, Menander, in L.C.L., p. 356. But Homer has best employed this method; for he in advance discredits the mean and calls our attention to the good in what is said. His favourable introductions are after this manner: Then at once he spoke; his words were gentle and winningHomer, Od. vi. 148. and He would stand by his side, and speak soft words to restrain him.Homer, Il. ii. 189. But in discrediting in advance, he all but protests and proclaims that we are not to follow or heed the sentiments expressed, as being unjustifiable and mean. For example, when he is on the point of narrating Agamemnon’s harsh treatment of the priest, he says in advance, Yet Agamemnon, Atreus’ son, at heart did not like it; Harshly he sent him away; Ibid. i. 24. that is to say, savagely and wilfully and contrary to what he should have done; and in Achilles’ mouth he puts the bold words, Drunken sot, with eyes of a dog and the wild deer’s courage, Ibid. i. 225. but he intimates his own judgement in saying, Then once more with vehement words did the son of Peleus Speak to the son of Atreus, nor ceased as yet from his anger; Ibid. i. 223. hence it is likely that nothing spoken with anger and severity can be good. In like manner also, he comments upon actions: Thus he spoke, and Hector divine he treated unseemly, Stretching him prone in the dust by the bier of the son of Menoetius. Ibid., xxiii. 24. He also employs his closing lines to good purpose, as though adding a sort of verdict of his own to what is done or said. Of the adultery of Ares, he represents the gods as saying, Evil deeds do not succeed: the swift by the slow is taken,Homer, Od., viii. 329. and on the occasion of Hector’s great arrogance and boasting he says, Thus he spoke in boast; queen Hera’s wrath was kindledHomer, Il. viii. 198. and regarding Pandarus’s archery, Thus Athena spoke, and the mind of the fool she persuaded. Ibid. iv. 104. Now these declarations and opinions contained in the words of the text may be discovered by anybody who will pay attention, but from the actions themselves the poets supply other lessons: as, for example, Euripides is reported to have said to those who railed at his Ixion as an impious and detestable character, But I did not remove him from the stage until I had him fastened to the wheel. In Homer this form of instruction is given silently, but it leaves room for a reconsideration, which is helpful in the case of those stories which have been most discredited. By forcibly distorting these stories through what used to be termed deeper meanings, but are nowadays called allegorical interpretations, some persons say that the Sun is represented as giving information about Aphrodite in the arms of Ares, because the conjunction of the planet Mars with Venus portends births conceived in adultery, and when the sun returns in his course and discovers these, they cannot be kept secret. And Hera’s beautifying of herself for Zeus’s eyes, Ibid. xiv. 166 ff. and the charms connected with the girdle, such persons will have it, are a sort of purification of the air as it draws near the fiery element;—as though the poet himself did not afford the right solutions. For, in the account of Aphrodite, he teaches those who will pay attention that vulgar music, coarse songs, and stories treating of vile themes, create licentious characters, unmanly lives, and men that love luxury, soft living, intimacy with women, and Changes of clothes, warm baths, and the genial bed of enjoyment.Homer, Od. viii. 239. This too is the reason why he has represented Odysseus as bidding the harper Come now, change the theme and sing how the horse was builded, Ibid. viii. 492. thus admirably indicating the duty of musicians and poets to take the subjects of their compositions from the lives of those who are discreet and sensible. And in his account of Hera, he has shown excellently well how the favour that women win by philters and enchantments and the attendant deceit in their relations with their husbands, not only is transitory and soon sated and unsure, but changes also to anger and enmity, so soon as the pleasurable excitement has faded away. Such, in fact, are Zeus’s angry threats as he speaks to Hera in this wise: So you may see if aught you gain from the love and caresses Won by your coming afar from the gods to deceive me.Homer, Il. xv. 32. For the description and portrayal of mean actions, if it also represent as it should the disgrace and injury resulting to the doers thereof, benefits instead of injuring the hearer. Philosophers, at any rate, for admonition and instruction, use examples taken from known facts; but the poets accomplish the same result by inventing actions of their own imagination, and by recounting mythical tales. Thus it was Melanthius who said, whether in jest or in earnest, that the Athenian State was perpetually preserved by the quarrelling and disorder among its public speakers; for they were not all inclined to crowd to the same side of the boat, and so, in the disagreement of the politicians, there was ever some counterpoise to the harmful. And so the mutual contrarieties of the poets, restoring our belief to its proper balance, forbid any strong turning of the scale toward the harmful. When therefore a comparison of passages makes their contradictions evident, we must advocate the better side, as in the following examples: Oft do the gods, my child, cause men to fail,From Euripides, Archelaus, Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 254. The second line is again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 1049 F. as compared with You’ve named the simplest way; just blame the gods; From Euripides, Archelaus, Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 254. The second line is again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 1049 F. and again You may rejoice in wealth, but these may not,Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 1069. as compared with ’Tis loutish to be rich, and know naught else;Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., No. 1069. and What need to sacrifice when you must die? Ibid., Adesp., No. 350. as compared with ’Tis better thus; God’s worship is not toil. Ibid., Adesp., No. 350. For such passages as these admit of solutions which are obvious, if, as has been said, we direct the young, by the use of criticism, toward the better side. But whenever anything said by such authors sounds preposterous, and no solution is found close at hand, we must nullify its effect by something said by them elsewhere to the opposite effect, and we should not be offended or angry at the poet, but with the words, which are spoken in character and with humorous intent. As an obvious illustration, if you wish, over against Homer’s accounts of the gods being cast forth by one another, their being wounded by men, their disagreements, and their displays of ill-temper, you may set the line: Surely you know how to think of a saying better than this one,Homer, Il. vii. 358 and xii. 232. and indeed elsewhere you do think of better things and say more seemly things, such as these: Gods at their ease ever living, Ibid. vi. 138; Od. iv. 805 and v. 122. and There the blessed gods pass all their days in enjoyment,Homer, Od. vi. 46. and Thus the gods have spun the fate of unhappy mortals Ever to live in distress, but themselves are free from all trouble.Homer, Il. xxiv. 525 (again quoted, infra, 22 B). These, then, are sound opinions about gods, and true, but those other accounts have been fabricated to excite men’s astonishment. Again, when Euripides says, By many forms of artifice the gods Defeat our plans, for they are stronger far,Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 972. it is not bad to subjoin, If gods do aught that’s base, they are no gods,From Euripides, Bellerophon, according to Stobaeus, Florilegium, c. 3, who quotes also six preceding lines; cf. Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 292. 7. which is a better saying of his. And when Pindar very bitterly and exasperatingly has said, Do what you will, so you vanquish your foe,Pindar, Isthmian Odes, iv. 48. Yet, we may reply, you yourself say that Most bitter the end Must surely await Sweet joys that are gained By a means unfair. Pindar, Isthmian Odes, vii. 47. a= And when Sophocles has said, Sweet is the pelf though gained by falsity.Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles , No. 749. Indeed, we may say, but we have heard from you that False words unfruitful prove when harvested. Ibid., No. 750. And over against those statements about wealth: Clever is wealth at finding ways to reach Both hallowed and unhallowed ground, and where A poor man, though he even gain access, Could not withal attain his heart’s desire. An ugly body, hapless with its tongue, Wealth makes both wise and comely to behold,From Sophocles, Aleadae; quoted with additional lines by Stobaeus, Florilegium, xci. 27; cf. Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No 85. he will set many of Sophocles’ words, among which are the following: E’en without wealth a man may be esteemed,Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. 761. and To beg doth not degrade a noble mind, Ibid., No. 752. and In the blessings of plenty What enjoyment is there, If blest wealth owe its increase To base-brooding care?Perhaps from the Tereus of Sophocles; cf. Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. 534. And Menander certainly exalted the love of pleasure, with a suggestion of boastfulness too, in these glowing lines that refer to love: All things that live and see the self-same sun That we behold, to pleasure are enslaved.Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii., Menander , No. 611, and Allinson, Menander, in L.C.L. p. 506. But at another time he turns us about and draws us towards the good, and uproots the boldness of licentiousness, by saying: A shameful life, though pleasant, is disgrace.Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii., Menander, No. 756. The latter sentiment is quite opposed to the former, and it is better and more useful. Such comparison and consideration of opposing sentiments will result in one of two ways: it will either guide the youth over toward the better side, or else cause his belief to revolt from the worse.

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In case the authors themselves do not offer solutions of their unjustifiable sayings, it is not a bad idea to put on the other side declarations of other writers of repute, and, as in a balance, make the scales incline toward the better side. For example, if Alexis stirs some people when he says, The man of sense must gather pleasure’s fruits, And three there are which have the potency Truly to be of import for this life— To eat and drink and have one’s way in love, All else must be declared accessory, Ibid. ii., Alexis, No. 271. we must recall to their minds that Socrates used to say just the opposite—that base men live to eat and drink, and good men eat and drink to live. And he who wrote Not useless ’gainst the knave is knavery,Source unknown; quoted again by Plutarch in Moralia, 534 A. thus bidding us, in a way, to make ourselves like knaves, may be confronted with the saying of Diogenes; for, being asked how one might defend himself against his adversary, he said, By proving honourable and upright himself. We should use Diogenes against Sophocles, too; for Sophocles has filled hosts of men with despondency by writing these lines about the mysteries: Thrice blest are they Who having seen these mystic rites shall pass To Hades’ house; for them alone is life Beyond; for others all is evil there.Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. 753. But Diogenes, hearing some such sentiment as this, said, What! Do you mean to say that Pataecion, the robber, will have a better portion after death than Epaminondas, just because he is initiate? And when Timotheus, in a song in the theatre, spoke of Artemis as Ecstatic Bacchic frantic fanatic,Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Gr. iii. p. 620; cf. Plutarch, Moralia, 170 A. Cinesias at once shouted back, May you have a daughter like that I Neat too is Bion s retort to Theognis, who said: Any man that is subject to poverty never is able Either to speak or to act; nay, but his tongue is tied.Theognis, 177. How is it, then, said Bion, that you, who are poor, can talk much nonsense, and weary us with this rubbish?

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We must not neglect, either, the means for rectifying a statement which are afforded by the words that lie near, or by the context; but just as physicians, in spite of the fact that the blister-fly is deadly, think that its feet and wings are helpful to counteract its potent effect, so in poetry if a noun or adjective or a verb by its position next to another word blunts the point which the passage, in its worse interpretation, would have, we should seize upon it and add explanation, as some do in the case of the following: Thus, at the last, can honour be paid by miserable mortals Cutting the hair from their heads while the tears stream down their faces,Homer, Od. iv. 197. and Thus, then, the gods have spun the fate of unhappy mortals Ever to live in distress.Homer, Il. xxiv. 525 (quoted supra, 20 F). For he did not say that absolutely and to all mankind a grievous life has been allotted by the gods, but to the silly and foolish, whom, since they are wretched and pitiable on account of wickedness, he is wont to call by the name of unhappy and miserable.

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Another method, again, which transfers from the worse to the better sense suspicious passages in poetry, is that which works through the normal usage of words, in which it were better to have the young man trained than in what are called glosses. Strange of obsolete words. It is indeed learned, and not unpleasing, to know that rhigedanos Homer, Il. xix. 325. means dying miserably (for the Macedonians call death danos ), that the Aeolians call a victory won by patience and perseverance an outlasting, Ibid. xxii. 257 and xxiii. 661. that the Dryopians call the divinities popoi. There was a tradition, preserved in the scholia, that ὦ πόποι, often found in Homer, was the equivalent of ὦ θεοί gods. But it is necessary and useful, if we are to be helped and not harmed by poetry, to know how the poets employ the names of the gods, and again the names of bad and of good things, and what they mean when they speak of Fortune or of Fate, and whether these belong to the class of words which in their writings are used in one sense only or in several senses, as the case is with many other words. For, to illustrate, they apply the term house sometimes to a dwelling house, as Into the lofty house,Homer, Od. v. 42, vii. 77, and perhaps x. 474. and sometimes to property, as My house is being devoured; Ibid. iv. 318. and the term living they apply sometimes to life, as But dark-haired Poseidon Thwarted his spear, nor would let him end his foeman’s living,Homer, Il. xiii. 562. and sometimes to possessions, as And others are eating my living;Homer, Od. xiii. 419. and the expression be distraught is used sometimes instead of be chagrined and be at one’s wits’ end : Thus he spoke, and she departed distraught and sore troubledHomer, Il. v. 352. and at other times, instead of to be arrogant and be delighted, as Are you now distraught since you vanquished Irus, the vagrant? Homer, Od. xviii. 332, 392. and by huddle they mean either be in motion, as Euripides says:From the Andromeda of Euripides, Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 145. A monster huddling from th’ Atlantic’s surge, or sit down and be seated, as Sophocles Oedipus Tyrannus, 2. says: What means your huddling in these places here With suppliant garlands on the boughs ye bear? It is a graceful accomplishment also to adapt the usage of the words to fit the matter in hand, as the grammarians teach us to do, taking a word for one signification at one time, and at another time for another, as for example, Better commend a small ship, but put your goods on a big one.Hesiod, Works and Days, 643. For by commend is meant recommend, and the very expression of recommend to another is used nowadays instead of deprecating for one’s self, as in everyday speech we say, It’s very kind, and Very welcome, when we do not want a thing and do not accept it. In this way also some persons will have it that it must be commendable Persephone because she is deprecated.

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Let us then observe closely this distinction and discrimination of words in greater and more serious matters, and let us begin with the gods, in teaching the young that when the poets employ the names of the gods, sometimes they apprehend in their conception the gods themselves, and at other times they give the same appellation to certain faculties of which gods are the givers and authors. To take an obvious example, it is clear that Archilochus, when he says in his prayer, Hear my praver, O Lord Hephaestus, and propitious Lend thy aid, and bestow what thy mercy bestows,Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Gr. ii. p. 703. is calling on the god himself; but when, lamenting his sister’s husband who was lost at sea and received no formal burial, he says that he could have borne the calamity with greater moderation, If upon his head and his body so fair, All in garments clean, Hephaestus had done his office, Ibid. p. 687. it is fire that he called by this name and not the god. And again when Euripides Phoenissae, 1006. said in an oath, By Zeus amidst the stars and Ares murderous, he named the gods themselves; but when Sophocles Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. 574; again cited by Plutarch, Moralia, 757 B. says, Blind and unseeing Ares, worthy dames, With snout like that of swine upturns all ills, the name is to be understood as meaning war; just as again it suggests weapons of bronze in the passage where Homer Homer, Il. vii. 329. says, Dark red blood of these men by the fair-flowing river Scamander Keen-edged Ares has shed. Since, then, many words are used in this way, it is necessary to know and to remember that under the name Zeus also (or Zen) the poets address sometimes the god, sometimes Fortune, and oftentimes Fate. For when they say, Father Zeus, enthroned on Ida, most glorious and mighty, Grant to Ajax victory,Homer, Il. iii. 276, vii. 202, xxiv. 308. and O Zeus! who boasts to be more wise than thou? Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp., No. 351. they mean the god himself; but when they apply the name of Zeus to the causes of all that happens, and say, Many valiant souls it sent to the realm of Hades, Goodly men, and their bodies gave to the dogs as ravin And to birds a feast—the design of Zeus in fulfilment,Homer, Il. i. 3. they mean Fate. For the poet does not imagine that it is the god who contrives evils for mankind, but by the name he rightly implies the compelling force of circumstances, that States and armies and leaders, if they show self-control, are destined to succeed and to prevail over their enemies, but if they fall into passions and errors, if they disagree and quarrel among themselves, as these heroes did, then are they destined to act discreditably and to become disorganized and to come to a bad end, as Sophocles says Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp., No. 352.: For fated is it that from evil plans An evil recompense shall mortals reap; and certainly Hesiod Hesiod, Works and Days, 86. in representing Prometheus as exhorting Epimetheus Never to welcome Any gifts from Zeus of Olympus, but always return them, employs the name of Zeus as a synonym for the power of Fortune. For he has given the name of gifts of Zeus to the blessings of Fortune, such as wealth, marriage, office, and, in a word, all outward things, the possession of which is unprofitable to those who cannot make good use of them. Wherefore he thinks that Epimetheus, who is a worthless man and a fool, ought to be on his guard against any piece of good fortune, and be fearful of it, as he is likely to be injured and corrupted by it. And again when the poet says, Never dare to reproach any man for accursed and woeful Poverty, gift of the blessed gods whose life is for ever,Hesiod, Works and Days, 717. he now speaks of what happens by chance as godgiven, with the suggestion that it is not meet to impugn those who are poor through misfortune, but to reproach the penury that is accompanied by laziness, soft living, and extravagance, since then it is disgraceful and reprehensible. For at a time when men did not as yet use the name Fortune, but knew the force of causation as it traverses its irregular and indeterminate course, so strong, so impossible for human reason to guard against, they tried to express this by the names of the gods, exactly as we are wont to call deeds and characters, and in fact even words and men, divine and godlike. In this manner, then, a corrective is to be found for most of the seemingly unjustifiable statements regarding Zeus, among which are the following: Fixed on Zeus’ floor two massive urns stand ever, Filled with happy lives the one, the other with sorrows,The quotation follows Plato, Republic, 379 D, and not Homer, Il. xxiv. 528. The original, however, is quoted in the Moralia, 105 C. and Cronos’ son, enthroned on high, hath made naught of our pledges, But for both our hosts with evil thought is planning,Homer, Il. vii. 69. and Then rolled forth the beginning of trouble Both on Trojans and Greeks through designs of Zeus the almighty.Homer, Od. viii. 81. These are to be interpreted as referring to Fortune or Fate, in which guise are denoted those phases of causation which baffle our logic, and are, in a word, beyond us. But wherever there is appropriateness, reason, and probability in the use of the name, let us believe that there the god himself is meant, as in the following: But he ranged to and fro ’gainst the lines of the rest of the fighters; Only with Ajax, Telamon’s son, he avoided a conflict, Seeing that Zeus was wroth if he fight with a man far better,Homer, Il. xi. 540, 542. The third line is not found in the MSS. of Homer, but on the authority of this passage and 36 A and Aristotle, Rhetoric, ii. 9, and the life of Homer ascribed to Plutarch, it has commonly been printed as line 542 in the editions of Homer. and For Zeus takes thought for mortals’ greatest weal; The little things he leaves to other gods.Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp., No. 353.

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Particular attention must be paid to the other words also, when their signification is shifted about and changed by the poets according to various circumstances. An example is the word virtue. For inasmuch as virtue not only renders men sensible, honest, and upright in actions and words, but also often enough secures for them repute and influence, the poets, following this notion, make good repute and influence to be virtue, giving them this name in exactly the same way that the products of the olive and the chestnut are called olives and chestnuts, the same names as the trees that bear them. So then when poets say, Sweat the gods have set before the attainment of virtue,Hesiod, Works and Days, 289. and Then the Greeks by their virtue broke the line of their foemen,Homer, Il. xi. 90. and If to die be our fate, Thus to die is our right Merging our lives into virtue,Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 994. Again quoted by Plutarch, Pelopidas, 317 E. let our young man at once feel that these sayings relate to the best and godliest estate to which we can attain, which we think of as correctness of reasoning, the height of good sense, and a disposition of soul in full agreement therewith. But when at another time, in his reading, he finds this line, Zeus makes virtue in men both to increase and diminish,Homer, Il. xx. 242. or this, Virtue and glory are attendant on riches,Hesiod, Works and Days, 313. let him not sit astounded and amazed at the rich, as though they were able to purchase virtue without ado for money, nor let him believe either that the increase or diminution of his own wisdom rests with Fortune, but let him consider that the poet has employed virtue instead of repute, or influence, or good fortune, or the like. For assuredly by evil the poets sometimes signify badness in its strict sense, and wickedness of soul, as when Hesiod Hesiod, Works and Days, 287. says, Evil may always be had by all mankind in abundance, and sometimes some other affliction or misfortune, as when Homer Homer, Od. xix. 360. says, Since full soon do mortals who live in evil grow aged. And so too anybody would be sadly deceived, should he imagine that the poets give to happiness the sense which the philosophers give to it, namely, that of complete possession or attainment of good, or the perfection of a life gliding smoothly along in accord with nature, and that the poets do not oftentimes by a perversion of the word call the rich man happy and blessed, and call influence or repute happiness. Now Homer Ibid. iv. 93. has used the words correctly: No delight Logically, we should expect here a word meaning happy. See the critical note on the opposite page. have I in ruling these possessions, and so has Menander:Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii. p. 184, and Allinson, Menander in L.C.L. p. 506. A great estate have I, and rich am called By all, but I am called by no man blest. But Euripides Euripides, Medea, 603. works much disturbance and confusion when he says, May I ne’er have a painful happy life, and Why do you honour show to tyranny, Happy iniquity? Euripides, Phoenissae, 549. unless, as has been said, one follows the figurative and perverted use of the words. This, then, is enough on this subject.

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There is a fact, however, which we must recall to the minds of the young not once merely, but over and over again, by pointing out to them that while poetry, inasmuch as it has an imitative basis, employs embellishment and glitter in dealing with the actions and characters that form its groundwork, yet it does not forsake the semblance of truth, since imitation depends upon plausibility for its allurement. This is the reason why the imitation that does not show an utter disregard of the truth brings out, along with the actions, indications of both vice and virtue commingled; as is the case with that of Homer, which emphatically says good-bye to the Stoics, who will have it that nothing base can attach to virtue, and nothing good to vice, but that the ignorant man is quite wrong in all things, while, on the other hand, the man of culture is right in everything. These are the doctrines that we hear in the schools; but in the actions and in the life of most men, according to Euripides, From the Aeolus of Euripides; quoted again Moralia, 369 B and 474 A. Cf. Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 21. The good and bad cannot be kept apart But there is some commingling. But when poetic art is divorced from the truth, then chiefly it employs variety and diversity. For it is the sudden changes that give to its stories the elements of the emotional, the surprising, and the unexpected, and these are attended by very great astonishment and enjoyment; but sameness is unemotional and prosaic. Therefore poets do not represent the same people as always victorious or prosperous or successful in everything; no, not even the gods, when they project themselves into human activities, are represented in the poets’ usage as free from emotion or fault, that the perturbing and exciting element in the poetry shall nowhere become idle and dull, for want of danger and struggle.

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Now since this is so, let the young man, when we set him to reading poems, not be prepossessed with any such opinions about those good and great names, as, for instance, that the men were wise and honest, consummate kings, and standards of all virtue and uprightness. For he will be greatly injured if he approves everything, and is in a state of wonderment over it, but resents nothing, refusing even to listen or accept the opinion of him who, on the contrary, censures persons that do and say such things as these: This I would, O Zeus, Athena, and Apollo, That not one escape death of all the Trojans living And of the Greeks; but that you and I elude destruction, So that we alone may raze Troy’s sacred bulwarks,Homer, Il. xvi. 97. and Saddest of all the sad sounds that I heard was the cry of Cassandra Priam’s daughter, whom Clytemnestra craftily planning Slew o’er my body,Homer, Od. xi. 421. and That I seduce the girl and ensure her hate for my father. So I obeyed her and did it,Homer, Il. ix. 452. and Father Zeus, none other of the gods is more baleful.Homer, Il. iii. 365. Let the young man, then, not get into the habit of commending anything like this, nor let him be plausible and adroit in making excuses or in contriving some specious quibbles to explain base actions, but rather let him cherish the belief that poetry is an imitation of character and lives, and of men who are not perfect or spotless or unassailable in all respects, but pervaded by emotions, false opinions, and sundry forms of ignorance, who yet through inborn goodness frequently change their ways for the better. For if the young man is so trained, and his understanding so framed, that he feels elation and a sympathetic enthusiasm over noble words and deeds, and an aversion and repugnance for the mean, such training will render his perusal of poetry harmless. But the man who admires everything, and accommodates himself to everything, whose judgement, because of his preconceived opinion, is enthralled by the heroic names, will, like those who copy Plato’s stoop or Aristotle’s lisp, unwittingly become inclined to conform to much that is base. One ought not timorously, or as though under the spell of religious dread in a holy place, to shiver with awe at everything, and fall prostrate, but should rather acquire the habit of exclaiming with confidence wrong and improper no less than right and proper. For example, Achilles summons an assembly of the soldiers, who are suffering from an illness, since he is most impatient of all over the slow progress of the war because of his conspicuous position and reputation on the field; moreover, because he has some knowledge of medicine, and perceives now after the ninth day, on which these maladies naturally reach their crisis, that the disease is out of the ordinary and not the result of familiar causes, he does not harangue the multitude when he rises to speak, but makes himself an adviser to the king: Son of Atreus, now, as I think, are we destined to wander Back to seek our homes again.Homer, Il. i. 59. Rightly, moderately, and properly is this put. But after the seer has said that he fears the wrath of the most powerful of the Greeks, Achilles no longer speaks rightly and moderately, when he swears that nobody shall lay hands on the seer while he himself is alive, No, not though you name Agamemnon, Ibid. 90. thus making plain his slight regard and his contempt for the leader. A moment later his irritation becomes more acute, and his impulse is to draw his sword with intent to do murder; not rightly, either for honour or for expediency. Again, later, repenting, Back he thrust his massive blade once more to its scabbard, Nor ignored Athena’s words, Ibid. 220. this time rightly and honourably, because, although he could not altogether eradicate his anger, yet before doing anything irreparable he put it aside and checked it by making it obedient to his reason. Then again, although Agamemnon is ridiculous in his actions and words at the Assembly, yet in the incidents touching Chryseis he is more dignified and kingly. For whereas Achilles, as Briseis was being led away, Burst into tears and withdrawing apart sat aloof from his comrades,Homer, Il. i. 349. Agamemnon, as he in person put aboard the ship, and gave up and sent away, the woman of whom, a moment before, he has said that he cared more for her than for his wedded wife, committed no amorous or disgraceful act. Then again, Phoenix, cursed by his father on account of the concubine, says: True in my heart I had purposed to slay him with keenpointed dagger, Save that one of the deathless gods put an end to my anger, Bringing to mind the people’s talk and men’s many reproaches, Lest I be known among the Greeks as my father’s slayer.These lines are not found in any MS. of Homer, but on the authority of this quotation they have been printed in practically all editions since that of Barnes (1711) as lines 458-61 of Book IX. of the Iliad. Plutarch cites the second and part of the third line in the Life of Coriolanus, chap. 32 (229 B), and the last line in Moralia, 72 B. Now Aristarchus removed these lines from the text through fear, but they are right in view of the occasion, since Phoenix is trying to teach Achilles what sort of a thing anger is, and how many wild deeds men are ready to do from temper, if they do not use reason or hearken to those who try to soothe them. So also the poet introduces Meleager angry at his fellow-citizens, and later mollified, and he rightly finds fault with his emotions, but, on the other hand, his refusal to yield, his resistance, his mastery over them, and his change of heart the poet commends as good and expedient.

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Now in these cases the difference is manifest; but in cases where Homer’s judgement is not made clear, a distinction is to be drawn by directing the young man’s attention in some such manner as the following: If, on the one hand, Nausicaa, after merely looking at a strange man, Odysseus, and experiencing Calypso’s emotions toward him, being, as she was, a wanton child and at the age for marriage, utters such foolish words as these to her maid-servants, How I wish that a man like this might be called my husband, Living here with us, and be contented to tarry,Homer, Od. vi. 244. then are her boldness and lack of restraint to be blamed. But if, on the other hand, she sees into the character of the man from his words, and marvels at his conversation, so full of good sense, and then prays that she may be the consort of such a person rather than of some sailor man or dancing man of her own townsmen, then it is quite right to admire her. And again, when Penelope enters into conversation with the suitors, not holding herself aloof, and they favour her with gifts of garments and other apparel, Odysseus is pleased Since she had coaxed all these gifts from them, and had cozened their senses. Ibid. xviii. 282. If, on the one hand, he rejoices at the receipt of the presents and the profit, then in his prostitution of his wife he outdoes Poliager, who is satirized in the comedy as Poliager blest Who keeps a Cyprian goat to yield him wealth.Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii. 299. Cf. Alciphro, Epist. iii. 62. The reference is probably to the goat Amalthea, the fabled nurse of the infant Zeus, but Pantazides thinks that Uranium (Οὐράνιον) may have been the woman’s name. But if, on the other hand, he thinks that he shall have them more in his power, while they are confident because of their hopes and blind to the future, then his pleasure and confidence has a reasonable justification. Similarly, in the enumeration of his possessions which the Phaeacians had put ashore with him before they sailed away, if on the one hand, upon finding himself in such solitude and in such uncertainty and ambiguity regarding his surroundings, he really fears about his possessions, Lest the men on the ship had sailed away with something,Homer, Od. xiii. 216. then it is quite right to pity or indeed even to loathe his avarice. But if, on the other hand, he, as some say, being of two minds whether he were in Ithaca, thinks that the safety of his possessions is a demonstration of the rectitude of the Phaeacians (for otherwise they would not have carried him for nothing, put him ashore in a strange land, and left him there, at the same time keeping their hands off his possessions), then he makes use of no mean proof, and it is quite right to praise his forethought. But some critics find fault also with the very act of putting him ashore, if this really was done while he was asleep, and assert that the Etruscans still preserve a tradition that Odysseus was naturally sleepy, and that for this reason most people found him difficult to converse with. Yet if his sleep was not real, but if, being ashamed to send away the Phaeacians without gifts and entertainment, and at the same time unable to elude his enemies if the Phaeacians were in company with him, he provided himself with a cloak for his embarrassment in feigning himself asleep, then they find this acceptable.

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By indicating these things to the young, we shall not allow them to acquire any leaning toward such characters as are mean, but rather an emulation of the better, and a preference for them, if we unhesitatingly award censure to the one class and commendation to the other. It is particularly necessary to do this with tragedies in which plausible and artful words are framed to accompany disreputable and knavish actions. For the statement of Sophocles Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Sophocles, No. 755. is not altogether true when he says: From unfair deed fair word cannot proceed. For, as a fact, he is wont to provide for mean characters and unnatural actions alluring words and humane reasons. And you observe also that his companion-at-arms in the dramatic art has represented Phaedra Presumably in the Hippolytus Veiled; cf. Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Eurip., 491. as preferring the charge against Theseus that it was because of his derelictions that she fell in love with Hippolytus. Of such sort, too, are the frank lines, aimed against Hecuba, which in the Trojan Women Euripides, The Trojan Women, 919. he gives to Helen, who there expresses her feeling that Hecuba ought rather to be the one to suffer punishment because she brought into the world the man who was the cause of Helen’s infidelity. Let the young man not form the habit of regarding any one of these things as witty and adroit, and let him not smile indulgently, either, at such displays of verbal ingenuity, but let him loathe the words of licentiousness even more than its deeds.

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Now in all cases it is useful also to seek after the cause of each thing that is said. Cato, for example, used, even as a child, to do whatever the attendant in charge of him ordered, yet he also demanded to know the ground and reason for the order. And so the poets are not to be obeyed as though they were our keepers or law-givers, unless their subject matter be reasonable; and this it will be if it be good, but if it be vile, it will be seen to be vacuous and vain. But most people are sharp in demanding the reasons for trivial things like the following, and insist on knowing in what sense they are intended: Never ought the ladle atop of the bowl to be rested While the bout is on, Hesiod, Works and Days, 744. and Whoso from his car can reach the car of another Let him thrust with his spear.Homer, Il. iv. 306. But in far weightier matters they take things on faith without testing them at all, such, for example, as these: A man, though bold, is made a slave whene’er He learns his mother’s or his sire’s disgrace,Euripides, Hippolytus, 424; cited also by Plutarch in Moralia, 1 C. and Who prospers not must be of humble mind.Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 957. And yet these sentiments affect our characters and disorder our lives, by engendering in us mean judgements and ignoble opinions, unless from habit we can say in answer to each of them, Why must the man who has ’ not prospered be of humble mind,’ and why must he not rather rise up against Fortune, and make himself exalted and not humbled? And why, though I be the son of a bad and foolish father, yet if I myself am good and sensible, is it unbecoming for me to take pride in my good qualities, and why should I be dejected and humble on account of my father’s crassness? For he who thus meets and resists, and refuses to entrust himself broadside on to every breath of doctrine, as to a wind, but believes in the correctness of the saying that a fool is wont to be agog at every word that’s said A dictum of Heracleitus. It is again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 41 A; cf. Diels, Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, i. p. 95. will thrust aside a good deal of what is not true or profitable therein. This, then, will take away all danger of harm from the perusal of poetry.

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But, just as amid the luxuriant foliage and branches of a vine the fruit is often hidden and unnoticed from being in the shadow, so also amid the poetic diction and the tales that hang clustered about, much that is helpful and profitable escapes a young man. This, however, ought not to happen to him, nor should he allow his attention to be diverted from the facts, but he should cling especially close to those that lead toward virtue and have the power to mould character. In which regard it may not be a bad thing to treat this topic briefly, touching summarily the principal points, but leaving any extended and constructive treatment, and long list of examples, to those who write more for display. In the first place, then, as the young man takes note of good and bad characters and personages, let him pay attention to the lines and the actions which the poet assigns to them as respectively befitting. For example, Achilles says to Agamemnon, although he speaks with anger: Never a prize like yours is mine whene’er the Achaeans Capture and sack some goodly and populous town of the Trojans.Homer, Il. i. 163. But Thersites in reviling the same man says: Full of bronze are your quarters, and many, too, are the women, Chosen from all the captives for you, and these we Achaeans Give to you first of all whenever we capture a city. Ibid. ii. 226. And on another occasion Achilles says, If perchance Zeus ever Grants to us that we plunder Troy, the well-walled city, Ibid. i. 128. but Thersites, One that I or another Achaean may bring in as captive.Homer, Il. ii. 231. At another time, in the Inspection, when Agamemnon upbraided Diomede, the latter made no answer, Showing respect for the stern rebuke of a king so respected. Ibid. iv. 402. But Sthenelus, a man of no account, says: Son of Atreus, speak not to deceive, knowing how to speak clearly; We can avow ourselves to be better far than our fathers. Ibid. 404. A difference of this sort then, if not overlooked, will teach the young man to regard modesty and moderation as a mark of refinement, but to be on his guard against boasting and self-assertion as a mark of meanness. It is useful to note also the behaviour of Agamemnon in this case; for Sthenelus he passed by without a word, but Odysseus he did not disregard, but made answer and addressed him, When he saw he was wroth, and tried to retract his saying. Ibid. 357. For to defend one’s actions to everybody smacks of servility, not of dignity, while to despise everybody is arrogant and foolish. And most excellently does Diomede in the battle hold his peace, although upbraided by the king, but after the battle he uses plain speech to him: First let me say that you ’mid the Danaans slighted my prowess Ibid. ix. 34.

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It is well, too, not to miss a difference that exists between a man of sense and a seer who courts popularity. For example, Calchas Ibid. i. 94-5. had no regard to the occasion, and made nothing of accusing the king before the multitude, alleging that he had brought the pestilence upon them; but Nestor, though anxious to put in a word for the reconciliation with Achilles, yet, in order that he may not seem to discredit Agamemnon with the multitude as having made a mistake and indulged in anger, says, Give a feast for the elders; ’tis fitting and not unbefitting; Then, when many are gathered, whoever shall offer best counsel Him you will follow,Homer, Il. ix. 70, and 74-5. and after the dinner he sends forth the envoys. For this was the way to amend an error; the other was arraignment and foul abuse.

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Moreover, the difference between the two peoples should be observed, their behaviour being as follows: the Trojans advance with shouting and confidence, but the Achaeans Silently, fearing their captains. Ibid. iv. 431. For to fear one’s commanders when at close quarters with the enemy is a sign of bravery and of obedience to authority as well. Wherefore Plato Cf. Plato, Apology, 28 F and E. tries to establish the habit of fearing blame and disgrace more than toils and dangers, and Cato Cf. Plutarch, Life of Cato, chap. 9 (341 C). used to say that he liked people that blushed better than those that blanched.

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There is also in the promises of the heroes a special character. For Dolon promises: Straight to the midst of their host shall I go till I come to the vessel Which Agamemnon commands.Homer, Il. x. 325. Diomede, Ibid. 222. however, promises nothing, but says that he should be less frightened if he were sent in company with another man. Prudence, then, is characteristic of a Greek and of a man of refinement, while presumption is barbaric and cheap: the one should be emulated and the other detested. And it is not unprofitable to consider how the Trojans and Hector were affected, at the time when Ajax was about to engage with him i single combat. Once when a boxer at the Isthmian games was struck in the face, and a clamour arose, Aeschylus Cf. Plutarch, Moralia, 79 D. said, What a thing is training. The onlookers cry out; it is the man who is struck who says nothing. In like manner, when the poet says Homer, Il. vii. 214. that when Ajax appeared resplendent in his armour, the Greeks rejoiced at seeing him, whereas Dreadful trembling seized on the limbs of every Trojan; Even Hector himself felt his heart beat quick in his bosom, who could fail to admire the difference? For the heart of the man who is facing the danger only throbs, as though indeed he were simply going to wrestle or run a race, while the onlookers tremble and shiver in their whole bodies through loyalty and fear for their king. Here, too, one should carefully consider the difference between the very valiant man and the craven. For Thersites Hateful was most of all to Achilles as well as Odysseus,Ibid. ii. 220. while Ajax was always friendly to Achilles, and says to Hector regarding him— Now alone from one man alone shall you learn quite clearly What sort of men with us are the Danaans’ chieftains Even after the smiter of men, lion-hearted Achilles. Ibid. vii. 226. This is the compliment paid to Achilles, but these succeeding lines in behalf of all are put in such a way as to be useful: Yet are we of such sort as are ready to face you, Yea, and many of us,Homer, Il. vii. 231. thereby declaring himself not the only man or the best, but only one among many equally capable of offering defence.

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This is enough on the subject of differences, unless perhaps we desire to add, that of the Trojans many were taken alive, but none of the Achaeans; and that of the Trojans some fell down at the feet of the enemy, as did Adrastus, Ibid. vi. 37. the sons Ibid. xi. 122. of Antimachus, Lycaon, Ibid. xxi. 64. and Hector Ibid. xxii. 337. himself begging Achilles for burial, but of the Achaeans none, because of their conviction that it is a trait of barbarian peoples to make supplication and to fall at the enemy’s feet in combat, but of Greeks to conquer or to die fighting.

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Now just as in pasturage the bee seeks the flower, the goat the tender shoot, the swine the root, and other animals the seed and the fruit, so in the reading of poetry one person culls the flowers of the story, another rivets his attention upon the beauty of the diction and the arrangement of the words, as Aristophanes Kock, Com. Att. Frag. i. p. 513. says of Euripides, I use the rounded neatness of his speech; but as for those who are concerned with what is said as being useful for character (and it is to these that our present discourse is directed), let us remind them how strange it is if the lover of fables does not fail to observe the novel and unusual points in the story, and the student of language does not allow faultless and elegant forms of expression to escape him, whereas he that affects what is honourable and good, who takes up poetry not for amusement but for education, should give but a slack and careless hearing to utterances that look toward manliness or sobriety or uprightness, such, for example, as the following: Son of Tydeus, what has made us forget our swift prowess? Hither, stand, my friend, by me. Disgrace will befall us If yon Hector, gleaming-helmed, shall capture our vessels.Homer, Il. xi. 313; the first line is quoted infra, 71 F. For to observe that the most wise and prudent man, when he is in danger of being destroyed and lost, together with the whole host, fears shame and disapprobation, but not death, will make the young man keenly alive to the moral virtues. And by the line, Glad was Athena because of the man that was prudent and honest,Homer, Od. iii. 52. the poet permits us to draw a similar conclusion in that he represents the goddess as taking delight, not in some rich man or in one who is physically handsome or strong, but in one who is wise and honest. And again when she says that she does not overlook Odysseus, much less desert him, Since he is courteous and clever of mind and prudent, Ibid. xiii. 332. her words indicate that the only one of our attributes that is dear to the gods and divine is a virtuous mind, if it be true that it is the nature of like to delight in like.

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Since it seems to be, and really is, a great thing to master one’s anger, and since a greater thing is the exercise of precaution and forethought so as not to become involved in anger or to be made captive by it, we must make a point of indicating to our young readers such matters as this: that Achilles, being not tolerant or mild in temper, bids Priam in these words to be quiet and not to exasperate him: Anger me now no more, old man (to ransom your Hector I myself am disposed; from Zeus has come such a message), Lest, old man, even here ’neath my roof I leave you not scatheless Suppliant though you are, and sin against Zeus’s commandments,Homer, Il. xxiv. 560-1, 569-70. and having washed and shrouded the body of Hector, he places it with his own hands on the wagon before its disfigurement was seen by the father, Lest with heart so distressed he fail to master his anger, Seeing his son, and Achilles’ heart be stirred with resentment, So that he slay him there, and sin against Zeus’s commandments. Ibid. 584. For it is mark of a wondrous foresight for a man whose hold on his temper is uncertain, who is naturally rough and quick-tempered, not to be blind to his own weakness, but to exercise caution, and to be on his guard against possible grounds for anger, and to forestall them by reason long beforehand, so that he may not even inadvertently become involved in such emotions. After the same manner should he that is fond of wine be on his guard against drunkenness, and he that is amorous against love. So did Agesilaus,Xenophon, Agesilaus, v. 4. who would not submit to being kissed by the handsome boy who approached him, so did Cyrus,Xenophon, Cyropaedia, v. 1. 4. who durst not even to look at Pantheia; but the uneducated, on the contrary, gather fuel to kindle their passions, casting themselves headlong into those wherein they are weakest and least sure of themselves. Yet Odysseus not only restrains himself when enraged, but perceiving from some words of Telemachus that he too is angry and filled with hatred of the wicked, labours to mitigate his feelings and prepares him well beforehand to keep quiet and restrain himself, bidding him, Even if they within my own house shall dishonour me sorely, Let your heart within you endure all the wrongs that I suffer: Though through the house they should drag me out by the feet to the open, Yea, or with missiles smite me, still you must patient behold it.Homer, Od. xvi. 274. For just as drivers do not curb their horses during the race, but before the race, so with those persons who are quick-tempered and hard to hold back when dangers threaten, we first gain control over them by reasoning, and make them ready beforehand, and then lead them into the strife.

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While it is also necessary not to pass over the words carelessly, yet one should eschew the puerility of Cleanthes; for there are times when he uses a mock seriousness in pretending to interpret the words, Father Zeus, enthroned on Ida,Homer, Il. iii. 320; vii. 202; xxiv. 208 and Zeus, lord of Dodona, bidding us in the latter case to read the last two words as one Ibid. xvi. 233. It is of inerest that this reading is attested also in scholia on the passage. (taking the word lord as the preposition up) as though the vapour exhaled from the earth were updonative because of its being rendered up! And Chrysippus also is often quite petty, although he does not indulge in jesting, but wrests the words ingeniously, yet without carrying conviction, as when he would force the phrase wide-seeing son of Cronos Ibid. i. 498. to signify clever in conversation, that is to say, with a widespread power of speech.

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It is better, however, to turn these matters over to the grammarians, and to hold fast rather to those in which is to be found both usefulness and probability, such as Nor does my heart so bid me, for I have learned to be valiant,Homer, Il. vi. 444. and For towards all he understood the way to be gentle. Ibid. xvii. 671. For by declaring that bravery is a thing to be learned, and by expressing the belief that friendly and gracious intercourse with others proceeds from understanding, and is in keeping with reason, the poet urges us not to neglect our own selves, but to learn what is good, and to give heed to our teachers, intimating that both boorishness and cowardice are but ignorance and defects of learning. With this agrees very well what he says regarding Zeus and Poseidon: Both, indeed, were of one descent and of the same birthplace, Yet was Zeus the earlier born and his knowledge was wider. Ibid. xiii. 354. For he declares understanding to be a most divine and kingly thing, to which he ascribes the very great superiority of Zeus, inasmuch as he believes that all the other virtues follow upon this one.

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At the same time, the young man must get the habit of perusing with a mind wide awake such sayings as these: Falsehood he will not utter because he is very prudent,Homer, Od. iii. 20 and 328. and What an act Is this, Antilochus, prudent aforetime! You have put my skill to disgrace and hindered my horses,Homer, Il. xxiii. 570. and Glaucus, what cause has a man like you for words so disdainful ? Truly I thought, my friend, that in sense you excelled all the others, Ibid. xvii. 170. the implication being that men of sense do not lie or contend unfairly in games, or make unwarranted accusations against other people. And from the poet’s saying Ibid. vi. 104. that Pandarus was persuaded because of his want of sense to bring to naught the sworn agreement, he clearly shows his opinion that the man of sense would not do wrong. It is also possible to give similar intimations in regard to self-control, by directing the young man’s attention to statements like these: Mad for him was Proetus’ royal wife Anteia Lusting to make him her lover in secret, but could not persuade him, Since the wise Bellerophon thought more of virtue, Ibid. vi. 160. and She at the first would not consent to a deed so unseemly, Royal Clytemnestra, since her thoughts were for virtue.Homer, Od. iii. 265. In these lines the poet attributes to understanding the cause of self-control; and in his exhortations to battle he says on the several occasions: Shame, men of Lycia, whither now flee ye ? Now be ye valiant,Homer, Il. xvi. 422. and But let all your minds be imbued with Shame and resentment, for now, as you see, great strife has arisen, Ibid. xiii. 121. and thereby he appears to represent the men of self-control as brave because of their being ashamed of disgrace, and as able to overcome pleasures and to undergo dangerous adventures. Timotheus Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Gr. iii. 622; Timotheus, Frag. 14 ed. Wilamowitz. also adopted this point of view, when in his Persians he urged the Greeks, not infelicitously, to have Respect for shame that helps the brave in war; and Aeschylus Aeschylus, Seven Against Thebes, 599; the lines are quoted also, in whole or in part, by Plutarch, Moralia, 8 B, 186 B, and the Life of Aristeides, chap. iii. (320 B). sets it down as a point of good sense not to be puffed up with fame, nor to be excited and elated by popular praise, when he writes of Amphiaraus, His wish is not to seem, but be, the best, Reaping the deep-sown furrow of his mind In which all goodly counsels have their root. For to take pride in oneself and in one’s state of mind when it is altogether good, marks the man of good sense; and since everything may be referred to understanding, it follows that every form of virtue is added unto him from reason and instruction.

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Now the bee, in accordance with nature’s laws, discovers amid the most pungent flowers and the roughest thorns the smoothest and most palatable honey; so children, if they be rightly nurtured amid poetry, will in some way or other learn to draw some wholesome and profitable doctrine even from passages that are suspect of what is base and improper. For example, Agamemnon is suspected of having, for a bribe, released from service in the army the rich man who made him a present of the mare Aetha, Gift so he fare not with him to Troy where the wind never ceaseth, But enjoy himself at home; for wealth in abundance Zeus had bestowed upon him.Homer, Il. xxiii. 297. But, as Aristotle Presumably in his Homeric Questions. observes, he did quite right in preferring a good mare to a man of that type. For a coward, and a weakling, made dissolute by wealth and soft living, is not, I swear, worth a dog or even an ass. Again, it appears most shameful in Thetis Homer, Il. xxiv. 130. when she incites her son to pleasures and reminds him of love. But even there we must contrast Achilles’ mastery of himself, that although he is in love with Briseis, who has come back to him, and although he knows that the end of his life is near, yet he does not make haste to enjoy love’s pleasures, nor, like most men, mourn for his friend by inactivity and omission of his duties, but as he refrains from such pleasures because of his grief, so he bestirs himself in the business of his command. Again, Archilochus cannot be commended, because while grieving over his sister’s husband, who was lost at sea, he is minded to fight against his grief by means of wine and amusement; he has, however, alleged a cause that has some appearance of reason, By my tears I shall not cure it, nor worse make it By pursuing joys, yea, and festivities.Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Gr. ii. p. 687. For if he thought that he should not make matters worse by pursuing joys, yea, and festivities, how shall our present condition be any the worse if we engage in the study of philosophy or take part in public life, if we go out to the market-place or down to the Academy, or if we pursue our farming? Wherefore the corrected versions which Cleanthes and Antisthenes employed are themselves not without value. Antisthenes, observing that the Athenians had raised an uproar in the theatre at the line, What’s shameful if its doer think not so? From the Aeolus of Euripides, Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, Euripides, No. 17. at once interpolated, A shame’s a shame, though one think so or no and Cleanthes, taking the lines about riches, Give to your friends, and when your body’s ill, Save it by spending,Euripides, Electra, 428. rewrote them in this manner, To harlots give, and when your body’s ill Waste it by spending. And Zeno in amending the lines of Sophocles, Whoever comes to traffic with a king To him is slave however free he come,Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag. Sophocles, No. 789; quoted by Plutarch also in Moralia, 204 D and the Life of Pompey chap. lxxviii. (661 A). rewrote it thus: Is not a slave if only free he come, by the word free as he now uses it designating the man who is fearless, high-minded, and unhumbled. What, then, is to hinder us also from encouraging the young to take the better course by means of similar rejoinders, dealing with the citations something like this: Most enviable is the lot of him The shaft of whose desire hits what he would.Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp. No. 354. Not so, will be our retort, but The shaft of whose desire hits what is good. For to gain and achieve one’s wish, if what one wishes is not right, is pitiable and unenviable. Again, Not for good and no ill came thy life from thy sire, Agamemnon, but joy Thou shalt find interwoven with grief.Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis, 29; quoted also in Moralia, 103 B. No, indeed, we shall say, but you must find joy and not grief if your lot be but moderate, since Not for good and no ill came thy life from thy sire, Agamemnon; and: Alas, from God this evil comes to men, When, knowing what is good, one does it not.From the Chrysippus of Euripides; Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 841; again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 446 A. No, rather is it bestial, we reply, and irrational and pitiable that a man who knows the better should be led astray by the worse as a result of a weak will and soft living.

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And again: ’Tis character persuades, and not the speech.Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii. p. 135; again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 801 C. No, rather it is both character and speech, or character by means of speech, just as a horseman uses a bridle, or a helmsman uses a rudder, since virtue has no instrument so humane or so akin to itself as speech. And: To women more than men is he inclined? Where there is beauty, either suits him best.Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp. No, 355; again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 766 F. But it were better to say Where there is virtue, either suits him best, of a truth, and there is no difference in his inclination; but the man who is influenced by pleasure or outward beauty to shift his course hither and thither is incompetent and inconstant. Again: God’s doings make the wise to feel afraid.Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp. No. 356. Not so by any means, but God’s doings make the wise to feel assured, but they do make the silly and foolish and ungrateful to feel afraid, because such persons suspect and fear the power which is the cause and beginning of every good thing, as though it did harm. Such then is the system of amendment.

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Chrysippus has rightly indicated how the poet’s statements can be given a wider application, saying that what is serviceable should be taken over and made to apply to like situations. For when Hesiod Hesiod, Works and Days, 348. says, Nor would even an ox disappear were there not a bad neighbour, he says the same thing also about a dog and about an ass and about all things which in a similar way can disappear. And again when Euripides Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 958; again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 106 D. Cf. Cicero, Ad Atticum, ix. 2a, 2. says, What man who recks not death can be a slave? we must understand that he makes the same statement also about trouble and disease. For, as physicians who have learnt the efficacy of a drug adapted to one malady take it over and use it for every similar malady, so also when a statement has a general and universal value, we ought not to suffer it to be fixed upon one matter alone, but we ought to apply it to all the like, and inure the young men to see its general value, and quickly to carry over what is appropriate, and by many examples to give themselves training and practice in keen appreciation ; so that when Menander says, Blest is the man who has both wealth and sense,From the Bridal Manager of Menander, cf. Kock, Com. Att. Frag. iii. Menander, No. 114, and Allinson, Menander in L.C.L. p. 342. they may think of the statement as holding good also about repute and leadership and facility in speaking; and so also that when they hear the rebuke which was administered by Odysseus to Achilles as he sat among the maidens in Scyrus, Dost thou, to dim the glory of thy race, Card wool, son of the noblest man in Greece? Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp. No. 9; again quoted by Plutarch with variant reading, Moralia, 72 E. they may imagine it to be addressed also to the profligate and the avaricious and the heedless and the ill-bred, as, for example, Dost drink, son of the noblest man in Greece, or gamble, or follow quail-fighting, The Greeks were very fond, not only of cock-fights, but also of quail-fights. Another form of the latter sport known as ὀρτυγοκοπία is often referred to by Greek writers and is perhaps best described by Pollus ix. 102 and 107. The quails were put into an enclosed ring, and their courage was tested by tapping them on the head with the finger or by pulling the feathers on op of their heads. If a bird showed fight, its owner won. Plutarch in the present passage, without doubt, uses ὀρτυγοκοπία to cover all forms of the sport. or petty trading, or the exacting of usury, without a thought of what is magnanimous or worthy of your noble parentage? Speak not of Wealth. I can’t admire a god Whose ready favour basest men secure.From the Aeolus of Euripides. Nauck, TGF., Euripides, No. 20; cf. Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, v. 16. Therefore speak not of repute, either, or of personal beauty, or the general’s cloak, or the priestly crown, to all which we see the worst of men attaining. For ugly is the brood of cowardice,Nauck, TGF., Adesp. No. 357. and the same we may also aver of licentiousness, superstition, envy, and all the other pestilent disorders. Most excellently has Homer said Paris, poor wretch, excelling in looks,Homer, Il. iii. 39. and Hector, excelling in looks Ibid. xvii. 142. (for he declares the man deserving of censure and reproach who is endowed with no good quality better than personal comeliness), and this we must make to apply to similar cases, thereby curtailing the pride of those who plume themselves on things of no worth, and teaching the young to regard as a disgrace and reproach such phrases as excelling in wealth and excelling in dinners and excelling in children or oxen, and in fact even the use of the word excelling in such a connexion. For we ought to aim at the pre-eminence which comes from noble qualities, and we should strive to be first in matters of first importance, and to be great in the greatest: but the repute which comes from small and petty things is disreputable and paltry.

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This illustration at once reminds us to consider carefully instances of censure and commendation, particularly in Homer’s poems. For he gives us expressly to understand that bodily and adventitious characteristics are unworthy of serious attention. For, to begin with, in their greetings and salutations, they do not call one another handsome or rich or strong, but they employ such fair words as these— Heaven-sprung son of Laertes, Odysseus of many devices,Homer, Il. ii. 173. and Hector, son of Priam, peer of Zeus in counsel, Ib. vii. 47. and Son of Peleus, Achilles, great glory to the Achaeans, Ib. xix. 216. and Noble son of Menoetius, in whom my soul finds pleasure. Ib. xi. 608. In the second place they reproach without touching at all upon bodily characteristics, but they direct their censure to faults: Drunken sot, with eyes of a dog and the wild deer’s courage, Ib. i. 225. and Ajax, excelling at wrangling, ill advised, Ib. xxiii. 483. and Why, Idomeneus do you brag so soon? Unfitting Is it for you to be braggart, Ib. xxiii. 474, 478. and Ajax, blundering boaster, Ib. xiii. 824. and finally Thersites is reproached Ib. ii. 246. by Odysseus, not as lame or bald or hunchbacked, but as indiscreet in his language, while on the other hand the mother of Hephaestus affectionately drew an epithet from his lameness when she addressed him thus: Up with you, club-foot, my child!Homer, Il. xxi. 331. Thus Homer ridicules those who feel ashamed of lameness or blindness, in that he does not regard as blameworthy that which is not shameful, or as shameful that which is brought about, not through our own acts, but by fortune.

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Plainly, then, two great advantages accrue to those who accustom themselves carefully to peruse works of poetry: the first is conducive to moderation, that we do not odiously and foolishly reproach anybody with his fortune; while the second is conducive to magnanimity, that when we ourselves have met with chances and changes we be not humiliated or even disturbed, but bear gently with scoffings and revilings and ridicule, having especially before us the words of Philemon: There’s naught more pleasing or in better taste Than having strength to bear when men revile.From the Epidicazomenus of Philemon; cf. Kock, Com. Att. Frag. ii. p. 484. But if anybody is plainly in need of reprehension, we should reprehend his faults and his giving way to emotion, after the fashion in which Adrastus of the tragedy, when Alcmaeon said to him, You are the kin of her who slew her spouse,Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Adesp. No. 358; again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 88 F. replied And you have murdered her who gave you birth. Ibidem. For just as those who scourge the clothes do not touch the body,Plutarch says (Moralia, 173 D) that Artaxerxes (Longhand) ordained that nobles who had offended should lay off their clothes, and their clothes should be scourged instead of their bodies. Considerable corroborative evidence is cited by Wyttenbach in his note on Moralia, 565 A. so those who scoff at misfortune or low birth, do but vainly and foolishly assail externals, never touching the soul or even such matters as really need correction and stinging reproof.

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Moreover, just as in what we have said above we felt that by setting against cheap and harmful poems the sayings and maxims of statesmen and men of repute, we were inducing a revolt and revulsion of faith from such poetry, so whenever we find any edifying sentiment neatly expressed in the poets we ought to foster and amplify it by means of proofs and testimonies from the philosophers, at the same time crediting these with the discovery. For this is right and useful, and our faith gains an added strength and dignity whenever the doctrines of Pythagoras and of Plato are in agreement with what is spoken on the stage or sung to the lyre or studied at school, and when the precepts of Chilon and of Bias lead to the same conclusions as our children’s readings in poetry. Hence it is a duty to make a point of indicating that the lines You, my child, have not the gift of arms in battle, Your concern must be for loving arms in wedlock,Homer, Il. v. 428. and Seeing that Zeus is wroth if you fight with a man far better,Not found in the MSS. of Homer but often printed as Iliad, xi. 543. See note on 24 C supra. do not differ from Know thyself, but have the same purport as this; and the lines, Fools! They know not how much more than all a half is,Hesiod, Works and Days, 40. and Evil counsel is the worst for him who gives it Ibid. 265. are identical with the doctrines of Plato in the Gorgias Plato, Gorgias, 473 A ff. and the Republic Plato, Republic, end of Book I. and Book IV.; cf. also 335 B. upon the principle that to do wrong is worse than to be wronged and to do evil is more injurious than to suffer evil. And on the words of Aeschylus, Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Aeschylus, No. 352. Fear not; great stress of pain is not for long, we ought to remark that this is the oft repeated and much admired statement originating with Epicurus,One of the leading principles of Epicurus; cf. Diogenes Laertius, x. 140. namely that great pains shortly spend their force, and long continued pains have no magnitude. Of these two ideas Aeschylus has perspicuously stated the one and the other is a corollary thereto; for if great and intense pain is not lasting, then that which does not last is not great or hard to endure. Take these lines of Thespis Nothing by Thespis has been preserved, although a few lines attributed to him were current. See Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag. p. 833.: You see that Zeus is first of gods in this, Not using lies or boast or silly laugh; With pleasure he alone is unconcerned. What difference is there between this and the statement, for the Divine Being sits throned afar from pleasure and pain, as Plato Plato, Letters, iii. 315 C. has put it? Consider what is said by Bacchylides Bacchylides, i. 21.: I shall assert that virtue hath the highest fame, But wealth with even wretched men is intimate, and again by Euripides Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 959. to much the same effect: There’s naught that I hold In a higher esteem Than a virtuous life; ’Twill ever be joined With those that are good. and Why seek vain possessions? Do ye think Virtue by wealth to compass? Wretched amid your comforts shall ye sit.Plutarch, as was often his practice (e.g.Moralia, 25 C or 646 C), seems to have condensed this quotation. The original of the first portion appears to have been given by Satyrus in his Life of Euripides (Oxyrhynchus Papyri, ix. 142), Why have you mortals acquired in vain many possessions, and think that by wealth you shall compass virtue? What boots it, should you have in your ancestral halls some fragment of Aetna’s cliff or Parian stone, gold-wrought, which you have secured? Cf. Nauck, Trag.Graec. Frag., Euripides, No. 960. Is not this a proof of what the philosophers say regarding wealth and external advantages, that without virtue they are useless and unprofitable for their owners?

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This method of conjoining and reconciling such sentiments with the doctrines of philosophers brings the poet’s work out of the realm of myth and impersonation, and, moreover, invests with seriousness its helpful sayings. Besides, it opens and stimulates in advance the mind of the youth by the sayings in philosophy. For he comes to it thus not altogether without a foretaste of it, nor without having heard of it, nor indiscriminately stuffed with what he has heard always from his mother and nurse, and, I dare say, from his father and his tutor as well, who all beatify and worship the rich, who shudder at death and pain, who regard virtue without money and repute as quite undesirable and a thing of naught. But when they hear the precepts of the philosophers, which go counter to such opinions, at first astonishment and confusion and amazement take hold of them, since they cannot accept or tolerate any such teaching, unless, just as if they were now to look upon the sun after having been in utter darkness, they have been made accustomed, in a reflected light, as it were, in which the dazzling rays of truth are softened by combining truth with fable, to face facts of this sort without being distressed, and not to try to get away from them.The whole passage is a reminiscence of Plato, Republic, vii. chap. 2 (515 E). For if they have previously heard or read in poetry such thoughts as these: To mourn the babe for th’ ills to which he comes; But him that’s dead, and from his labours rests, To bear from home with joy and cheering words,Celebrated lines from the Cresphontes of Euripides. Nauck, TGF., Eurip. No. 449; cf. Cicero, Tusc. Disp. i. 48. 115. and What needs have mortals save two things alone, Demeter’s grain and draught from water-jar?Nauck, ibid., Eurip. No. 892 (again quoted by Plutarch, Moralia, 1043 E, 1044 B and F). and O Tyranny, beloved of barbarous folk, Ibid., Adesp. o 359. and And mortal men’s felicity Is gained by such of them as feel least grief, Ibid., Adesp. No. 360. they are less confused and disquieted upon hearing at the lectures of the philosophers that Death is nothing to us, One of Epicurus’s leading principles, Diogenes Laertius, x. 139. and The wealth allowed by Nature is definitely limited, Another of Epicurus’s leading principles, Diogenes Laertius, x. 144. and Happiness and blessedness do not consist in vast possessions or exalted occupations or offices or authority, but on impassivity, calmness, and a disposition of the soul that sets its limitations to accord with Nature. Also from Epicurus, without much doubt, but not to be found in just this form; cf., however, Diogenes Laertius, x. 139, 141, 144.

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Wherefore, both because of these considerations and because of those already adduced, the young man has need of good pilotage in the matter of reading, to the end that, forestalled with schooling rather than prejudice, in a spirit of friendship and goodwill and familiarity, he may be convoyed by poetry into the realm of philosophy.

\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/tlg0007/tlg068/tlg0007.tlg068.perseus-eng4.xml b/data/tlg0007/tlg068/tlg0007.tlg068.perseus-eng4.xml index 16031531e..7ce7f8988 100644 --- a/data/tlg0007/tlg068/tlg0007.tlg068.perseus-eng4.xml +++ b/data/tlg0007/tlg068/tlg0007.tlg068.perseus-eng4.xml @@ -1,21 +1,15 @@ - + - - HOW A YOUNG MAN OUGHT TO HEAR POEMS - Machine readable text + How a Young Man Ought to Hear Poems Plutarch - Goodwin + William W. Goodwin + Simon Ford Perseus Project, Tufts University Gregory Crane @@ -26,12 +20,11 @@ schematypens="http://relaxng.org/ns/structure/1.0"?> The National Endowment for the Humanities - Trustees of Tufts University Medford, MA Perseus Project - 2010-12-13' + 2010-12-13 @@ -87,2502 +80,100 @@ schematypens="http://relaxng.org/ns/structure/1.0"?> -
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- How a young man ought to hear poems. -

It may be allowed to be a question fit for the determination of those concerning - whom Cato said, Their palates are more sensitive than their hearts, whether that - saying of Philoxenus the poet be true or no, The most savory flesh is that which - is no flesh, and fish that is no fish. Yet this to me, Marcus Sedatus, is out of - question, that those precepts of philosophy which seem not to be delivered with a - designed gravity, such as becomes philosophers, take most with persons that are - very young, and meet with a more ready acceptance and compliance from them. Whence - it is that they do not only read through Esop's fables and the fictions of poets - and the Abaris of Heraclides and Ariston's Lyco; but they also read such doctrines - as relate to the souls of men, if something fabulous be mixed with them, with an - excess of pleasure that borders on enthusiasm. Wherefore we are not only to govern - their appetites in the delights of eating and drinking, but also (and much more) - to inure them to a like temperance in reading and hearing, that, while they make - use of pleasure as a sauce, they may pursue that which is wholesome and profitable - in those things which they read. For neither can a city be secure if but one gate - be left open to receive the enemy, though all the rest be shut; nor a young man - safe, though he be sufficiently fortified against the assaults of all other - pleasures, whilst he is without any guard against those of the ear. Yea, the - nearer the commerce is betwixt the delights of that sense - and those of the mind and reason, by so much the more, when he lies open on that - side, is he apt to be debauched and corrupted thereby. Seeing therefore we cannot - (and perhaps would not if we could) debar young men of the size of my Soclarus and - thy Cleander altogether from the reading of poets, yet let us keep the stricter - guard upon them, as those who need a guide to direct them in their reading more - than in their walks. Upon which consideration, I find myself disposed to send thee - at present in writing that discourse concerning Poetry which I had lately an - occasion to deliver by word of mouth; that, when thou hast read it over thyself, - thou mayst also make such use of it, if thou judgest it may be serviceable to that - purpose, as those which are engaged to drink hard do of amethysts (or - preservatives against drunkenness),— that is, that thou mayst communicate it to - Cleander, to prepossess him therewith; seeing he is naturally endowed with a - brisk, piercing, and daring wit, and therefore more prone to be inveigled by that - sort of study.

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They say of the fish called polypus that - - His head in one respect is very good, - But in another very naughty food; - - -

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because, though it be very luscious to eat, yet it is thought to disturb the fancy - with frightful and confused dreams. And the like observation may be made - concerning poetry, that it affords sweet and withal wholesome nourishment to the - minds of young men, but yet it contains likewise no less matter of disturbance and - emotion to them that want a right conduct in the study thereof. For of it also, as - well as of Egypt, may it be said that (to those who will use it) - - Its over-fertile and luxuriant field - Medicines and poisons intermixt doth yield; - - -

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for therein - - Love with soft passions and rich language drest - Oft steals the heart out of th' ingenuous breast. - - Odyss. IV. 230; Il. XIV. 216. - - -

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And indeed such only are endangered thereby, for the charms of that art ordinarily - affect not those that are downright sots and naturally incapable of learning. - Wherefore, when Simonides was asked why of all men he could not deceive the - Thessalians, his answer was, Because they are not so well bred as to be capable of - being cajoled by me. And Gorgias used to call tragical poems cheats, wherein he - that did cheat was juster than he that did not cheat, and he that was cheated was - wiser than he that was not cheated.

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It deserves therefore our consideration, whether we shall put young men into - Epicurus's boat,—wherein, having their ears stopped with wax, as those of the men - of Ithaca were, they shall be obliged to sail by and not so much as touch at - poetry,—or rather keep a guard on them, so as to oblige their judgments by - principles of right reason to use it aright, and preserve them from being seduced - to their hurt by that which affords them so much delight. For neither did - Lycurgus, the valiant son of Dryas (as Homer - Il. VI 130. calls him) act like a man of - sound reason in the course which he took to reform his people that were much - inclined to drunkenness, by travelling up and down to destroy all the vines in the - country; whereas he should have ordered that every vine should have a well of - water near it, that (as Plato saith) the drunken deity might be reduced to - temperance by a sober one. For water mixed with wine takes away the hurtful - spirits, while it leaves the useful ones in it. Neither should we cut down or - destroy the Muses' vine, poetry; but where we perceive it luxuriates and grows - wild through an ungoverned appetite of applause, there ought we to prune away or - keep under the fabulous and theatrical branches thereof; and where we find any of - the Graces linked to any of the Muses,—that is, where the lusciousness and - tempting charms of language are not altogether barren and - unprofitable,—there let us bring in philosophy to incorporate with it.

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For as, where the mandrake grows near the vine and so communicates something of - its force thereto, the wine that is made of its grapes makes the sleep of those - that drink it more refreshing; so doth the tempering poetry with the principles of - philosophy and allaying their roughness with its fictions render the study of them - more easy and the relish of them more grateful to young learners. Wherefore those - that would give their minds to philosophical studies are not obliged to avoid - poetry altogether, but rather to prepare themselves for philosophy by poems, - accustoming themselves to search for and embrace that which may profit in that - which pleaseth them, and rejecting and discarding that wherein they find nothing - of this nature. For this discrimination is the first step to learning; and when - this is attained, then, according to what Sophocles saith,— - - To have begun well what we do intend - Gives hope and prospect of as good an end. - - -

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Let us therefore in the first place possess those whom we initiate in the study of - poetry with this notion (as one which they ought always to have at hand), that - - - 'Tis frequently the poet's guise - To intermingle truth with lies;— - - -

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which they do sometimes with and sometimes against their wills. They do it with - their wills, because they find strict truth too rigid to comply with that - sweetness and gracefulness of expression, which most are taken with, so readily as - fiction doth. For real truth, though it disgust never so much, must be told as it - is, without alteration; but that which is feigned in a discourse can easily yield - and shift its garb from the distasteful to that which is more pleasing. And - indeed, neither the measures nor the tropes nor the grandeur of words nor the - aptness of metaphors nor the harmony of the composition - gives such a degree of elegance and gracefulness to a poem as a well-ordered and - artificial fiction doth. But as in pictures the colors are more delightful to the - eye than the lines, because those give them a nearer resemblance to the persons - they were made for, and render them the more apt to deceive the beholder; so in - poems we are more apt to be smitten and fall in love with a probable fiction than - with the greatest accuracy that can be observed in measures and phrases, where - there is nothing fabulous or fictitious joined with it. Wherefore Socrates, being - induced by some dreams to attempt something in poetry, and finding himself unapt, - by reason that he had all his lifetime been the champion of severe truth, to - hammer out of his own invention a likely fiction, made choice of Esop's fables to - turn into verse; as judging nothing to be true poetry that had in it nothing of - falsehood. For though we have known some sacrifices performed without pipes and - dances, yet we own no poetry which is utterly destitute of fable and fiction. - Whence the verses of Empedocles and Parmenides, the Theriaca of Nicander, and the - sentences of Theognis, are rather to be accounted speeches than poems, which, that - they might not walk contemptibly on foot, have borrowed from poetry the chariot of - verse, to convey them the more creditably through the world. Whensoever therefore - any thing is spoken in poems by any noted and eminently famous man, concerning - Gods or Daemons or virtue, that is absurd or harsh, he that takes such sayings for - truths is thereby misled in his apprehension and corrupted with an erroneous - opinion. But he that constantly keeps in his mind and maintains as his principle - that the witchcraft of poetry consists in fiction, he that can at all turns accost - it in this language,— - - Riddle of art! like which no sphinx beguiles; - Whose face on one side frowns while th' other smiles! - Why cheat'st thou, with pretence to make us wise, - And bid'st sage precepts in a fool's disguise?— - - -

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such a one, I say, will take no harm. by it, nor admit from it any absurd thing - into his belief. But when he meets in poetry with expressions of Neptune's rending - the earth to pieces and discovering the infernal regions, See. Il. XX. 57. he will - be able to check his fears of the reality of any such accident; and he will rebuke - himself for his anger against Apollo for the chief commander of the Greeks,— - - - Whom at a banquet, whiles he sings his praise - And speaks him fair, yet treacherously he slays. - From Aeschylus. The whole passage is quoted in Plato's Republic, end of Book II. (G.) - - - - Yea, he will repress his tears for Achilles and Agamemnon, while they are - represented as mourning after their death, and stretching forth their limber and - feeble hands to express their desire to live again. And if at any time the charms - of poetry transport him into any disquieting passions, he will quickly say to - himself, as Homer very elegantly (considering the propension of women to listen - after fables) says in his Necyia, or relation of the state of the dead,— - - But from the dark dominions speed thy way, - And climb the steep ascent to upper day; - To thy chaste bride the wondrous story tell, - The woes, the horrors, and the laws of hell. - - Odyss. XI. 223. - - -

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Such things as I have touched upon are those which the poets willingly feign. But - more there are which they do not feign, but believing them themselves as their own - proper judgments, they put fictitious colors upon them to ingratiate them to us. - As when Homer says of Jupiter,— - - Jove lifts the golden balances, that show - The fates of mortal men, and things below. - Here each contending hero's lot he tries, - And weighs with equal hand their destinies. - Low sinks the scale surcharged with Hector's fate; - Heavy with death it sinks, and hell receives the weight. - - Il. XXII. 210. - - -

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To this fable Aeschylus hath accommodated a whole tragedy - which he calls Psychostasia, wherein he introduceth Thetis and Aurora standing by - Jupiter's balances, and deprecating each of them the death of her son engaged in a - duel. Now there is no man but sees that this fable is a creature of the poet's - fancy, designed to delight or scare the reader. But this other passage,— - - Great Jove is made the treasurer of wars; - - Il. IV. 84. - - -

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and this other also,— - - When a God means a noble house to raze, - He frames one rather than he'll want a cause: - From the Niobe of Aeschylus, Frag. - 151. - - -

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these passages, I say, express the judgment and belief of poets who thereby - discover and suggest to us the ignorant or mistaken apprehensions they had of the - Deities. Moreover, almost every one knows nowadays, that the portentous fancies - and contrivances of stories concerning the state of the dead are accommodated to - popular apprehensions, —that the spectres and phantasms of burning rivers and - horrid regions and terrible tortures expressed by frightful names are all mixed - with fable and fiction, as poison with food; and that neither Homer nor Pindar nor - Sophocles ever believed themselves when they wrote at this rate:— - - There endless floods of shady darkness stream - From the vast caves, where mother Night doth teem; - - -

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and, - - There ghosts o'er the vast ocean's waves did glide, - By the Leucadian promontory's side; - - Odyss. XXIV. 11. - - -

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and, - - There from th' unfathomed gulf th' infernal lake - Through narrow straits recurring tides doth make. - - -

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And yet, as many of them as deplore death as a lamentable thing, or the want of - burial after death as a calamitous condition, are wont to break out into - expressions of this nature:— - - O pass not by, my friend; nor leave me here - Without a grave, and on that grave a tear; - - Odyss. XI. 72. - - -

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and, - - Then to the ghosts the mournful soul did fly, - Sore grieved in midst of youth and strength to die; - - Il. XVI. 856. - - -

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and again, - - 'Tis sweet to see the light. O spare me then, - Till I arrive at th' usual age of men: - Nor force my unfledged soul from hence, to know - The doleful state of dismal shades below. - Eurip. Iph. - Aul. 1218. - - -

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These, I say, are the speeches of men persuaded of these things, as being - possessed by erroneous opinions; and therefore they touch us the more nearly and - torment us inwardly, because we ourselves are full of the same impotent passion - from which they were uttered. To fortify us therefore against expressions of this - nature, let this principle continually ring in our ears, that poetry is not at all - solicitous to keep to the strict measure of truth. And indeed, as to what that - truth in these matters is, even those men themselves who make it their only study - to learn and search it out confess that they can hardly discover any certain - footsteps to guide them in that enquiry. Let us therefore have these verses of - Empedocles, in this case, at hand:— - - No sight of man's so clear, no ear so quick, - No mind so piercing, that's not here to seek; - - -

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as also those of Xenophanes:— - - The truth about the Gods and world, no man - E'er was or shall be that determine can; - - -

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and lastly, that passage concerning Socrates, in Plato, where he by the solemnity - of an oath disclaims all knowledge of those things. For those who perceive that - the searching into such matters makes the heads of philosophers themselves giddy - cannot but be the less inclined to regard what poets say concerning them.

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And we shall fix our young man yet the more if, when we enter him in the poets, we - first describe poetry to him, and tell him that it is an - imitating art and doth in many respects correspond to painting; not only - acquainting him with that common saying, that poetry is vocal painting and - painting silent poetry, but teaching him, moreover, that when we see a lizard or - an ape or the face of a Thersites in a picture, we are surprised with pleasure and - wonder at it, not because of any beauty in the things, but for the likeness of the - draught. For it is repugnant to the nature of that which is itself foul to be at - the same time fair; and therefore it is the imitation—be the thing imitated - beautiful or ugly—that, in case it do express it to the life, is commended; and on - the contrary, if the imitation make a foul thing to appear fair, it is dispraised - because it observes not decency and likeness. Now some painters there are that - paint uncomely actions; as Timotheus drew Medea killing her children; Theon, - Orestes murdering his mother; and Parrhasius, Ulysses counterfeiting madness; yea, - Chaerephanes expressed in picture the unchaste converse of women with men. Now in - such cases a young man is to be familiarly acquainted with this notion, that, when - men praise such pictures, they praise not the actions represented but only the - painter's art, which doth so lively express what was designed in them. Wherefore, - in like manner, seeing poetry many times describes by imitation foul actions and - unseemly passions and manners, the young student must not in such descriptions - (although performed never so artificially and commendably) believe all that is - said as true or embrace it as good, but give its due commendation so far only as - it suits the subject treated of. For as, when we hear the grunting of hogs and the - shrieking of pulleys and the rustling of wind and the roaring of seas, we are, it - may be, disturbed and displeased, and yet when we hear any one imitating these or - the like noises handsomely (as Parmenio did that of an hog, and Theodorus that of - a pulley), we are well pleased; and as we avoid (as an - unpleasing spectacle) the sight of sick persons and of a lazar full of ulcers, and - yet are delighted to be spectators of the Philoctetes of Aristophon and the - Jocasta of Silanion, wherein such wasting and dying persons are well acted; so - must the young scholar, when he reads in a poem of Thersites the buffoon or - Sisyphus the whoremaster or Batrachus the bawd speaking or doing any thing, so - praise the artificial managery of the poet, adapting the expressions to the - persons, as withal to look on the discourses and actions so expressed as odious - and abominable. For the goodness of things themselves differs much from the - goodness of the imitation of them; the goodness of the latter consisting only in - propriety and aptness to represent the former. Whence to foul actions foul - expressions are most suitable and proper. As the shoes of Demonides the cripple - (which, when he had lost them, he wished might suit the feet of him that stole - them) were but unhandsome shoes, but yet fit for the man they were made for; so we - may say of such expressions as these:— - - 'Tis worth the while an unjust act to own, - When it sets him that does it on a throne; - Eurip. Phoeniss. 524. - - - Get the repute of Just for a disguise, - And in it do all things whence gain may rise; - - - A talent dowry ! Could I close my eyes - In sleep, or live, if thee I should despise ? - And should I not in hell tormented be, - Could I be guilty of profaning thee? - From Menander. - - -

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These, it is true, are wicked as well as false speeches, but yet are decent enough - in the mouth of an Eteocles, an Ixion, and an old griping usurer. If therefore we - mind our children that the poets write not such things as praising and approving - them, but do really account them base and vicious and therefore accommodate such - speeches to base and vicious persons, they will never be - damnified by them from the esteem they have of the poets in whom they meet with - them. But, on the contrary, the suspicions insinuated into them of the persons - will render the words and actions ascribed to them suspected for evil, because - proceeding from such evil men. And of this nature is Homer's representation of - Paris, when he describes him running out of the battle into Helen's bed. For in - that he attributes no such indecent act to any other, but only to that incontinent - and adulterous person, he evidently declares that he intends that relation to - import a disgrace and reproach to such intemperance.

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In such passages therefore we are carefully to observe whether or not the poet - himself do anywhere give any intimation that he dislikes the things he makes such - persons say; which, in the prologue to his Thais Menander does, in these words:— - - - Therefore, my Muse, describe me now a whore, - Fair, bold, and furnished with a nimble tongue; - One that ne'er scruples to do lovers wrong; - That always craves, and denied shuts her door; - That truly loves no man, yet, for her ends, - Affection true to every man pretends. - - -

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But Homer of all the poets does it best. For he doth beforehand, as it were, - bespeak dislike of the evil things and approbation of the good things he utters. - Of the latter take these instances:— - - He readily did the occasion take, - And sweet and comfortable words he spake; - - Odyss. VI. 148. - - -

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- - - By him he stood, and with soft speeches quelled - The wrath which in his heated bosom swelled. - - Il. II. 189. - - -

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And for the former, he so performs it as in a manner solemnly to forbid us to use - or heed such speeches as those he mentions, as being foolish and wicked. For - example, being to tell us how uncivilly Agamemnon treated the priest, he premises - these words of his own,— - - - Not so Atrides: he with kingly pride - Repulsed the sacred sire, and thus replied; - - Il. I. 24. - - -

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intimating the insolency and unbecomingness of his answer. And when he attributes - this passionate speech to Achilles,— - - O monster, mix'd of insolence and fear, - Thou dog in forehead, and in heart a deer! - - Il. I. 225. - - -

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he accompanies it with this censure,— - - Nor yet the rage his boiling breast forsook, - Which thus redoubling on Atrides broke; - - Il. I. 223. - - -

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for it was unlikely that speaking in such anger he should observe any rules of - decency.

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And he passeth like censures on actions. As on Achilles's foul usage of Hector's - carcass,— - - Gloomy he said, and (horrible to view) - Before the bier the bleeding Hector threw. - - Il. XXIII. 24. - - -

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And in like manner he doth very decently shut up relations of things said or done, - by adding some sentence wherein he declares his judgment of them. As when he - personates some of the Gods saying, on the occasion of the adultery of Mars and - Venus discovered by Vulcan's artifice,— - - See the swift God o'ertaken by the lame ! - Thus ill acts prosper not, but end in shame. - - Odyss. VIII. 329. - - -

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And thus concerning Hecter's insolent boasting he says,— - - With such big words his mind proud sector eased, - But venerable Juno lie displeased. - - Il. VIII. 198. - - -

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And when he speaks of Pandarus's shooting, he adds,— - - He heard, and madly at the motion pleased, - His polish'd bow with hasty rashness seized. - - Il. IV. 104. - - -

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Now these verbal intimations of the minds and judgments of poets are not difficult - to be understood by any one that will heedfully observe them. But besides these, - they give us other hints from actions. As Euripides is - reported, when some blamed him for bringing such an impious and flagitious villain - as Ixion upon the stage, to have given this answer: But yet I brought him not off - till I had fastened him to a torturing wheel. This same way of teaching by mute - actions is to be found in Homer also, affording us useful contemplations upon - those very fables which are usually most disliked in him. These some men offer - force to, that they may reduce them to allegories (which the ancients called - ὑπόνοιαι), and tell us that Venus committing - adultery with Mars, discovered by the Sun, is to be understood thus: that when the - star called Venus is in conjunction with that which hath the name of Mars, - bastardly births are produced, and by the Sun's rising and discovering them they - are not concealed. So will they have Juno's dressing herself so accurately to - tempt Jupiter, and her making use of the girdle of Venus to inflame his love, to - be nothing else but the purification of that part of the air which draweth nearest - to the nature of fire. As if we were not told the meaning of those fables far - better by the poet himself. For he teacheth us in that of Venus, if we heed it, - that light music and wanton songs and discourses which suggest to men obscene - fancies debauch their manners, and incline them to an unmanly way of living in - luxury and wantonness, of continually haunting the company of women, and of being - - - Given to fashions, that their garb may please, - Hot baths, and couches where they loll at ease. - - -

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And therefore also he brings in Ulysses directing the musician thus,— - - Leave this, and sing the horse, out of whose womb - The gallant knights that conquered Troy did come; - - Odyss. VIII. 249 and 492. - - -

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evidently teaching us that poets and musicians ought to receive the arguments of - their songs from sober and understanding men. And in the - other fable of Juno he excellently shows that the conversation of women with men. - and the favors they receive from them procured by sorcery, witchcraft, or other - unlawful arts, are not only short, unstable, and soon cloying, but also in the - issue easily turned to loathing and displeasure, when once the pleasure is over. - For so Jupiter there threatens Juno, when he tells her,— - - Hear this, remember, and our fury dread, - Nor pull the unwilling vengeance on thy head; - Lest arts and blandishments successless prove - Thy soft deceits and well dissembled love. - - Il. XV. 32. - - -

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For the fiction and representation of evil acts, when it withal acquaints us with - the shame and damage befalling the doers, hurts not but rather profits him that - reads them. For which end philosophers make use of examples for our instruction - and correction out of historical collections; and poets do the very same thing, - but with this difference, that they invent fabulous examples themselves. There was - one Melanthius, who (whether in jest or earnest he said it, it matters not much) - affirmed that the city of Athens owed its preservation to the dissensions and - factions that were among the orators, giving withal this reason for his assertion, - that thereby they were kept from inclining all of them to one side, so that by - means of the differences among those statesmen there were always some that drew - the saw the right way for the defeating of destructive counsels. And thus it is - too in the contradictions among poets, which, by lessening the credit of what they - say, render them the less powerful to do mischief; and therefore, when comparing - one saying with another we discover their contrariety, we ought to adhere to the - better side. As in these instances:— - - The Gods, my son, deceive poor men oft-times. - - Ans. 'Tis easy, sir, on God to lay our crimes. - - -

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- - - 'Tis comfort to thee to be rich, is't not! - - Ans. No, sir, 'tis bad to be a wealthy sot. - - - Die rather than such toilsome pains to take. - - Ans. To call God's service toil's a foul mistake. - - -

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Such contrarieties as these are easily solved, if (as I said) we teach youth to - judge aright and to give the better saying preference. But if we chance to meet - with any absurd passages without any others at their heels to confute them, we are - then to overthrow them with such others as elsewhere are to be found in the - author. Nor must we be offended with the poet or grieved at him, but only at the - speeches themselves, which he utters either according to the vulgar manner of - speaking or, it may be, but in drollery. So, when thou readest in Homer of Gods - thrown out of heaven headlong one by another, or Gods wounded by men and - quarrelling and brawling with each other, thou mayest readily, if thou wilt, say - to him,— - - Sure thy invention here was sorely out, - Or thou hadst said far better things, no doubt; - - Il. VIII. 358. - - -

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yea, and thou dost so elsewhere, and according as thou thinkest, to wit, in these - passages of thine:— - - The Gods, removed from all that men doth grieve, - A quiet and contented life do live. - - - Herein the immortal Gods for ever blest - Feel endless joys and undisturbed rest. - - -

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- - - The Gods, who have themselves no cause to grieve, - For wretched man a web of sorrow weave. - - Il. VI. 138; Odyss. VI. 46; Il. XXIV. - 526. - - -

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For these argue sound and true opinions of the Gods; but those other were only - feigned to raise passions in men. Again, when Euripides speaks at this rate,— - - - The Gods are better than we men by far, - And yet by them we oft deceived are,— - - -

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we may do well to quote him elsewhere against himself, where he says better,— - - - If Gods do wrong, surely no Gods there are. - - -

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So also, when Pindar saith bitterly and keenly, - - No law forbids us any thing to do, - Whereby a mischief may befall a foe, - - -

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tell him: But, Pindar, thou thyself sayest elsewhere, - - The pleasure which injurious acts attends - Always in bitter consequences ends. - - -

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And when Sophocles speaks thus, - - Sweet is the gain, wherein to lie and cheat - Adds the repute of wit to what we get, - - -

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tell him: But we have heard thee say far otherwise, - - When the account's cast up, the gain's but poor - Which by a lying tongue augments the store. - - -

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And as to what he saith of riches, to wit: - - Wealth, where it minds to go, meets with no stay; - For where it finds not, it can make a way; - Many fair offers doth the poor let go, - And lose his prize because his purse is low; - The fair tongue makes, where wealth can purchase it, - The foul face beautiful, the fool a wit:— - - -

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here the reader may set in opposition divers other sayings of the same author. For - example, - - From honor poverty doth not debar, - Where poor men virtuous and deserving are. - - - Whate'er fools think, a man is ne'er the worse - If he be wise, though with an empty purse. - - - The comfort which he gets who wealth enjoys, - The vexing care by which 'tis kept destroys. - - -

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And Menander also somewhere magnifies a voluptuous life, and inflames the minds of - vain persons with these amorous strains, - - The glorious sun no living thing doth see, - But what's a slave to love as well as we. - - -

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But yet elsewhere, on the other side, he fastens on us and pulls us back to the - love of virtue, and checks the rage of lust, when he says thus, - - The life that is dishonorably spent, - Be it ne'er so pleasant, yields no true content. - - -

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For these lines are contrary to the former, as they are also better and more - profitable; so that by comparing them considerately one cannot but either be - inclined to the better side, or at least flag in the belief of the worse.

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But now, supposing that any of the poets themselves afford no such correcting - passages to solve what they have said amiss, it will then be advisable to confront - them with the contrary sayings of other famous men, and therewith to sway the - scales of our judgment to the better side. As, when Alexis tempts to debauchery in - these verses, - - The wise man knows what of all things is best, - Whilst choosing pleasure he slights all the rest. - He thinks life's joys complete in these three sorts, - To drink and eat, and follow wanton sports; - And what besides seems to pretend to pleasure, - If it betide him, counts it over measure, - - -

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we must remember that Socrates said the contrary, to wit: Bad men live that they - may eat and drink, whereas good men eat and drink that they may live. And against - the man that wrote in this manner, - - He that designs to encounter with a knave, - An equal stock of knavery must have, - - -

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seeing he herein advises us to follow other vicious examples, that of Diogenes may - well be returned, who being asked by what means a man might revenge himself upon - his enemy, answered, By becoming himself a good and honest man. And the same - Diogenes may be quoted also against Sophocles, who, writing thus of the sacred - mysteries, caused great grief and despair to multitudes of men: - - Most happy they whose eyes are blest to see - The mysteries which here contained be, - Before they die ! For only they have joy - In th' other world; the rest all ills annoy. - - -

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This passage being read to Diogenes, What then! says he, shall the condition of - Pataecion, the notorious robber, after death be better than that of Epaminondas, - merely for his being initiated in these mysteries? In like - manner, when one Timotheus on the theatre, in the praise of the Goddess Diana, - called her furious, raging, possessed, mad, Cinesias presently cried out to him - aloud, May thy daughter, Timotheus, be such a Goddess! And witty also was that of - Bion to Theognis, who said,— - - One can not say nor do, if poor he be; - His tongue is bound to th' peace, as well as he. - Theognis, vss. 177, 178. - - -

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How comes it to pass then, said he, Theognis, that thou thyself being so poor - pratest and gratest our ears in this manner?

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Nor are we to omit in our reading those hints which, from some other words or - phrases bordering on those that offend us, may help to rectify our apprehensions. - But as physicians use cantharides, believing that, though their bodies be deadly - poison, yet their feet and wings are medicinal and can even kill the poison of the - flies themselves, so must we deal with poems. If any noun or verb near at hand may - assist to the correction of any such saying, and preserve us from putting a bad - construction upon it, we should take hold of it and employ it to assist a more - favorable interpretation. As some do in reference to those verses of Homer,— - - - Sorrows and tears most commonly are seen - To be the Gods' rewards to wretched men:— - - - The Gods, who have no cause themselves to grieve, - For wretched man a web of sorrow weave. - - Odyss. IV. 197; Il. XXIV. 526. - - -

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For, they say, he says not of men simply, or of all men, that the Gods weave for - them the fatal web of a sorrowful life; but he affirms it only of foolish and - imprudent men, whom, because their vices make them such, he therefore calls - wretched and miserable.

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Another way whereby those passages which are suspicious in poets may be - transferred to a better sense may be taken from the common - use of words, which a young man ought indeed to be more exercised in than in the - use of strange and obscure terms. For it will be a point of philology which it - will not be unpleasant to him to understand, that when he meets with ῥιγεδανή in a poet, that word signifies an evil death; for the Macedonians use the word δάνος to signify death. So the Aeolians - call victory gotten by patient endurance of hardships καμμονίη; and the Dryopians call daemons πόποι.

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But of all things it is most necessary, and no less profitable if we design to - receive profit and not hurt from the poets, that we understand how they make use - of the names of Gods, as also of the terms of Evil and Good; and what they mean by - Fortune and Fate; and whether these words be always taken by them in one and the - same sense or rather in various senses, as also many other words are. For so the - word οἶκος sometimes signifies a material house, as, Into the high-roofed house; and - sometimes estate, as, My house is devoured. So the word βίοτος sometimes signifies life, and - sometimes wealth. And ἀλύειω is - sometimes taken for being uneasy and disquieted in mind, - as in - - - Ὤς ἔφαθ᾽· ἡ δ᾽ὐλύουσ᾽ὐπεβήσατο, τείρετο - δ᾽αἰνῶς, - - - Il. V. 352. - - and elsewhere for boasting and rejoicing, as in - - - Ἤ ὐλείς, ὅτι Ἶρον ἐρνίκησας τόν ἀλήτην - - - Odyss. XVIII. 333. - - - In like manner θοάζειν signifies either - to move, as in Euripides when he saith, - - - Κῆτος θούζον ἐκ Ἀτλαντικῆς ἁλός— - - - -

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or to sit, as in Sophocles when he writes thus, - - - Τίνας πόθ᾽ἕρας τάσδε μοι θοάζετε, - - - Ἱκτηρίοις κλάδοισιν ἑξεστεμμένοι. - - Soph. Oed. - Tyr. 2. - - -

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It is elegant also when they a᾽dapt to the present matter, as grammarians teach, - the use of words which are commonly of another signification. As here:— - - - - Νῆ᾽ὀλίγου αἰνεῖν, μεγάλῃ δ᾽ἐνί φορτία - θέσθαι. - - - -

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For here αἰνεῖν signifies to praise - (instead of ἐμαινεῖν), and to - praise is used for to refuse. So in conversation it is - common with us to say, καλῶς ἔχει, it is - well (i.e., No, I thank - you), and to bid any thing fare well (χαίρειν); by which forms of speech we refuse a thing - which we do not want, or receive it not, but still with a civil compliment. So - also some say that Proserpina is called ἐπαινή - in the notion of παραιτητή, to be - deprecated, because death is by all men shunned.

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And the like distinction of words we ought to observe also in things more weighty - and serious. To begin with the Gods, we should teach our youth that poets, when - they use the names of Gods, sometimes mean properly the Divine Beings so called, - but otherwhiles understand by those names certain powers of which the Gods are the - donors and authors, they having first led us into the use of them by their own - practice. As when Archilochus prays, - - King Vulcan, hear thy suppliant, and grant - That which thou'rt wont to give and I to want, - - -

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it is plain that he means the God himself whom he invokes. But when elsewhere he - bewails the drowning of his sister's husband, who had not obtained lawful burial, - and says, - - Had Vulcan his fair limbs to ashes turned, - I for his loss had with less passion mourned, - - -

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he gives the name of Vulcan to the fire and not to the Deity. Again, Euripides, - when he says, - - No; by great Jove I swear, enthroned on high, - And bloody Mars, - Eurip. Phoeniss. 1006. - - -

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means the Gods themselves who bare those names. But when Sophocles saith, - - Blind Mars doth mortal men's affairs confound, - As the swine's snout doth quite deface the ground, - - -

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we are to understand the word Mars to denote not the God so called, but war. And - by the same word we are to understand also weapons made of hardened brass, in - those verses of Homer, - - These are the gallant men whose noble blood - Keen Mars did shed near swift Scamander's flood. - - Il. VII. 329. - - -

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Wherefore, in conformity to the instances given, we must conceive and bear in mind - that by the names of Jupiter also sometimes they mean the God himself, sometimes - Fortune, and oftentimes also Fate. For when they say,— - - Great Jupiter, who from the lofty hill - Of Ida govern'st all the world at will; - - Il. III. 276. - - -

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- - - That wrath which hurled to Pluto's gloomy realm - The souls of mighty chiefs :— - Such was the sovereign doom, and such the will of Jove; - - Il. I. 3 and 5. - - -

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- - - For who (but who himself too fondly loves) - Dares lay his wisdom in the scale with Jove's?— - - -

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they understand Jupiter himself. But when they ascribe the event of all things - done to Jupiter as the cause, saying of him,— - - Many brave souls to hell Achilles sent, - And Jove's design accomplished in th' event,— - - -

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they mean by Jove no more but Fate. For the poet doth not conceive that God - contrives mischief against mankind, but he soundly declares the mere necessity of - the things themselves, to wit, that prosperity and victory are destined by Fate to - cities and armies and commanders who govern themselves with sobriety, but if they - give way to passions and commit errors, thereby dividing and crumbling themselves - into factions, as those of whom the poet speaks did, they do unhandsome actions, - and thereby create great disturbances, such as are attended with sad consequences. - - - For to all unadvised acts, in fine, - The Fates unhappy issues do assign. - From Euripides. - - -

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But when Hesiod brings in Prometheus thus counselling his brother Epimetheus, - - - Brother, if Jove to thee a present make, - Take heed that from his hands thou nothing take, - Hesiod, Works and Days, 86. - - -

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he useth the name of Jove to express Fortune; for he calls the good things which - come by her (such as riches, and marriages, and empires, and indeed all external - things the enjoyment whereof is unprofitable to them who know not how to use them - well) the gifts of Jove. And therefore he adviseth Epimetheus (an ill man, and a - fool withal) to stand in fear of and to guard himself from prosperity, as that - which would be hurtful and destructive to him.

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Again, where he saith, - - Reproach thou not a man for being poor; - His poverty's God's gift, as is thy store, - Hesiod, Works and Days, 717. - - -

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he calls that which befalls men by Fortune God's gift, and intimates that it is an - unworthy thing to reproach any man for that poverty which he falls into by - Fortune, whereas poverty is then only a matter of disgrace and reproach when it is - attendant on sloth and idleness, or wantonness and prodigality. For, before the - name of Fortune was used, they knew there was a powerful cause, which moved - irregularly and unlimitedly and with such a force that no human reason could avoid - it; and this cause they called by the names of Gods. So we are wont to call divers - things and qualities and discourses, and even men themselves, divine. And thus may - we rectify many such sayings concerning Jupiter as would otherwise seem very - absurd. As these, for instance:— - - Before Jove's door two fatal hogsheads, filled - With human fortunes, good and bad luck yield:— - - Il. XXIV. 527 - - -

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- - - Of violated oaths Jove took no care, - But spitefully both parties crushed by war:— - - Il. VII. 69 - - -

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- - - To Greeks and Trojans both this was the rise - Of mischief, suitable to Jove's device. - - Odyss. VIII. 81. - - -

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These passages we are to interpret as spoken concerning Fortune or Fate, of the - causality of both which no account can be given by us, nor do their effects fall - under our power. But where any thing is said of Jupiter that is suitable, - rational, and probable, there we are to conceive that the names of that God is - used properly. As in these instances:— - - Through others' ranks he conquering did range, - But shunned with Ajax any blows t' exchange; - But Jove's displeasure on him he had brought, - Had he with one so much his better fought. - - Il. XI. 540. - - - For though great matters are Jove's special care, - Small things t' inferior daemons trusted are. - - -

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And other words there are which the poets remove and translate from their proper - sense by accommodation to various things, which deserve also our serious notice. - Such a one, for instance, is ἀρετή, virtue. For because virtue does not only render men - prudent, just, and good, both in their words and deeds, but also oftentimes - purchaseth to them honor and power, therefore they call likewise these by that - name. So we are wont to call both the olive-tree and the fruit ἐλαία, and the oak-tree and its acorn φηγός, communicating the name of the one to the other. - Therefore, when our young man reads in the poets such passages as these,— - - This law th' immortal Gods to us have set, - That none arrive at virtue but by sweat; - Hesiod, Works and Days, 289. - - -

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- - - The adverse troops then did the Grecians stout - By their mere virtue profligate and rout; - - Il. XI. 90. - - - If now the Fates determined have our death, - To virtue we'll consign our parting breath;— - - -

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let him presently conceive that these things are spoken of that most excellent and - divine habit in us which we understand to be no other than right reason, or the - highest attainment of the reasonable nature, and most agreeable to the constitution thereof. And again, when he reads this, - - - Of virtue Jupiter to one gives more, - And lessens, when he lifts, another's store; - - -

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and this, - - Virtue and honor upon wealth attend; - Il. XX. 242; Hesiod, Works and Days, 313. - - - - let him not sit down in an astonishing admiration of rich men, as if they - were enabled by their wealth to purchase virtue, nor let him imagine that it is in - the power of Fortune to increase or lessen his own wisdom; but let him conceive - that the poet by virtue meant either glory or power or prosperity or something of - like import. For poets use the same ambiguity also in the word κακότης, evil, which sometimes in them - properly signifies a wicked and malicious disposition of mind, as in that of - Hesiod, - - Evil is soon acquired; for everywhere - There's plenty on't and t'all men's dwellings near; - Hesiod, Works and Days, 287. - - -

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and sometimes some evil accident or misfortune, as when Homer says, - - Sore evils, when they haunt us in our prime, - Hasten old age on us before our time. - - Odyss. XIX. 360. - - -

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So also in the word εὐδαιμονία, he would be - sorely deceived who should imagine that, wheresoever he meets with it in poets, it - means (as it does in philosophy) a perfect habitual enjoyment of all good things - or the leading a life every way agreeable to Nature, and that they do not withal - by the abuse of such words call rich men happy or blessed, and power or glory - felicity. For, though Homer rightly useth terms of that nature in this passage,— - - - Though of such great estates I am possest, - Yet with true inward joy I am not blest; - - Odyss. IV. 93. - - -

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and Menander in this,— - - So great's th' estate I am endowed withal: - All say I'm rich, but none me happy call;— - - -

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yet Euripides discourseth more confusedly and perplexedly when he writes after - this manner,— - - May I ne'er live that grievous blessed life;— - - -

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- - - But tell me, man, why valuest thou so high - Th' unjust beatitude of tyranny ? - Eurip. - Medea, 598; Phoeniss. 549. - - -

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except, as I said, we allow him the use of these words in a metaphorical and - abusive sense. But enough hath been spoken of these matters.

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Nevertheless, this principle is not once only but often to be inculcated and - pressed on young men, that poetry, when it undertakes a fictitious argument by way - of imitation, though it make use of such ornament and illustration as suit the - actions and manners treated of, yet disclaims not all likelihood of truth, seeing - the force of imitation, in order to the persuading of men, lies in probability. - Wherefore such imitation as does not altogether shake hands with truth carries - along with it certain signs of virtue and vice mixed together in the actions which - it doth represent. And of this nature is Homer's poetry, which totally bids adieu - to Stoicism, the principles whereof will not admit any vice to come near where - virtue is, nor virtue to have any thing to do where any vice lodgeth, but affirms - that he that is not a wise man can do nothing well, and he that is so can do - nothing amiss. Thus they determine in the schools. But in human actions and the - affairs of common life the judgment of Euripides is verified, that - - Virtue and vice ne'er separately exist, - But in the same acts with each other twist. - From the Aeolus of Euripides. - - -

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Next, it is to be observed that poetry, waiving the truth of things, does most - labor to beautify its fictions with variety and multiplicity of contrivance. For - variety bestows upon fable all that is pathetical, unusual, and surprising, and - thereby makes it more taking and graceful; whereas what is void of variety is - unsuitable to the nature of fable, and so raiseth no - passions at all. Upon which design of variety it is, that the poets never - represent the same persons always victorious or prosperous or acting with the same - constant tenor of virtue ;—yea, even the Gods themselves, when they engage in - human actions, are not represented as free from passions and errors;—lest, for the - want of some difficulties and cross passages, their poems should be destitute of - that briskness which is requisite to move and astonish the minds of men.

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These things therefore so standing, we should, when we enter a young man into the - study of the poets, endeavor to free his mind from that degree of esteem of the - good and great personages in them described as may incline him to think them to be - mirrors of wisdom and justice, the chief of princes, and the exemplary measures of - all virtue and goodness. For he will receive much prejudice, if he shall approve - and admire all that comes from such persons as great, if he dislike nothing in - them himself, nor will endure to hear others blame them, though for such words and - actions as the following passages import:— - - Oh! would to all the immortal powers above, - Apollo, Pallas, and almighty Jove! - That not one Trojan might be left alive, - And not a Greek of all the race survive. - Might only we the vast destruction shun, - And only we destroy the accursed town! - - -

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- - - Her breast all gore, with lamentable cries, - The bleeding innocent Cassandra dies, - Murdered by Clytemnestra's faithless hand: - - -

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- - - Lie with thy father's whore, my mother said, - That she th' old man may loathe; and I obeyed: - - -

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- - - Of all the Gods, O father Jove, there's none - Thus given to mischief but thyself alone. - - Il. XVI. 97; Odyss. XI. 421; Il. IX. 452; - Il. III. 365. - - -

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Our young man is to be taught not to commend such things as these, no, nor to show - the nimbleness of his wit or subtlety in maintaining an argument by finding out - plausible colors and pretences to varnish over a bad matter. But we should teach him rather to judge that poetry is an - imitation of the manners and lives of such men as are not perfectly pure and - unblamable, but such as are tinctured with passions, misled by false opinions, and - muffled with ignorance; though oftentimes they may, by the help of a good natural - temper, change them for better qualities. For the young man's mind, being thus - prepared and disposed, will receive no damage by such passages when he meets with - them in poems, but will on the one side be elevated with rapture at those things - which are well said or done, and on the other, will not entertain but dislike - those which are of a contrary character. But he that admires and is transported - with every thing, as having his judgment enslaved by the esteem he hath for the - names of heroes, will be unawares wheedled into many evil things, and be guilty of - the same folly with those who imitate the crookedness of Plato or the lisping of - Aristotle. Neither must he carry himself timorously herein, nor, like a - superstitious person in a temple, tremblingly adore all he meets with; but use - himself to such confidence as may enable him openly to pronounce, This was ill or - incongruously said, and, That was bravely and gallantly spoken. For example, - Achilles in Homer, being offended at the spinning out that war by delays, wherein - he was desirous by feats of arms to purchase to himself glory, calls the soldiers - together when there was an epidemical disease among them. But having himself some - smattering skill in physic, and perceiving after the ninth day, which useth to be - decretory in such cases, that the disease was no usual one nor proceeding from - ordinary causes, when he stands up to speak, he waives applying himself to the - soldiers, and addresseth himself as a councillor to the general, thus:— - - Why leave we not the fatal Trojan shore, - And measure back the seas we cross'd before? - For this and the four following - quotations, see Il. I. 59, 90, 220, 349; IX. - 458. - - -

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And he spake well, and with due moderation and decorum. But when the soothsayer - Chalcas had told him that he feared the wrath of the most potent among the - Grecians, after an oath that while he lived no man should lay violent hands on - him, he adds, but not with like wisdom and moderation, - - Not e'en the chief by whom our hosts are led, - The king of kings, shall touch that sacred head; - - -

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in which speech he declares his low opinion or rather his contempt of his chief - commander. And then, being farther provoked, he drew his weapon with a design to - kill him, which attempt was neither good nor expedient. And therefore by and by he - repented his rashness,— - - He said, observant of the blue-eyed maid; - Then in the sheath returned the shining blade; - - -

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wherein again he did rightly and worthily, in that, though he could not altogether - quell his passion, yet he restrained and reduced it under the command of reason, - before it brake forth into such an irreparable act of mischief. Again, even - Agamemnon himself talks in that assembly ridiculously, but carries himself more - gravely and more like a prince in the matter of Chryseis. For whereas Achilles, - when his Briseis was taken away from him, - - In sullenness withdraws from all his friends, - And in his tent his time lamenting spends; - - -

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Agamemnon himself hands into the ship, delivers to her friends, and so sends from - him, the woman concerning whom a little before he declared that he loved her - better than his wife; and in that action did nothing unbecoming or savoring of - fond affection. Also Phoenix, when his father bitterly cursed him for having to do - with one that was his own harlot, says, - - Him in my rage I purposed to have killed, - But that my land some God in kindness held; - And minded me that Greeks would taunting say, - Lo, here's the man that did his father slav. - - -

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It is true that Aristarchus was afraid to permit these verses to stand in the - poet, and therefore censured them to be expunged. But they were inserted by Homer - very aptly to the occasion of Phoenix's instructing Achilles what a pernicious - thing anger is, and what foul acts men do by its instigation, while they are - capable neither of making use of their own reason nor of hearing the counsel of - others. To which end he also introduceth Meleager at first highly offended with - his citizens, and afterwards pacified; justly therein reprehending disordered - passions, and praising it as a good and profitable thing not to yield to them, but - to resist and overcome them, and to repent when one hath been overcome by - them.

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Now in these instances the difference is manifest. But where a like clear judgment - cannot be passed, there we are to settle the young man's mind thus, by way of - distinction. If Nausicaa, having cast her eyes upon Ulysses, a stranger, and - feeling the same passion for him as Calypso had before, did (as one that was ripe - for a husband) out of wantonness talk with her maidens at this foolish rate,— - - - O Heaven ! in my connubial hour decree - This man my spouse, or such a spouse as he! - - Odyss. VI. 251. - - -

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she is blameworthy for her impudence and incontinence. But if, perceiving the - man's breeding by his discourse, and admiring the prudence of his addresses, she - rather wisheth to have such a one for a husband than a merchant or a dancing - gallant of her fellow-citizens, she is to be commended. And when Ulysses is - represented as rejoicing at Penelope's jocular conversation with her wooers, and - at their presenting her with rich garments and other ornaments, - - Because she cunningly the fools cajoled, - And bartered light words for their heavy gold; - - Odyss. XVIII. 282. - - -

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if that joy were occasioned by greediness and covetous - ness, he discovers himself to be a more sordid prostituter of his own wife than - Poliager is wont to be represented on the stage to have been, of whom it is said,— - - - Happy man he, whose wife, like Capricorn, - Stores him with riches from a golden horn ! - - -

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But if through foresight he thought thereby to get them the more within his power, - as being lulled asleep in security for the future by the hopes she gave them at - present, this rejoicing, joined with confidence in his wife, was rational. Again, - when he is brought in numbering the goods which the Phaeacians had set on shore - together with himself and departed; if indeed, being himself left in such a - solitude, so ignorant where he was, and having no security there for his own - person, he is yet solicitous for his goods, lest - - The sly Phaeacians, when they stole to sea, - Had stolen some part of what they brought away; - - Odyss. XIII. 216. - - -

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the covetousness of the man deserved in truth to be pitied, or rather abhorred. - But if, as some say in his defence, being doubtful whether or no the place where - he was landed were Ithaca, he made use of the just tale of his goods to infer - thence the honesty of the Phaeacians,—because it was not likely they would expose - him in a strange place and leave him there with his goods by him untouched, so as - to get nothing by their dishonesty,—then he makes use of a very fit test for this - purpose, and deserves commendation for his wisdom in that action. Some also there - are who find fault with that passage of the putting him on shore when he was - asleep, if it really so happened, and they tell us that the people of Tuscany have - still a traditional story among them concerning Ulysses, that he was naturally - sleepy, and therefore a man whom many men could not freely converse with. But if - his sleep was but feigned, and he made use of this pretence only of a natural infirmity, by counterfeiting a nap, to hide the strait he - was in at that time in his thoughts, betwixt the shame of sending away the - Phaeacians without giving them a friendly collation and hospitable gifts, and the - fear he had of being discovered to his enemies by the treating such a company of - men together, they then approve it.

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Now, by showing young men these things, we shall preserve them from being carried - away to any corruption in their manners. and dispose them to the election and - imitation of those that are good, as being before instructed readily to disapprove - those and commend these. But this ought with the most care to be done in the - reading of tragedies wherein probable and subtle speeches are made use of in the - most foul and wicked actions. For that is not always true which Sophocles saith, - that From naughty acts good words can ne'er - proceed. -

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For even he himself is wont to apply pleasant reasonings and plausible arguments - to those manners and actions which are wicked or unbecoming. And in another of his - fellow-tragedians, we may see even Phaedra herself represented as justifying her - unlawful affection for Hippolytus by accusing Theseus of ill-carriage towards her. - And in his Troades, he allows Helen the same liberty of speech against Hecuba, - whom she judgeth to be more worthy of punishment than herself for her adultery, - because she was the mother of Paris that tempted her thereto. A young man - therefore must not be accustomed to think any thing of that nature handsomely or - wittily spoken, nor to be pleased with such colorable inventions; but rather more - to abhor such words as tend to the defence of wanton acts than the very acts - themselves.

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And lastly, it will be useful likewise to enquire into the cause why each thing is - said. For so Cato, when he was a boy, though he was wont to be very observant of - all his master's commands, yet withal used to ask the cause or reason why he so commanded. But poets are not to be obeyed as pedagogues and - lawgivers are, except they have reason to back what they say. And that they will - not want, when they speak well; and if they speak ill, what they say will appear - vain and frivolous. But nowadays most young men very briskly demand the reason of - such trivial speeches as these, and enquire in what sense they are spoken: - - It bodes ill luck, when vessels you set up, - To place the ladle on the mixing-cup. - - - Who from his chariot to another's leaps, - Seldom his seat without a combat keeps. - Hesiod, Works and Days, 744; Il. IV. - 306. - - -

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But to those of greater moment they give credence without examination, as to those - that follow: - - The boldest men are daunted oftentimes, - When they're reproached with their parents' crimes: - Eurip. Hippol. 424. - - - When any man is crushed by adverse fate, - His spirit should be low as his estate. - - -

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And yet such speeches relate to manners, and disquiet men's lives by begetting in - them evil opinions and unworthy sentiments, except they have learned to return - answer to each of them thus: Wherefore is it necessary that - a man who is crushed by adverse fate should have a dejected spirit? Yea, why - rather should he not struggle against Fortune, and raise himself above the - pressures of his low circumstances? Why, if I myself be a good and wise son of - an evil and foolish father, does it not rather become me to bear myself - confidently upon the account of my own virtue, than to be dejected and - dispirited because of my father's defects? For he that can encounter such - speeches and oppose them after this manner, not yielding himself up to be overset - with the blast of every saying, but approving that speech of Heraclitus, that - - - Whate'er is said, though void of sense and wit, - The size of a fool's intellect doth fit, - - -

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will reject many such things as falsely and idly spoken.

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These things therefore may be of use to preserve us from the hurt we might get by - the study of poems. Now, as on a vine the fruit oftentimes lies shadowed and - hidden under its large leaves and luxuriant branches, so in the poet's phrases and - fictions that encompass them there are also many profitable and useful things - concealed from the view of young men. This, however, ought not to be suffered; nor - should we be led away from things themselves thus, but rather adhere to such of - them as tend to the promoting of virtue and the well forming of our manners. It - will not be altogether useless therefore, to treat briefly in the next place of - passages of that nature. Wherein I intend to touch only at some particulars, - leaving all longer discourses, and the brimming up and furnishing them with a - multitude of instances, to those who write more for show and ostentation.

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First, therefore, let our young man be taught to understand good and bad manners - and persons, and from thence apply his mind to the words and deeds which the poet - decently assigns to either of them. For example, Achilles, though in some wrath, - speaks to Agamemnon thus decently: - - Nor, when we take a Trojan town, can I - With thee in spoils and splendid prizes vie; - For this and the five following - quotations, see Il. I. 163; II. 226; I. 128; - II 231; IV. 402 and 404. - - -

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whereas Thersites to the same person speaks reproachfully in this manner:— - - 'Tis thine whate'er the warrior's breast inflames, - The golden spoil, and thine the lovely dances. - With all the wealth our wars and blood bestow, - Thy tents are crowded and thy chests o'erflow. - - -

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Again, Achilles thus:— - - Whene'er, by Jove's decree, our conquering powers - Shall humble to the dust Troy's lofty towers; - - -

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but Thersites thus:— Whom I or some Greek else as captive - bring. -

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Again, Diomedes, when Agamemnon taking a view of the army spoke reproachfully to - him, - - To his hard words forbore to make reply, - For the respect he bare to majesty; - - -

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whereas Sthenelus, a man of small note, replies on him thus:— - - Sir, when you know the truth, what need to lie? - For with our fathers we for valor vie. - - -

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Now the observation of such difference will teach the young man the decency of a - modest and moderate temper, and the unbecoming nauseousness of the contrary vices - of boasting and cracking of a man's own worth. And it is worth while also to take - notice of the demeanor of Agamemnon in the same passage. For he passeth by - Sthenelus unspoken to; but perceiving Ulysses to be offended, he neglects not him, - but applies himself to answer him:— Struck with his - generous wrath, the king replies. - Il. IV. 357. For the four following, see Il. IX. 34 and 70; IV. 431; X. 325. - -

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For to have apologized to every one had been too servile and misbecoming the - dignity of his person; whereas equally to have neglected every one had been an act - of insolence and imprudence. And very handsome it is that Diomedes, though in the - heat of the battle he answers the king only with silence, yet after the battle was - over useth more liberty towards him, speaking thus:— You - called me coward, sir, before the Greeks. -

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It is expedient also to take notice of the different carriage of a wise man and of - a soothsayer popularly courting the multitude. For Chalcas very unseasonably makes - no scruple to traduce the king before the people, as - having been the cause of the pestilence that was befallen them. But Nestor, - intending to bring in a discourse concerning the reconciling Achilles to him, that - he might not seem to charge Agamemnon before the multitude with the miscarriage - his passion had occasioned, only adviseth him thus:— - - But thou, O king, to council call the old.... - Wise weighty counsels aid a state distress'd, - And such a monarch as can choose the best; - - -

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which done, accordingly after supper he sends his ambassadors. Now this speech of - Nestor tended to the rectifying of what he had before done amiss; but that of - Chalcas, only to accuse and disparage him.

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There is likewise consideration to be had of the different manners of nations, - such as these. The Trojans enter into battle with loud outcries and great - fierceness; but in the army of the Greeks, - - Sedate and silent move the numerous bands; - No sound, no whisper, but the chief's commands; - Those only heard, with awe the rest obey. - - -

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For when soldiers are about to engage an enemy, the awe they stand in of their - officers is an argument both of courage and obedience. For which purpose Plato - teacheth us that we ought to inure ourselves to fear blame and disgrace more than - labor and danger. And Cato was wont to say that he liked men that were apt to - blush better than those that looked pale.

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Moreover, there is a particular character to be noted of the men who undertake for - any action. For Dolon thus promiseth:— - - I'll pass through all their lost in a disguise - To their flag-ship, where she at anchor lies. - - -

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But Diomedes promiseth nothing, but only tells them he shall fear the less if they - send a companion with him; whereby is intimated, that discreet foresight is - Grecian and civil, but rash confidence is barbarous and - evil; and the former is therefore to be imitated, and the latter to be - avoided.

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It is a matter too of no unprofitable consideration, how the minds of the Trojans - and of Hector too were affected when he and Ajax were about to engage in a single - combat. For Aeschylus, when, upon one of the fighters at fisticuffs in the - Isthmian games receiving a blow on the face, there was made a great outcry among - the people, said: What a thing is practice! See how the - lookers-on only cry out, but the man that received the stroke is silent. - But when the poet tells us, that the Greeks rejoiced when they saw Ajax in his - glistering armor, but - - The Trojans' knees for very fear did quake, - And even Hector's heart began to ache; - - Il. VII. 215. For the three following, see - Il. II. 220; VII. 226 and 231. - - -

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who is there that wonders not at this difference,—when the heart of him that was - to run the risk of the combat only beats inwardly, as if he were to undertake a - mere wrestling or running match, but the very bodies of the spectators tremble and - shake, out of the kindness and fear which they had for their king?

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In the same poet also we may observe the difference betwixt the humor of a coward - and a valiant man. For Thersites - - Against Achilles a great malice had, - And wise Ulysses he did hate as bad; - - -

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but Ajax is always represented as friendly to Achilles; and particularly he speaks - thus to Hector concerning him:— - - Hector! approach my arm, and singly know - What strength thou last, and what the Grecian foe. - Achilles shuns the fight; yet some there are - Not void of soul, and not unskill'd in war: - - -

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wherein he insinuates the high commendation of that valiant man. And in what - follows, he speaks like handsome things of his fellow-soldiers in general, thus:— - - - - Whole troops of heroes Greece has yet to boast, - And sends thee one, a sample of her host; - - -

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wherein he doth not boast himself to be the only or the best champion, but one of - those, among many others, who were fit to undertake that combat.

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What hath been said is sufficient upon the point of dissimilitudes; except we - think fit to add this, that many of the Trojans came into the enemy's power alive, - but none of the Grecians; and that many of the Trojans supplicated to their - enemies,—as (for instance) Adrastus, the sons of Antimachus, Lycaon,—and even - Hector himself entreats Achilles for a sepulture; but not one of these doth so, as - judging it barbarous to supplicate to a foe in the field, and more Greek-like - either to conquer or die.

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But as, in the same plant, the bee feeds on the flower, the goat on the bud, the - hog on the root, and other living creatures on the seed and the fruit; so in - reading of poems, one man singleth out the historical part, another dwells upon - the elegancy and fit disposal of words, as Aristophanes says of Euripides,— - - His gallant language runs so smooth and round, - That I am ravisht with th' harmonious sound; - See Aristophanes, Frag. 397. - - -

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but others, to whom this part of my discourse is directed, mind only such things - as are useful to the bettering of manners. And such we are to put in mind that it - is an absurd thing, that those who delight in fables should not let any thing slip - them of the vain and extravagant stories they find in poets, and that those who - affect language should pass by nothing that is elegantly and floridly expressed; - and that only the lovers of honor and virtue, who apply themselves to the study of - poems not for delight but for instruction's sake, should slightly and negligently - observe what is spoken in them relating to valor, temperance, or justice. Of this - nature is the following:— - - - And stand we deedless, O eternal shame! - Till Hector's arm involve the ships in flame? - Haste, let us join, and combat side by side. - - Il. XI. 313. For the four following, see - Odyss. III. 52; Il. XXIV. 560 and 584; Odyss. - XVI. 274 - - -

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For to see a man of the greatest wisdom in danger of being totally cut off with - all those that take part with him, and yet affected less with fear of death than - of shame and dishonor, must needs excite in a young man a passionate affection for - virtue. And this, - - Joyed was the Goddess, for she much did prize - A man that was alike both just and wise, - - -

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teacheth us to infer that the Deity delights not in a rich or a proper or a strong - man, but in one that is furnished with wisdom and justice. Again, when the same - Goddess (Minerva) saith that the reason why she did not desert or neglect Ulysses - was that he was Gentle, of ready wit, of prudent - mind, -

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she therein tells us that, of all things pertaining to us, nothing is dear to the - Gods and divine but our virtue, seeing like naturally delights in like.

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And seeing, moreover, that it both seemeth and really is a great thing to be able - to moderate a man's anger, but a greater by far to guard a man's self beforehand - by prudence, that he fall not into it nor be surprised by it, therefore also such - passages as tend that way are not slightly to be represented to the readers; for - example, that Achilles himself—who was a man of no great forbearance, nor inclined - to such meekness—yet warns Priam to be calm and not to provoke him, thus, - - Move me no more (Achilles thus replies, - While kindling anger sparkled in his eyes), - Nor seek by tears my steady soul to bend: - To yield thy Hector I myself intend: - Cease; lest, neglectful of high Jove's command, - I show thee, king, thou tread'st on hostile land; - - -

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and that he himself first washeth and decently covereth the body of Hector and - then puts it into a chariot, to prevent his father's seeing it so unworthily - mangled as it was,— - - Lest the unhappy sire, - Provoked to passion, once more rouse to ire - The stern Pelides; and nor sacred age, - Nor Jove's command, should check the rising rage. - - -

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For it is a piece of admirable prudence for a man so prone to anger, as being by - nature hasty and furious, to understand himself so well as to set a guard upon his - own inclinations, and by avoiding provocations to keep his passion at due distance - by the use of reason, lest he should be unawares surprised by it. And after the - same manner must the man that is apt to be drunken forearm himself against that - vice; and he that is given to wantonness, against lust, as Agesilaus refused to - receive a kiss from a beautiful person addressing to him, and Cyrus would not so - much as endure to see Panthea. Whereas, on the contrary, those that are not - virtuously bred are wont to gather fuel to inflame their passions, and voluntarily - to abandon themselves to those temptations to which of themselves they are - endangered. But Ulysses does not only restrain his own anger, but (perceiving by - the discourse of his son Telemachus, that through indignation conceived against - such evil men he was greatly provoked) he blunts his passion too beforehand, and - composeth him to calmness and patience, thus:— - - There, if base scorn insult my reverend age, - Bear it, my son! repress thy rising rage. - If outraged, cease that outrage to repel; - Bear it, my son! howe'er thy heart rebel. - - -

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For as men are not wont to put bridles on their horses when they are running in - full speed, but bring them bridled beforehand to the race; so do they use to - preoccupy and predispose the minds of those persons with rational considerations - to enable them to encounter passion, whom they perceive to - be too mettlesome and unmanageable upon the sight of provoking objects.

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Furthermore, the young man is not altogether to neglect names themselves when he - meets with them; though he is not obliged to give much heed to such idle descants - as those of Cleanthes, who, while he professeth himself an interpreter, plays the - trifler, as in these passages of Homer: Ζεῦ πάτερ Ἴδηθεν - μεδέων, and Ζεῦ ἄνα Δωδωωαῖε. - Il. III. 320; XVI. 233. For he will needs - read the last two of these words joined into one, and make them ἀναδωδωναῖε; for that the air evaporated from the - earth by exhalation (ἀνάδοσις) is so called. - Yea, and Chrysippus too, though he does not so trifle, yet is very jejune, while - he hunts after improbable etymologies. As when he will need force the words - εὐρύοπα Κρονίδην to import Jupiter's - excellent faculty in speaking and powerfulness to persuade thereby.

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But such things as these are fitter to be left to the examination of grammarians; - and we are rather to insist upon such passages as are both profitable and - persuasive. Such, for instance, as these:— - - My early youth was bred to martial pains, - My soul impels me to the embattled plains! - - - How skill'd he was in each obliging art; - The mildest manners, and the gentlest heart. - - Il. VI. 444; XVII. 671. - - -

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For while the author tells us that fortitude may be taught, and that an obliging - and graceful way of conversing with others is to be gotten by art and the use of - reason, he exhorts us not to neglect the improvement of ourselves, but by - observing our teachers' instructions to learn a becoming carriage, as knowing that - clownishness and cowardice argue ill-breeding and ignorance. And very suitable to - what hath been said is that which is said of Jupiter and Neptune:— - - - Gods of one source, of one ethereal race, - Alike divine, and heaven their native place; - But Jove the greater; first born of the skies, - And more than men or Gods supremely wise. - - Il. XIII. 354. - - -

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For the poet therein pronounceth wisdom to be the most divine and royal quality of - all; as placing therein the greatest excellency of Jupiter himself, and judging - all virtues else to be necessarily consequent thereunto. We are also to accustom a - young man attentively to hear such things as these:— - - Urge him with truth to frame his fair replies: - And sure he will, for wisdom never lies: - - - The praise of wisdom, in thy youth obtain'd, - An act so rash, Antilochus, has stain'd: - - - Say, is it just, my friend, that Hector's ear - From such a warrior such a speech should hear? - I deemed thee once the wisest of thy kind, - But ill this insult suits a prudent mind. - - Odyss. III. 20; Il. XXIII. 570; XVII. 170. - - -

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These speeches teach us that it is beneath wise men to lie or to deal otherwise - than fairly, even in games, or to blame other men without just cause. And when the - poet attributes Pindarus's violation of the truce to his folly, he withal declares - his judgment that a wise man will not be guilty of an unjust action. The like may - we also infer concerning continence, taking our ground for it from these - passages:— - - For him Antaea burn'd with lawless flame, - And strove to tempt him from the paths of fame: - In vain she tempted the relentless youth, - Endued with wisdom, sacred fear, and truth: - - - At first, with worthy shame and decent pride, - The royal dame his lawless suit denied ! - For virtue's image yet possessed her mind: - - Il. VI. 160; Odyss. III. 265. - - -

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in which speeches the poet assigns wisdom to be the cause of continence. And when - in exhortations made to encourage soldiers to fight, he speaks in this manner:— - - - - What mean you, Lycians? Stand! O stand, for shame ! - - - Yet each reflect who prizes fame or breath, - On endless infamy, on instant death; - For, lo ! the fated time, the appointed shore; - Hark ! the gates burst, the brazen barriers roar ! - - Il. XVI. 422; XIII. 121. - - -

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he seems to intimate that continent men are valiant men; because they fear the - shame of base actions, and can trample on pleasures and stand their ground in the - greatest hazards. Whence Timotheus, in the play called Persae, takes occasion - handsomely to exhort the Grecians thus:— - - Brave soldiers of just shame in awe should stand; - For the blushing face oft helps the fighting hand. - - -

-

And Aeschylus also makes it a point of wisdom not to be blown up with pride when a - man is honored, nor to be moved or elevated with the acclamations of a multitude, - writing thus of Amphiaraus:— - - His shield no emblem bears; his generous soul - Wishes to be, not to appear, the best; - While the deep furrows of his noble mind - Harvests of wise and prudent counsel bear. - See note on the same passage of - Aeschylus (Sept. 591), vol. I. p. 210. (G.) - - -

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For it is the part of a wise man to value himself upon the consciousness of his - own true worth and excellency. Whereas, therefore, all inward perfections are - reducible to wisdom, it appears that all sorts of virtue and learning are included - in it.

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Again, boys may be instructed, by reading the poets as they ought, to draw - something that is useful and profitable even from those passages that are most - suspected as wicked and absurd; as the bee is taught by Nature to gather the - sweetest and most pleasant honey from the harshest flowers and sharpest thorns. It - does indeed at the first blush cast a shrewd suspicion on Agamemnon of taking a - bribe, when Homer tells us that he discharged that rich man from the wars who - presented him with his fleet mare Aethe:— - - - Whom rich Echepolus, more rich than brave, - To 'scape the wars, to Agamemnon gave - (Aethe her name), at home to end his days; - Base wealth preferring to eternal praise. - - Il. XXIII. 297. - - -

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Yet, as saith Aristotle, it was well done of him to prefer a good beast before - such a man. For, the truth is, a dog or ass is of more value than a timorous and - cowardly man that wallows in wealth and luxury. Again, Thetis seems to do - indecently, when she exhorts her son to follow his pleasures and minds him of - companying with women. But even here, on the other side, the continency of - Achilles is worthy to be considered; who, though he dearly loved Briseis—newly - returned to him too,—yet, when he knew his life to be near its end, does not - hasten to the fruition of pleasures, nor, when he mourns for his friend Patroclus, - does he (as most men are wont) shut himself up from all business and neglect his - duty, but only bars himself from recreations for his sorrow's sake, while yet he - gives himself up to action and military employments. And Archilochus is not - praiseworthy either, who, in the midst of his mourning for his sister's husband - drowned in the sea, contrives to dispel his grief by drinking and merriment. And - yet he gives this plausible reason to justify that practice of his, - - To drink and dance, rather than mourn, I choose; - Nor wrong I him, whom mourning can't reduce. - - -

-

For, if he judged himself to do nothing amiss when he followed sports and - banquets, sure, we shall not do worse, if in whatever circumstances we follow the - study of philosophy, or manage public affairs, or go to the market or to the - Academy, or follow our husbandry. Wherefore those corrections also are not to be - rejected which Cleanthes and Antisthenes have made use of. For Antisthenes, seeing - the Athenians all in a tumult in the theatre, and justly, upon the pronunciation - of this verse,— - Except what men think base, there's nothing ill, From the Aeolus of Euripides, Frag. - 19. - -

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presently subjoined this corrective, What's base is - base,—believe men what they will. -

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And Cleanthes, hearing this passage concerning wealth: - - Great is th' advantage that great wealth attends, - For oft with it we purchase health and friends; - Eurip. Electra, 428. - - -

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presently altered it thus: - - Great disadvantage oft attends on wealth; - We purchase whores with't and destroy our health. - - -

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And Zeno corrected that of Sophocles, - - The man that in a tyrant's palace dwells - His liberty for's entertainment sells, - - -

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after this manner: - - No: if he came in free, he cannot lose - His liberty, though in a tyrant's house; - - -

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meaning by a free man one that is undaunted and magnanimous, and one of a spirit - too great to stoop beneath itself. And why may not we also, by some such - acclamations as those, call off young men to the better side, by using some things - spoken by poets after the same manner? For example, it is said, - - 'Tis all that in this life one can require, - To hit the mark he aims at in desire. - - -

-

To which we may reply thus: - - 'Tis false; except one level his desire - At what's expedient, and no more require. - - -

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For it is an unhappy thing and not to be wished, for a man to obtain and be master - of what he desires if it be inexpedient. Again this saying, - - Thou, Agamemnon, must thyself prepare - Of joy and grief by turns to take thy share: - Thy father, Atreus, sure, ne'er thee begat, - To be an unchanged favorite of Fate: - Eurip. Iphig. Aul. 29. - - -

- -

we may thus invert: - - Thy father, Atreus, never thee begat, - To be an unchanged favorite of Fate: - Therefore, if moderate thy fortunes are, - Thou shouldst rejoice always, and grief forbear. - - -

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Again it is said, - - Alas! this ill comes from the powers divine, - That oft we see what's good, yet it decline. - From the Chrysippus of Euripides, Frag. 838. - - -

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Yea, rather, say we, it is a brutish and irrational and wretched fault of ours, - that when we understand better things, we are carried away to the pursuit of those - which are worse, through our intemperance and effeminacy. Again, one says, 'Tis not the teacher's speech but practice moves. From Menander. - -

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Yea, rather, say we, both the speech and practice,—or the practice by the means of - speech,—as the horse is managed with the bridle, and the ship with the helm. For - virtue hath no instrument so suitable and agreeable to human nature to work on men - withal, as that of rational discourse. Again, we meet with this character of some - person: A. Is he more prone to male or female loves ? B. - He's flexible both ways, where beauty moves. -

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But it had been better said thus: He's flexible to both, - where virtue moves. -

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For it is no commendation of a man's dexterity to be tossed up and down as - pleasure and beauty move him, but an argument rather of a weak and unstable - disposition. Once more, this speech, - - religion damps the courage of our minds, - And ev'n wise men to cowardice inclines, - - -

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is by no means to be allowed; but rather the contrary, - - Religion truly fortifies men's minds, - And a wise man to valiant acts inclines, - - -

- -

and gives not occasion of fear to any but weak and foolish persons and such as are - ungrateful to the Deity, who are apt to look on that divine power and principle - which is the cause of all good with suspicion and jealousy, as being hurtful unto - them. And so much for that which I call correction of poets' sayings.

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There is yet another way of improving poems, taught us well by Chrysippus; which - is, by accommodation of any saying, to transfer that which is useful and - serviceable in it to divers things of the same kind. For whereas Hesiod saith, - - - If but a cow be lost, the common fame - Upon the next ill neighbor lays the blame; - Hesiod, Works and Days, 348. - - -

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the same may be applied to a man's dog or ass or any other beast of his which is - liable to the like mischance. Again, Euripides saith, - - How can that man be called a slave, who slights - Ev'n death itself, which servile spirits frights? - - -

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the like whereof may be said of hard labor or painful sickness. For as physicians, - finding by experience the force of any medicine in the cure of some one disease, - make use of it by accommodation, proportionably to every other disease of affinity - thereto, so are we to deal with such speeches as are of a common import and apt to - communicate their value to other things; we must not confine them to that one - thing only to which they were at first adapted, but transfer them to all other of - like nature, and accustom young men by many parallel instances to see the - communicableness of them, and exercise the promptness of their wits in such - applications. So that when Meander says, Happy is he who - wealth and wisdom hath, -

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they may be able to judge that the same is fitly applicable to glory and authority - and eloquence also. And the reproof which Ulysses gives - Achilles, when he found him sitting in Scyrus in the apartment of the young - ladies, - - Thou, who from noblest Greeks deriv'st thy race, - Dost thou with spinning wool thy birth disgrace? - - -

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may be as well given to the prodigal, to him that undertakes any dishonest way of - living, yea, to the slothful and unlearned person, thus: - - Thou, who from noblest Greeks deriv'st thy race, - Dost thou with fuddling thy great birth disgrace ? - - -

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or dost thou spend thy time in dicing, or quail-striking, The word here used (ὀρτυγοκπεῖν) denotes a game among the Grecians, which Suidas - describes to be the setting of quails in a round compass or ring, and striking - at the heads of them; and he that in the ring struck down one had liberty to - strike at the rest in order, but he that missed was obliged to set up quails - for others; and this they did by turns. or deal in adulterate wares or - griping usury, not minding any thing that is great and worthy thy noble - extraction? So when they read, - - For Wealth, the God most serve, I little care, - Since the worst men his favors often wear, - From the Aeolus of Euripides, Frag. 20. - - -

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they may be able to infer, therefore, as little regard is to be had to glory and - bodily beauty and princely robes and priestly garlands, all which also we see to - be the enjoyments of very bad men. Again, when they read this passage, - - A coward father propagates his vice, - And gets a son heir to his cowardice, - - -

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they may in truth apply the same to intemperance, to superstition, to envy, and - all other diseases of men's minds. Again, whereas it is handsomely said of Homer, - Unhappy Paris, fairest to behold ! -

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and Hector, of noble form, - Il. III. 39; XVII. 142. - -

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for herein he shows that a man who hath no greater excellency than that of beauty - to commend him deserves to have it mentioned with contempt - and ignominy,—such expressions we should make use of in like cases to repress the - insolence of such as bear themselves high upon the account of such things as are - of no real value, and to teach young men to look upon such compellations as O thou richest of men, and O thou - that excellest in feasting, in multitudes of attendants, in herds of cattle, - yea, and in eloquent speaking itself, to be (as they are indeed) - expressions that import reproach and infamy. For, in truth, a man that designs to - excel ought to endeavor it in those things that are in themselves most excellent, - and to become chief in the chiefest, and great in the greatest things. Whereas - glory that ariseth from things in themselves small and inconsiderable is - inglorious and contemptible. To mind us whereof we shall never be at a loss for - instances, if, in reading Homer especially, we observe how he applieth the - expressions that import praise or disgrace; wherein we have clear proof that he - makes small account of the good things either of the body or Fortune. And first of - all, in meetings and salutations, men do not call others fair or rich or strong, - but use such terms of commendation as these: - - Son of Laertes, from great Jove deriving - Thy pedigree, and skilled in wise contriving; - - - Hector, thou son of Priam, whose advice - With wisest Jove's men count of equal price; - - - Achilles, son of' Peleus, whom all story - Shall mention as the Grecians' greatest glory; - - - Divine Patroclus, for thy worth thou art, - Of all the friends I have, lodged next my heart. - - Il. II. 173; VII. 47; XIX. 216; XI. - 608. - - -

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And moreover, when they speak disgracefully of any person, they touch not at - bodily defects, but direct all their reproaches to vicious actions; as for - instance: - - A dogged-looking, drunken beast thou art, - And in thy bosom hast a deer's faint heart; - - -

- -

- - - Ajax, at brawling valiant still, - Whose tongue is used to speaking ill; - - - A tongue so loose hung, and so vain withal, - Idomeneus, becomes thee not at all; - - - Ajax, thy tongue doth oft offend; - For of thy boasting there's no end. - - Il. I. 225; XXIII. 483 and 474-479; XIII. - 824. - - -

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Lastly, when Ulysses reproacheth Thersites, he objecteth not to him his lameness - nor his baldness nor his hunched back, but the vicious quality of indiscreet - babbling. On the other side, when Juno means to express a dalliance or motherly - fondness to her son Vulcan, she courts him with an epithet taken from his halting, - thus, Rouse thee, my limping son! - Il. XXI. 331. - -

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In this instance, Homer does (as it were) deride those who are ashamed of their - lameness or blindness, as not thinking any thing a disgrace that is not in itself - disgraceful, nor any person liable to a reproach for that which is not imputable - to himself but to Fortune. These two great advantages may be made by those who - frequently study poets;—the learning moderation, to keep them from unseasonable - and foolish reproaching others with their misfortunes, when they themselves enjoy - a constant current of prosperity; and magnanimity, that under variety of accidents - they be not dejected nor disturbed, but meekly bear the being scoffed at, - reproached, and drolled upon. Especially, let them have that saying of Philemon - ready at hand in such cases: - - That spirit's well in tune, whose sweet repose - No railer's tongue can ever discompose. - - -

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And yet, if one that so rails do himself deserve reprehension, thou mayst take - occasion to retort upon him his own vices and inordinate passions; as when - 'Adrastus in the tragedy is assaulted thus by Alcmaeon, Thy sister's one that did her husband kill, -

- -

he returns him this answer, But thou thyself thy mother's - blood did spill. -

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For as they who scourge a man's garments do not touch the body, so those that turn - other men's evil fortunes or mean births to matter of reproach do only with vanity - and folly enough lash their external circumstances, but touch not their internal - part, the soul, nor those things which truly need correction and reproof.

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Moreover, as we have above taught you to abate and lessen the credit of evil and - hurtful poems by setting in opposition to them the famous speeches and sentences - of such worthy men as have managed public affairs, so will it be useful to us, - where we find any things in them of civil and profitable import, to improve and - strengthen them by testimonies and proofs taken from philosophers, withal giving - these the credit of being the first inventors of them. For this is both just and - profitable to be done, seeing by this means such sayings receive an additional - strength and esteem, when it appears that what is spoken on the stage or sung to - the harp or occurs in a scholar's lesson is agreeable to the doctrines of - Pythagoras and Plato, and that the sentences of Chilo and Bias tend to the same - issue with those that are found in the authors which children read. Therefore must - we industriously show them that these poetical sentences, - - Not these, O daughter, are thy proper cares, - Thee milder arts befit, and softer wars; - Sweet smiles are thine, and kind endearing charms; - To Mars and Pallas leave the deeds of arms; - - - Jove's angry with thee, when thy unmanaged rage - With those that overmatch thee doth engage; - - Il. V. 428; XI. 513. - - -

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differ not in substance but bear plainly the same sense with that philosophical - sentence, Know thyself. And these, - - - Fools, who by wrong seek to augment their store, - And know not how much half than all is more; - - - Of counsel giv'n to mischievous intents, - The man that gives it most of all repents; - Hesiod, Works and Days, 40 and 266. - - -

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are of near kin to what we find in the determination of Plato, in his books - entitled Gorgias and Concerning the Commonwealth, to wit, that it is worse to do - than to suffer injury, and that a man more endamageth himself when he hurts - another, than he would be damnified if he were the sufferer. And that of - Aeschylus, - - Cheer up, friend; sorrows, when they highest climb, - What they exceed in measure want in time, - - -

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we must inform them, is but the same famous sentence which is so much admired in - Epicurus, that great griefs are but short, and those that are of long continuance - are but small. The former clause whereof is that which Aeschylus here saith - expressly, and the latter but the consequent of that. For if a great and intense - sorrow do not last, then that which doth last is not great nor hard to be borne. - And those words of Thespis, - - Seest not how Jove,—because he cannot lie - Nor vaunt nor laugh at impious drollery, - And pleasure's charms are things to him unknown,— - Among the Gods wears the imperial crown? - - -

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wherein differ they from what Plato says, that the divine nature is seated far - from both joy and grief? And that saying of Bacchylides, - - Virtue alone doth lasting honor gain, - But men of wretched souls oft wealth attain; - - -

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and those of Euripides much of the same import, - - Hence temperance in my esteem excels, - Because it constantly with good men dwells; - - - How much soe'er to honor thou aspire, - And strive by riches virtue to acquire, - Still shall thy lot to good men wretched seem; - - -

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do they not evidently confirm to us what the philosophers say of riches and other - external good things, that without virtue they are fruitless and unprofitable - enjoyments?

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Now thus to accommodate and reconcile poetry to the doctrines of philosophy strips - it of its fabulous and personated parts, and makes those things which it delivers - usefully to acquire also the reputation of gravity; and over and above, it - inclines the soul of a young man to receive the impressions of philosophical - precepts. For he will hereby be enabled to come to them not altogether destitute - of some sort of relish of them, not as to things that he has heard nothing of - before, nor with an head confusedly full of the false notions which he hath sucked - in from the daily tattle of his mother and nurse,—yea, sometimes too of his father - and pedant,—who have been wont to speak of rich men as the happy men and mention - them always with honor, and to express themselves concerning death and pain with - horror, and to look on virtue without riches and glory as a thing of nought and - not to be desired. Whence it comes to pass, that when such youths first do hear - things of a quite contrary nature from philosophers, they are surprised with a - kind of amazement, trouble, and stupid astonishment, which makes them afraid to - entertain or endure them, except they be dealt with as those who come out of very - great darkness into the light of the bright sun, that is, be first accustomed for - a while to behold those doctrines in fabulous authors, as in a kind of false - light, which hath but a moderate brightness and is easy to be looked on and borne - without disturbance to the weak sight. For having before heard or read from poets - such things as these are,— - - Mourn at one's birth, as th' inlet t' all that grieves; - But joy at death, as that which man relieves; - - - Of worldly things a mortal needs but twain; - The spring supplies his drink, the earth his grain: - - -

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- - - O tyranny, to barbarous nations dear! - - - This in all human happiness is chief, - To know as little as we can of grief; - The first two quotations are from - Euripides (the first from his Cresphontes); - the other two are from unknown tragic poets. (G.) - - -

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they are the less disturbed and offended when they hear from philosophers that no - man ought to be much concerned about death; that the riches of nature are defined - and limited; that the happiness of man's life doth not consist in the abundance of - wealth or vastness of employments or height of authority and power, but in freedom - from sorrow, in moderation of passions, and in such a temper of mind as measures - all things by the use of Nature.

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Wherefore, upon all these accounts, as well as for all the reasons before - mentioned, youth stands in need of good government to manage it in the reading of - poetry, that being free from all prejudicate opinions, and rather instructed - beforehand in conformity thereunto, it may with more calmness, friendliness, and - familiarity pass from thence to the study of philosophy.

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+ +
+ +
How a young man ought to hear poems. +

It may be allowed to be a question fit for the determination of those concerning whom Cato said, Their palates are more sensitive than their hearts, whether that saying of Philoxenus the poet be true or no, The most savory flesh is that which is no flesh, and fish that is no fish. Yet this to me, Marcus Sedatus, is out of question, that those precepts of philosophy which seem not to be delivered with a designed gravity, such as becomes philosophers, take most with persons that are very young, and meet with a more ready acceptance and compliance from them. Whence it is that they do not only read through Esop’s fables and the fictions of poets and the Abaris of Heraclides and Ariston’s Lyco; but they also read such doctrines as relate to the souls of men, if something fabulous be mixed with them, with an excess of pleasure that borders on enthusiasm. Wherefore we are not only to govern their appetites in the delights of eating and drinking, but also (and much more) to inure them to a like temperance in reading and hearing, that, while they make use of pleasure as a sauce, they may pursue that which is wholesome and profitable in those things which they read. For neither can a city be secure if but one gate be left open to receive the enemy, though all the rest be shut; nor a young man safe, though he be sufficiently fortified against the assaults of all other pleasures, whilst he is without any guard against those of the ear. Yea, the nearer the commerce is betwixt + the delights of that sense and those of the mind and reason, by so much the more, when he lies open on that side, is he apt to be debauched and corrupted thereby. Seeing therefore we cannot (and perhaps would not if we could) debar young men of the size of my Soclarus and thy Cleander altogether from the reading of poets, yet let us keep the stricter guard upon them, as those who need a guide to direct them in their reading more than in their walks. Upon which consideration, I find myself disposed to send thee at present in writing that discourse concerning Poetry which I had lately an occasion to deliver by word of mouth; that, when thou hast read it over thyself, thou mayst also make such use of it, if thou judgest it may be serviceable to that purpose, as those which are engaged to drink hard do of amethysts (or preservatives against drunkenness),— that is, that thou mayst communicate it to Cleander, to prepossess him therewith; seeing he is naturally endowed with a brisk, piercing, and daring wit, and therefore more prone to be inveigled by that sort of study.

+

They say of the fish called polypus that His head in one respect is very good, But in another very naughty food; because, though it be very luscious to eat, yet it is thought to disturb the fancy with frightful and confused dreams. And the like observation may be made concerning poetry, that it affords sweet and withal wholesome nourishment to the minds of young men, but yet it contains likewise no less matter of disturbance and emotion to them that want a right conduct in the study thereof. For of it also, as well as of Egypt, may it be said that (to those who will use it) Its over-fertile and luxuriant field Medicines and poisons intermixt doth yield; for therein Love with soft passions and rich language drest Oft steals the heart out of th’ ingenuous breast. Odyss. IV. 230; Il. XIV. 216. + And indeed such only are endangered thereby, for the charms of that art ordinarily affect not those that are downright sots and naturally incapable of learning. Wherefore, when Simonides was asked why of all men he could not deceive the Thessalians, his answer was, Because they are not so well bred as to be capable of being cajoled by me. And Gorgias used to call tragical poems cheats, wherein he that did cheat was juster than he that did not cheat, and he that was cheated was wiser than he that was not cheated.

+

It deserves therefore our consideration, whether we shall put young men into Epicurus’s boat,—wherein, having their ears stopped with wax, as those of the men of Ithaca were, they shall be obliged to sail by and not so much as touch at poetry,—or rather keep a guard on them, so as to oblige their judgments by principles of right reason to use it aright, and preserve them from being seduced to their hurt by that which affords them so much delight. For neither did Lycurgus, the valiant son of Dryas (as Homer Il. VI 130. calls him) act like a man of sound reason in the course which he took to reform his people that were much inclined to drunkenness, by travelling up and down to destroy all the vines in the country; whereas he should have ordered that every vine should have a well of water near it, that (as Plato saith) the drunken deity might be reduced to temperance by a sober one. For water mixed with wine takes away the hurtful spirits, while it leaves the useful ones in it. Neither should we cut down or destroy the Muses’ vine, poetry; but where we perceive it luxuriates and grows wild through an ungoverned appetite of applause, there ought we to prune away or keep under the fabulous and theatrical branches thereof; and where we find any of the Graces linked to any of the Muses,—that is, where the lusciousness and tempting charms of language + are not altogether barren and unprofitable,—there let us bring in philosophy to incorporate with it.

+

For as, where the mandrake grows near the vine and so communicates something of its force thereto, the wine that is made of its grapes makes the sleep of those that drink it more refreshing; so doth the tempering poetry with the principles of philosophy and allaying their roughness with its fictions render the study of them more easy and the relish of them more grateful to young learners. Wherefore those that would give their minds to philosophical studies are not obliged to avoid poetry altogether, but rather to prepare themselves for philosophy by poems, accustoming themselves to search for and embrace that which may profit in that which pleaseth them, and rejecting and discarding that wherein they find nothing of this nature. For this discrimination is the first step to learning; and when this is attained, then, according to what Sophocles saith,— To have begun well what we do intend Gives hope and prospect of as good an end.

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Let us therefore in the first place possess those whom we initiate in the study of poetry with this notion (as one which they ought always to have at hand), that ’Tis frequently the poet’s guise To intermingle truth with lies;— which they do sometimes with and sometimes against their wills. They do it with their wills, because they find strict truth too rigid to comply with that sweetness and gracefulness of expression, which most are taken with, so readily as fiction doth. For real truth, though it disgust never so much, must be told as it is, without alteration; but that which is feigned in a discourse can easily yield and shift its garb from the distasteful to that which is more pleasing. And indeed, neither the measures nor the tropes nor the grandeur of words nor the aptness of metaphors + nor the harmony of the composition gives such a degree of elegance and gracefulness to a poem as a well-ordered and artificial fiction doth. But as in pictures the colors are more delightful to the eye than the lines, because those give them a nearer resemblance to the persons they were made for, and render them the more apt to deceive the beholder; so in poems we are more apt to be smitten and fall in love with a probable fiction than with the greatest accuracy that can be observed in measures and phrases, where there is nothing fabulous or fictitious joined with it. Wherefore Socrates, being induced by some dreams to attempt something in poetry, and finding himself unapt, by reason that he had all his lifetime been the champion of severe truth, to hammer out of his own invention a likely fiction, made choice of Esop’s fables to turn into verse; as judging nothing to be true poetry that had in it nothing of falsehood. For though we have known some sacrifices performed without pipes and dances, yet we own no poetry which is utterly destitute of fable and fiction. Whence the verses of Empedocles and Parmenides, the Theriaca of Nicander, and the sentences of Theognis, are rather to be accounted speeches than poems, which, that they might not walk contemptibly on foot, have borrowed from poetry the chariot of verse, to convey them the more creditably through the world. Whensoever therefore any thing is spoken in poems by any noted and eminently famous man, concerning Gods or Daemons or virtue, that is absurd or harsh, he that takes such sayings for truths is thereby misled in his apprehension and corrupted with an erroneous opinion. But he that constantly keeps in his mind and maintains as his principle that the witchcraft of poetry consists in fiction, he that can at all turns accost it in this language,— Riddle of art! like which no sphinx beguiles; Whose face on one side frowns while th’ other smiles! Why cheat’st thou, with pretence to make us wise, And bid’st sage precepts in a fool’s disguise?— + such a one, I say, will take no harm. by it, nor admit from it any absurd thing into his belief. But when he meets in poetry with expressions of Neptune’s rending the earth to pieces and discovering the infernal regions, See. Il. XX. 57. he will be able to check his fears of the reality of any such accident; and he will rebuke himself for his anger against Apollo for the chief commander of the Greeks,— Whom at a banquet, whiles he sings his praise And speaks him fair, yet treacherously he slays. From Aeschylus. The whole passage is quoted in Plato’s Republic, end of Book II. (G.) Yea, he will repress his tears for Achilles and Agamemnon, while they are represented as mourning after their death, and stretching forth their limber and feeble hands to express their desire to live again. And if at any time the charms of poetry transport him into any disquieting passions, he will quickly say to himself, as Homer very elegantly (considering the propension of women to listen after fables) says in his Necyia, or relation of the state of the dead,— But from the dark dominions speed thy way, And climb the steep ascent to upper day; To thy chaste bride the wondrous story tell, The woes, the horrors, and the laws of hell. Odyss. XI. 223. Such things as I have touched upon are those which the poets willingly feign. But more there are which they do not feign, but believing them themselves as their own proper judgments, they put fictitious colors upon them to ingratiate them to us. As when Homer says of Jupiter,— Jove lifts the golden balances, that show The fates of mortal men, and things below. Here each contending hero’s lot he tries, And weighs with equal hand their destinies. Low sinks the scale surcharged with Hector’s fate; Heavy with death it sinks, and hell receives the weight. Il. XXII. 210. To this fable Aeschylus hath accommodated a whole tragedy + which he calls Psychostasia, wherein he introduceth Thetis and Aurora standing by Jupiter’s balances, and deprecating each of them the death of her son engaged in a duel. Now there is no man but sees that this fable is a creature of the poet’s fancy, designed to delight or scare the reader. But this other passage,— Great Jove is made the treasurer of wars; Il. IV. 84. and this other also,— When a God means a noble house to raze, He frames one rather than he’ll want a cause: From the Niobe of Aeschylus, Frag. 151. these passages, I say, express the judgment and belief of poets who thereby discover and suggest to us the ignorant or mistaken apprehensions they had of the Deities. Moreover, almost every one knows nowadays, that the portentous fancies and contrivances of stories concerning the state of the dead are accommodated to popular apprehensions, —that the spectres and phantasms of burning rivers and horrid regions and terrible tortures expressed by frightful names are all mixed with fable and fiction, as poison with food; and that neither Homer nor Pindar nor Sophocles ever believed themselves when they wrote at this rate:— There endless floods of shady darkness stream From the vast caves, where mother Night doth teem; and, There ghosts o’er the vast ocean’s waves did glide, By the Leucadian promontory’s side; Odyss. XXIV. 11. and, There from th’ unfathomed gulf th’ infernal lake Through narrow straits recurring tides doth make. And yet, as many of them as deplore death as a lamentable thing, or the want of burial after death as a calamitous condition, are wont to break out into expressions of this nature:— O pass not by, my friend; nor leave me here Without a grave, and on that grave a tear; Odyss. XI. 72. and, Then to the ghosts the mournful soul did fly, Sore grieved in midst of youth and strength to die; Il. XVI. 856. and again, ’Tis sweet to see the light. O spare me then, Till I arrive at th’ usual age of men: Nor force my unfledged soul from hence, to know The doleful state of dismal shades below. Eurip. Iph. Aul. 1218. These, I say, are the speeches of men persuaded of these things, as being possessed by erroneous opinions; and therefore they touch us the more nearly and torment us inwardly, because we ourselves are full of the same impotent passion from which they were uttered. To fortify us therefore against expressions of this nature, let this principle continually ring in our ears, that poetry is not at all solicitous to keep to the strict measure of truth. And indeed, as to what that truth in these matters is, even those men themselves who make it their only study to learn and search it out confess that they can hardly discover any certain footsteps to guide them in that enquiry. Let us therefore have these verses of Empedocles, in this case, at hand:— No sight of man’s so clear, no ear so quick, No mind so piercing, that’s not here to seek; as also those of Xenophanes:— The truth about the Gods and world, no man E’er was or shall be that determine can; and lastly, that passage concerning Socrates, in Plato, where he by the solemnity of an oath disclaims all knowledge of those things. For those who perceive that the searching into such matters makes the heads of philosophers themselves giddy cannot but be the less inclined to regard what poets say concerning them.

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And we shall fix our young man yet the more if, when we enter him in the poets, we first describe poetry + to him, and tell him that it is an imitating art and doth in many respects correspond to painting; not only acquainting him with that common saying, that poetry is vocal painting and painting silent poetry, but teaching him, moreover, that when we see a lizard or an ape or the face of a Thersites in a picture, we are surprised with pleasure and wonder at it, not because of any beauty in the things, but for the likeness of the draught. For it is repugnant to the nature of that which is itself foul to be at the same time fair; and therefore it is the imitation—be the thing imitated beautiful or ugly—that, in case it do express it to the life, is commended; and on the contrary, if the imitation make a foul thing to appear fair, it is dispraised because it observes not decency and likeness. Now some painters there are that paint uncomely actions; as Timotheus drew Medea killing her children; Theon, Orestes murdering his mother; and Parrhasius, Ulysses counterfeiting madness; yea, Chaerephanes expressed in picture the unchaste converse of women with men. Now in such cases a young man is to be familiarly acquainted with this notion, that, when men praise such pictures, they praise not the actions represented but only the painter’s art, which doth so lively express what was designed in them. Wherefore, in like manner, seeing poetry many times describes by imitation foul actions and unseemly passions and manners, the young student must not in such descriptions (although performed never so artificially and commendably) believe all that is said as true or embrace it as good, but give its due commendation so far only as it suits the subject treated of. For as, when we hear the grunting of hogs and the shrieking of pulleys and the rustling of wind and the roaring of seas, we are, it may be, disturbed and displeased, and yet when we hear any one imitating these or the like noises handsomely (as Parmenio did that of an hog, and Theodorus that of a pulley), we are well + pleased; and as we avoid (as an unpleasing spectacle) the sight of sick persons and of a lazar full of ulcers, and yet are delighted to be spectators of the Philoctetes of Aristophon and the Jocasta of Silanion, wherein such wasting and dying persons are well acted; so must the young scholar, when he reads in a poem of Thersites the buffoon or Sisyphus the whoremaster or Batrachus the bawd speaking or doing any thing, so praise the artificial managery of the poet, adapting the expressions to the persons, as withal to look on the discourses and actions so expressed as odious and abominable. For the goodness of things themselves differs much from the goodness of the imitation of them; the goodness of the latter consisting only in propriety and aptness to represent the former. Whence to foul actions foul expressions are most suitable and proper. As the shoes of Demonides the cripple (which, when he had lost them, he wished might suit the feet of him that stole them) were but unhandsome shoes, but yet fit for the man they were made for; so we may say of such expressions as these:— ’Tis worth the while an unjust act to own, When it sets him that does it on a throne; Eurip. Phoeniss. 524. Get the repute of Just for a disguise, And in it do all things whence gain may rise; A talent dowry ! Could I close my eyes In sleep, or live, if thee I should despise ? And should I not in hell tormented be, Could I be guilty of profaning thee? From Menander. These, it is true, are wicked as well as false speeches, but yet are decent enough in the mouth of an Eteocles, an Ixion, and an old griping usurer. If therefore we mind our children that the poets write not such things as praising and approving them, but do really account them base and vicious and therefore accommodate such speeches to + base and vicious persons, they will never be damnified by them from the esteem they have of the poets in whom they meet with them. But, on the contrary, the suspicions insinuated into them of the persons will render the words and actions ascribed to them suspected for evil, because proceeding from such evil men. And of this nature is Homer’s representation of Paris, when he describes him running out of the battle into Helen’s bed. For in that he attributes no such indecent act to any other, but only to that incontinent and adulterous person, he evidently declares that he intends that relation to import a disgrace and reproach to such intemperance.

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In such passages therefore we are carefully to observe whether or not the poet himself do anywhere give any intimation that he dislikes the things he makes such persons say; which, in the prologue to his Thais Menander does, in these words:— Therefore, my Muse, describe me now a whore, Fair, bold, and furnished with a nimble tongue; One that ne’er scruples to do lovers wrong; That always craves, and denied shuts her door; That truly loves no man, yet, for her ends, Affection true to every man pretends. But Homer of all the poets does it best. For he doth beforehand, as it were, bespeak dislike of the evil things and approbation of the good things he utters. Of the latter take these instances:— He readily did the occasion take, And sweet and comfortable words he spake; Odyss. VI. 148. By him he stood, and with soft speeches quelled The wrath which in his heated bosom swelled. Il. II. 189. And for the former, he so performs it as in a manner solemnly to forbid us to use or heed such speeches as those he mentions, as being foolish and wicked. For example, being to tell us how uncivilly Agamemnon treated the priest, he premises these words of his own,— + Not so Atrides: he with kingly pride Repulsed the sacred sire, and thus replied; Il. I. 24. intimating the insolency and unbecomingness of his answer. And when he attributes this passionate speech to Achilles,— O monster, mix’d of insolence and fear, Thou dog in forehead, and in heart a deer! Il. I. 225. he accompanies it with this censure,— Nor yet the rage his boiling breast forsook, Which thus redoubling on Atrides broke; Il. I. 223. for it was unlikely that speaking in such anger he should observe any rules of decency.

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And he passeth like censures on actions. As on Achilles’s foul usage of Hector’s carcass,— Gloomy he said, and (horrible to view) Before the bier the bleeding Hector threw. Il. XXIII. 24. And in like manner he doth very decently shut up relations of things said or done, by adding some sentence wherein he declares his judgment of them. As when he personates some of the Gods saying, on the occasion of the adultery of Mars and Venus discovered by Vulcan’s artifice,— See the swift God o’ertaken by the lame ! Thus ill acts prosper not, but end in shame. Odyss. VIII. 329. And thus concerning Hecter’s insolent boasting he says,— With such big words his mind proud sector eased, But venerable Juno lie displeased. Il. VIII. 198. And when he speaks of Pandarus’s shooting, he adds,— He heard, and madly at the motion pleased, His polish’d bow with hasty rashness seized. Il. IV. 104. Now these verbal intimations of the minds and judgments of poets are not difficult to be understood by any one that will heedfully observe them. But besides these, they give + us other hints from actions. As Euripides is reported, when some blamed him for bringing such an impious and flagitious villain as Ixion upon the stage, to have given this answer: But yet I brought him not off till I had fastened him to a torturing wheel. This same way of teaching by mute actions is to be found in Homer also, affording us useful contemplations upon those very fables which are usually most disliked in him. These some men offer force to, that they may reduce them to allegories (which the ancients called ὑπόνοιαι), and tell us that Venus committing adultery with Mars, discovered by the Sun, is to be understood thus: that when the star called Venus is in conjunction with that which hath the name of Mars, bastardly births are produced, and by the Sun’s rising and discovering them they are not concealed. So will they have Juno’s dressing herself so accurately to tempt Jupiter, and her making use of the girdle of Venus to inflame his love, to be nothing else but the purification of that part of the air which draweth nearest to the nature of fire. As if we were not told the meaning of those fables far better by the poet himself. For he teacheth us in that of Venus, if we heed it, that light music and wanton songs and discourses which suggest to men obscene fancies debauch their manners, and incline them to an unmanly way of living in luxury and wantonness, of continually haunting the company of women, and of being Given to fashions, that their garb may please, Hot baths, and couches where they loll at ease. And therefore also he brings in Ulysses directing the musician thus,— Leave this, and sing the horse, out of whose womb The gallant knights that conquered Troy did come; Odyss. VIII. 249 and 492. evidently teaching us that poets and musicians ought to receive the arguments of their songs from sober and understanding + men. And in the other fable of Juno he excellently shows that the conversation of women with men. and the favors they receive from them procured by sorcery, witchcraft, or other unlawful arts, are not only short, unstable, and soon cloying, but also in the issue easily turned to loathing and displeasure, when once the pleasure is over. For so Jupiter there threatens Juno, when he tells her,— Hear this, remember, and our fury dread, Nor pull the unwilling vengeance on thy head; Lest arts and blandishments successless prove Thy soft deceits and well dissembled love. Il. XV. 32. For the fiction and representation of evil acts, when it withal acquaints us with the shame and damage befalling the doers, hurts not but rather profits him that reads them. For which end philosophers make use of examples for our instruction and correction out of historical collections; and poets do the very same thing, but with this difference, that they invent fabulous examples themselves. There was one Melanthius, who (whether in jest or earnest he said it, it matters not much) affirmed that the city of Athens owed its preservation to the dissensions and factions that were among the orators, giving withal this reason for his assertion, that thereby they were kept from inclining all of them to one side, so that by means of the differences among those statesmen there were always some that drew the saw the right way for the defeating of destructive counsels. And thus it is too in the contradictions among poets, which, by lessening the credit of what they say, render them the less powerful to do mischief; and therefore, when comparing one saying with another we discover their contrariety, we ought to adhere to the better side. As in these instances:— The Gods, my son, deceive poor men oft-times. Ans. ’Tis easy, sir, on God to lay our crimes. ’Tis comfort to thee to be rich, is’t not! Ans. No, sir, ’tis bad to be a wealthy sot. Die rather than such toilsome pains to take. Ans. To call God’s service toil’s a foul mistake. Such contrarieties as these are easily solved, if (as I said) we teach youth to judge aright and to give the better saying preference. But if we chance to meet with any absurd passages without any others at their heels to confute them, we are then to overthrow them with such others as elsewhere are to be found in the author. Nor must we be offended with the poet or grieved at him, but only at the speeches themselves, which he utters either according to the vulgar manner of speaking or, it may be, but in drollery. So, when thou readest in Homer of Gods thrown out of heaven headlong one by another, or Gods wounded by men and quarrelling and brawling with each other, thou mayest readily, if thou wilt, say to him,— Sure thy invention here was sorely out, Or thou hadst said far better things, no doubt; Il. VIII. 358. yea, and thou dost so elsewhere, and according as thou thinkest, to wit, in these passages of thine:— The Gods, removed from all that men doth grieve, A quiet and contented life do live. Herein the immortal Gods for ever blest Feel endless joys and undisturbed rest. The Gods, who have themselves no cause to grieve, For wretched man a web of sorrow weave. Il. VI. 138; Odyss. VI. 46; Il. XXIV. 526. For these argue sound and true opinions of the Gods; but those other were only feigned to raise passions in men. Again, when Euripides speaks at this rate,— The Gods are better than we men by far, And yet by them we oft deceived are,— we may do well to quote him elsewhere against himself, where he says better,— If Gods do wrong, surely no Gods there are. So also, when Pindar saith bitterly and keenly, No law forbids us any thing to do, Whereby a mischief may befall a foe, tell him: But, Pindar, thou thyself sayest elsewhere, The pleasure which injurious acts attends Always in bitter consequences ends. And when Sophocles speaks thus, Sweet is the gain, wherein to lie and cheat Adds the repute of wit to what we get, tell him: But we have heard thee say far otherwise, When the account’s cast up, the gain’s but poor Which by a lying tongue augments the store. And as to what he saith of riches, to wit: Wealth, where it minds to go, meets with no stay; For where it finds not, it can make a way; Many fair offers doth the poor let go, And lose his prize because his purse is low; The fair tongue makes, where wealth can purchase it, The foul face beautiful, the fool a wit:— here the reader may set in opposition divers other sayings of the same author. For example, From honor poverty doth not debar, Where poor men virtuous and deserving are. Whate’er fools think, a man is ne’er the worse If he be wise, though with an empty purse. The comfort which he gets who wealth enjoys, The vexing care by which ’tis kept destroys. And Menander also somewhere magnifies a voluptuous life, and inflames the minds of vain persons with these amorous strains, The glorious sun no living thing doth see, But what’s a slave to love as well as we. But yet elsewhere, on the other side, he fastens on us and pulls us back to the love of virtue, and checks the rage of lust, when he says thus, The life that is dishonorably spent, Be it ne’er so pleasant, yields no true content. For these lines are contrary to the former, as they are also better and more profitable; so that by comparing them considerately one cannot but either be inclined to the better side, or at least flag in the belief of the worse.

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But now, supposing that any of the poets themselves afford no such correcting passages to solve what they have said amiss, it will then be advisable to confront them with the contrary sayings of other famous men, and therewith to sway the scales of our judgment to the better side. As, when Alexis tempts to debauchery in these verses, The wise man knows what of all things is best, Whilst choosing pleasure he slights all the rest. He thinks life’s joys complete in these three sorts, To drink and eat, and follow wanton sports; And what besides seems to pretend to pleasure, If it betide him, counts it over measure, we must remember that Socrates said the contrary, to wit: Bad men live that they may eat and drink, whereas good men eat and drink that they may live. And against the man that wrote in this manner, He that designs to encounter with a knave, An equal stock of knavery must have, seeing he herein advises us to follow other vicious examples, that of Diogenes may well be returned, who being asked by what means a man might revenge himself upon his enemy, answered, By becoming himself a good and honest man. And the same Diogenes may be quoted also against Sophocles, who, writing thus of the sacred mysteries, caused great grief and despair to multitudes of men: Most happy they whose eyes are blest to see The mysteries which here contained be, Before they die ! For only they have joy In th’ other world; the rest all ills annoy. This passage being read to Diogenes, What then! says he, shall the condition of Pataecion, the notorious robber, after death be better than that of Epaminondas, merely for + his being initiated in these mysteries? In like manner, when one Timotheus on the theatre, in the praise of the Goddess Diana, called her furious, raging, possessed, mad, Cinesias presently cried out to him aloud, May thy daughter, Timotheus, be such a Goddess! And witty also was that of Bion to Theognis, who said,— One can not say nor do, if poor he be; His tongue is bound to th’ peace, as well as he. Theognis, vss. 177, 178. How comes it to pass then, said he, Theognis, that thou thyself being so poor pratest and gratest our ears in this manner?

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Nor are we to omit in our reading those hints which, from some other words or phrases bordering on those that offend us, may help to rectify our apprehensions. But as physicians use cantharides, believing that, though their bodies be deadly poison, yet their feet and wings are medicinal and can even kill the poison of the flies themselves, so must we deal with poems. If any noun or verb near at hand may assist to the correction of any such saying, and preserve us from putting a bad construction upon it, we should take hold of it and employ it to assist a more favorable interpretation. As some do in reference to those verses of Homer,— Sorrows and tears most commonly are seen To be the Gods’ rewards to wretched men:— The Gods, who have no cause themselves to grieve, For wretched man a web of sorrow weave. Odyss. IV. 197; Il. XXIV. 526. For, they say, he says not of men simply, or of all men, that the Gods weave for them the fatal web of a sorrowful life; but he affirms it only of foolish and imprudent men, whom, because their vices make them such, he therefore calls wretched and miserable.

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Another way whereby those passages which are suspicious in poets may be transferred to a better sense may + be taken from the common use of words, which a young man ought indeed to be more exercised in than in the use of strange and obscure terms. For it will be a point of philology which it will not be unpleasant to him to understand, that when he meets with ῥιγεδανή in a poet, that word signifies an evil death; for the Macedonians use the word δάνος to signify death. So the Aeolians call victory gotten by patient endurance of hardships καμμονίη; and the Dryopians call daemons πόποι.

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But of all things it is most necessary, and no less profitable if we design to receive profit and not hurt from the poets, that we understand how they make use of the names of Gods, as also of the terms of Evil and Good; and what they mean by Fortune and Fate; and whether these words be always taken by them in one and the same sense or rather in various senses, as also many other words are. For so the word οἶκος sometimes signifies a material house, as, Into the high-roofed house; and sometimes estate, as, My house is devoured. So the word βίοτος sometimes signifies life, and sometimes wealth. And ἀλύειω is sometimes taken for being uneasy and disquieted in mind, as in Ὤς ἔφαθ᾽· ἡ δ᾽ὐλύουσ᾽ὐπεβήσατο, τείρετο δ᾽αἰνῶς, Il. V. 352. and elsewhere for boasting and rejoicing, as in Ἤ ὐλείς, ὅτι Ἶρον ἐρνίκησας τόν ἀλήτην Odyss. XVIII. 333. In like manner θοάζειν signifies either to move, as in Euripides when he saith, Κῆτος θούζον ἐκ Ἀτλαντικῆς ἁλός— or to sit, as in Sophocles when he writes thus, Τίνας πόθ᾽ἕρας τάσδε μοι θοάζετε, Ἱκτηρίοις κλάδοισιν ἑξεστεμμένοι. Soph. Oed. Tyr. 2.

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It is elegant also when they a᾽dapt to the present matter, as grammarians teach, the use of words which are commonly of another signification. As here:— + Νῆ᾽ὀλίγου αἰνεῖν, μεγάλῃ δ᾽ἐνί φορτία θέσθαι. For here αἰνεῖν signifies to praise (instead of ἐμαινεῖν), and to praise is used for to refuse. So in conversation it is common with us to say, καλῶς ἔχει, it is well (i.e., No, I thank you), and to bid any thing fare well (χαίρειν); by which forms of speech we refuse a thing which we do not want, or receive it not, but still with a civil compliment. So also some say that Proserpina is called ἐπαινή in the notion of παραιτητή, to be deprecated, because death is by all men shunned.

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And the like distinction of words we ought to observe also in things more weighty and serious. To begin with the Gods, we should teach our youth that poets, when they use the names of Gods, sometimes mean properly the Divine Beings so called, but otherwhiles understand by those names certain powers of which the Gods are the donors and authors, they having first led us into the use of them by their own practice. As when Archilochus prays, King Vulcan, hear thy suppliant, and grant That which thou’rt wont to give and I to want, it is plain that he means the God himself whom he invokes. But when elsewhere he bewails the drowning of his sister’s husband, who had not obtained lawful burial, and says, Had Vulcan his fair limbs to ashes turned, I for his loss had with less passion mourned, he gives the name of Vulcan to the fire and not to the Deity. Again, Euripides, when he says, No; by great Jove I swear, enthroned on high, And bloody Mars, Eurip. Phoeniss. 1006. means the Gods themselves who bare those names. But when Sophocles saith, Blind Mars doth mortal men’s affairs confound, As the swine’s snout doth quite deface the ground, we are to understand the word Mars to denote not the God so called, but war. And by the same word we are to understand also weapons made of hardened brass, in those verses of Homer, These are the gallant men whose noble blood Keen Mars did shed near swift Scamander’s flood. Il. VII. 329. Wherefore, in conformity to the instances given, we must conceive and bear in mind that by the names of Jupiter also sometimes they mean the God himself, sometimes Fortune, and oftentimes also Fate. For when they say,— Great Jupiter, who from the lofty hill Of Ida govern’st all the world at will; Il. III. 276. That wrath which hurled to Pluto’s gloomy realm The souls of mighty chiefs :— Such was the sovereign doom, and such the will of Jove; Il. I. 3 and 5. For who (but who himself too fondly loves) Dares lay his wisdom in the scale with Jove’s?— they understand Jupiter himself. But when they ascribe the event of all things done to Jupiter as the cause, saying of him,— Many brave souls to hell Achilles sent, And Jove’s design accomplished in th’ event,— they mean by Jove no more but Fate. For the poet doth not conceive that God contrives mischief against mankind, but he soundly declares the mere necessity of the things themselves, to wit, that prosperity and victory are destined by Fate to cities and armies and commanders who govern themselves with sobriety, but if they give way to passions and commit errors, thereby dividing and crumbling themselves into factions, as those of whom the poet speaks did, they do unhandsome actions, and thereby create great disturbances, such as are attended with sad consequences. For to all unadvised acts, in fine, The Fates unhappy issues do assign. From Euripides. But when Hesiod brings in Prometheus thus counselling his brother Epimetheus, + Brother, if Jove to thee a present make, Take heed that from his hands thou nothing take, Hesiod, Works and Days, 86. he useth the name of Jove to express Fortune; for he calls the good things which come by her (such as riches, and marriages, and empires, and indeed all external things the enjoyment whereof is unprofitable to them who know not how to use them well) the gifts of Jove. And therefore he adviseth Epimetheus (an ill man, and a fool withal) to stand in fear of and to guard himself from prosperity, as that which would be hurtful and destructive to him.

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Again, where he saith, Reproach thou not a man for being poor; His poverty’s God’s gift, as is thy store, Hesiod, Works and Days, 717. he calls that which befalls men by Fortune God’s gift, and intimates that it is an unworthy thing to reproach any man for that poverty which he falls into by Fortune, whereas poverty is then only a matter of disgrace and reproach when it is attendant on sloth and idleness, or wantonness and prodigality. For, before the name of Fortune was used, they knew there was a powerful cause, which moved irregularly and unlimitedly and with such a force that no human reason could avoid it; and this cause they called by the names of Gods. So we are wont to call divers things and qualities and discourses, and even men themselves, divine. And thus may we rectify many such sayings concerning Jupiter as would otherwise seem very absurd. As these, for instance:— Before Jove’s door two fatal hogsheads, filled With human fortunes, good and bad luck yield:— Il. XXIV. 527 Of violated oaths Jove took no care, But spitefully both parties crushed by war:— Il. VII. 69 To Greeks and Trojans both this was the rise Of mischief, suitable to Jove’s device. Odyss. VIII. 81. These passages we are to interpret as spoken concerning Fortune or Fate, of the causality of both which no account can be given by us, nor do their effects fall under our power. But where any thing is said of Jupiter that is suitable, rational, and probable, there we are to conceive that the names of that God is used properly. As in these instances:— Through others’ ranks he conquering did range, But shunned with Ajax any blows t’ exchange; But Jove’s displeasure on him he had brought, Had he with one so much his better fought. Il. XI. 540. For though great matters are Jove’s special care, Small things t’ inferior daemons trusted are.

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And other words there are which the poets remove and translate from their proper sense by accommodation to various things, which deserve also our serious notice. Such a one, for instance, is ἀρετή, virtue. For because virtue does not only render men prudent, just, and good, both in their words and deeds, but also oftentimes purchaseth to them honor and power, therefore they call likewise these by that name. So we are wont to call both the olive-tree and the fruit ἐλαία, and the oak-tree and its acorn φηγός, communicating the name of the one to the other. Therefore, when our young man reads in the poets such passages as these,— This law th’ immortal Gods to us have set, That none arrive at virtue but by sweat; Hesiod, Works and Days, 289. The adverse troops then did the Grecians stout By their mere virtue profligate and rout; Il. XI. 90. If now the Fates determined have our death, To virtue we’ll consign our parting breath;— let him presently conceive that these things are spoken of that most excellent and divine habit in us which we understand to be no other than right reason, or the highest attainment of the reasonable nature, and most agreeable + to the constitution thereof. And again, when he reads this, Of virtue Jupiter to one gives more, And lessens, when he lifts, another’s store; and this, Virtue and honor upon wealth attend; Il. XX. 242; Hesiod, Works and Days, 313. let him not sit down in an astonishing admiration of rich men, as if they were enabled by their wealth to purchase virtue, nor let him imagine that it is in the power of Fortune to increase or lessen his own wisdom; but let him conceive that the poet by virtue meant either glory or power or prosperity or something of like import. For poets use the same ambiguity also in the word κακότης, evil, which sometimes in them properly signifies a wicked and malicious disposition of mind, as in that of Hesiod, Evil is soon acquired; for everywhere There’s plenty on’t and t’all men’s dwellings near; Hesiod, Works and Days, 287. and sometimes some evil accident or misfortune, as when Homer says, Sore evils, when they haunt us in our prime, Hasten old age on us before our time. Odyss. XIX. 360. So also in the word εὐδαιμονία, he would be sorely deceived who should imagine that, wheresoever he meets with it in poets, it means (as it does in philosophy) a perfect habitual enjoyment of all good things or the leading a life every way agreeable to Nature, and that they do not withal by the abuse of such words call rich men happy or blessed, and power or glory felicity. For, though Homer rightly useth terms of that nature in this passage,— Though of such great estates I am possest, Yet with true inward joy I am not blest; Odyss. IV. 93. and Menander in this,— So great’s th’ estate I am endowed withal: All say I’m rich, but none me happy call;— yet Euripides discourseth more confusedly and perplexedly when he writes after this manner,— May I ne’er live that grievous blessed life;— But tell me, man, why valuest thou so high Th’ unjust beatitude of tyranny ? Eurip. Medea, 598; Phoeniss. 549. except, as I said, we allow him the use of these words in a metaphorical and abusive sense. But enough hath been spoken of these matters.

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Nevertheless, this principle is not once only but often to be inculcated and pressed on young men, that poetry, when it undertakes a fictitious argument by way of imitation, though it make use of such ornament and illustration as suit the actions and manners treated of, yet disclaims not all likelihood of truth, seeing the force of imitation, in order to the persuading of men, lies in probability. Wherefore such imitation as does not altogether shake hands with truth carries along with it certain signs of virtue and vice mixed together in the actions which it doth represent. And of this nature is Homer’s poetry, which totally bids adieu to Stoicism, the principles whereof will not admit any vice to come near where virtue is, nor virtue to have any thing to do where any vice lodgeth, but affirms that he that is not a wise man can do nothing well, and he that is so can do nothing amiss. Thus they determine in the schools. But in human actions and the affairs of common life the judgment of Euripides is verified, that Virtue and vice ne’er separately exist, But in the same acts with each other twist. From the Aeolus of Euripides.

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Next, it is to be observed that poetry, waiving the truth of things, does most labor to beautify its fictions with variety and multiplicity of contrivance. For variety bestows upon fable all that is pathetical, unusual, and surprising, and thereby makes it more taking and graceful; whereas what is void of variety is unsuitable to the nature of fable, and so raiseth no + passions at all. Upon which design of variety it is, that the poets never represent the same persons always victorious or prosperous or acting with the same constant tenor of virtue ;—yea, even the Gods themselves, when they engage in human actions, are not represented as free from passions and errors;—lest, for the want of some difficulties and cross passages, their poems should be destitute of that briskness which is requisite to move and astonish the minds of men.

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These things therefore so standing, we should, when we enter a young man into the study of the poets, endeavor to free his mind from that degree of esteem of the good and great personages in them described as may incline him to think them to be mirrors of wisdom and justice, the chief of princes, and the exemplary measures of all virtue and goodness. For he will receive much prejudice, if he shall approve and admire all that comes from such persons as great, if he dislike nothing in them himself, nor will endure to hear others blame them, though for such words and actions as the following passages import:— Oh! would to all the immortal powers above, Apollo, Pallas, and almighty Jove! That not one Trojan might be left alive, And not a Greek of all the race survive. Might only we the vast destruction shun, And only we destroy the accursed town! Her breast all gore, with lamentable cries, The bleeding innocent Cassandra dies, Murdered by Clytemnestra’s faithless hand: Lie with thy father’s whore, my mother said, That she th’ old man may loathe; and I obeyed: Of all the Gods, O father Jove, there’s none Thus given to mischief but thyself alone. Il. XVI. 97; Odyss. XI. 421; Il. IX. 452; Il. III. 365.

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Our young man is to be taught not to commend such things as these, no, nor to show the nimbleness of his wit or subtlety in maintaining an argument by finding out plausible colors and pretences to varnish over a bad matter. But + we should teach him rather to judge that poetry is an imitation of the manners and lives of such men as are not perfectly pure and unblamable, but such as are tinctured with passions, misled by false opinions, and muffled with ignorance; though oftentimes they may, by the help of a good natural temper, change them for better qualities. For the young man’s mind, being thus prepared and disposed, will receive no damage by such passages when he meets with them in poems, but will on the one side be elevated with rapture at those things which are well said or done, and on the other, will not entertain but dislike those which are of a contrary character. But he that admires and is transported with every thing, as having his judgment enslaved by the esteem he hath for the names of heroes, will be unawares wheedled into many evil things, and be guilty of the same folly with those who imitate the crookedness of Plato or the lisping of Aristotle. Neither must he carry himself timorously herein, nor, like a superstitious person in a temple, tremblingly adore all he meets with; but use himself to such confidence as may enable him openly to pronounce, This was ill or incongruously said, and, That was bravely and gallantly spoken. For example, Achilles in Homer, being offended at the spinning out that war by delays, wherein he was desirous by feats of arms to purchase to himself glory, calls the soldiers together when there was an epidemical disease among them. But having himself some smattering skill in physic, and perceiving after the ninth day, which useth to be decretory in such cases, that the disease was no usual one nor proceeding from ordinary causes, when he stands up to speak, he waives applying himself to the soldiers, and addresseth himself as a councillor to the general, thus:— Why leave we not the fatal Trojan shore, And measure back the seas we cross’d before? For this and the four following quotations, see Il. I. 59, 90, 220, 349; IX. 458. And he spake well, and with due moderation and decorum. But when the soothsayer Chalcas had told him that he feared the wrath of the most potent among the Grecians, after an oath that while he lived no man should lay violent hands on him, he adds, but not with like wisdom and moderation, Not e’en the chief by whom our hosts are led, The king of kings, shall touch that sacred head; in which speech he declares his low opinion or rather his contempt of his chief commander. And then, being farther provoked, he drew his weapon with a design to kill him, which attempt was neither good nor expedient. And therefore by and by he repented his rashness,— He said, observant of the blue-eyed maid; Then in the sheath returned the shining blade; wherein again he did rightly and worthily, in that, though he could not altogether quell his passion, yet he restrained and reduced it under the command of reason, before it brake forth into such an irreparable act of mischief. Again, even Agamemnon himself talks in that assembly ridiculously, but carries himself more gravely and more like a prince in the matter of Chryseis. For whereas Achilles, when his Briseis was taken away from him, In sullenness withdraws from all his friends, And in his tent his time lamenting spends; Agamemnon himself hands into the ship, delivers to her friends, and so sends from him, the woman concerning whom a little before he declared that he loved her better than his wife; and in that action did nothing unbecoming or savoring of fond affection. Also Phoenix, when his father bitterly cursed him for having to do with one that was his own harlot, says, Him in my rage I purposed to have killed, But that my land some God in kindness held; And minded me that Greeks would taunting say, Lo, here’s the man that did his father slav. It is true that Aristarchus was afraid to permit these verses to stand in the poet, and therefore censured them to be expunged. But they were inserted by Homer very aptly to the occasion of Phoenix’s instructing Achilles what a pernicious thing anger is, and what foul acts men do by its instigation, while they are capable neither of making use of their own reason nor of hearing the counsel of others. To which end he also introduceth Meleager at first highly offended with his citizens, and afterwards pacified; justly therein reprehending disordered passions, and praising it as a good and profitable thing not to yield to them, but to resist and overcome them, and to repent when one hath been overcome by them.

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Now in these instances the difference is manifest. But where a like clear judgment cannot be passed, there we are to settle the young man’s mind thus, by way of distinction. If Nausicaa, having cast her eyes upon Ulysses, a stranger, and feeling the same passion for him as Calypso had before, did (as one that was ripe for a husband) out of wantonness talk with her maidens at this foolish rate,— O Heaven ! in my connubial hour decree This man my spouse, or such a spouse as he! Odyss. VI. 251. she is blameworthy for her impudence and incontinence. But if, perceiving the man’s breeding by his discourse, and admiring the prudence of his addresses, she rather wisheth to have such a one for a husband than a merchant or a dancing gallant of her fellow-citizens, she is to be commended. And when Ulysses is represented as rejoicing at Penelope’s jocular conversation with her wooers, and at their presenting her with rich garments and other ornaments, Because she cunningly the fools cajoled, And bartered light words for their heavy gold; Odyss. XVIII. 282. if that joy were occasioned by greediness and covetous + ness, he discovers himself to be a more sordid prostituter of his own wife than Poliager is wont to be represented on the stage to have been, of whom it is said,— Happy man he, whose wife, like Capricorn, Stores him with riches from a golden horn ! But if through foresight he thought thereby to get them the more within his power, as being lulled asleep in security for the future by the hopes she gave them at present, this rejoicing, joined with confidence in his wife, was rational. Again, when he is brought in numbering the goods which the Phaeacians had set on shore together with himself and departed; if indeed, being himself left in such a solitude, so ignorant where he was, and having no security there for his own person, he is yet solicitous for his goods, lest The sly Phaeacians, when they stole to sea, Had stolen some part of what they brought away; Odyss. XIII. 216. the covetousness of the man deserved in truth to be pitied, or rather abhorred. But if, as some say in his defence, being doubtful whether or no the place where he was landed were Ithaca, he made use of the just tale of his goods to infer thence the honesty of the Phaeacians,—because it was not likely they would expose him in a strange place and leave him there with his goods by him untouched, so as to get nothing by their dishonesty,—then he makes use of a very fit test for this purpose, and deserves commendation for his wisdom in that action. Some also there are who find fault with that passage of the putting him on shore when he was asleep, if it really so happened, and they tell us that the people of Tuscany have still a traditional story among them concerning Ulysses, that he was naturally sleepy, and therefore a man whom many men could not freely converse with. But if his sleep was but feigned, and he made use of this pretence only of a natural + infirmity, by counterfeiting a nap, to hide the strait he was in at that time in his thoughts, betwixt the shame of sending away the Phaeacians without giving them a friendly collation and hospitable gifts, and the fear he had of being discovered to his enemies by the treating such a company of men together, they then approve it.

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Now, by showing young men these things, we shall preserve them from being carried away to any corruption in their manners. and dispose them to the election and imitation of those that are good, as being before instructed readily to disapprove those and commend these. But this ought with the most care to be done in the reading of tragedies wherein probable and subtle speeches are made use of in the most foul and wicked actions. For that is not always true which Sophocles saith, that From naughty acts good words can ne’er proceed. For even he himself is wont to apply pleasant reasonings and plausible arguments to those manners and actions which are wicked or unbecoming. And in another of his fellow-tragedians, we may see even Phaedra herself represented as justifying her unlawful affection for Hippolytus by accusing Theseus of ill-carriage towards her. And in his Troades, he allows Helen the same liberty of speech against Hecuba, whom she judgeth to be more worthy of punishment than herself for her adultery, because she was the mother of Paris that tempted her thereto. A young man therefore must not be accustomed to think any thing of that nature handsomely or wittily spoken, nor to be pleased with such colorable inventions; but rather more to abhor such words as tend to the defence of wanton acts than the very acts themselves.

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And lastly, it will be useful likewise to enquire into the cause why each thing is said. For so Cato, when he was a boy, though he was wont to be very observant of all his master’s commands, yet withal used to ask the cause + or reason why he so commanded. But poets are not to be obeyed as pedagogues and lawgivers are, except they have reason to back what they say. And that they will not want, when they speak well; and if they speak ill, what they say will appear vain and frivolous. But nowadays most young men very briskly demand the reason of such trivial speeches as these, and enquire in what sense they are spoken: It bodes ill luck, when vessels you set up, To place the ladle on the mixing-cup. Who from his chariot to another’s leaps, Seldom his seat without a combat keeps. Hesiod, Works and Days, 744; Il. IV. 306. But to those of greater moment they give credence without examination, as to those that follow: The boldest men are daunted oftentimes, When they’re reproached with their parents’ crimes: Eurip. Hippol. 424. When any man is crushed by adverse fate, His spirit should be low as his estate. And yet such speeches relate to manners, and disquiet men’s lives by begetting in them evil opinions and unworthy sentiments, except they have learned to return answer to each of them thus: Wherefore is it necessary that a man who is crushed by adverse fate should have a dejected spirit? Yea, why rather should he not struggle against Fortune, and raise himself above the pressures of his low circumstances? Why, if I myself be a good and wise son of an evil and foolish father, does it not rather become me to bear myself confidently upon the account of my own virtue, than to be dejected and dispirited because of my father’s defects? For he that can encounter such speeches and oppose them after this manner, not yielding himself up to be overset with the blast of every saying, but approving that speech of Heraclitus, that + Whate’er is said, though void of sense and wit, The size of a fool’s intellect doth fit, will reject many such things as falsely and idly spoken.

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These things therefore may be of use to preserve us from the hurt we might get by the study of poems. Now, as on a vine the fruit oftentimes lies shadowed and hidden under its large leaves and luxuriant branches, so in the poet’s phrases and fictions that encompass them there are also many profitable and useful things concealed from the view of young men. This, however, ought not to be suffered; nor should we be led away from things themselves thus, but rather adhere to such of them as tend to the promoting of virtue and the well forming of our manners. It will not be altogether useless therefore, to treat briefly in the next place of passages of that nature. Wherein I intend to touch only at some particulars, leaving all longer discourses, and the brimming up and furnishing them with a multitude of instances, to those who write more for show and ostentation.

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First, therefore, let our young man be taught to understand good and bad manners and persons, and from thence apply his mind to the words and deeds which the poet decently assigns to either of them. For example, Achilles, though in some wrath, speaks to Agamemnon thus decently: Nor, when we take a Trojan town, can I With thee in spoils and splendid prizes vie; For this and the five following quotations, see Il. I. 163; II. 226; I. 128; II 231; IV. 402 and 404. whereas Thersites to the same person speaks reproachfully in this manner:— ’Tis thine whate’er the warrior’s breast inflames, The golden spoil, and thine the lovely dances. With all the wealth our wars and blood bestow, Thy tents are crowded and thy chests o’erflow. Again, Achilles thus:— Whene’er, by Jove’s decree, our conquering powers Shall humble to the dust Troy’s lofty towers; but Thersites thus:— Whom I or some Greek else as captive bring. Again, Diomedes, when Agamemnon taking a view of the army spoke reproachfully to him, To his hard words forbore to make reply, For the respect he bare to majesty; whereas Sthenelus, a man of small note, replies on him thus:— Sir, when you know the truth, what need to lie? For with our fathers we for valor vie. Now the observation of such difference will teach the young man the decency of a modest and moderate temper, and the unbecoming nauseousness of the contrary vices of boasting and cracking of a man’s own worth. And it is worth while also to take notice of the demeanor of Agamemnon in the same passage. For he passeth by Sthenelus unspoken to; but perceiving Ulysses to be offended, he neglects not him, but applies himself to answer him:— Struck with his generous wrath, the king replies. Il. IV. 357. For the four following, see Il. IX. 34 and 70; IV. 431; X. 325. For to have apologized to every one had been too servile and misbecoming the dignity of his person; whereas equally to have neglected every one had been an act of insolence and imprudence. And very handsome it is that Diomedes, though in the heat of the battle he answers the king only with silence, yet after the battle was over useth more liberty towards him, speaking thus:— You called me coward, sir, before the Greeks. It is expedient also to take notice of the different carriage of a wise man and of a soothsayer popularly courting the multitude. For Chalcas very unseasonably makes no scruple + to traduce the king before the people, as having been the cause of the pestilence that was befallen them. But Nestor, intending to bring in a discourse concerning the reconciling Achilles to him, that he might not seem to charge Agamemnon before the multitude with the miscarriage his passion had occasioned, only adviseth him thus:— But thou, O king, to council call the old.... Wise weighty counsels aid a state distress’d, And such a monarch as can choose the best; which done, accordingly after supper he sends his ambassadors. Now this speech of Nestor tended to the rectifying of what he had before done amiss; but that of Chalcas, only to accuse and disparage him.

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There is likewise consideration to be had of the different manners of nations, such as these. The Trojans enter into battle with loud outcries and great fierceness; but in the army of the Greeks, Sedate and silent move the numerous bands; No sound, no whisper, but the chief’s commands; Those only heard, with awe the rest obey. For when soldiers are about to engage an enemy, the awe they stand in of their officers is an argument both of courage and obedience. For which purpose Plato teacheth us that we ought to inure ourselves to fear blame and disgrace more than labor and danger. And Cato was wont to say that he liked men that were apt to blush better than those that looked pale.

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Moreover, there is a particular character to be noted of the men who undertake for any action. For Dolon thus promiseth:— I’ll pass through all their lost in a disguise To their flag-ship, where she at anchor lies. But Diomedes promiseth nothing, but only tells them he shall fear the less if they send a companion with him; whereby is intimated, that discreet foresight is Grecian and + civil, but rash confidence is barbarous and evil; and the former is therefore to be imitated, and the latter to be avoided.

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It is a matter too of no unprofitable consideration, how the minds of the Trojans and of Hector too were affected when he and Ajax were about to engage in a single combat. For Aeschylus, when, upon one of the fighters at fisticuffs in the Isthmian games receiving a blow on the face, there was made a great outcry among the people, said: What a thing is practice! See how the lookers-on only cry out, but the man that received the stroke is silent. But when the poet tells us, that the Greeks rejoiced when they saw Ajax in his glistering armor, but The Trojans’ knees for very fear did quake, And even Hector’s heart began to ache; Il. VII. 215. For the three following, see Il. II. 220; VII. 226 and 231. who is there that wonders not at this difference,—when the heart of him that was to run the risk of the combat only beats inwardly, as if he were to undertake a mere wrestling or running match, but the very bodies of the spectators tremble and shake, out of the kindness and fear which they had for their king?

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In the same poet also we may observe the difference betwixt the humor of a coward and a valiant man. For Thersites Against Achilles a great malice had, And wise Ulysses he did hate as bad; but Ajax is always represented as friendly to Achilles; and particularly he speaks thus to Hector concerning him:— Hector! approach my arm, and singly know What strength thou last, and what the Grecian foe. Achilles shuns the fight; yet some there are Not void of soul, and not unskill’d in war: wherein he insinuates the high commendation of that valiant man. And in what follows, he speaks like handsome things of his fellow-soldiers in general, thus:— + Whole troops of heroes Greece has yet to boast, And sends thee one, a sample of her host; wherein he doth not boast himself to be the only or the best champion, but one of those, among many others, who were fit to undertake that combat.

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What hath been said is sufficient upon the point of dissimilitudes; except we think fit to add this, that many of the Trojans came into the enemy’s power alive, but none of the Grecians; and that many of the Trojans supplicated to their enemies,—as (for instance) Adrastus, the sons of Antimachus, Lycaon,—and even Hector himself entreats Achilles for a sepulture; but not one of these doth so, as judging it barbarous to supplicate to a foe in the field, and more Greek-like either to conquer or die.

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But as, in the same plant, the bee feeds on the flower, the goat on the bud, the hog on the root, and other living creatures on the seed and the fruit; so in reading of poems, one man singleth out the historical part, another dwells upon the elegancy and fit disposal of words, as Aristophanes says of Euripides,— His gallant language runs so smooth and round, That I am ravisht with th’ harmonious sound; See Aristophanes, Frag. 397. but others, to whom this part of my discourse is directed, mind only such things as are useful to the bettering of manners. And such we are to put in mind that it is an absurd thing, that those who delight in fables should not let any thing slip them of the vain and extravagant stories they find in poets, and that those who affect language should pass by nothing that is elegantly and floridly expressed; and that only the lovers of honor and virtue, who apply themselves to the study of poems not for delight but for instruction’s sake, should slightly and negligently observe what is spoken in them relating to valor, temperance, or justice. Of this nature is the following:— + And stand we deedless, O eternal shame! Till Hector’s arm involve the ships in flame? Haste, let us join, and combat side by side. Il. XI. 313. For the four following, see Odyss. III. 52; Il. XXIV. 560 and 584; Odyss. XVI. 274 For to see a man of the greatest wisdom in danger of being totally cut off with all those that take part with him, and yet affected less with fear of death than of shame and dishonor, must needs excite in a young man a passionate affection for virtue. And this, Joyed was the Goddess, for she much did prize A man that was alike both just and wise, teacheth us to infer that the Deity delights not in a rich or a proper or a strong man, but in one that is furnished with wisdom and justice. Again, when the same Goddess (Minerva) saith that the reason why she did not desert or neglect Ulysses was that he was Gentle, of ready wit, of prudent mind, she therein tells us that, of all things pertaining to us, nothing is dear to the Gods and divine but our virtue, seeing like naturally delights in like.

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And seeing, moreover, that it both seemeth and really is a great thing to be able to moderate a man’s anger, but a greater by far to guard a man’s self beforehand by prudence, that he fall not into it nor be surprised by it, therefore also such passages as tend that way are not slightly to be represented to the readers; for example, that Achilles himself—who was a man of no great forbearance, nor inclined to such meekness—yet warns Priam to be calm and not to provoke him, thus, Move me no more (Achilles thus replies, While kindling anger sparkled in his eyes), Nor seek by tears my steady soul to bend: To yield thy Hector I myself intend: Cease; lest, neglectful of high Jove’s command, I show thee, king, thou tread’st on hostile land; and that he himself first washeth and decently covereth the body of Hector and then puts it into a chariot, to prevent his father’s seeing it so unworthily mangled as it was,— Lest the unhappy sire, Provoked to passion, once more rouse to ire The stern Pelides; and nor sacred age, Nor Jove’s command, should check the rising rage. For it is a piece of admirable prudence for a man so prone to anger, as being by nature hasty and furious, to understand himself so well as to set a guard upon his own inclinations, and by avoiding provocations to keep his passion at due distance by the use of reason, lest he should be unawares surprised by it. And after the same manner must the man that is apt to be drunken forearm himself against that vice; and he that is given to wantonness, against lust, as Agesilaus refused to receive a kiss from a beautiful person addressing to him, and Cyrus would not so much as endure to see Panthea. Whereas, on the contrary, those that are not virtuously bred are wont to gather fuel to inflame their passions, and voluntarily to abandon themselves to those temptations to which of themselves they are endangered. But Ulysses does not only restrain his own anger, but (perceiving by the discourse of his son Telemachus, that through indignation conceived against such evil men he was greatly provoked) he blunts his passion too beforehand, and composeth him to calmness and patience, thus:— There, if base scorn insult my reverend age, Bear it, my son! repress thy rising rage. If outraged, cease that outrage to repel; Bear it, my son! howe’er thy heart rebel. For as men are not wont to put bridles on their horses when they are running in full speed, but bring them bridled beforehand to the race; so do they use to preoccupy and predispose the minds of those persons with rational considerations to enable them to encounter passion, whom they + perceive to be too mettlesome and unmanageable upon the sight of provoking objects.

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Furthermore, the young man is not altogether to neglect names themselves when he meets with them; though he is not obliged to give much heed to such idle descants as those of Cleanthes, who, while he professeth himself an interpreter, plays the trifler, as in these passages of Homer: Ζεῦ πάτερ Ἴδηθεν μεδέων, and Ζεῦ ἄνα Δωδωωαῖε. Il. III. 320; XVI. 233. For he will needs read the last two of these words joined into one, and make them ἀναδωδωναῖε; for that the air evaporated from the earth by exhalation (ἀνάδοσις) is so called. Yea, and Chrysippus too, though he does not so trifle, yet is very jejune, while he hunts after improbable etymologies. As when he will need force the words εὐρύοπα Κρονίδην to import Jupiter’s excellent faculty in speaking and powerfulness to persuade thereby.

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But such things as these are fitter to be left to the examination of grammarians; and we are rather to insist upon such passages as are both profitable and persuasive. Such, for instance, as these:— My early youth was bred to martial pains, My soul impels me to the embattled plains! How skill’d he was in each obliging art; The mildest manners, and the gentlest heart. Il. VI. 444; XVII. 671. For while the author tells us that fortitude may be taught, and that an obliging and graceful way of conversing with others is to be gotten by art and the use of reason, he exhorts us not to neglect the improvement of ourselves, but by observing our teachers’ instructions to learn a becoming carriage, as knowing that clownishness and cowardice argue ill-breeding and ignorance. And very suitable to what hath been said is that which is said of Jupiter and Neptune:— + Gods of one source, of one ethereal race, Alike divine, and heaven their native place; But Jove the greater; first born of the skies, And more than men or Gods supremely wise. Il. XIII. 354. For the poet therein pronounceth wisdom to be the most divine and royal quality of all; as placing therein the greatest excellency of Jupiter himself, and judging all virtues else to be necessarily consequent thereunto. We are also to accustom a young man attentively to hear such things as these:— Urge him with truth to frame his fair replies: And sure he will, for wisdom never lies: The praise of wisdom, in thy youth obtain’d, An act so rash, Antilochus, has stain’d: Say, is it just, my friend, that Hector’s ear From such a warrior such a speech should hear? I deemed thee once the wisest of thy kind, But ill this insult suits a prudent mind. Odyss. III. 20; Il. XXIII. 570; XVII. 170. These speeches teach us that it is beneath wise men to lie or to deal otherwise than fairly, even in games, or to blame other men without just cause. And when the poet attributes Pindarus’s violation of the truce to his folly, he withal declares his judgment that a wise man will not be guilty of an unjust action. The like may we also infer concerning continence, taking our ground for it from these passages:— For him Antaea burn’d with lawless flame, And strove to tempt him from the paths of fame: In vain she tempted the relentless youth, Endued with wisdom, sacred fear, and truth: At first, with worthy shame and decent pride, The royal dame his lawless suit denied ! For virtue’s image yet possessed her mind: Il. VI. 160; Odyss. III. 265. in which speeches the poet assigns wisdom to be the cause of continence. And when in exhortations made to encourage soldiers to fight, he speaks in this manner:— + What mean you, Lycians? Stand! O stand, for shame ! Yet each reflect who prizes fame or breath, On endless infamy, on instant death; For, lo ! the fated time, the appointed shore; Hark ! the gates burst, the brazen barriers roar ! Il. XVI. 422; XIII. 121. he seems to intimate that continent men are valiant men; because they fear the shame of base actions, and can trample on pleasures and stand their ground in the greatest hazards. Whence Timotheus, in the play called Persae, takes occasion handsomely to exhort the Grecians thus:— Brave soldiers of just shame in awe should stand; For the blushing face oft helps the fighting hand. And Aeschylus also makes it a point of wisdom not to be blown up with pride when a man is honored, nor to be moved or elevated with the acclamations of a multitude, writing thus of Amphiaraus:— His shield no emblem bears; his generous soul Wishes to be, not to appear, the best; While the deep furrows of his noble mind Harvests of wise and prudent counsel bear. See note on the same passage of Aeschylus (Sept. 591), vol. I. p. 210. (G.) For it is the part of a wise man to value himself upon the consciousness of his own true worth and excellency.

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Whereas, therefore, all inward perfections are reducible to wisdom, it appears that all sorts of virtue and learning are included in it.

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Again, boys may be instructed, by reading the poets as they ought, to draw something that is useful and profitable even from those passages that are most suspected as wicked and absurd; as the bee is taught by Nature to gather the sweetest and most pleasant honey from the harshest flowers and sharpest thorns. It does indeed at the first blush cast a shrewd suspicion on Agamemnon of taking a bribe, when Homer tells us that he discharged that rich man from the wars who presented him with his fleet mare Aethe:— + Whom rich Echepolus, more rich than brave, To ’scape the wars, to Agamemnon gave (Aethe her name), at home to end his days; Base wealth preferring to eternal praise. Il. XXIII. 297. Yet, as saith Aristotle, it was well done of him to prefer a good beast before such a man. For, the truth is, a dog or ass is of more value than a timorous and cowardly man that wallows in wealth and luxury. Again, Thetis seems to do indecently, when she exhorts her son to follow his pleasures and minds him of companying with women. But even here, on the other side, the continency of Achilles is worthy to be considered; who, though he dearly loved Briseis—newly returned to him too,—yet, when he knew his life to be near its end, does not hasten to the fruition of pleasures, nor, when he mourns for his friend Patroclus, does he (as most men are wont) shut himself up from all business and neglect his duty, but only bars himself from recreations for his sorrow’s sake, while yet he gives himself up to action and military employments. And Archilochus is not praiseworthy either, who, in the midst of his mourning for his sister’s husband drowned in the sea, contrives to dispel his grief by drinking and merriment. And yet he gives this plausible reason to justify that practice of his, To drink and dance, rather than mourn, I choose; Nor wrong I him, whom mourning can’t reduce. For, if he judged himself to do nothing amiss when he followed sports and banquets, sure, we shall not do worse, if in whatever circumstances we follow the study of philosophy, or manage public affairs, or go to the market or to the Academy, or follow our husbandry. Wherefore those corrections also are not to be rejected which Cleanthes and Antisthenes have made use of. For Antisthenes, seeing the Athenians all in a tumult in the theatre, and justly, upon the pronunciation of this verse,— + Except what men think base, there’s nothing ill, From the Aeolus of Euripides, Frag. 19. presently subjoined this corrective, What’s base is base,—believe men what they will. And Cleanthes, hearing this passage concerning wealth: Great is th’ advantage that great wealth attends, For oft with it we purchase health and friends; Eurip. Electra, 428. presently altered it thus: Great disadvantage oft attends on wealth; We purchase whores with’t and destroy our health. And Zeno corrected that of Sophocles, The man that in a tyrant’s palace dwells His liberty for’s entertainment sells, after this manner: No: if he came in free, he cannot lose His liberty, though in a tyrant’s house; meaning by a free man one that is undaunted and magnanimous, and one of a spirit too great to stoop beneath itself. And why may not we also, by some such acclamations as those, call off young men to the better side, by using some things spoken by poets after the same manner? For example, it is said, ’Tis all that in this life one can require, To hit the mark he aims at in desire. To which we may reply thus: ’Tis false; except one level his desire At what’s expedient, and no more require. For it is an unhappy thing and not to be wished, for a man to obtain and be master of what he desires if it be inexpedient. Again this saying, Thou, Agamemnon, must thyself prepare Of joy and grief by turns to take thy share: Thy father, Atreus, sure, ne’er thee begat, To be an unchanged favorite of Fate: Eurip. Iphig. Aul. 29. we may thus invert: Thy father, Atreus, never thee begat, To be an unchanged favorite of Fate: Therefore, if moderate thy fortunes are, Thou shouldst rejoice always, and grief forbear. Again it is said, Alas! this ill comes from the powers divine, That oft we see what’s good, yet it decline. From the Chrysippus of Euripides, Frag. 838. Yea, rather, say we, it is a brutish and irrational and wretched fault of ours, that when we understand better things, we are carried away to the pursuit of those which are worse, through our intemperance and effeminacy. Again, one says, ’Tis not the teacher’s speech but practice moves. From Menander. Yea, rather, say we, both the speech and practice,—or the practice by the means of speech,—as the horse is managed with the bridle, and the ship with the helm. For virtue hath no instrument so suitable and agreeable to human nature to work on men withal, as that of rational discourse. Again, we meet with this character of some person: A. Is he more prone to male or female loves ? B. He’s flexible both ways, where beauty moves. But it had been better said thus: He’s flexible to both, where virtue moves. For it is no commendation of a man’s dexterity to be tossed up and down as pleasure and beauty move him, but an argument rather of a weak and unstable disposition. Once more, this speech, religion damps the courage of our minds, And ev’n wise men to cowardice inclines, is by no means to be allowed; but rather the contrary, Religion truly fortifies men’s minds, And a wise man to valiant acts inclines, and gives not occasion of fear to any but weak and foolish persons and such as are ungrateful to the Deity, who are apt to look on that divine power and principle which is the cause of all good with suspicion and jealousy, as being hurtful unto them. And so much for that which I call correction of poets’ sayings.

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There is yet another way of improving poems, taught us well by Chrysippus; which is, by accommodation of any saying, to transfer that which is useful and serviceable in it to divers things of the same kind. For whereas Hesiod saith, If but a cow be lost, the common fame Upon the next ill neighbor lays the blame; Hesiod, Works and Days, 348. the same may be applied to a man’s dog or ass or any other beast of his which is liable to the like mischance. Again, Euripides saith, How can that man be called a slave, who slights Ev’n death itself, which servile spirits frights? the like whereof may be said of hard labor or painful sickness. For as physicians, finding by experience the force of any medicine in the cure of some one disease, make use of it by accommodation, proportionably to every other disease of affinity thereto, so are we to deal with such speeches as are of a common import and apt to communicate their value to other things; we must not confine them to that one thing only to which they were at first adapted, but transfer them to all other of like nature, and accustom young men by many parallel instances to see the communicableness of them, and exercise the promptness of their wits in such applications. So that when Meander says, Happy is he who wealth and wisdom hath, they may be able to judge that the same is fitly applicable to glory and authority and eloquence also. And the reproof + which Ulysses gives Achilles, when he found him sitting in Scyrus in the apartment of the young ladies, Thou, who from noblest Greeks deriv’st thy race, Dost thou with spinning wool thy birth disgrace? may be as well given to the prodigal, to him that undertakes any dishonest way of living, yea, to the slothful and unlearned person, thus: Thou, who from noblest Greeks deriv’st thy race, Dost thou with fuddling thy great birth disgrace ? or dost thou spend thy time in dicing, or quail-striking, The word here used (ὀρτυγοκπεῖν) denotes a game among the Grecians, which Suidas describes to be the setting of quails in a round compass or ring, and striking at the heads of them; and he that in the ring struck down one had liberty to strike at the rest in order, but he that missed was obliged to set up quails for others; and this they did by turns. or deal in adulterate wares or griping usury, not minding any thing that is great and worthy thy noble extraction? So when they read, For Wealth, the God most serve, I little care, Since the worst men his favors often wear, From the Aeolus of Euripides, Frag. 20. they may be able to infer, therefore, as little regard is to be had to glory and bodily beauty and princely robes and priestly garlands, all which also we see to be the enjoyments of very bad men. Again, when they read this passage, A coward father propagates his vice, And gets a son heir to his cowardice, they may in truth apply the same to intemperance, to superstition, to envy, and all other diseases of men’s minds. Again, whereas it is handsomely said of Homer, Unhappy Paris, fairest to behold ! and Hector, of noble form, Il. III. 39; XVII. 142. for herein he shows that a man who hath no greater excellency than that of beauty to commend him deserves to + have it mentioned with contempt and ignominy,—such expressions we should make use of in like cases to repress the insolence of such as bear themselves high upon the account of such things as are of no real value, and to teach young men to look upon such compellations as O thou richest of men, and O thou that excellest in feasting, in multitudes of attendants, in herds of cattle, yea, and in eloquent speaking itself, to be (as they are indeed) expressions that import reproach and infamy. For, in truth, a man that designs to excel ought to endeavor it in those things that are in themselves most excellent, and to become chief in the chiefest, and great in the greatest things. Whereas glory that ariseth from things in themselves small and inconsiderable is inglorious and contemptible. To mind us whereof we shall never be at a loss for instances, if, in reading Homer especially, we observe how he applieth the expressions that import praise or disgrace; wherein we have clear proof that he makes small account of the good things either of the body or Fortune. And first of all, in meetings and salutations, men do not call others fair or rich or strong, but use such terms of commendation as these: Son of Laertes, from great Jove deriving Thy pedigree, and skilled in wise contriving; Hector, thou son of Priam, whose advice With wisest Jove’s men count of equal price; Achilles, son of Peleus, whom all story Shall mention as the Grecians’ greatest glory; Divine Patroclus, for thy worth thou art, Of all the friends I have, lodged next my heart. Il. II. 173; VII. 47; XIX. 216; XI. 608. And moreover, when they speak disgracefully of any person, they touch not at bodily defects, but direct all their reproaches to vicious actions; as for instance: A dogged-looking, drunken beast thou art, And in thy bosom hast a deer’s faint heart; Ajax, at brawling valiant still, Whose tongue is used to speaking ill; A tongue so loose hung, and so vain withal, Idomeneus, becomes thee not at all; Ajax, thy tongue doth oft offend; For of thy boasting there’s no end. Il. I. 225; XXIII. 483 and 474-479; XIII. 824. Lastly, when Ulysses reproacheth Thersites, he objecteth not to him his lameness nor his baldness nor his hunched back, but the vicious quality of indiscreet babbling. On the other side, when Juno means to express a dalliance or motherly fondness to her son Vulcan, she courts him with an epithet taken from his halting, thus, Rouse thee, my limping son! Il. XXI. 331. In this instance, Homer does (as it were) deride those who are ashamed of their lameness or blindness, as not thinking any thing a disgrace that is not in itself disgraceful, nor any person liable to a reproach for that which is not imputable to himself but to Fortune. These two great advantages may be made by those who frequently study poets;—the learning moderation, to keep them from unseasonable and foolish reproaching others with their misfortunes, when they themselves enjoy a constant current of prosperity; and magnanimity, that under variety of accidents they be not dejected nor disturbed, but meekly bear the being scoffed at, reproached, and drolled upon. Especially, let them have that saying of Philemon ready at hand in such cases: That spirit’s well in tune, whose sweet repose No railer’s tongue can ever discompose. And yet, if one that so rails do himself deserve reprehension, thou mayst take occasion to retort upon him his own vices and inordinate passions; as when Adrastus in the tragedy is assaulted thus by Alcmaeon, Thy sister’s one that did her husband kill, he returns him this answer, But thou thyself thy mother’s blood did spill. For as they who scourge a man’s garments do not touch the body, so those that turn other men’s evil fortunes or mean births to matter of reproach do only with vanity and folly enough lash their external circumstances, but touch not their internal part, the soul, nor those things which truly need correction and reproof.

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Moreover, as we have above taught you to abate and lessen the credit of evil and hurtful poems by setting in opposition to them the famous speeches and sentences of such worthy men as have managed public affairs, so will it be useful to us, where we find any things in them of civil and profitable import, to improve and strengthen them by testimonies and proofs taken from philosophers, withal giving these the credit of being the first inventors of them. For this is both just and profitable to be done, seeing by this means such sayings receive an additional strength and esteem, when it appears that what is spoken on the stage or sung to the harp or occurs in a scholar’s lesson is agreeable to the doctrines of Pythagoras and Plato, and that the sentences of Chilo and Bias tend to the same issue with those that are found in the authors which children read. Therefore must we industriously show them that these poetical sentences, Not these, O daughter, are thy proper cares, Thee milder arts befit, and softer wars; Sweet smiles are thine, and kind endearing charms; To Mars and Pallas leave the deeds of arms; Jove’s angry with thee, when thy unmanaged rage With those that overmatch thee doth engage; Il. V. 428; XI. 513. differ not in substance but bear plainly the same sense with that philosophical sentence, Know thyself. And these, + Fools, who by wrong seek to augment their store, And know not how much half than all is more; Of counsel giv’n to mischievous intents, The man that gives it most of all repents; Hesiod, Works and Days, 40 and 266. are of near kin to what we find in the determination of Plato, in his books entitled Gorgias and Concerning the Commonwealth, to wit, that it is worse to do than to suffer injury, and that a man more endamageth himself when he hurts another, than he would be damnified if he were the sufferer. And that of Aeschylus, Cheer up, friend; sorrows, when they highest climb, What they exceed in measure want in time, we must inform them, is but the same famous sentence which is so much admired in Epicurus, that great griefs are but short, and those that are of long continuance are but small. The former clause whereof is that which Aeschylus here saith expressly, and the latter but the consequent of that. For if a great and intense sorrow do not last, then that which doth last is not great nor hard to be borne. And those words of Thespis, Seest not how Jove,—because he cannot lie Nor vaunt nor laugh at impious drollery, And pleasure’s charms are things to him unknown,— Among the Gods wears the imperial crown? wherein differ they from what Plato says, that the divine nature is seated far from both joy and grief? And that saying of Bacchylides, Virtue alone doth lasting honor gain, But men of wretched souls oft wealth attain; and those of Euripides much of the same import, Hence temperance in my esteem excels, Because it constantly with good men dwells; How much soe’er to honor thou aspire, And strive by riches virtue to acquire, Still shall thy lot to good men wretched seem; do they not evidently confirm to us what the philosophers say of riches and other external good things, that without virtue they are fruitless and unprofitable enjoyments?

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Now thus to accommodate and reconcile poetry to the doctrines of philosophy strips it of its fabulous and personated parts, and makes those things which it delivers usefully to acquire also the reputation of gravity; and over and above, it inclines the soul of a young man to receive the impressions of philosophical precepts. For he will hereby be enabled to come to them not altogether destitute of some sort of relish of them, not as to things that he has heard nothing of before, nor with an head confusedly full of the false notions which he hath sucked in from the daily tattle of his mother and nurse,—yea, sometimes too of his father and pedant,—who have been wont to speak of rich men as the happy men and mention them always with honor, and to express themselves concerning death and pain with horror, and to look on virtue without riches and glory as a thing of nought and not to be desired. Whence it comes to pass, that when such youths first do hear things of a quite contrary nature from philosophers, they are surprised with a kind of amazement, trouble, and stupid astonishment, which makes them afraid to entertain or endure them, except they be dealt with as those who come out of very great darkness into the light of the bright sun, that is, be first accustomed for a while to behold those doctrines in fabulous authors, as in a kind of false light, which hath but a moderate brightness and is easy to be looked on and borne without disturbance to the weak sight. For having before heard or read from poets such things as these are,— Mourn at one’s birth, as th’ inlet t’ all that grieves; But joy at death, as that which man relieves; Of worldly things a mortal needs but twain; The spring supplies his drink, the earth his grain: + + O tyranny, to barbarous nations dear! This in all human happiness is chief, To know as little as we can of grief; The first two quotations are from Euripides (the first from his Cresphontes); the other two are from unknown tragic poets. (G.) they are the less disturbed and offended when they hear from philosophers that no man ought to be much concerned about death; that the riches of nature are defined and limited; that the happiness of man’s life doth not consist in the abundance of wealth or vastness of employments or height of authority and power, but in freedom from sorrow, in moderation of passions, and in such a temper of mind as measures all things by the use of Nature.

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Wherefore, upon all these accounts, as well as for all the reasons before mentioned, youth stands in need of good government to manage it in the reading of poetry, that being free from all prejudicate opinions, and rather instructed beforehand in conformity thereunto, it may with more calmness, friendliness, and familiarity pass from thence to the study of philosophy.

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-εἰ μέν, ὡς Φιλόξενυς ὁ ποιητὴς ἔλεγεν, ὦ Μάρκε Σήδατε, -Σήδατε Basileensis: σήδαπε - τῶν κρεῶν τὰ μὴ κρέα ἥδιστά ἐστι - καὶ τῶν ἰχθύων οἱ μὴ - ἰχθύες, ἐκείνοις ἀποφαίνεσθαι παρῶμεν οἷς ὁ Κάτων ἔφη τῆς καρδίας - τὴν - ὑπερῴαν εὐαισθητοτέραν ὑπάρχειν. ὅτι - δὲ τῶν ἐν φιλοσοφίᾳ λεγομένων οἱ σφόδρα νέοι τοῖς μὴ δοκοῦσι - φιλοσόφως μηδʼ ἀπὸ σπουδῆς λέγεσθαι χαίρουσι μᾶλλον καὶ παρέχουσιν - ὑπηκόους ἑαυτοὺς καὶ χειροήθεις, δῆλόν ἐστιν ἡμῖν. οὐ γὰρ μόνον τὰ -Αἰσώπεια μυθάρια καὶ τὰς ποιητικὰς - ὑποθέσεις ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸν Ἄβαριν τὸν Ἡρακλείδου καὶ τὸν Λύκωνα τὸν - Ἀρίστωνος διερχόμενοι καὶ τὰ -καὶ τὰ W: τὰ - περὶ τῶν ψυχῶν δόγματα μεμιγμένα - μυθολογίᾳ μεθʼ ἡδονῆς ἐνθουσιῶσι. - διὸ δεῖ μὴ μόνον ἐν ταῖς περὶ ἐδωδὴν καὶ - πόσιν ἡδοναῖς διαφυλάττειν εὐσχήμονας - αὐτούς, ἔτι δὲ μᾶλλον ἐν ταῖς ἀκροάσεσιν καὶ ἀναγνώσεσιν ἐθίζειν, - ὥσπερ ὄψῳ χρωμένους μετρίως τῷ τέρποντι, τὸ - χρήσιμον ἀπʼ αὐτοῦ καὶ τὸ σωτήριον διώκειν. οὔτε γὰρ πόλιν αἱ - κεκλειμέναι πύλαι τηροῦσιν ἀνάλωτον, ἂν διὰ μιᾶς παραδέξηται τοὺς - πολεμίους, οὔτε νέον αἱ περὶ τὰς ἄλλας ἡδονὰς ἐγκράτειαι σῴζουσιν, - - ἄν γε διʼ ἀκοῆς - λάθῃ προέμενος αὑτόν, ἀλλʼ ὅσον μᾶλλον αὕτη τοῦ φρονεῖν καὶ - λογίζεσθαι πεφυκότος ἅπτεται, τοσοῦτο μᾶλλον ἀμεληθεῖσα βλάπτει καὶ - διαφθείρει τὸν παραδεξάμενον. ἐπεὶ τοίνυν οὔτʼ ἴσως δυνατόν ἐστιν - οὔτʼ ὠφέλιμον ποιημάτων - ἀπείργειν τὸν - τηλικοῦτον ἡλίκος οὑμός τε τὸ νῦν Σώκλαρός ἐστι καὶ ὁ σὸς - Κλέανδρος, εὖ μάλα παραφυλάττωμεν αὐτούς, ὡς ἐν ταῖς ἀναγνώσεσι - μᾶλλον ἢ ταῖς· ὁδοῖς παιδαγωγίας δεομένους. ἃ δʼ οὖν ἐμοὶ περὶ - ποιημάτων εἰπεῖν πρῴην ἐπῆλθε, νῦν πρὸς σὲ - - γεγραμμένα πέμψαι - διενοήθην. καὶ λαβὼν ταῦτα δίελθε, κὰν δοκῇ σοι μηδὲν εἶναι φαυλότερα - τῶν ἀμεθύστων καλουμένων, ἅ τινες ἐν τοῖς πότοις περιάπτονται καὶ - προλαμβάνουσι, -προσλαμβάνουσι Stephanus μεταδίδου τῷ - Κλεάνδρῳ καὶ προκαταλάμβανε τὴν φύσιν αὐτοῦ διὰ τὸ - μηδαμοῦ νωθρὸν ἀλλὰ πανταχοῦ σφοδρὸν καὶ δεδορκὸς - εὐαγωγοτέραν ὑπὸ τῶν τοιούτων οὖσαν. -πουλύποδος κεφαλῇ ἔνι μὲν κακὸν ἐν δὲ καὶ ἐσθλόν - ὅτι βρωθῆναι μέν ἐστιν ἥδιστος, δυσόνειρον δʼ - ὕπνον ποιεῖ, φαντασίας ταραχώδεις καὶ ἀλλοκότους -δεχόμενον, ὡς - λέγουσιν. οὕτω δὴ καὶ ποιητικῇ πολὺ μὲν τὸ ἡδὺ καὶ τρόφιμον νέου - ψυχῆς ἔνεστιν, οὐκ ἔλαττον δὲ τὸ ταρακτικὸν καὶ παράφορον, ἂν μὴ τυγχάνῃ παιδαγωγίας ὀρθῆς ἡ ἀκρόασις. οὐ γὰρ μόνον - ὡς ἔοικε περὶ τῆς Αἰγυπτίων χώρας ἀλλὰ καὶ περὶ τῆς ποιητικῆς - ἔστιν εἰπεῖν ὅτι -φάρμακα πολλὰ μὲν ἐσθλὰ μεμιγμένα πολλὰ δὲ - λυγρά -Homer δ 230 - τοῖς χρωμένοις ἀναδίδωσιν. -ἔνθʼ ἔνι μὲν φιλότης, ἐν δʼ ἵμερος· ἐν δʼ ὀαριστύς -πάρφασις, ἥ τʼ ἔκλεψε νόον πύκα περ φρονεόντων -id. Ξ - - οὐ γὰρ ἅπτεται τὸ ἀπατηλὸν αὐτῆς ἀβελτέρων κομιδῇ - - καὶ ἀνοήτων. διὸ καὶ - Σιμωνίδης μὲν ἀπεκρίνατο πρὸς τὸν εἰπόντα τί “δὴ μόνους οὐκ - ἐξαπατᾷς Θετταλούς;ʼ” “ἀμαθέστεροι γάρ εἰσιν ἢ ὡς ὑπʼ ἐμοῦ ἐξαπατᾶσθαι.” Γοργίας δὲ - τὴν τραγῳδίαν εἶπεν ἀπάτην, ἣν 3 τʼ ἀπατήσας δικαιότερος τοῦ μὴ - ἀπατήσαντος - καὶ ὁ ἀπατηθεὶς σοφώτερος τοῦ - μὴ ἀπατηθέντος. πότερον οὖν τῶν νέων ὥσπερ τῶν Ἰθακησίων σκληρῷ - -σκληρῷ Mehlerus: χηρῷ - - τινι τὰ ὦτα καὶ ἀτέγκτῳ κηρῷ καταπλάσσοντες ἀναγκάζωμεν αὐτοὺς τὸ - Ἐπικούρειον ἀκάτιον ἀραμένους ποιητικὴν φεύγειν καὶ παρεξελαύνειν - , ἢ μᾶλλον ὀρθῷ τινι λογισμῷ - παριστάντες καὶ καταδέοντες, τὴν κρίσιν, ὅπως μὴ παραφέρηται τῷ - τέρποντι πρὸς τὸ βλάπτον, ἀπευθύνωμεν καὶ παραφυλάττωμεν ; - - -οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδὲ Δρύαντος υἱὸς κρατερὸς Λυκόοργος -Homer. Z 130 - ὑγιαίνοντα νοῦν εἶχεν, ὅτι πολλῶν μεθυσκομένων καὶ - παροινούντων τὰς ἀμπέλους περιιὼν ἐξέκοπτεν ἀντὶ τοῦ τὰς κρήνας - ἐγγυτέρω προσαγαγεῖν καὶ “μαινόμενον” θεόν, ὥς φησιν ὁ Πλάτων, -Πλάτων] - Legg. p. 773 d “ἑτέρῳ θεῷ νήφοντι κολαζόμενον” σωφρονίζειν. ἀφαιρεῖ γὰρ ἡ - κρᾶσις τοῦ οἴνου τὸ βλάπτον, οὐ συναναιροῦσα τὸ χρήσιμον; μηδʼ ἡμεῖς - οὖν τὴν ποιητικὴν ἡμερίδα - - τῶν Μουσῶν - ἐκκόπτωμεν μηδʼ ἀφανίζωμεν, ἀλλʼ ὅπου μὲν ὑφʼ ἡδονῆς ἀκράτου πρὸς - δόξαν αὐθάδως θρασυνόμενον ἐξυβρίζει καὶ ὑλομανεῖ τὸ μυθῶδες αὐτῆς - καὶ θεατρικόν, ἐπιλαμβανόμενοι κολούωμεν καὶ πιέζωμεν· ὅπου δʼ ἅπτεταί - τινος μούσης τῇ χάριτι - καὶ τὸ γλυκὺ τοῦ - λόγου καὶ ἀγωγὸν οὐκ ἄκαρπόν ἐστιν οὐδὲ κενόν, ἐνταῦθα φιλοσοφίαν - εἰσάγωμεν καὶ καταμιγνύωμεν. ὥσπερ γὰρ ὁ μανδραγόρας ταῖς ἀμπέλοις - παραφυόμενος καὶ διαδιδοὺς τὴν δύναμιν εἰς τὸν οἶνον μαλακωτέραν ποιεῖ - τὴν καταφορὰν - τοῖς πίνουσιν, οὕτω τοὺς - λόγους ἡ ποίησις ἐκ φιλοσοφίας ἀναλαμβάνουσα μιγνυμένους πρὸς τὸ - μυθῶδες ἐλαφρὰν καὶ προσφιλῆ παρέχει τοῖς νέοις τὴν μάθησιν. ὅθεν οὐ - φευκτέον ἐστὶ τὰ ποιήματα τοῖς φιλοσοφεῖν μέλλουσιν, ἀλλὰ - προφιλοσοφητέον - - τοῖς ποιήμασιν - ἐθιζομένους ἐν τῷ τέρποντι τὸ χρήσιμον ζητεῖν καὶ ἀγαπᾶν· εἰ δὲ μή, - διαμάχεσθαι καὶ δυσχεραίνειν. ἀρχὴ γὰρ αὕτη παιδεύσεως, -ἔργου δὲ παντὸς ἤν τις ἄρχηται καλῶς, -Nauck. p. 246 -καὶ τὰς τελευτὰς εἰκὸς ἐσθʼ οὕτως ἔχειν - - κατὰ τὸν Σοφοκλέα.

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πρῶτον μὲν οὖν εἰσάγειν εἰς τὰ ποιήματα δεῖ τὸν νέον μηδὲν οὕτω - μεμελετημένον ἔχοντα καὶ πρόχειρον ὡς τὸ “πολλὰ - ψεύδονται ἀοιδοὶ” Aristot. Metaph. I τὰ - μὲν ἑκόντες τὰ δʼ ἄκοντες. ἑκόντες μέν, ὅτι πρὸς ἡδονὴν ἀκοῆς καὶ - χάριν, ἣν οἱ πλεῖστοι διώκουσιν, - αὐστηροτέραν ἡγοῦνται τὴν ἀλήθειαν τοῦ - ψεύδους. - ἡ μὲν γὰρ ἔργῳ γιγνομένη, κἂν - ἀτερπὲς ἔχῃ τὸ τέλος, οὐκ ἐξίσταται· τὸ δὲ πλαττόμενον λόγῳ - ῥᾷστα περιχωρεῖ καὶ τρέπεται πρὸς τὸ ἣδιον ἐκ τοῦ λυποῦντος. οὔτε - γὰρ μέτρον οὔτε τρόπος οὔτε λέξεως ὄγκος οὔτʼ εὐκαιρία μεταφορᾶς - οὔθʼ ἁρμονία καὶ - σύνθεσις ἔχει τοσοῦτον - αἱμυλίας καὶ χάριτος ὅσον εὖ πεπλεγμένη διάθεσις μυθολογίας· ἀλλʼ - ὥσπερ ἐν γραφαῖς κινητικώτερόν ἐστι χρῶμα γραμμῆς διὰ τὸ ἀνδρείκελον - καὶ ἀπατηλόν, οὕτως ἐν ποιήμασι μεμιγμένον - πιθανότητι ψεῦδος ἐκπλήττει καὶ ἀγαπᾶται - μᾶλλον τῆς ἀμύθου καὶ ἀπλάστου περὶ - μέτρον καὶ λέξιν κατασκευῆς. ὅθεν ὁ Σωκράτης ἔκ τινων ἐνυπνίων - ποιητικῆς ἁψάμενος αὐτὸς μέν, ἅτε δὴ γεγονὼς ἀληθείας ἀγωνιστὴς τὸν - ἅπαντα βίον, οὐ πιθανὸς ἦν οὐδʼ εὐφυὴς ψευδῶν δημιουργός, τοὺς δʼ -Αἰσώπου μύθους ἔπεσιν ἐνέτεινεν -μύθους - ἔπεσιν ἐνέτεινεν H: τοῖς ἔπεσι - μύθους ἐνόμιζεν -, ὡς ποίησιν οὐκ οὖσαν ψεῦδος μὴ - πρόσεστι. · θυσίας μὲν γὰρ ἀχόρους καὶ ἀναύλους ἴσμεν, οὐκ ἴσμεν δʼ - ἄμυθον οὐδʼ ἀψευδῆ ποίησιν. τὰ δʼ Ἐμπεδοκλέους ἔπη καὶ Παρμενίδου - καὶ θηριακὰ Νικάνδρου καὶ γνωμολογίαι -Θεόγνιδος λόγοι εἰσὶ -εἰσι λόγοι? κιχράμενοι -κιχράμενοι Madvigius: κεχρημένοι - παρὰ ποιητικῆς - ὥσπερ ὄχημα τὸ μέτρον καὶ τὸν ὄγκον, - ἵνα τὸ πεζὸν διαφύγωσιν. ὅταν οὖν ἄτοπόν τι καὶ - δυσχερὲς ἐν τοῖς· ποιήμασι λέγηται περὶ θεῶν ἢ δαιμόνων ἢ ἀρετῆς - ὑπʼ ἀνδρὸς ἐλλογίμου καὶ δόξαν ἔχοντος, ὁ μὲν ὡς ἀληθῆ - προσδεξάμενος λόγον οἴχεται φερόμενος καὶ διέφθαρται τὴν δόξαν, ὁ δὲ - μεμνημένος ἀεὶ καὶ κατέχων ἐναργῶς τῆς - ποιητικῆς τὴν περὶ τὸ ψεῦδος γοητείαν καὶ δυνάμενος λέγειν ἑκάστοτε - πρὸς αὐτὴν -ὦ μηχάνημα λυγκὸς -λυγκὸς idem: λυγγὸς - αἰολώτερον -Nauck. p. 694 - τί παίζουσα τὰς ὀφρῦς συνάγεις, τί δʼ ἐξαπατῶσα - - προσποιῇ διδάσκειν; - οὐδὲν πείσεται δεινὸν οὐδὲ πιστεύσει φαῦλον, ἀλλʼ ἐπιλήψεται μὲν τοῦ - -τοῦ Toupius: αὐτοῦ - - φοβουμένου τὸν Ποσειδῶνα καὶ ταρβοῦντος μὴ τὴν γῆν ἀναρρήξῃ καὶ - ἀπογυμνώσῃ τὸν Ἅιδην, ἐπιλήψεται δὲ τοῦ -δὲ τοῦ - scripsi: δὲ τῷ - Ἀπόλλωνι - χαλεπαίνοντος ὑπὲρ τοῦ πρώτου - τῶν - Ἀχαιῶν, -ὃν αὐτὸς ὑμνῶν αὐτὸς ἐν δαίτῃ παρὼν -Nauck p. 83 -αὐτὸς τάδʼ εἰπὼν αὐτός ἐστιν ὁ κτανών - παύσεται δὲ τὸν φθιτὸν Ἀχιλλέα καὶ τὸν Ἀγαμέμνονα τὸν καθʼ - Ἅιδου δακρύων, ἀδυνάτους καὶ - ἀσθενεῖς - χεῖρας ἐπιθυμίᾳ τοῦ ζῆν ὀρέγοντας. ἂν δέ που συνταράττηται τοῖς - πάθεσι καὶ κρατῆται φαρμασσόμενος, οὐκ ὀκνήσει πρὸς ἑαυτὸν εἰπεῖν - -ἀλλὰ φόωσδε τάχιστα λιλαίεο· ταῦτα δὲ πάντα Homer. λ 222 - - -ἴσθʼ, ἵνα καὶ μετόπισθε τεῇ εἴπῃσθα γυναικὶ - - καὶ γὰρ τοῦτο χαριέντως Ὅμηρος εἰς τὴν - νέκυιαν εἶπεν, ὡς γυναικὸς ἀκρόασιν οὖσαν διὰ τὸ μυθῶδες Τοιαῦτα - γάρ ἐστιν ἃ πλάττουσιν ἑκόντες οἱ ποιηταί· πλείονα - δʼ ἃ μὴ πλάττοντες ἀλλʼ οἰόμενοι καὶ δοξάζοντες αὐτοὶ - προσαναχρώννυνται τὸ ψεῦδος ἡμῖν οἷον ἐπὶ τοῦ Διὸς εἰρηκότος - Ὁμήρου -Ὁμήρου] X 63 - - -ἐν δʼ ἐτίθει δύο κῆρε τανηλεγέος θανάτοιο, - - -τὴν μὲν Ἀχιλλῆος τὴν δʼ Ἕκτορος ἱπποδάμοιο, -ἕλκε δὲ μέσσα λαβών ῥέπε δʼ Ἕκτορος αἴσιμον ἦμαρ, -ᾤχετο δʼ εἰς Ἀίδαο, λίπεν δʼ ἑ Φοῖβος Ἀπόλλων - τραγῳδίαν ὁ Αἰσχύλος -Αἰσχύλος] Nauck. p. 69 - ὅλην τῷ μύθῳ περιέθηκεν, - ἐπιγράψας - Ψυχοστασίαν καὶ παραστήσας ταῖς πλάστιγξι τοῦ Διὸς ἔνθεν μὲν τὴν - Θέτιν ἔνθεν δὲ τὴν Ἠῶ, δεομένας ὑπὲρ τῶν υἱέων μαχομένων. τοῦτο - δὲ παντὶ δῆλον, ὅτι μυθοποίημα καὶ πλάσμα πρὸς ἡδονὴν ἢ ἔκπληξιν - ἀκροατοῦ γέγονε. τὸ δὲ - - - -Ζεύς, ὃς τʼ ἀνθρώπων ταμίης πολέμοιο τέτυκται -Homer. Δ 84 - καὶ τὸ -θεὸς μὲν αἰτίαν φύει βροτοῖς, -Nauck. p. 39 -ὅταν κακῶσαι δῶμα παμπήδην θέλῃ, - ταῦτα δʼ ἢδη κατὰ δόξαν εἴρηται καὶ πίστιν αὐτῶν, - ἣν ἔχουσιν ἀπάτην περὶ θεῶν καὶ ἄγνοιαν εἰς - ἡμᾶς ἐκφερόντων καὶ μεταδιδόντων. πάλιν αἱ περὶ τὰς νεκυίας - τερατουργίαι καὶ διαθέσεις ὀνόμασι φοβεροῖς ἐνδημιουργοῦσαι φάσματα καὶ - εἴδωλα ποταμῶν φλεγομένων καὶ τόπων ἀγρίων καὶ κολασμάτων σκυθρωπῶν - οὐ πάνυ πολλοὺς διαλανθάνουσιν ὅτι τὸ - μυθῶδες αὐτοῖς - πολὺ καὶ τὸ ψεῦδος ὥσπερ τροφαῖς τὸ φαρμακῶδες ἐγκέκραται. καὶ οὔθʼ - Ὅμηρος οὔτε Πίνδαρος οὔτε Σοφοκλῆς πεπεισμένοι - ταῦτʼ ἔχειν οὕτως ἔγραψαν -ἔνθεν τὸν ἄπειρον ἐρεύγονται σκότον -Bergk. vol. 1 p. 426 -βληχροὶ δνοφερᾶς νυκτὸς ποταμοὶ - καὶ - - -πὰρ δʼ ἴσαν Ὠκεανοῦ τε ῥοὰς καὶ Λευκάδα πέτρην -Homer ω 11 - καί -στενωπὸς Ἅιδου καὶ παλιρροία βυθοῦ -Nauck p. 246 - ὅσοι μέντοι τὸν θάνατον ὡς οἰκτρὸν ἢ τὴν ἀταφίαν ·- πο - ὡς δεινὸν ὀλοφυρόμενοι καὶ δεδιότες - φωνὰς ἐξενηνόχασι καὶ και -μή μʼ ἄκλαυστον ἄθαπτον ἰὼν ὄπιθεν καταλείπειν -12 Homer. λ - 72 - - - ψυχὴ δʼ ἐκ ῥεθέων πταμένη Ἀϊδόσδε βεβήκει, id. Π - X 362 - - -ὃν πότμον γοόωσα, λιποῦς1ʼ ἁδρότητα καὶ ἥβην - καί -μή μʼ ἀπολέσῃς ἄωρον· ἡδὺ γὰρ τὸ φῶς -Eurip. Iph. A. 1218 -λεύσσειν· τὰ δʼ ὑπὸ γῆν μὴ μʼ ἰδεῖν ἀναγκάσῃς, - - αὗται πεπονθότων εἰσὶ καὶ προεαλωκότων - ὑπὸ δόξης καὶ ἀπάτης. διὸ μᾶλλον ἅπτονται καὶ διαταράττουσιν ἡμᾶς, - ἀναπιμπλαμένους τοῦ πάθους καὶ τῆς ἀσθενείας ἀφʼ ἧς λέγονται. πρὸς - ταῦτα δὴ πάλιν παρασκευάζωμεν εὐθὺς ἐξ ἀρχῆς ἔχειν ἔναυλον ὅτι - ποιητικῇ μὲν οὐ πάνυ μέλον ἐστὶ τῆς - ἀληθείας, ἡ δὲ περὶ ταῦτʼ ἀλήθεια καὶ τοῖς μηδὲν ἄλλο πεποιημένοις - ἔργον ἢ γνῶσιν - καὶ μάθησιν τοῦ ὄντος εὖ μάλα δυσθήρατός ἐστι καὶ - δύσληπτος, ὡς ὁμολογοῦσιν αὐτοί. καὶ τὰ Ἐμπεδοκλέους -Ἐμπεδοχλέους] Mullach. Fr. Phil. Graec. vol. 1 p. 2 - ἔστω πρόχειρα ταυτί - - -οὕτως οὔτʼ -οὕτως οὔτʼ] οὔτʼ H ἐπιδερκτὰ τάδʼ ἀνδράσιν οὔτʼ - ἐπακουστά -οὔτε νόῳ περιληπτά - καὶ τὰ Ξενοφάνους -Ξενοφαάνους] Mullach. vol. 1 p. - 103 κουστοἱ -καὶ τὸ μὲν οὖν σαφὲς οὔτις ἀυὴρ γένετʼ οὐδέ τις ἔσται - - -εἰδὼς ἀμφὶ θεῶν τε καὶ ἅσσα λέγω περὶ πάντων - καὶ νὴ Δία τὰ Σωκράτους ἐξομνυμένου παρὰ Πλάτωνι -Πλάτωνι] Phaedon. p. 69 d - τὴν περὶ τούτων - γνῶσιν. ἧττον γὰρ ὡς εἰδόσι τι περὶ τούτων προσέξουσι τοῖς ποιηταῖς - ἐν οἷς τοὺς φιλοσόφους ἰλιγγιῶντας ὁρῶσιν. - -

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ἔτι δὲ μᾶλλον ἐπιστήσομεν αὐτὸν ἅμα τῷ προσάγειν τοῖς ποιήμασιν - ὑπογράφοντες τὴν ποιητικὴν ὅτι μιμητικὴ τέχνη καὶ δύναμίς ἐστιν - ἀντίστροφος τῇ ζῳγραφίᾳ. καὶ μὴ μόνον ἐκεῖνο τὸ θρυλούμενον - ἀκηκοὼς ἔστω, ζῳγραφίαν μὲν εἶναι - - φθεγγομένην τὴν - ποίησιν, ποίησιν δὲ σιγῶσαν τὴν ζῳγραφίαν, ἀλλὰ πρὸς τούτῳ διδάσκωμεν - αὐτὸν ὅτι γεγραμμένην σαύραν ἢ πίθηκον ἢ Θερσίτου πρόσωπον ἰδόντες - ἡδόμεθα καὶ θαυμάζομεν οὐχ ὡς καλὸν ἀλλʼ ὡς ὅμοιον. οὐσίᾳ μὲν γὰρ - οὐ δύναται - καλὸν γενέσθαι τὸ αἰσχρόν· ἡ - δὲ μίμησις·, ἄν τε περὶ φαῦλον ἄν τε περὶ χρηστὸν ἐφίκηται τῆς - ὁμοιότητος, ἐπαινεῖται. καὶ τοὐναντίον ἂν αἰσχροῦ - σώματος εἰκόνα καλὴν παράσχῃ, τὸ πρέπον καὶ τὸ εἰκὸς οὐκ ἀπέδωκεν. - γράφουσι δὲ καὶ πράξεις ἀτόπους ἔνιοι, καθάπερ Τιμόμαχος τὴν Μηδείας - τεκνοκτονίαν - καὶ Θέων τὴν Ὀρέστου - μητροκτονίαν καὶ Παρράσιος τὴν Ὀδυσσέως προσποίητον μανίαν καὶ -Χαιρεφάνης - ἀκολάστους ὁμιλίας γυναικῶν πρὸς ἄνδρας. ἐν οἷς μάλιστα δεῖ τὸν - νέον ἐθίζεσθαι, διδασκόμενον ὅτι τὴν πρᾶξιν οὐκ ἐπαινοῦμεν ἧς - γέγονεν ἡ μίμησις, ἀλλὰ τὴν τέχνην εἰ μεμίμηται - προσηκόντως τὸ ὑποκείμενον. ἐπεὶ τοίνυν καὶ ποιητικὴ - πολλάκις ἔργα φαῦλα καὶ πάθη μοχθηρὰ καὶ ἤθη μιμητικῶς ἀπαγγέλλει, - δεῖ τὸ θαυμαζόμενον ἐν τούτοις καὶ κατορθούμενον μήτʼ ἀποδέχεσθαι τὸν - νέον ὡς ἀληθὲς μήτε δοκιμάζειν ὡς καλόν, ἀλλʼ - ἐπαινεῖν μόνον ὡς ἐναρμόττον τῷ ὑποκειμένῳ προσώπῳ καὶ - οἰκεῖον. ὥσπερ γὰρ ὑὸς βοὴν καὶ ψόφον - τροχιλίας καὶ πνευμάτων ῥοῖζον καὶ θαλάττης - κτύπον ἀκούοντες ἐνοχλούμεθα καὶ δυσχεραίνομεν, ἂν δέ τις πιθανῶς - ταῦτα μιμῆται, καθάπερ Παρμένων τὴν ὗν καὶ Θεόδωρος τὰς τροχιλίας, - ἡδόμεθα· καὶ νοσώδη μὲν ἄνθρωπον καὶ ὕπουλον ὡς ἀτερπὲς θέαμα - φεύγομεν, τὸν δʼ Ἀριστοφῶντος Φιλοκτήτην - - καὶ τὴν Σιλανίωνος Ἰοκάστην ὁμοίους φθίνουσι καὶ ἀποθνῄσκουσι - πεποιημένους ὁρῶντες χαίρομεν οὕτως - ὁ - νέος ἀναγιγνώσκων ἃ Θερσίτης ὁ γελωτοποιὸς ἢ Σίσυφος ὁ φθορεὺς· - -φθόρος H ἢ Βάτραχος ὁ πορνοβοσκὸς λέγων - ἢ πράττων πεποίηται, - διδασκέσθω τὴν μιμουμένην ταῦτα δύναμιν καὶ τέχνην ἐπαινεῖν, ἃς δὲ 26 - φθόρος Η διαθέσεις καὶ πράξεις μιμεῖται καὶ - προβάλλεσθαι καὶ κακίζειν. οὐ γάρ ἐστι ταὐτὸ τὸ καλόν τι -καλῶς τι H: - καλῶς - καὶ καλῶς τι μιμεῖσθαι, - καλῶς γάρ ἐστι τὸ πρεπόντως καὶ οἰκείως, οἰκεῖα δὲ καὶ πρέποντα τοῖς - αἰσχροῖς - τὰ αἰσχρά. καὶ γὰρ αἱ Δαμωνίδα - τοῦ χωλοῦ κρηπῖδες, ἃς ἀπολέσας εὔχετο τοῖς τοῦ κλέψαντος ἐναρμόσαι - ποσί, φαῦλαι μὲν ἦσαν ἐκείνῳ δʼ ἣρμοττον. καὶ τὸ -εἴπερ γὰρ ἀδικεῖν χρή, τυραννίδος πέρι Eurip. Phoen. 524 - - -κάλλιστον ἀδικεῖν - - καὶ τὸ - - -τοῦ μὲν δικαίου τὴν δόκησιν ἄρνυσο, Nauck. p. 652 - -τὰ δʼ ἔργα τοῦ πᾶν δρῶντος ἔνθα κερδανεῖς - καὶ -τάλαντον ἡ προίξ. μὴ λάβω; -λάβω; ζῆν Grotius: - λαβὼν καὶ ζῆν - ζῆν δʼ ἔστι - μοι Meinek. IV p. - 668 - -τάλαντον ὑπεριδόντι; τεύξομαι δʼ ὕπνου -προέμενος; οὐ δώσω δὲ κἀν Ἅιδου δίκην -ὡς ἠσεβηκὼς εἰς τάλαντον ἀργυροῦν - μοχθηροὶ μέν εἰσι λόγοι καὶ ψευδεῖς, Ἐτεοκλεῖ δὲ - καὶ Ἰξίονι καὶ τοκογλύφῳ πρεσβύτῃ πρέποντες. - ἂν οὖν ὑπομιμνῄσκωμεν τοὺς παῖδας ὅτι ταῦτʼ οὐκ - ἐπαινοῦντες οὐδὲ - δοκιμάζοντες ἀλλʼ ὡς ἄτοπα καὶ φαῦλα φαύλοις καὶ ἀτόποις ἤθεσι καὶ - προσώποις περιτιθέντες γράφουσιν, οὐκ ἂν ὑπὸ τῆς δόξης βλάπτοιντο - τῶν ποιητῶν. ἀλλὰ τοὐναντίον ἡ πρὸς - τὸ πρόσωπον ὑποψία διαβάλλει καὶ τὸ πρᾶγμα καὶ τὸν λόγον, ὡς φαῦλον - ὑπὸ φαύλου καὶ λεγόμενον καὶ πραττόμενον. οἷόν ἐστι - καὶ τὸ τῆς συγκοιμήσεως τοῦ Πάριδος ἐκ τῆς μάχης ἀποδράντος. οὐδένα - γὰρ ἄλλον ἀνθρώπων -ἄθρωπον W: ἀνθρωπων. Delendum mihi vid. ἡμέρας συγκοιμώμενον - γυναικὶ ποιήσας ἢ τὸν ἀκόλαστον καὶ μοιχικὸν ἐν αἰσχύνῃ - δῆλός ἐστι καὶ ψόγῳ τιθέμενος τὴν τοιαύτην - ἀκρασίαν. - -

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ἐν δὲ τούτοις εὖ μάλα προσεκτέον εἴ τινας ὁ ποιητὴς αὐτὸς ἐμφάσεις - δίδωσι κατὰ τῶν λεγομένων ὡς δυσχεραινομένων ὑπʼ αὐτοῦ. καθάπερ ὁ -Μένανδρος ἐν τῷ προλόγῳ τῆς Θαΐδος; - πεποίηκεν -ἐμοὶ μὲν οὖν ἄειδε τοιαύτην, θεά, Meinek. IV p. 131 - -θρασεῖαν ὡραίαν δὲ καὶ πιθανὴν ἅμα, -ἀδικοῦσαν ἀποκλείουσαν αἰτοῦσαν πυκνά, -μηδενὸς ἐρῶσαν, προσποιουμένην δʼ ἀεί - - - ἄριστα δʼ Ὅμηρος - τῷ γένει τούτῳ κέχρηται· καὶ γὰρ προδιαβάλλει τὰ φαῦλα καὶ - προσυνίστησι τὰ χρηστὰ τῶν λεγομένων· προσυνίστησι μὲν οὕτως -αὐτίκα μειλίχιον καὶ κερδαλέον φάτο μῦθον Homer. ζ 148 - - καὶ - - -τόνδʼ ἀγανοῖς ἐπέεσσιν ἐρητύσασκε παραστάς id. B 189 - - ἐν δὲ τῷ προδιαβάλλειν μονονοὺ μαρτύρεται καὶ διαγορεύει μήτε - χρῆσθαι μήτε προσέχειν ὡς οὖσιν ἀτόποις καὶ φαύλοις. οἷον τὸν τʼ - Ἀγαμέμνονα μέλλων διηγεῖσθαι τῷ ἱερεῖ χρώμενον ἀπηνῶς; προείρηκεν - - -ἀλλʼ οὐκ Ἀτρεΐδῃ Ἀγαμέμνονι ἥνδανε θυμῷ, -ἀλλὰ κακῶς ἀφίει, - - - τουτέστιν ἀγρίως καὶ - αὐθάδως καὶ παρὰ τὸ προσῆκον· τῷ, τ̓ Ἀχιλλεῖ τοὺς θρασεῖς λόγους - περιτίθησιν -οἰνοβαρές, κυνὸς ὄμματʼ ἔχων, κραδίην δʼ ἐλάφοιο -Homer. A 225 - τὴν αὑτοῦ κρίσιν ὑπειπὼν - - -Πηλεΐδης δʼ ἐξαῦτις ἀταρτηροῖς ἐπέεσσιν -id. A 223 -Ἀτρεΐδην προσέειπε, καὶ οὔ πω λῆγε χόλοιο - καλὸν γὰρ εἰκὸς οὐδὲν εἶναι μετʼ ὀργῆς καὶ αὐστηρῶς - λεγόμενον. ὁμοίως καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν πράξεων -ἦ ῥα, καὶ Ἕκτορα δῖον ἀεικέα μήδετο ἔργα, id. Ψ - 24 - - - -πρηνέα πὰρ λεχέεσσι Μενοιτιάδαο τανύσσας - εὖ δὲ καὶ ταῖς ἐπιρρήσεσι χρῆται, καθάπερ τινὰ ψῆφον ἰδίαν - ἐπιφέρων τοῖς· πραττομένοις ἢ λεγομένοις, ἐπὶ μὲν τῆς μοιχείας τοῦ - Ἄρεος τοὺς θεοὺς ποιῶν λέγοντας - - -οὐκ ἀρετᾷ κακὰ ἔργα· κιχάνει τοι βραδὺς ὠκύν -id. θ 329 -, ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς τοῦ Ἕκτορος ὑπερφροσύνης καὶ μεγαλαυχίας -ὣς ἔφατʼ εὐχόμενος, νεμέσησε δὲ πότνια Ἥρη -id. Θ 198 -, ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς Πανδάρου τοξείας - - -ὣς φάτʼ Ἀθηναίη, τῷ δὲ φρένας ἄφρονι πεῖθεν -id. Δ 104 - - αὗται μὲν οὖν αἱ - τῶν λόγων ἀποφάσεις καὶ δόξαι παντός εἰσι κατιδεῖν τοῦ προσέχοντος· - ἑτέρας· δʼ ἐκ τῶν πραγμάτων αὐτῶν παρέχουσι μαθήσεις, ὥσπερ ὁ - Εὐριπίδης -Εὐριπίδης] Nauck. p. 389 εἰπεῖν λέγεται - πρὸς τοὺς τὸν Ἰξίονα λοιδοροῦντας ὡς ἀσεβῆ καὶ μιαρόν, “οὐ μέντοι - πρότερον αὐτὸν ἐκ τῆς σκηνῆς ἐξήγαγον ἢ τῷ τροχῷ προσηλῶσαι” παρὰ δʼ Ὁμήρῳ σιωπώμενόν ἐστι τὸ - τοιοῦτο γένος τῆς διδασκαλίας, ἔχον δʼ ἀναθεώρησιν ὠφέλιμον ἐπὶ τῶν - διαβεβλημένων μάλιστα μύθων, οὓς ταῖς πάλαι μὲν ὑπονοίαις ἀλληγορίαις - δὲ - - νῦν λεγομέναις - παραβιαζόμενοι καὶ διαστρέφοντες ἔνιοι μοιχευομένην φασὶν Ἀφροδίτην ὑπʼ - Ἄρεος μηνύειν Ἥλιον, ὅτι τῷ τῆς Ἀφροδίτης ἀστέρι συνελθὼν ὁ - τοῦ Ἄρεος μοιχικὰς ἀποτελεῖ γενέσεις, Ἡλίου δʼ ἐπαναφερομένου καὶ - καταλαμβάνοντος οὐ λανθάνουσιν. - τὸν δὲ τῆς - Ἥρας καλλωπισμὸν ἐπὶ τὸν Δία καὶ τὰς περὶ τὸν κεστὸν γοητείας - ἀέρος τινὰ -τινὰ H: τινὸς - κάθαρσιν εἶναι βούλονται τῷ πυρώδει - πλησιάζοντος, ὥσπερ οὐκ αὐτοῦ τὰς λύσεις τοῦ ποιητοῦ διδόντος. ἐν μὲν - γὰρ τοῖς περὶ τῆς Ἀφροδίτης διδάσκει τοὺς - προσέχοντας, ὅτι μουσικὴ φαύλη καὶ ᾄσματα πονηρὰ - καὶ λόγοι μοχθηρὰς ὑποθέσεις - λαμβάνοντες ἀκόλαστα ποιοῦσιν ἤθη καὶ βίους ἀνάνδρους καὶ ἀνθρώπους - τρυφὴν καὶ μαλακίαν καὶ γυναικοκρασίαν -γυναικοκρατίαν - Meziriacus ἀγαπῶντας - - -εἵματά τʼ ἐξημοιβὰ λοετρά τε θερμὰ καὶ εὐνάς -Hom. θ 249 -. διὸ καὶ τὸν Ὀδυσσέα τῷ κιθαρῳδῷ προστάττοντα πεποίηκεν - -ἀλλʼ ἄγε δὴ μετάβηθι καὶ ἵππου κόσμον ἄεισον, -id. θ 492 - καλῶς ὑφηγούμενος τὸ παρὰ τῶν φρονίμων καὶ νοῦν - ἐχόντων χρῆναι λαμβάνειν τοὺς μουσικοὺς καὶ - ποιητικοὺς τὰς ὑποθέσεις. ἐν δὲ τοῖς; περὶ τῆς Ἥρας - ἄριστα τὴν ἀπὸ φαρμάκων - καὶ γοητείας καὶ μετὰ δόλου πρὸς τοὺς ἄνδρας - ὁμιλίαν καὶ χάριν ἔδειξεν οὐ μόνον ἐφήμερον καὶ ἁψίκορον καὶ - ἀβέβαιον οὖσαν, ἀλλὰ καὶ μεταβάλλουσαν εἰς ἔχθραν καὶ ὀργήν, ὅταν - τὰ τῆς ἡδονῆς ἀπομαρανθῇ. τοιαῦτα γὰρ - ὁ - Ζεὺς ἀπειλεῖ καὶ λέγει πρὸς αὐτὴν -ὄφρα ἴδῃς ἤν τοι χραίσμῃ φιλότης τε καὶ εὐνή, -Hom. O 32 -ἣν ἐμίγης ἐλθοῦσα θεῶν ἄπο καὶ μʼ ἀπάτησας - ἡ γὰρ τῶν φαύλων διάθεσις ἔργων καὶ μίμησις ἂν προσαποδῷ - τὴν συμβαίνουσαν αἰσχύνην καὶ βλάβην - τοῖς - ἐργασαμένοις, ὠφέλησεν οὐκ ἔβλαψε τὸν ἀκροώμενον. οἱ γοῦν φιλόσοφοι - παραδείγμασι χρῶνται, - - νουθετοῦντες καὶ παιδεύοντες ἐξ ὑποκειμένων οἱ δὲ ποιηταὶ ταὐτὰ - ποιοῦσι πλάττοντες αὐτοὶ πράγματα καὶ μυθολογοῦντες. ὁ μὲν οὖν - Μελάνθιος - εἴτε παίζων εἴτε σπουδάζων - ἔλεγε διασῴζεσθαι τὴν Ἀθηναίων πόλιν ὑπὸ τῆς τῶν ῥητόρων - διχοστασίας καὶ ταραχῆς οὐ γὰρ ἀποκλίνειν ἅπαντας εἰς τὸν αὐτὸν - τοῖχον, ἀλλὰ γίγνεσθαί τινα τοῦ βλάπτοντος ἀνθολκὴν; ἐν τῇ διαφορᾆ - τῶν πολιτευομένων. αἱ δὲ - τῶν ποιητῶν - ὑπεναντιώσεις πρὸς αὑτοὺς ἀνταναφέρουσαι τὴν πίστιν οὐκ ἐῶσιν - ἰσχυρὰν ῥοπὴν γενέσθαι πρὸς τὸ βλάπτον. ὅπου μὲν οὖν αὐτοῖς τὸ - τιθέναι σύνεγγυς ἐκφανεῖς ποιεῖ τὰς ἀντιλογίας, δεῖ τῷ βελτίονι - συνηγορεῖν ὥσπερ ἐν τούτοις - - - -πόλλʼ, ὦ τέκνον, σφάλλουσιν ἀνθρώπους θεοἲ. -Nauck. p. 345 -τὸ ῥᾷστον εἶπας, αἰτιάσασθαι θεούς - καὶ πάλιν - - χρυσοῦ σε πλήθει, τούσδε δʼ οὐ χαίρειν χρεών - σκαιὸν τὸ -τὸ Stobaeus Flor. 93, 7 (Nauck. p. 542): - γε - πλουτεῖν κἄλλο μηδὲν - εἰδέναι - καὶ -τί δῆτα θύειν -θύειν Cobetus: οὗσιν - δεῖ σε κατθανούμενον Nauck p. 694 - - - ἄμεινον· οὐδεὶς κάματος εὐσεβεῖν θεούς. - τὰ γὰρ τοιαῦτα τὰς λύσεις ἔχει προδήλους, ἄν, ὥσπερ - εἴρηται, πρὸς τὰ βελτίονα τῇ κρίσει τοὺς νέους κατευθύνωμεν. ὅσα δʼ - εἴρηται μὲν ἀτόπως - - εὐθὺς δʼ οὐ λέλυται, ταῦτα δεῖ τοῖς ἀλλαχόθι πρὸς - τοὐναντίον εἰρημένοις ὑπʼ αὐτῶν ἀνταναιρεῖν, μὴ - ἀχθομένους τῷ ποιητῇ μηδὲ χαλεπαίνοντας ἀλλʼ ἐν ἤθει καὶ μετὰ - παιδιᾶς δεχομένους. -δεχομένους (sc. ταῦτα) scripsi: λεγομένοις - εὐθύς, εἰ βούλει, πρὸς τὰς Ὁμηρικὰς τῶν - θεῶν ῥίψεις ὑπʼ ἀλλήλων καὶ τρώσεις ὑπʼ ἀνθρώπων καὶ διαφορὰς καὶ - χαλεπότητας -οἶσθα καὶ ἄλλον μῦθον ἀμείνονα τοῦδε νοῆσαι -Homer. H 358 - καὶ νοεῖς νὴ Δία καὶ λέγεις κρεῖττον ἀλλαχόθι καὶ βέλτιον τὰ - τοιαῦτα -θεοὶ ῥεῖα ζώοντες -id. Z 138 - - καὶ -τῷ ἔνι τέρπονται μάκαρες θεοὶ ἤματα πάντα -id. ζ 46 - καί - - -ὣς γὰρ ἐπεκλώσαντο θεοὶ δειλοῖσι βροτοῖσι; -id. Ω 525 -ζώειν ἀχνυμένοις· αὐτοὶ δὲ τʼ ἀκηδέες εἰσὶν - - αὗται γάρ εἰσιν ὑγιαίνουσαι περὶ θεῶν - δόξαι καὶ ἀληθεῖς, ἐκεῖνα δὲ πέπλασται πρὸς - ἔκπληξιν ἀνθρώπων πων. πάλιν Εὐριπίδου λέγοντος -πολλαῖσι μορφαῖς οἱ θεοὶ σοφισμάτων Nauck. p. 519 - - -σφάλλουσιν ἡμᾶς κρείττονες πεφυκότες - - οὐ χεῖρόν ἐστιν ὑπενεγκεῖν τὸ -εἰ θεοί τι δρῶσι φαῦλον, οὔκ εἰσιν θεοί -id. p. 355 -, βέλτιον εἰρημένον ὑπʼ αὐτοῦ. καὶ τοῦ Πινδάρου σφόδρα πικρῶς - καὶ παροξυντικῶς εἰρηκότος -χρὴ δὲ πᾶν ἔρδοντʼ ἀμαυρῶσαι τὸν ἐχθρόν -Isthm. IV 48 -, - ἀλλʼ αὐτός γε σὺ λέγεις ὅτι - -τὸ πὰρ δίκαν -Isthm. VII. 47 -γλυκὺ πικροτάτα μένει τελευτά - -γλυκὺ Pindarus: γλυκεὶ - -, καὶ τοῦ Σοφοκλέους -τὸ κέρδος ἡδὺ , κἂν ἀπὸ ψευδῶν ἴῃ - -ἴῃBrunckius: εἴη - -Nauck p. 246 -, - καὶ μὴν σοῦ γʼ ἀκηκόαμεν ὡς - -οὐκ ἐξάγουσι καρπὸν οἱ ψευδεῖς λόγοι -Nauck. p. 246 - - πρὸς δʼ ἐκεῖνα τὰ - περὶ τοῦ πλούτου -δεινὸς γὰρ ἕρπειν πλοῦτος ἔς -ἔς Stobaeus Flor. 91, - 27: πρός - τε τἄβατα -τἄβατα καὶ πρὸς τὰ βατὰ Stephanus: τὰ βατὰ καὶ πρὸς τʼ ἄβατα - - -id. p. 118 -καὶ πρὸς τὰ βατὰ κἄπωθεν -κἄπωθεν ὤν scripsi: - καὶ ὁπόθεν - ὤν· πένης δʼ - -δʼ add. R ἀνὴρ - - -οὐδʼ ἐντυχὼν δύναιτʼ ἂν ὧν ἐρᾷ τυχεῖν. -καὶ γὰρ δυσειδὲς σῶμα καὶ δυσώνυμον -γλώσσῃ σοφὸν τίθησιν εὔμορφὸν τʼ ἰδεῖν - ἀντιπαραθήσει πολλὰ τῶν Σοφοκλέους, ὧν καὶ ταῦτʼ ἐστὶ - -γένοιτο κἂν ἄπλουτος ἐν τιμαῖς ἀνήρ -Nauck. p. 247 - - -οὐδὲν κακίων πτωχός, εἰ καλῶς φρονεῖ -id. p. 247 - καί - - - -ἀλλὰ τῶν πολλῶν καλῶν χαι -id. p. 207 -τίς χάρις, εἰ κακόβουλος -φροντὶς ἐκτρέφει τὸν εὐαίωνα πλοῦτον; - ὁ δὲ Μένανδρος ἐπῆρε μὲν ἀμέλει τὴν φιληδονίαν καὶ - ὑπεχαύνωσε τοῖς ἐρωτικοῖς καὶ διαπύροις ἐκείνοις - - -ἅπανθʼ ὅσα ζῇ καὶ τὸν ἣλιον βλέπει -Meinek. IV p. 266 -τὸν κοινὸν ἡμῖν, δοῦλα ταῦτʼ ἔσθʼ ἡδονῆς - πάλιν δʼ ἐπέστρεψε καὶ περιέσπασε πρὸς τὸ καλὸν ἡμᾶς καὶ τὴν - θρασύτητα τῆς ἀκολασίας ἐξέκοψεν εἰπὼν - - -ὄνειδος αἰσχρὸς βίος ὅμως κἂν ἡδὺς ᾖ -id. IV p. 282 - - ταῦτα γὰρ ἐκείνοις - μέν ἐστιν ὑπεναντία, βελτίω δὲ καὶ χρησιμώτερα. δυεῖν οὖν θάτερον ἡ - τοιαύτη τῶν ἐναντίων ποιήσει παράθεσις καὶ κατανόησις, ἢ παράξει πρὸς - τὸ βέλτιον ἢ καὶ τοῦ χείρονος ἀποστήσει - - τὴν πίστιν. ἂν δʼ αὐτοὶ μὴ διδῶσι τῶν ἀτόπως εἰρημένων λύσεις, οὐ - χεῖρόν ἐστιν ἑτέρων ἐνδόξων ἀποφάσεις ἀντιτάττοντας ὥσπερ ἐπὶ - ζυγοῦ ῥέπειν πρὸς τὸ βέλτιον. οἷον τοῦ Ἀλέξιδος κινοῦντος ἐνίους - ὅταν λέγῃ - - -τὰς ἡδονὰς δεῖ συλλέγειν τὸν σώφρονα. -id. III p. 518 -τρεῖς δʼ εἰσὶν αἵ γε τὴν δύναμιν κεκτημέναι - - -τὴν ὡς ἀληθῶς συντελοῦσαν τῷ βίῳ, - - - -τὸ φαγεῖν τὸ πιεῖν τὸ τῆς Ἀφροδίτης τυγχάνειν - -τὸ φαγεῖν τὸ πιεῖν H ex p. 445 f.: τὸ πειε͂ν τὸ φαγεῖν - -τὰ δʼ ἄλλα προσθήκας ἅπαντα χρὴ καλεῖν -, ὑπομνηστέον ὅτι Σωκράτης τοὐναντίον ἔλεγε, τοὺς μὲν φαύλους - ζῆν τοῦ ἐσθίειν καὶ πίνειν ἕνεκα, τοὺς - δʼ - ἀγαθοὺς ἐσθίειν καὶ πίνειν ἕνεκα τοῦ ζῆν. πρὸς; δὲ τὸν γράψαντα - ποτὶ τὸν πονηρὸν οὐκ ἄχρηστον ὅπλον ἁ πονηρία, τρόπον τινὰ - συνεξομοιοῦσθαι κελεύοντα τοῖς πονηροῖς, τὸ τοῦ Διογένους παραβαλεῖν - ἔστιν· ἐρωτηθεὶς - γὰρ ὅπως ἄν τις ἀμύναιτο - τὸν ἐχθρόν, “αὐτόσ” ἔφη “καλὸς κἀγαθὸς γενόμενοσ” δεῖ δὲ τῷ - Διογένει καὶ πρὸς τὸν Σοφοκλέα χρήσασθαι· πολλὰς γὰρ ἀνθρώπων - μυριάδας ἐμπέπληκεν ἀθυμίας περὶ τῶν μυστηρίων ταῦτα γράψας -ὡς τρισόλβιοι Nauck. p. 247 - - -κεῖνοι βροτῶν, οἳ ταῦτα δερχθέντες τέλη -μόλως1ʼ ἐς Ἅιδου· · -ζῆν ἔστι, τοῖς δʼ ᾅδοντι πάντʼ ἐκεῖ κακάʼ - Διογένης δʼ ἀκούσας τι τοιοῦτο “τί λέγεις; ʼ” ἔφη. “κρείττονα μοῖραν ἕξει Παταικίων ὁ κλέπτης ἀποθανὼν - - ἢ Ἐπαμεινώνδας - ὅτι γὰρ μόνοις ἐκεῖὄτι μεμύηται;ʼ” Τιμοθέῳ μὲν γὰρ ᾄδοντι - τὴν Ἄρτεμιν ἐν τῷ θεάτρῳ μαινάδα -μαινάδα] Bergk. 3 p. 620 θυιάδα -θυιάδα idem: θυάδα - φοιβάδα λυσσάδα Κινησίας - εὐθὺς ἀντεφώνησε “τοιαύτη σοι θυγάτηρ γένοιτο.” χαρίεν δὲ καὶ τὸ - τοῦ Βίωνος πρὸς τὸν Θέογνιν λέγοντα - - -πᾶς γὰρ ἀνὴρ πενίῃ δεδμημένος οὔτε τι εἰπεῖν -Theogn. 177 -οὔθʼ ἔρξαι δύναται, γλῶσσα δέ οἱ δέδεται - - “πῶς οὖν σὺ πένης ὢν φλυαρεῖς τοσαῦτα καὶ καταδολεσχεῖς ἡμῶν;” -

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δεῖ δὲ μηδὲ τὰς ἐκ τῶν παρακειμένων ἢ συμφραζομένων παραλιπεῖν - ἀφορμὰς πρὸς τὴν ἐπανόρθωσιν, - ἀλλʼ ὥσπερ - οἱ ἰατροὶ τῆς κανθαρίδος οὔσης θανασίμου τοὺς πόδας; ὅμως· καὶ τὰ - πτερὰ βοηθεῖν οἴονται καὶ ἀναλύειν τὴν δύναμιν, οὕτως ἐν τοῖς - ποιήμασι, κἂν ὄνομα κἂν ῥῆμα παρακείμενον ἀμβλυτέραν ποιῇ τὴν πρὸς - τὸ χεῖρον ἀπαγωγήν, ἐπιλαμβάνεσθαι - καὶ - προσδιασαφεῖν, ὡς ἐπὶ τούτων ἔνιοι ποιοῦσι -τοῦτὸ νύ που γέρας ἐστὶν ὀιζυροῖσι βροτοῖσι, -Homer. δ 197 -κείρασθαί τε κόμην βαλέειν τʼ ἀπὸ δάκρυ παρειῶν - καὶ - - -ὣς γὰρ ἐπεκλώσαντο θεοὶ δειλοῖσι βροτοῖσι, -id. Ω 525 -ζώειν ἀχνυμένοις - - οὐ γὰρ ἁπλῶς εἶπε - καὶ πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις ὑπὸ θεῶν ἐπικεκλῶσθαι λυπηρὸν βίον, ἀλλὰ τοῖς - ἄφροσι καὶ ἀνοήτοις, οὓς δειλαίους καὶ οἰκτροὺς διὰ μοχθηρίαν - ὄντας εἴωθε “δειλοὺσ” καὶ “ὀιζυροὺσ” προσαγορεύειν.

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ἄλλος τοίνυν τρόπος ἐστὶ τὰς ἐν τοῖς ποιήμασιν ὑποψίας πρὸς τὸ - βέλτιον ἐκ τοῦ χείρονος μεθιστὰς ὁ διὰ τῶν ὀνομάτων τῆς συνηθείας, - περὶ ὃν δεῖ τὸν νέον γεγυμνάσθαι μᾶλλον ἢ περὶ τὰς - λεγομένας γλώττας. ἐκεῖνο μὲν γὰρ φιλόλογον, καὶ - οὐκ ἀηδὲς ὅτι “ῥιγεδανὸσ” κακοθάνατός ἐστιν εἰδέναι· δάνον - γὰρ Μακεδόνες τὸν θάνατον καλοῦσι, “καμμονίαν” δὲ νίκην Αἰολεῖς - τὴν ἐξ ἐπιμονῆς - καὶ καρτερίας, - Δρύοπες δὲ “πόπουσ” τοὺς δαίμονας. τουτὶ δʼ ἀναγκαῖον καὶ - χρήσιμον, εἰ μέλλομεν -μέλλομεν Madvigius: μέλλοιμεν - ἐκ τῶν ποιημάτων ὠφεληθήσεσθαι καὶ μὴ - βλαβήσεσθαι, τὸ γιγνώσκειν πῶς τοῖς τῶν θεῶν - ὀνόμασιν οἱ ποιηταὶ χρῶνται καὶ πάλιν τοῖς τῶν κακῶν καὶ ἀγαθῶν, - καὶ τί τὴν Τύχην τί τὴν Μοῖραν νοοῦντες ὀνομάζουσι, καὶ πότερον - ταῦτα τῶν ἁπλῶς ἢ τῶν πολλαχῶς λεγομένων ἐστὶ παρʼ αὐτοῖς, ὥσπερ - ἄλλα πολλά. καὶ γὰρ “οἶκον” ποτὲ μὲν τὴν οἰκίαν - καλοῦσιν -οἷκον ἐς ὑψόροφον -Homer. ε 42 - - ποτὲ δὲ τὴν οὐσίαν - -ἐσθίεταί μοι οἶκος -id. δ 318 -, καὶ -καὶ H: καὶ τὸν - “βίοτον” -βίοτον̀ W: βίον - ποτὲ μὲν τὸ ζῆν Homer. N 562 - - -ἀμενήνωσεν δέ οἱ αἰχμὴν -κυανοχαῖτα Ποσειδάων, βιότοιο μεγήρας - ποτὲ δὲ τὰ χρήματα -βίοτον δέ μοι ἄλλοι ἔδουσι -id. ν 419 -, καὶ τῷ “ἀλύειν” ποτὲ μὲν ἀντὶ τοῦ δάκνεσθαι καὶ - ἀπορεῖσθαι κέχρηται -ὣς ἔφαθʼ , ἡ δʼ ἀλύους1ʼ ἀπεβήσετο, τείρετο δʼ αἰνῶς -id. E 352 - ποτὲ δʼ ἀντὶ τοῦ γαυριᾶν καὶ χαίρειν -ἦ ἀλύεις ὅτι Ἶρον ἐνίκησας τὸν ἀλήτην; -id. ς 332. 392 - - καὶ τῷ “θοάζειν” ἢ τὸ κινεῖσθαι - σημαίνουσιν, ὡς Εὐριπίδης - -κῆτος θοάζον ἐξ Ἀτλαντικῆς ἁλός, -Nauck. p. 523 - ἢ τὸ καθέζεσθαι καὶ θαάσσειν, ὡς Σοφοκλῆς - - -τίνας πόθʼ ἕδρας τάσδε μοι θοάζετε -OR 2 -ἱκτηρίοις κλάδοισιν ἐξεστεμμένοι; - - χάριεν δὲ καὶ τὸ τὴν χρείαν τῶν ὀνομάτων - συνοικειοῦν τοῖς ὑποκειμένοις πράγμασιν, ὡς οἱ γραμματικοὶ διδάσκουσιν, - ἄλλο πρὸς ἄλλην δύναμιν λαμβάνοντες,· οἷόν ἐστι -νῆʼ ὀλίγην αἰνεῖν, μεγάλῃ δʼ ἐνὶ φορτία θέσθαι -Hesiod. OD 643 - - τῷ μὲν γὰρ “αἰνεῖν” σημαίνεται τὸ - ἐπαινεῖν, αὐτῷ δὲ τῷ ἐπαινεῖν ἀντὶ τοῦ παραιτεῖσθαι νῦν κέχρηται, - καθάπερ ἐν τῇ συνηθείᾳ “καλῶσ” φαμὲν “ἔχειν” καὶ - “χαίρειν” κελεύομεν, ὅταν μὴ δεώμεθα μηδὲ λαμβάνωμεν. οὕτω δὲ καὶ - τὴν “ἐπαινὴν Περσεφόνειαν -” ἔνιοί φασιν ὡς παραιτητὴν εἰρῆσθαι. ταύτην δὴ τὴν διαίρεσιν καὶ - διάκρισιν τῶν ὀνομάτων ἐν τοῖς μείζοσι καὶ σπουδαιοτέροις - παραφυλάττοντες ἀπὸ τῶν θεῶν ἀρχώμεθα διδάσκειν τοὺς νέους ὅτι - χρῶνται τοῖς τῶν θεῶν ὀνόμασιν οἱ ποιηταὶ ποτὲ μὲν αὐτῶν - ἐκείνων ἐφαπτόμενοι τῇ ἐννοίᾳ, ποτὲ δὲ - δυνάμεις τινὰς ὧν οἱ θεοὶ δοτῆρές εἰσι καὶ καθηγεμόνες ὁμωνύμως - προσαγορεύοντες οἷον εὐθὺς ὁ Ἀρχίλοχος , ὅταν μὲν εὐχόμενος λέγῃ - - -κλῦθʼ ἄναξ Ἥφαιστε καί μοι σύμμαχος γουνουμένῳ Bergk. 2 p. 404 - - -ἵλαος γενοῦ, χαρίζευ δʼ οἷάπερ χαρίζεαι -, αὐτὸν τὸν θεὸν ἐπικαλούμενος δῆλός ἐστιν· ὅταν δὲ τὸν ἄνδρα τῆς ἀδελφῆς ἠφανισμένον ἐν θαλάττῃ - καὶ μὴ τυχόντα νομίμου ταφῆς θρηνῶν λέγῃ μετριώτερον ἂν τὴν συμφορὰν - ἐνεγκεῖν -εἰ κείνου κεφαλὴν καὶ χαρίεντα μέλεα Bergk. 2 p. 387 - - -Ἥφαιστος καθαροῖσιν ἐν εἵμασιν ἀμφεπονήθη - τὸ πῦρ οὕτως, οὐ τὸν θεὸν προσηγόρευσε. πάλιν δʼ ὁ μὲν - Εὐριπίδης -Εὐριπίδης] Phoen. 1013 εἰπὼν ἐν ὅρκῳ -μὰ τὸν μετʼ ἄστρων Ζῆνʼ Ἄρη τε φοίνιον - αὐτοὺς τοὺς θεοὺς ὠνόμασε· τοῦ δὲ Σοφοκλέους - λέγοντος - - -τυφλὸς γάρ, ὦ γυναῖκες, οὐδʼ ὁρῶν Ἄρης -Nauck. p. 247 -συὸς προσώπῳ πάντα τυρβάζει κακὰ - τὸν πόλεμον ἔστιν ὑπακοῦσαι, καθάπερ αὖ τὸν χαλκὸν Ὁμήρου -Ὁμήρου] H 329 - λέγοντος - - -τῶν νῦν αἷμα κελαινὸν ἐύρροον ἀμφὶ Σκάμανδρον -ἐσκέδας1ʼ ὀξὺζ; Ἄρης - πολλῶν οὖν οὕτω λεγομένων εἰδέναι δεῖ καὶ μνημονεύειν ὅτι - καὶ τῷ τοῦ Διὸς καὶ Ζηνὸς ὀνόματι - - ποτὲ μὲν τὸν θεὸν - ποτὲ δὲ τὴν τύχην πολλάκις δὲ τὴν εἱμαρμένην προσαγορεύουσιν. ὅταν - μὲν γὰρ λέγωσι -Ζεῦ πάτερ, Ἴδηθεν μεδέων -Homer, Γ 276. H 202. Ω 308 - καὶ - - -ὦ Ζεῦ, τίς εἶναί φησι σοῦ σοφώτερος; -Nauck. p. 694 - τὸν θεὸν αὐτὸν λέγουσιν· ὅταν δὲ ταῖς αἰτίαις -ὅταν δʼ ἐπὶ ταῖς αἰτίας Hirschigius - πάντων τῶν γιγνομένων ἐπονομάζωσι τὸν Δία καὶ λέγωσι - -πολλὰς δʼ ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν - -Homer. A 5 -Διὸς δʼ ἐτελείετο βουλή -, - τὴν εἱμαρμένην. οὐ γὰρ τὸν θεὸν - ὁ ποιητὴς οἴεται κακὰ μηχανᾶσθαι τοῖς ἀνθρώποις, ἀλλὰ τὴν τῶν - πραγμάτων ἀνάγκην - ὀρθῶς ὑποδείκνυσιν, ὅτι καὶ πόλεσι καὶ στρατοπέδοις καὶ ἡγεμόσιν, - ἂν μὲν σωφρονῶσιν , εὖ πράττειν πέπρωται καὶ κρατεῖν τῶν - πολεμίων, ἂν δʼ εἰς πάθη καὶ ἁμαρτίας - ἐμπεσόντες ὥσπερ οὗτοι διαφέρωνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους καὶ στασιάζωσιν , - ἀσχημονεῖν καὶ ταράττεσθαι καὶ κακῶς ἀπαλλάττειν. -εἱμαρμένον γὰρ τῶν κακῶν βουλευμάτων Nauck. p. 695 - - -κακὰς ἀμοιβάς ἐστι καρποῦσθαι βροτοῖς. - καὶ μὴν ὁ Ἡσίοδος τὸν Προμηθέα ποιῶν τῷ Ἐπιμηθεῖ - παρακελευόμενον -μή ποτε δῶρα -OD 86 -δέξασθαι πὰρ Ζηνὸς Ὀλυμπίου ἀλλʼ ἀποπέμπειν - - - ἐπὶ τῇ τῆς τύχης - δυνάμει τῷ τοῦ Διὸς ὀνόματι κέχρηται· τὰ γὰρ τυχηρὰ τῶν ἀγαθῶν - Διὸς δῶρα κέκληκε, πλούτους καὶ γάμους καὶ ἀρχὰς καὶ πάνθʼ ὅλως τὰ - ἐκτός, ὧν ἡ κτῆσις ἀνόνητός ἐστι τοῖς χρῆσθαι καλῶς μὴ δυναμένοις. - διὸ καὶ τὸν Ἐπιμηθέα - ὄντα καὶ ἀνόητον - οἴεται δεῖν φυλάττεσθαι καὶ δεδιέναι τὰς εὐτυχίας, ὡς βλαβησόμενον καὶ - διαφθαρησόμενον ὑπʼ αὐτῶν. καὶ πάλιν ὅταν λένῃ - -μηδὲ ποτʼ οὐλομένην πενίην θυμοφθόρον ἀνδρὶ -OD 717 -τέτλαθʼ ὀνειδίζειν, μακάρων δόσιν αἰὲν ἐόντων -, θεόσδοτον νῦν τὸ τυχηρὸν εἴρηκεν, ὡς οὐκ ἄξιον ἐγκαλεῖν - τοῖς διὰ τὴν τύχην πενομένοις, ἀλλὰ τὴν - - μετʼ ἀργίας καὶ - μαλακίας καὶ πολυτελείας ἀπορίαν κακίζειν αἰσχρὰν καὶ ἐπονείδιστον - οὖσαν. οὔπω γὰρ αὐτὸ τοὔνομα τῆς τύχης λέγοντες, εἰδότες δὲ τὴν - τῆς ἀτάκτως καὶ ἀορίστως περιφερομένης αἰτίας δύναμιν ἰσχυρὰν καὶ - ἀφύλακτον οὖσαν ἀνθρωπίνῳ - λογισμῷ τοῖς - τῶν θεῶν ὀνόμασιν ἐξέφραζον, ὥσπερ ἡμεῖς καὶ πράγματα καὶ ἤθη καὶ - νὴ Δία καὶ λόγους καὶ ἄνδρας εἰώθαμεν δαιμονίους καὶ θείους - προσαγορεύειν. οὕτω δὴ τὰ πολλὰ τῶν ἀτόπως περὶ τοῦ Διὸς λέγεσθαι - δοκούντων ἐπανορθωτέον, ὧν - ἐστι καὶ ταῦτα - και -δοιοὶ γάρ τε πίθοι κατακείαται ἐν Διὸς οὔδει Homer. Ω 527 - - -κηρῶν ἔμπλειοι, ὁ μὲν ἐσθλῶν, αὐτὰρ ὁ δειλῶν -Plat. Rep. p. 379 d - καί -ὅρκια μὲν Κρονίδης ὑψίζυγος οὐκ ἐτέλεσσεν, Homer. H 69 - - -ἀλλὰ κακὰ φρονέων τεκμαίρεται ἀμφοτέροισι - καί -τότε γάρ ῥα κυλίνδετο πήματος ἀρχὴ -id. θ 81 -Τρωσί τε καὶ Δαναοῖσι Διὸς μεγάλου διὰ βουλάς -, ὡς περὶ τῆς τύχης ἢ τῆς εἱμαρμένης λεγομένων, ἐν - αἷς τὸ ἀσυλλόγιστον ἡμῖν τῆς αἰτίας σημαίνεται - καὶ ὅλως -τὸ ὅλως H οὐ καθʼ ἡμᾶς. ὅπου δὲ τὸ προσῆκον καὶ κατὰ λόγον καὶ εἰκός ἐστιν, ἐνταῦθα κυρίως ὀνομάζεσθαι τὸν παι θεὸν - νομίζωμεν, -νομίζωμεν W: νομίζομεν - ὥσπερ ἐν τούτοις - - -αὐτὰρ ὁ τῶν ἄλλων ἐπεπωλεῖτο στίχας ἀνδρῶν, -Homer. Λ 540 -Αἴαντος δʼ ἀλέεινε μάχην Τελαμωνιάδαο· - - -Ζεὺς γάρ οἱ νεμέσα ὅτʼ ἀμείνονι φωτὶ μάχοιτο - καί -Nauck. p. 695 -Ζεὺς γὰρ τὰ μὲν μέγιστα φροντίζει βροτῶν, -τὰ μικρὰ δʼ ἄλλοις δαίμοσιν παρεὶς ἐᾷ - Σφόδρα δὲ δεῖ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ὀνόμασι προσέχειν, - κατὰ πολλὰ πράγματα -πολλὰ πράγματα] πολλὰ R κινουμένοις καὶ μεθισταμένοις - ὑπὸ τῶν ποιητῶν. οἷόν ἐστι καὶ τὸ τῆς ἀρε τῆς. ἐπεὶ γὰρ οὐ μόνον - ἔμφρονας παρέχεται καὶ - δικαίους καὶ ἀγαθοὺς ἐν πράξεσι καὶ λόγοις, ἀλλὰ καὶ δόξας - ἐπιεικῶς καὶ δυνάμεις περιποιεῖται, παρὰ - - τοῦτο ποιοῦνται καὶ τὴν -τὴν add. R εὐδοξίαν ἀρετὴν καὶ τὴν δύναμιν, ὀνομάζοντες - ὥσπερ “ἐλαίαν” τὸν ἀπὸ τῆς ἐλαίας, καὶ “φηγὸν” τὸν ἀπὸ - τῆς φηγοῦ καρπὸν ὁμωνύμως τοῖς φέρουσιν. οὐκοῦν ὁ νέος ἡμῖν, ὅταν - μὲν λέγωσι - - -τῆς δʼ ἀρετῆς ἱδρῶτα θεοὶ προπάροιθεν ἔθηκαν -Hesiod. OD 289 - καὶ - τῆμος σφῇ ἀρετῇ Δαναοὶ ῥήξαντο φάλαγγας -Homer. Λ 90 - καὶ -εἰ δὲ θανεῖν θέμις, ὧδε θανεῖν καλόν, Nauck. p. 529 - - -εἰς ἀρετὴν καταδυσαμένους βίον -, - εὐθὺς - οἰέσθω λέγεσθαι ταῦτα περὶ τῆς ἀρίστης καὶ θειοτάτης - ἕξεως ἐν ἡμῖν, ἣν ὀρθότητα λόγου καὶ ἀκρότητα λογικῆς φύσεως καὶ - διάθεσιν ὁμολογουμένην ψυχῆς νοοῦμεν. ὅταν δʼ ἀναγιγνώσκῃ πάλιν τό τε - - -Ζεὺς δʼ ἀρετὴν ἄνδρεσσιν ὀφέλλει τε μινύθει τε -Homer. Υ 242 - καὶ τὸ - πλούτῳ δʼ ἀρετὴ καὶ κῦδος ὀπηδεῖ -Hesiod. OD 313 -, μὴ “καθήσθω” τοὺς πλουσίους ἐκπεπληγμένος καὶ “τεθηπὼσ” καθάπερ ὤνιον εὐθὺς ἀργυρίου τὴν ἀρετὴν - ἔχοντας, μηδʼ ἐπὶ τῇ τύχῃ κεῖσθαι τὴν αὑτοῦ - φρόνησιν αὔξειν ἢ κολούειν νομίζων, ἀλλʼ ἀντὶ δόξης ἢ δυνάμεως ἢ - εὐτυχίας ἤ τινος ὁμοίου τῇ - ἀρετῇ κεχρῆσθαι τὸν ποιητὴν ἡγείσθω. καὶ γὰρ τῇ κακότητι - ποτὲ μὲν ἰδίως σημαίνουσι κακίαν καὶ - - μοχθηρίαν ψυχῆς, ὡς Ἡσίοδος -τὴν μὲν γὰρ κακότητα καὶ ἰλαδὸν ἔστιν ἑλέσθαι -id. 287 -, ποτὲ δʼ ἄλλην τινὰ κάκωσιν ἢ δυστυχίαν, ὡς Ὅμηρος -Ὅμηρος] τ 360 - -αἶψα γὰρ ἐν κακότητι βροτοὶ καταγηράσκουσιν - ἐπεὶ καὶ τὴν εὐδαιμονίαν ἐξαπατηθείη τις ἂν οὕτω - τοὺς ποιητὰς οἰόμενος λέγειν, ὡς οἱ φιλόσοφοι - λέγουσι τὴν παντελῆ τῶν ἀγαθῶν ἕξιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ καὶ - τελειότητα βίου κατὰ φύσιν - εὐροοῦντος, ἀλλʼ οὐχὶ καταχρωμένους πολλάκις τὸν πλούσιον εὐδαίμονα - καλεῖν ἢ μακάριον καὶ τὴν δύναμιν ἢ τὴν δόξαν - εὐδαιμονίαν. Ὅμηρος μὲν γὰρ ὀρθῶς κέχρηται τοῖς ὀνόμασιν - -ὣς οὔ τοι χαίρων τοῖσδε κτεάτεσσιν ἀνάσσω -Homer. δ 93 - - καὶ Μένανδρος -ἔχω δὲ πολλὴν οὐσίαν καὶ πλούσιος -Meinek. IV p. 266 -καλοῦμʼ ὑπὸ πάντων, μακάριος δʼ ὑπʼ οὐδενός -, Εὐριπίδης δὲ πολλὴν ἐργάζεται ταραχὴν καὶ σύγχυσιν - ὅταν λέγῃ και - - -μή μοι γένοιτο λυπρὸς εὐδαίμων βίος -Med. 603 - καί -τί τὴν τυραννίδʼ, ἀδικίαν εὐδαίμονα, τιμᾷς -Phoen. 552 - - ἂν μή τις, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, ταῖς - μεταφοραῖς καὶ καταχρήσεσι τῶν ὀνομάτων ἕπηται. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ἱκανὰ - περὶ τούτων.

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ἐκεῖνο δʼ οὐχ ἅπαξ ἀλλὰ πολλάκις ὑπομνηστέον ἐστὶ τοὺς νέους·, - ἐνδεικνυμένους αὐτοῖς ὅτι - μιμητικὴν ἡ - ποίησις ὑπόθεσιν ἔχουσα κόσμῳ μὲν καὶ λαμπρότητι χρῆται περὶ τὰς - ὑποκειμένας πράξεις καὶ τὰ ἤθη, τὴν δʼ ὁμοιότητα τοῦ ἀληθοῦς οὐ - προλείπει - , τῆς· - μιμήσεως ἐν τῷ πιθανῷ τὸ ἀγωγὸν ἐχούσης. διὸ καὶ κακίας καὶ - ἀρετῆς σημεῖα μεμιγμένα - ταῖς πράξεσιν ἡ - μὴ παντάπασι τῆς ἀληθείας ὀλιγωροῦσα συνεκφέρει μίμησις, ὥσπερ ἡ - Ὁμήρου πολλὰ πάνυ τοῖς Στωϊκοῖς χαίρειν φράζουσα, μήτε τι φαῦλον - ἀρετῇ προσεῖναι μήτε κακίᾳ χρηστὸν ἀξιοῦσιν, ἀλλὰ πάντως μὲν ἐν - πᾶσιν ἁμαρτωλὸν - εἶναι τὸν ἀμαθῆ , περὶ - πάντα δʼ αὖ κατορθοῦν τὸν ἀστεῖον. ταῦτα γὰρ ἐν ταῖς σχολαῖς - ἀκούομεν· ἐν δὲ τοῖς πράγμασι καὶ τῷ βίῳ τῶν πολλῶν κατὰ τὸν - Εὐριπίδην - -οὐκ ἂν γένοιτο χωρὶς ἐσθλὰ καὶ κακά, Nauck. p. 294 - - -ἀλλʼ ἔστι τις σύγκρασις - ἄνευ δὲ, τοῦ ἀληθοῦς μάλιστα μὲν ἡ ποιητικὴ τῷ ποικίλῳ - χρῆται καὶ πολυτρόπῳ. τὸ γὰρ ἐμπαθὲς - καὶ - παράλογον καὶ ἀπροσδόκητον, ᾧ πλείστη μὲν ἔκπληξις ἕπεται πλείστη - δὲ χάρις, αἱ μεταβολαὶ παρέχουσι τοῖς μύθοις τὸ δʼ ἁπλοῦν ἀπαθὲς καὶ - ἄμυθον. ὅθεν οὔτε νικῶντας ἀεὶ πάντα ποιοῦσι τοὺς αὐτοὺς οὔτʼ - εὑημεροῦντας οὔτε κατορθοῦντας - ἀλλʼ οὐδὲ - τοῖς θεοῖς, ὅταν εἰς ἀνθρωπίνας ἐμπέσωσι πράξεις, ἀπαθέσι χρῶνται - καὶ ἀναμαρτήτοις, ἵνα μηδαμοῦ τό τε ταράττον καὶ τὸ ἐκπλῆττον ἀργῇ - τῆς ποιήσεως ἀκίνδυνον καὶ ἀναγώνιστον γιγνόμενον. - - -

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οὕτως οὖν τούτων ἐχόντων ἐπάγωμεν τοῖς ποιήμασι τὸν νέον μὴ - τοιαύτας ἔχοντα δόξας περὶ τῶν καλῶν ἐκείνων καὶ μεγάλων ὀνομάτων, - ὡς ἄρα σοφοὶ καὶ δίκαιοι οἱ ἄνδρες ἦσαν, ἄκροι τε βασιλεῖς καὶ - κανόνες ἀρετῆς ἁπάσης καὶ ὀρθότητος. ἐπεὶ - βλαβήσεται μεγάλα δοκιμάζων πάντα καὶ τεθηπώς, μὴ δυσχεραίνων δὲ - μηδὲν μηδʼ ἀκούων μηδʼ ἀποδεχόμενος τοῦ ψέγοντος αὐτοὺς τοιαῦτα - πράττοντας καὶ λέγοντας -αἲ γάρ, Ζεῦ τε πάτερ καὶ Ἀθηναίη καὶ Ἄπολλον, Homer. Π 97 - - -μήτε τις οὖν Τρώων θάνατον φύγοι, ὅσσοι ἔασι, - - -μήτε τις Ἀργείων, νῶιν δʼ ἐκδῦμεν ὄλεθρον, -ὄφρʼ οἶοι Τροίης ἱερὰ κρήδεμνα λύοιμεν - καὶ - -οἰκτροτάτην δʼ ἤκουσα ὄπα Πριάμοιο θυγατρὸς Homer. Λ 421 - -Κασσάνδρης, τὴν κτεῖνε Κλυταιμνήστρη δολόμητις -ἀμφʼ ἐμοὶ - καὶ - - - παλλακίδι προμιγῆναι, ἵνʼ ἐχθήρειε γέροντα. id. I 452 - -τῇ πιθόμην καὶ ἔρεξα - καί -Ζεῦ πάτερ, οὔ τις σεῖο θεῶν ὀλοώτερος ἄλλος -id. Γ 365 - - μηδὲν οὖν ἐπαινεῖν - ἐθιζέσθω τοιοῦτον ὁ νέος, μηδὲ - προφάσεις - λέγων μηδὲ παραγωγάς τινας εὐπρεπεῖς ἐπὶ πράγμασι φαύλοις μηχανώμενος - πιθανὸς ἔστω καὶ πανοῦργος, ἀλλʼ ἐκεῖνο μᾶλλον οἰέσθω, μίμησιν εἶναι - τὴν ποίησιν ἠθῶν καὶ βίων, καὶ ἀνθρώπων οὐ τελείων οὐδὲ καθαρῶν - οὐδʼ ἀνεπιλήπτων παντάπασιν, - ἀλλὰ - μεμιγμένων πάθεσι καὶ δόξαις ψευδέσι καὶ ἀγνοίαις, διὰ δʼ εὐφυΐαν - αὑτοὺς πολλάκις μετατιθέντων πρὸς τὸ κρεῖττον. ἡ γὰρ τοιαύτη παρασκευὴ - τοῦ νέου καὶ διάνοια, τοῖς μὲν εὖ λεγομένοις - καὶ πραττομένοις, ἐπαιρομένου καὶ - συνενθουσιῶντος, - τὰ δὲ φαῦλα μὴ προσιεμένου - καὶ δυσχεραίνοντος, ἀβλαβῆ παρέξει τὴν ἀκρόασιν. ὁ δὲ πάντα θαυμάζων - καὶ πᾶσιν ἐξοικειούμενος καὶ καταδεδουλωμένος τῇ δόξῃ τὴν κρίσιν ὑπὸ - τῶν ἡρωϊκῶν ὀνομάτων, ὥσπερ οἱ τὴν Πλάτωνος ἀπομιμούμενοι κυρτότητα - καὶ τὴν Ἀριστοτέλους τραυλότητα, - λήσεται πρὸς πολλὰ τῶν φαύλων εὐχερὴς γενόμενος. δεῖ δὲ μὴ δειλῶς; - μηδʼ ὥσπερ ὑπὸ δεισιδαιμονίας ἐν ἱερῷ φρίττειν ἅπαντα; καὶ - προσκυνεῖν, ἀλλὰ θαρραλέως ἐθιζόμενον ἐπιφωνεῖν μηδὲν - ἧττον τοῦ “ὀρθῶσ” καὶ “πρεπόντωσ” τὸ “οὐκ ὀρθῶσ” καὶ “ὁ προσηκόντως -” οἷον ὁ Ἀχιλλεὺς ἐκκλησίαν συνάγει τῶν στρατιωτῶν νοσούντων, - ἀσχάλλων μὲν ἀργοῦντι τῷ πολέμῳ μάλιστα - - πάντων διὰ τὴν ἐν ταῖς στρατείαις ἐπιφάνειαν αὐτοῦ καὶ δόξαν, - ἰατρικὸς δʼ ὢν καὶ μεθʼ ἡμέραν ἐνάτην ταῦτα κρίνεσθαι πέφυκεν - αἰσθόμενος οὐκ οὖσαν συνήθη τὴν νόσον οὐδὲ συνεστῶσαν ἀπὸ κοινῶν - αἰτιῶν, ἀναστὰς οὐ δημαγωγεῖ πρὸς τὸν -πρὸς τὸν] τὸν] Aldina ὄχλον, - ἀλλὰ τῷ βασιλεῖ γίγνεται σύμβουλος -Ἀτρείδη, νῦν ἄμμε παλιμπλαγχθέντας ὀίω -Homer. A 59 -ἄψ ἀπονοστήσειν - - ὀρθῶς ταῦτα καὶ - μετρίως καὶ πρεπόντως τοῦ δὲ μάντεως δεδιέναι φήσαντος τὴν ὀργὴν τοῦ - δυνατωτάτου - τῶν Ἑλλήνων, οὐκέτʼ ὀρθῶς - οὐδὲ μετρίως, ἐπομόσας μηδένα προσοίσειν χεῖρας αὐτῷ ζῶντος αὐτοῦ, - προστίθησιν -οὐδʼ ἢν Ἀγαμέμνονα εἴπῃς -id. A 90 -, ἐνδεικνύμενος ὀλιγωρίαν καὶ περιφρόνησιν τοῦ ἄρχοντος. - ἐκ δὲ τούτου μᾶλλον παροξυνθεὶς ἐπὶ τὸ - ξίφος φέρεται σφάττειν διανοούμενος, οὔτε πρὸς τὸ καλὸν ὀρθῶς οὔτε - πρὸς τὸ συμφέρον. εἶτʼ αὖθις μετανοήσας -ἄψ ἐς κουλεὸν ὦσε μέγα ξίφος, οὐδʼ ἀπίθησε id. A 220 - - - -μύθῳ Ἀθηναίης -, ὀρθῶς πάλιν καὶ καλῶς, ὅτι τὸν θυμὸν ἐκκόψαι παντάπασι μὴ - δυνηθεὶς , ὅμως πρὶν ἀνήκεστόν τι δρᾶσαι μετέστησε - καὶ κατέσχεν εὐπειθῆ τῷ λογισμῷ γενόμενον. πάλιν ὁ Ἀγαμέμνων ἐν - μὲν τοῖς περὶ τὴν ἐκκλησίαν γιγνομένοις καὶ λεγομένοις ὑπʼ αὐτοῦ - καταγέλαστός ἐστιν, ἐν δὲ τοῖς περὶ Χρυσηίδα σεμνότερος - καὶ βασιλικώτερος. ὁ μὲν γὰρ Ἀχιλλεὺς ἀγομένης - τῆς Βρισηίδος -δακρύσας ἑτάρων ἄφαρ ἕζετο νόσφι λιασθείς -Homer. A 349 -, οὗτος δʼ αὐτὸς εἰς τὴν ναῦν ἐμβιβάζων καὶ παραδιδοὺς - καὶ ἀποπέμπων τὴν - ἄνθρωπον ἣν ὀλίγῳ - πρόσθεν εἴρηκε τῆς - γαμετῆς τῇ εὐνοίᾳ προκρίνειν, οὐδὲν ἐρωτικὸν οὐδʼ αἰσχρὸν ἐποίησε. - καὶ μὴν ὁ Φοίνιξ διὰ τὴν παλλακίδα κατάρατος ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς - γενόμενος -τὸν μὲν ἐγὤ φησὶ ʽβούλευσα κατακτάμεν ὀξέι id. I 458 - χαλκῷ -ἀλλά τις ἀθανάτων παῦσεν χόλον, ὃς ῥʼ ἐνὶ θυμῷ -δήμου θῆκε φάτιν καὶ ὀνείδεα πόλλʼ ἀνθρώπων, -ὡς μὴ πατροφόνος μετʼ Ἀχαιοῖσιν καλεοίμην - ὁ μὲν οὖν Ἀρίσταρχος ἐξεῖλε ταῦτα τὰ ἔπη φοβηθείς· - ἔχει δὲ πρὸς τὸν καιρὸν ὀρθῶς, τοῦ - Φοίνικος τὸν Ἀχιλλέα διδάσκοντος οἷόν ἐστιν ὀργὴ καὶ ὅσα - διὰ θυμὸν ἄνθρωποι - τολμῶσι, μὴ χρώμενοι λογισμῷ μηδὲ πειθόμενοι τοῖς παρηγοροῦσι. καὶ γὰρ - τὸν Μελέαγρον ἐπεισάγει τοῖς πολίταις ὀργιζόμενον, εἶτα - πραϋνόμενον, ὀρθῶς τὰ πάθη ψέγων, τὸ δὲ μὴ - συνακολουθεῖν ἀλλʼ ἀντιτάττεσθαι καὶ κρατεῖν καὶ μετανοεῖν ἐπαινῶν ὡς - καλὸν καὶ συμφέρον. ἐνταῦθα μὲν οὖν ἡ διαφορὰ πρόδηλος· ὅπου δʼ - ἀσαφῆ τὰ τῆς γνώμης, διοριστέον οὕτω πως ἐφιστάντας - τὸν νέον. εἰ μὲν ἡ Ναυσικάα ξένον ἄνδρα τὸν Ὀδυσσέα θεασαμένη καὶ - παθοῦσα τὸ τῆς Καλυψοῦς πάθος πρὸς αὐτόν, ἅτε δὴ τρυφῶσα καὶ γάμων - ὥραν ἔχουσα, - - τοιαῦτα μωραίνει πρὸς - τὰς θεραπαινίδας -αἲ γὰρ ἐμοὶ -ἐμοὶ Homer. ζ 244: ἐμεῦ - τοιόσδε πόσις κεκλημένος εἴη -ἐνθάδε ναιετάων, καὶ οἱ ἅδοι αὐτόθι μίμνειν -, ψεκτέον τὸ θράσος αὐτῆς καὶ τὴν ἀκολασίαν εἰ δὲ τοῖς λόγοις - τοῦ ἀνδρὸς τὸ ἦθος ἐνιδοῦσα καὶ θαυμάσασα - τὴν ἔντευξιν αὐτοῦ πολὺν νοῦν ἔχουσαν εὔχεται τοιούτῳ συνοικεῖν - μᾶλλον ἢ πλωτικῷ τινι καὶ ὀρχηστικῷ τῶν πολιτῶν, ἄξιον ἄγασθαι. - πάλιν τῆς Πηνελόπης τοῖς μνηστῆρσι προσδιαλεγομένης οὐκ ἀπανθρώπως, - ἐκείνων δʼ αὐτῇ χαριζομένων ἱμάτια - καὶ - κόσμον ἄλλον, ἡδόμενος Ὀδυσσεὺς - - -οὕνεκα τῶν μὲν δῶρα παρέλκετο, θέλγε δὲ θυμόν -id. ς 282 - εἰ μὲν ἐπὶ τῇ δωροδοκίᾳ καὶ πλεονεξίᾳ χαίρει, τὸν - κωμῳδούμενον ὑπερβάλλει μαστροπείᾳ Πολίαγρον - - -εὐδαίμων Πολίαγρος -Meinek. IV p. 667 -οὐράνιον αἶγα πλουτοφόρον τρέφων - εἰ δὲ μᾶλλον οἰόμενος ὑποχειρίους ἕξειν διὰ τὴν ἐλπίδα - θαρροῦντας -θαρροῦντας scripsi: θαρροῦντες - καὶ τὸ μέλλον οὐ προσδοκῶντας, - - λόγον ἔχει τὸ ἡδόμενον αὐτῷ καὶ θαρροῦν. ὁμοίως ἐπὶ τῇ - διαριθμήσει τῶν χρημάτων, ἃ συνεξέθηκαν οἱ Φαίακες αὐτῷ καὶ - ἀπέπλευσαν, εἰ μὲν ἀληθῶς ἐν ἐρημίᾳ τοσαύτῃ καὶ - τῶν καθʼ αὑτὸν - - ἀσαφείᾳ καὶ ἀδηλότητι γεγονὼς περὶ τῶν χρημάτων φοβεῖται -μὴ τί οἱ οἴχωνται κοίλης ἐπὶ νηὸς ἄγοντες -ἀγοντες idem: ἔχοντες - - -Homer. ν 216 -, - οἰκτείρειν ἄξιον ἢ βδελύττεσθαι - νὴ Δία τὴν φιλοπλουτίαν· εἰ δʼ, ὥσπερ ἔνιοι λέγουσι, περὶ τῆς - Ἰθάκης ἀμφιδοξῶν οἴεται τὴν τῶν χρημάτων σωτηρίαν ἀπόδειξιν εἶναι - τῆς τῶν Φαιάκων ὁσιότητος οὐ γὰρ ἂν ἀκερδῶς φέροντας αὐτὸν εἰς - ἀλλοτρίαν ἐκβαλεῖν - χώραν καὶ καταλιπεῖν, - ἀποσχομένους τῶν χρημάτων, οὔτε φαύλῳ τεκμηρίῳ χρῆται καὶ τὴν - πρόνοιαν - ἄξιον - ἐπαινεῖν. ἔνιοι δὲ καὶ τὴν ἔκθεσιν αὐτὴν εἰ μὲν ἀληθῶς ἐγένετο - καθεύδοντος ψέγουσι, καὶ Τυρρηνοὺς ἱστορίαν τινά φασι διαφυλάττειν ὡς - ὑπνώδους φύσει τοῦ Ὀδυσσέως γενομένου - καὶ δυσεντεύκτου διὰ τοῦτο τοῖς πολλοῖς ὄντος. εἰ δʼ οὐκ ἦν ἀληθὴς - ὁ ὕπνος, ἀλλʼ αἰδούμενος μὲν ἀποπέμψαι τοὺς Φαίακας ἄνευ ξενίων - καὶ φιλοφροσύνης, μὴ δυνάμενος δὲ τοὺς ἐχθροὺς λαθεῖν ἐκείνων - συμπαρόντων - ἐχρήσατο τῆς ἀπορίας - παρακαλύμματι, κοιμωμένῳ ποιήσας ὅμοιον ἑαυτόν, ἀποδέχονται. καὶ ταῦτα - δὴ τοῖς νέοις ὑποδεικνύοντες οὐκ ἐάσομεν φορὰν πρὸς τὰ φαῦλα - γίγνεσθαι τῶν ἠθῶν ἀλλὰ τῶν βελτιόνων ζῆλον καὶ προαίρεσιν, εὐθὺς - τοῖς μὲν - - τὸ ψέγειν τοῖς δὲ τὸ - ἐπαινεῖν ἀποδιδόντες;. μάλιστα δὲ τοῦτο δεῖ -δεῖ ποιεῖν scripsi: ποιεῖν δεῖ - ποιεῖν ἐν ταῖς - τραγῳδίαις, ὅσαι λόγους ἔχουσι πιθανοὺς καὶ πανούργους ἐν πράξεσιν ἀδόξοις καὶ πονηραῖς. οὐ πάνυ γὰρ ἀληθὲς τὸ τοῦ - Σοφοκλέους λέγοντος -οὐκ ἔστʼ ἀπʼ ἔργων μὴ καλῶν ἔπη καλά -Nauck. p. 247 - καὶ γὰρ οὗτος -οὗτος] αὐτὸς Emperius Nauck. Eurip. Fr. 430b p. 113 εἴωθεν ἤθεσι φαύλοις καὶ ἀτόποις - πράγμασι λόγους ἐπιγελῶντας καὶ φιλανθρώπους - αἰτίας πορίζειν. καὶ ὁ σύσκηνος αὐτοῦ πάλιν ὁρᾷς - ὅτι τήν τε Φαίδραν καὶ - προσεγκαλοῦσαν τῷ Θησεῖ πεποίηκεν ὡς διὰ τὰς ἐκείνου παρανομίας - ἐρασθεῖσαν τοῦ Ἱππολύτου. τοιαύτην δὲ καὶ τῇ Ἑλένῃ παρρησίαν - κατὰ τῆς Ἑκάβης ἐν ταῖς Τρῳάσι -Τρωάσι] v. 919 Hesiod. OD 739 - δίδωσιν, οἰομένῃ δεῖν ἐκείνην κολάζεσθαι μᾶλλον ὅτι μοιχὸν αὐτῆς - ἔτεκε. μηδὲν οὖν τούτων κομψὸν ἡγεῖσθαι καὶ πανοῦργον ὁ νέος - ἐθιζέσθω, μηδὲ προσμειδιάτω ταῖς τοιαύταις εὑρησιλογίαις ἀλλὰ - βδελυττέσθω τοὺς - λόγους μᾶλλον ἢ τὰ ἔργα - τῆς ἀκολασίας.

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ἐπὶ πᾶσι τοίνυν καὶ τὸ τὴν αἰτίαν ἑκάστου - τῶν λεγομένων ἐπιζητεῖν χρήσιμόν ἐστιν. ὁ - μὲν γὰρ Κάτων ἔτι παιδάριον ὢν ἔπραττε μὲν ὃ προστάξειεν ὁ - παιδαγωγός, αἰτίαν δὲ καὶ λόγον ἀπῄτει τοῦ προστάγματος· - τοῖς δὲ ποιηταῖς οὐ πειστέον ὥσπερ παιδαγωγοῖς - ἢ νομοθέταις, ἂν μὴ λόγον ἔχῃ τὸ ὑποκείμενον . ἕξει δέ, ἄνπερ - χρηστὸν ἂν δὲ μοχθηρόν, ὀφθήσεται κενὸν καὶ μάταιον. ἀλλʼ οἱ πολλοὶ - τῶν μὲν τοιούτων τὰς αἰτίας πικρῶς ἀπαιτοῦσι καὶ διαπυνθάνονται - πῶς λέλεκται -μηδέ ποτʼ οἰνοχόην τιθέμεν κρητῆρος ὕπερθεν πινόντων - - καὶ -ὃς δέ κʼ ἀνὴρ ἀπὸ ὧν ὀχέων ἕτερʼ ἅρμαθʼ ἵκηται, - - -ἔγχει ὀρεξάσθω -Homer. Δ 306 - τῶν δὲ μειζόνων ἀβασανίστως δέχονται τὴν πίστιν, - οἷα καὶ ταῦτʼ ἐστὶν -δουλοῖ γὰρ ἄνδρα, κἂν θρασύσπλαγχνός τις ᾖ, -Eur. Hipp. 424 -ὅταν συνειδῇ μητρὸς ἢ πατρὸς κακά -, καὶ -σμικρὸν φρονεῖν χρὴ τὸν κακῶς πεπραγότα -πεπραγότα Wagnerus: πεπραχότα - - -Nauck. p. 695 - - καίτοι ταῦτα τῶν ἠθῶν ἅπτεται καὶ τοὺς - βίους διαταράττει, κρίσεις ἐμποιοῦντα φαύλας καὶ δόξας ἀγεννεῖς, ἂν - μὴ πρὸς ἕκαστον αὐτῶν εἰθισμένοι - λέγωμεν “διὰ τί σμικρὸν φρονεῖν χρὴ τὸν - κακῶς πεπραγότα -πεπράγότα H: πεπραχότα - καὶ μὴ μᾶλλον ἀνταίρειν τῇ τύχῃ καὶ ποιεῖν - ὑψηλὸν ἑαυτὸν καὶ ἀταπείνωτον; διὰ - τί δέ, ἂν ἐκ πατρὸς φαύλου καὶ ἀνοήτου γεγονὼς αὐτὸς ὦ χρηστὸς - καὶ φρόνιμος, οὐ προσήκει μοι διὰ τὴν ἐμὴν ἀρετὴν μέγα φρονεῖν - ἀλλὰ καταπεπλῆχθαι καὶ ταπεινὸν εἶναι· διὰ τὴν τοῦ πατρὸς - ἀμαθίαν;” ὁ γὰρ - οὕτως ἀπαντῶν καὶ - ἀντερείδων καὶ μὴ παντὶ λόγῳ πλάγιον ὥσπερ πνεύματι παραδιδοὺς - ἑαυτὸν ἀλλʼ ὀρθῶς ἔχειν νομίζων τὸ “βλὰξ -βλάξ Mullach. 1 p. 326 ἄνθρωπος ἐπὶ παντὶ - λόγῳ φιλεῖ ἐπτοῆσθαι” πολλὰ διακρούσεται τῶν οὐκ ἀληθῶς οὐδʼ - ὠφελίμως λεγομένων. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν - ἀβλαβῆ - παρέξει τὴν τῶν ποιημάτων ἀκρόασιν. - -

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ἐπεὶ δʼ ὥσπερ ἐν ἀμπέλου φύλλοις καὶ κλήμασιν εὐθαλοῦσι πολλάκις ὁ - καρπὸς ἀποκρύπτεται καὶ λανθάνει κατασκιαζόμενος, - ,οὕτως ἐν, ποιητικῇ λέξει καὶ μυθεύμασι περικεχυμένοις πολλὰ διαφεύγει - τὸν νέον ὠφέλιμα καὶ χρήσιμα δεῖ δὲ τοῦτο μὴ πάσχειν ἀποπλανᾶσθαι - τῶν πραγμάτων, - ἐμφύεσθαι μάλιστα τοῖς πρὸς - ἀρετὴν φέρουσι καὶ δυναμένοις πλάττειν τὸ ἦθος, οὐ χεῖρόν ἐστι καὶ - περὶ τούτων διελθεῖν ἐν βραχέσιν, ἁψάμενον ὡς ἐν τύπῳ τῶν πραγμάτων, - μήκη δὲ καὶ κατασκευὰς καὶ - παραδειγμάτων ὄχλον ἐῶντα τοῖς ἐπιδεικτικώτερον - γράφουσι πρῶτον μὲν οὖν τὰ χρηστὰ καὶ τὰ φαῦλα - γιγνώσκων ὁ νέος καὶ πρόσωπα τοῖς λεγομένοις προσεχέτω καὶ ταῖς - πράξεσιν ἃς ὁ ποιητὴς ἑκατέροις προσηκόντως ἀποδίδωσιν οἷον ὁ - Ἀχιλλεὺς πρὸς τὸν Ἀγαμέμνονα λέγει, καίπερ λέγων μετʼ - - -οὐ γὰρ σοί ποτε ἶσον ἔχω γέρας, ὁππότʼ Ἀχαιοὶ -Homer. A 163 -Τρώων ἐκπέρσως1ʼ εὖ ναιόμενον πτολίεθρον - ὁ δὲ Θερσίτης τῷ αὐτῷ λοιδορούμενος λέγει -πλεῖαί τοι χαλκοῦ κλισίαι, πολλαὶ δὲ γυναῖκες -id. B 226 -εἰσὶν ἐνὶ κλισίῃς -κλισίὴς idem: κλισίῃ - ἐξαίρετοι, ἅς τοι Ἀχαιοὶ - - - -πρωτίστῳ δίδομεν, εὖτʼ ἂν πτολίεθρον ἕλωμεν -, καὶ πάλιν ὁ Ἀχιλλεὺς -αἴ κέ ποθι Ζεὺς -id. A 128 -δῷσι πόλιν Τροίην εὐτείχεον ἐξαλαπάξαι - ὁ δὲ Θερσίτης - - -ὅν κεν ἐγὼ δήσας ἀγάγω ἢ ἄλλος Ἀχαιῶν -id. B 231 - πάλιν τοῦ Ἀγαμέμνονος ἐν τῇ ἐπιπωλήσει τὸν Διομήδην - λοιδορήσαντος ὁ μὲν οὐδὲν ἀντεῖπεν - -αἰδεσθεὶς· βασιλῆος ἐνιπὴν αἰδοίοιο -Homer. Δ 402 -, ὁ δὲ Σθένελος, οὗ μηδεὶς λόγος, -Ἀτρείδἠ φησί, μὴ ψεύδεʼ ἐπιστάμενος σάφα id. Δ 404 εἰπεῖν. - - - -ἡμεῖς τοι πατέρων μέγʼ ἀμείνονες εὐχόμεθʼ εἶναι - ἡ γὰρ τοιαύτη διαφορὰ μὴ παρορωμένη διδάξει τὸν νέον ἀστεῖον - ἡγεῖσθαι τὴν ἀτυφίαν καὶ μετριότητα, τὴν δὲ μεγαλαυχίαν καὶ - περιαυτολογίαν ὡς φαῦλον - εὐλαβεῖσθαι. - χρήσιμον δὲ καὶ τὸ τοῦ Ἀγαμέμνονος κατανοεῖν ἐνταῦθα· τὸν μὲν γὰρ - Σθένελον ἀπροσαύδητον παρῆλθε, τοῦ δʼ Ὀδυσσέως οὐκ ἠμέλησεν ἀλλʼ - ἠμείψατο καὶ προσηγόρευσεν, -ὡς γνῶ χωομένοιο· πάλιν δʼ ὅ γε λάζετο μῦθον -id. Δ 357 - - τὸ μὲν γὰρ πᾶσιν ἀπολογεῖσθαι θεραπευτικὸν - καὶ οὐκ -ἀξιωματικόν - τὸ δὲ πάντων καταφρονεῖν ὑπερήφανον καὶ ἀνόητον. ἄριστα δʼ ὁ - Διομήδης ἐν μὲν τῇ μάχῃ σιωπᾷ κακῶς ἀκούων ὑπὸ τοῦ βασιλέως, - μετὰ δὲ τὴν μάχην παρρησίᾳ χρῆται πρὸς αὐτὸν - - -ἀλκὴν μέν μοι πρῶτον ὀνείδισας ἐν Δαναοῖσιν -id. I 34 - εὖ δʼ ἔχει καὶ φρονίμου διαφορὰν ἀνδρὸς καὶ μάντεως - πανηγυρικοῦ μὴ παραλιπεῖν. ὁ μὲν γὰρ Κάλχας οὐ συνεῖδε τὸν καιρόν, - ἀλλʼ ἐν πλήθει παρʼ οὐδὲν ἐποιήσατο κατηγορῆσαι τοῦ βασιλέως ὡς τὸν - λοιμὸν αὐτοῖς ἐπαγαγόντος· -ἐπαγαγόνοτος H: ἐπαγόντος - ὁ δὲ - Νέστωρ βουλόμενος ἐμβάλλειν λόγον ὑπὲρ τῶν πρὸς τὸν Ἀχιλλέα - διαλλαγῶν, ἵνα μὴ - διαβάλλειν δοκῇ τὸν Ἀγαμέμνονα πρὸς τὸ πλῆθος; ὡς ἁμαρτόντα καὶ - χρησάμενον ὀργῇ, -δαίνυ δαῖτα γέρουσιν· ἔοικέ τοι, οὔ τοι ἀεικὲς -Homer. I 70 -πολλῶν δʼ ἀγρομένων τῷ πείσεαι ὅς κεν ἀρίστην - - -βουλὴν βουλεύσῃ. - καὶ μετὰ τὸ δεῖπνον ἐξαποστέλλει τοὺς πρέσβεις· τοῦτο γὰρ ἦν - ἐπανόρθωσις ἁμαρτίας, ἐκεῖνο δὲ κατηγορία καὶ προπηλακισμός Ἔτι δὲ - καὶ τὰς ἐν τοῖς γένεσι διαφορὰς σκεπτέον, - - ὧν τοιοῦτός ἐστιν ὁ τρόπος. οἱ μὲν Τρῶες ἐπίασι μετὰ κραυγῆς καὶ - θράσους, οἱ δʼ Ἀχαιοὶ -σιγῇ δειδιότες σημάντορας -id. Δ 431 - - τὸ γὰρ ἐν χερσὶ τῶν - πολεμίων ὄντων φοβεῖσθαι τοὺς ἄρχοντας ἀνδρείας ἅμα καὶ πειθαρχίας - σημεῖον. - ὅθεν ὁ μὲν Πλάτων ἐθίζει τοὺς - ψόγους φοβεῖσθαι καὶ τὰ αἰσχρὰ μᾶλλον τοὺς πόνους καὶ τοὺς κινδύνους, - ὁ δὲ Κάτων ἔλεγε φιλεῖν τοὺς ἐρυθριῶντας μᾶλλον ἢ τοὺς· ὠχριῶντας. - ἔστι δὲ καὶ τῶν - ἐπαγγελιῶν ἴδιος - χαρακτήρ. ὁ μὲν γὰρ Δόλων πο ἐπαγγέλλεται - τόφρα γὰρ ἐς στρατὸν εἶμι διαμπερές, ὄφρʼ ἂν -id. K 325 -νῆ Ἀγαμεμνονέην - ιορωμαι ὁ δὲ Διομήδης ἐπαγγέλλεται μὲν οὐδέν, ἧττον δʼ ἄν - - φησι φοβηθῆναι μεθʼ - ἑτέρου πεμπόμενος. Ἑλληνικὸν οὖν καὶ ἀστεῖον ἡ πρόνοια, βαρβαρικὸν - δὲ καὶ φαῦλον ἡ θρασύτης· καὶ δεῖ τὸ μὲν ζηλοῦν τὸ δὲ δυσχεραίνειν. - ἔχεται δέ τινος οὐκ ἀχρήστου θεωρίας καὶ τὸ περὶ - τοὺς Τρῶας καὶ τὸν Ἕκτορα πάθος, τοῦ Αἴαντος αὐτῷ μονομαχεῖν - μέλλοντος. ὁ μὲν γὰρ Αἰσχύλος Ἰσθμοῖ πύκτου πληγέντος εἰς τὸ - πρόσωπον καὶ κραυγῆς γενομένης, “οἷον” εἶπεν “ἡ - ἄσκησίς ἐστιν. οἱ θεώμενοι βοῶσιν, ὁ δὲ - πληγεὶς σιωπᾷ” τοῦ δὲ ποιητοῦ λέγοντος ὅτι τὸν Αἴαντα τῶν - ὅπλων ποιούντων λαμπρὸν οἱ μὲν Ἕλληνες ἔχαιρον ὁρῶντες, - - -Τρῶας δὲ τρόμος αἰνὸς ἐπήλυθε γυῖα ἕκαστον, Homer. H 215 - - -Ἕκτορί τʼ αὐτῷ θυμὸς ἐνὶ στήθεσσι πάτασσε -, τίς οὐκ ἂν ἀγάσαιτο τὴν διαφοράν; τοῦ μὲν κινδυνεύοντος ἡ - καρδία πηδᾷ μόνον, ὥσπερ παλαίειν νὴ Δίʼ ἢ σταδιοδρομεῖν μέλλοντος, - τῶν δὲ θεωμένων τρέμει καὶ πάλλεται τὸ σῶμα διʼ εὔνοιαν καὶ φόβον - ὑπὲρ τοῦ βασιλέως. ἐνταῦθα δὲ καὶ τὴν - τοῦ κρατίστου πρὸς τὸν κάκιστον διαφορὰν ἀποθεωρητέον. ὁ μὲν γὰρ - Θερσίτης - ἔχθιστος δʼ Ἀχιλῆι μάλιστʼ ἦν ἠδʼ Ὀδυσῆι -id. B 220 -, - ὁ δʼ Αἴας - ἀεί τε τῷ Ἀχιλλεῖ προσφιλὴς καὶ πρὸς - - τὸν Ἕκτορα λέγει περὶ αὐτοῦ - νῦν μὲν δὴ σάφα εἴσεαι οἰόθεν οἶος -id. H 226 -οἷοι καὶ Δαναοῖσιν ἀριστῆες μετέασι, -καὶ μετʼ Ἀχιλλῆα ῥηξήνορα θυμολέοντα - καὶ τοῦτο μὲν Ἀχιλλέως τὸ ἐγκώμιόν ἐστι, τὰ δʼ - ἑξῆς ὑπὲρ ἁπάντων εἴρηται χρησίμως -ἡμεῖς δʼ εἰμὲν τοῖοι οἳ ἂν σέθεν ἀντιάσαιμεν -id. H 231 -καὶ πολέες -, οὔτε μόνον οὔτε ἄριστον ἀποφαίνων ἑαυτὸν - ἀλλὰ - μετὰ πολλῶν - ὁμοίως δυνάμενον -δυνάμενον W: δυναμένων - ἀμύνασθαι. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ἱκανὰ περὶ διαφορᾶς, ἂν - μὴ κἀκεῖνο βουλώμεθα προσλαβεῖν, ὅτι τῶν Τρώων ἑαλώκασι καὶ - πολλοὶ -καὶ πολλοὶ] πολλοὶ W - ζῶντες, οὐδεὶς δὲ τῶν Ἀχαιῶν, - καὶ τῶν μὲν ὑποπεπτώκασιν ἔνιοι τοῖς πολεμίοις, ὥσπερ ὁ Ἄδραστος, - οἱ Ἀντιμάχου παῖδες, ὁ Λυκάων, αὐτὸς ὁ Ἕκτωρ δεόμενος περὶ ταφῆς - τοῦ Ἀχιλλέως, ἐκείνων δʼ οὐδείς, ὡς βαρβαρικοῦ τοῦ ἱκετεύειν καὶ - ὑποπίπτειν - ἐν τοῖς ἀγῶσιν ὄντος, - Ἑλληνικοῦ δὲ τοῦ νικᾶν μαχόμενον ἢ ἀποθνῄσκειν.

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-ἐπεὶ δ̓ ὥσπερ ἐν ταῖς νομαῖς ἡ μὲν μέλιττα διώκει τὸ ἄνθος, ἡ δʼ - αἲξ τὸν θαλλόν, ἡ δʼ δʼ ὗς τὴν ῥίζαν, ἄλλα δὲ ζῷα τὸ σπέρμα καὶ - τὸν καρπόν, - οὕτως , ἐν ταῖς ἀναγνώσεσι - τῶν ποιημάτων ὁ μὲν ἀπανθίζεται τὴν ἱστορίαν, ὁ δʼ ἐμφύεται τῷ - κάλλει καὶ τῇ κατασκευῇ τῶν ὀνομάτων, καθάπερ ὁ Ἀριστοφάνης περὶ - τοῦ Εὐριπίδου φησὶ -χρῶμαι γὰρ αὐτοῦ τοῦ στόματος τῷ στρογγύλῳ -Meinek. II p. 1142 - - · οἱ δὲ τῶν πρὸς τὸ ἦθος εἰρημένων - ὠφελίμως ἔχονται, πρὸς οὓς δὴ νῦν ἡμῖν ὁ λόγος ἐστίν, - ὑπομιμνῄσκωμεν αὐτοὺς ὅτι δεινόν ἐστι τὸν μὲν φιλόμυθον μὴ λανθάνειν - τὰ καινῶς ἱστορούμενα καὶ περιττῶς, - μηδὲ - τὸν φιλόλογον ἐκφεύγειν τὰ καθαρῶς πεφρασμένα - καὶ ῥητορικῶς, τὸν δὲ φιλότιμον καὶ - φιλόκαλον καὶ μὴ παιγνίας -παιγνίας] παιδιᾶς R ἀλλὰ παιδείας ἕνεκα ποιημάτων ἁπτόμενον ἀργῶς καὶ ἀμελῶς ἀκούειν τῶν πρὸς - ἀνδρείαν ἢ σωφροσύνην ἢ δικαιοσύνην ἀναπεφωνημένων, οἷα καὶ ταῦτʼ - ἐστὶ -Τυδείδη, τί παθόντε λελάσμεθα θούριδος ἀλκῆς; - - -ἀλλʼ ἄγε -ἄʼ ἄγε Homer. Λ 313: ἀλλά γε - δεῦρο, πέπον, παρʼ ἔμʼ ἵστασο· δὴ γὰρ ἔλεγχος -ἔσσεται, εἴ κεν νῆας ἕλῃ κορυθαίολος Ἕκτωρ - τὸ γὰρ ἐν κινδύνῳ τοῦ διαφθαρῆναι καὶ ἀπολέσθαι μετὰ πάντων - ὄντα τὸν φρονιμώτατον ὁρᾶν τὸ αἰσχρὸν - - δεδοικότα καὶ τὸ ἐπονείδιστον ἀλλὰ μὴ τὸν θάνατον, ἐμπαθῆ ποιήσει - πρὸς ἀρετὴν τὸν νέον. καὶ τῷ -τῷ W: τό - - -χαῖρε δʼ Ἀθηναίη πεπνυμένῳ ἀνδρὶ δικαίῳ -Homer. γ 52 - - τοιοῦτον ἐπιλογισμὸν - δίδωσι, μήτε πλουσίῳ τινὶ - μήτε καλῷ τὸ - σῶμα μήτʼ ἰσχυρῷ τὴν θεὸν χαίρουσαν ἀλλὰ φρονίμῳ καὶ δικαίῳ - ποιήσας, καὶ πάλιν τὸν Ὀδυσσέα φάσκουσα μὴ περιορᾶν μηδὲ προλείπειν - -οὕνεκʼ ἐπητής ἐστι καὶ ἀγχίνοος καὶ ἐχέφρων, -id. ν 332 - ἐνδείκνυται μόνον εἶναι τῶν ἡμετέρων θεοφιλὲς καὶ θεῖον - ἀρετήν, εἴγε δὴ τὰ ὅμοια χαίρειν τοῖς ὁμοίοις - - πέφυκεν. ἐπεὶ δὲ - μεγάλου δοκοῦντος εἶναι καὶ ὄντος τοῦ κρατεῖν ὀργῆς μεῖζόν ἐστιν ἡ - φυλακὴ καὶ ἡ πρόνοια τοῦ μὴ περιπεσεῖν ὀργῇ μηδʼ ἁλῶναι, καὶ ταῦτα - δεῖ τοῖς ἀναγιγνώσκουσιν ὑποδεικνύειν οὑκ - - μὴ παρέργως, ὅτι τὸν Πρίαμον ὁ Ἀχιλλεὺς ἀνασχετικὸς ὢν οὐδὲ - πρᾶος ἡσυχίαν ἄγειν κελεύει καὶ μὴ παροξύνειν αὐτόν, οὕτως -αὐτὸν οὕτως] αὐτόν - - - -μηκέτι νῦν μʼ ἐρέθιζε, γέρον νοέω δὲ καὶ αὐτός -Homer. Ω 560 -Ἕκτορά τοι λῦσαι, Διόθεν δέ μοι ἄγγελος ἦλθε -μή σε, γέρον, οὐδʼ αὐτὸν ἐνὶ κλισίῃσιν ἐάσω, - - -καὶ ἱκέτην περ ἐόντα, Διὸς δʼ ἀλίτωμαι ἐφετμάς, - - καὶ τὸν Ἕκτορα λούσας καὶ περιστείλας - αὐτὸς ἐπὶ τὴν ἀπήνην τίθησι, πρὶν ᾐκισμένον ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς - ὀφθῆναι, -μὴ ὁ μὲν ἀχνυμένῃ κραδίῃ χόλον οὐκ ἐρύσαιτο, -id. Ω 584 -παῖδα ἰδών, Ἀχιλῆι δʼ ὀρινθείη φίλον ἦτορ - - -καὶ ἑ κατακτείνειε, Διὸς δʼ ἀλίτηται ἐφετμάς - τὸ γὰρ ἐπισφαλῶς πρὸς ὀργὴν ἔχοντα καὶ φύσει τραχὺν ὄντα - καὶ θυμοειδῆ μὴ λανθάνειν ἑαυτὸν ἀλλʼ ἐξευλαβεῖσθαι καὶ φυλάττεσθαι - τὰς αἰτίας καὶ - - προκαταλαμβάνειν τῷ λογισμῷ πόρρωθεν ὅπως οὐδʼ - ἄκων τῷ πάθει περιπεσεῖται, θαυμαστῆς ἐστι προνοίας. οὕτω - δὲ δεῖ καὶ πρὸς μέθην τὸν φίλοινον ἔχειν καὶ πρὸς ἔρωτα τὸν - ἐρωτικόν· ὥσπερ ὁ Ἀγησίλαος οὐχ ὑπέμεινεν ὑπὸ τοῦ καλοῦ φιληθῆναι - προσιόντος, ὁ δὲ Κῦρος οὐδʼ ἰδεῖν τὴν Πάνθειαν - ἐτόλμησε, τῶν ἀπαιδεύτων τοὐναντίον ὑπεκκαύματα τοῖς πάθεσι - συλλεγόντων καὶ πρὸς ἃ μάλιστα κακῶς καὶ ὀλισθηρῶς ἔχουσιν αὑτοὺς - προϊεμένων. ὁ δʼ Ὀδυσσεὺς οὐ μόνον ἑαυτὸν ἀνέχει θυμούμενον, ἀλλὰ - καὶ τὸν Τηλέμαχον - ἐκ τοῦ λόγου συνιδὼν χαλεπὸν - ὄντα καὶ - μισοπόνηρον ἀμβλύνει καὶ παρασκευάζει πόρρωθεν ἡσυχίαν ἄγειν καὶ - ἀνέχεσθαι, κελεύων -εἰ δὲ μʼ ἀτιμήσουσι δόμον κάτα, σὸν δὲ φίλον κῆρ -id. π 274 - - - -τετλάτω ἐν στήθεσσι κακῶς πάσχοντος ἐμεῖο , -ἤν περ καὶ διὰ δῶμα ποδῶν ἕλκωσι θύραζε -ἢ βέλεσιν βάλλωσι· σὺ δʼ εἰσορόων ἀνέχεσθαι - ὥσπερ γὰρ τοὺς ἵππους οὐκ ἐν τοῖς δρόμοις χαλινοῦσιν - ἀλλὰ πρὸ τῶν δρόμων, οὕτω τοὺς - δυσκαθέκτους πρὸς τὰ δεινὰ καὶ θυμοειδεῖς προκαταλαμβάνοντες τοῖς - λογισμοῖς καὶ προκαταρτύοντες ἐπὶ τοὺς ἀγῶνας ἄγουσι. δεῖ δὲ μηδὲ - τῶν ὀνομάτων - ἀμελῶς - ἀκούειν, ἀλλὰ τὴν μὲν Κλεάνθους παιδιὰν - - παραιτεῖσθαι· κατειρωνεύεται γὰρ ἔστιν ὅτε προσποιούμενος ἐξηγεῖσθαι τὸ - -Ζεῦ πάτερ Ἴδηθεν μεδέων -Homer. Γ 320 - καὶ τὸ -Ζεῦ ἄνα Δωδωναῖε -id. Π 233 - - κελεύων ἀναγιγνώσκειν ὑφʼ ἕν, ὡς τὸν ἐκ - τῆς γῆς ἀναθυμιώμενον ἀέρα διὰ τὴν ἀνάδοσιν ἀναδωδωναῖον ὄντα. καὶ - Χρύσιππος δὲ πολλαχοῦ γλίσχρος ἐστίν, οὐ παίζων ἀλλʼ εὑρησιλογῶν - ἀπιθάνως, καὶ παραβιαζόμενος εὐρύοπα Κρονίδην εἶναι τὸν δεινὸν - ἐν τῷ διαλέγεσθαι καὶ διαβεβηκότα τῇ - δυνάμει τοῦ λόγου. βέλτιον δὲ ταῦτα τοῖς γραμματικοῖς παρέντας - ἐκεῖνα μᾶλλον πιέζειν οἷς - ἅμα τὸ χρήσιμον καὶ πιθανὸν ἔνεστιν -ἔνεστιν H: ἐστιν - - -οὐδέ με θυμὸς ἄνωγεν, ἐπεὶ μάθον ἔμμεναι Homer. Z 444 - ἐσθλὸς - καὶ -πᾶσιν γὰρ ἐπίστατο μείλιχος εἶναι -id. P 671 - - τήν τε γὰρ ἀνδρείαν ἀποφαίνων μάθημα καὶ τὸ - προσφιλῶς ἅμα καὶ κεχαρισμένως ἀνθρώποις ὁμιλεῖν ἀπʼ ἐπιστήμης καὶ - κατὰ λόγον γίγνεσθαι νομίζων προτρέπει μὴ ἀμελεῖν ἑαυτῶν, ἀλλὰ - μανθάνειν τὰ - καλὰ καὶ προσέχειν τοῖς - διδάσκουσιν, ὡς καὶ τὴν σκαιότητα καὶ τὴν δειλίαν ἀμαθίαν καὶ ἄγνοιαν - οὖσαν. σφόδρα δὲ τούτοις κἀκεῖνα σύμφωνά ἐστιν ἃ λέγει περὶ τοῦ - Διὸς καὶ τοῦ Ποσειδῶνος - - -ἦ μὰν ἀμφοτέροισιν ὁμὸν γένος ἠδʼ ἴα πάτρη, Homer. N 354 - - -ἀλλὰ Ζεὺς πρότερος; γεγόνει καὶ πλείονα ᾔδηʼ - θειότατον γὰρ ἀποφαίνει τὴν φρόνησιν καὶ βασιλικώτατον, ἐν ᾗ - τίθεται τὴν μεγίστην ὑπεροχὴν τοῦ Διός, ἅτε δὴ καὶ τὰς ἄλλας - ἀρετὰς ἕπεσθαι ταύτῃ νομίζων. ἐθιστέον δʼ ἅμα καὶ τούτων - ἐγρηγορότως - τὸν νέον ἀκούειν -ψεῦδος δʼ οὐκ ἐρέει· μάλα γὰρ πεπνυμένος ἐστὶ -id. γ 20. 328 - καί -Ἀντίλοχε, πρόσθεν πεπνυμένε, ποῖον ἔρεξας; -id. Ψ 570 -ᾔσχυνας μὲν ἐμὴν ἀρετήν, βλάψας δέ μοι ἵππους - - καὶ - - -Γλαῦκε, τίη δὲ σὺ τοῖος ἐὼν ὑπέροπλον ἔειπας; -id. P 170 -ὦ πέπον, ἦ τʼ ἐφάμην σε περὶ φρένας ἔμμεναι ἄλλων -, ὡς οὔτε ψευδομένων τῶν φρονίμων οὔτε κακομαχούντων - ἐν τοῖς· ἀγῶσιν οὔτε παρʼ ἀξίαν ἑτέροις - ἐγκαλούντων. καὶ τὸν Πάνδαρον δὲ πεισθῆναι λέγων διὰ τὴν ἀφροσύνην - τὰ ὅρκια συγχέαι δῆλὸς ἐστιν οὐκ ἂν ἀδικῆσαι τὸν - φρόνιμον ἡγούμενος ὅμοια δʼ ἔστι καὶ περὶ σωφροσύνης ὑποδεικνύειν - ἐφιστάντα τοῖς οὕτω λεγομένοις οιαὶ -τῷ δὲ γονὴ Προίτου ἐπεμήνατο, δῖʼ Ἄντεια, Homer. Z 160 - - -κρυπταδίῃ φιλότητι μιγήμεναι· ἀλλὰ τὸν οὔ τι - - -πεῖθʼ ἀγαθὰ φρονέοντα, δαΐφρονα Βελλεροφόντην - - -ἡ δʼ ἤτοι τὸ πρὶν μὲν ἀναίνετο ἔργον ἀεικές, id. γ 265 - -δῖα Κλυταιμνήστρη· φρεσὶ γὰρ κέχρητʼ ἀγαθῇσιν - - ἐν μὲν οὖν τούτοις τῇ φρονήσει τὴν τοῦ - σωφρονεῖν αἰτίαν ἀποδίδωσιν, ἐν δὲ ταῖς παρὰ τὰς μάχας κελεύσεσιν - ἑκάστοτε λέγων -αἰδώς, ὦ Λύκιοι. πόσε φεύγετε; νῦν θοοὶ ἔστε -id. Π 422 - καὶ id. N 121 - - -ἀλλʼ ἐν φρεσὶ θέσθε ἕκαστος -αἰδῶ καὶ νέμεσιν· δὴ γὰρ μέγα νεῖκος ὄρωρεν - - ἀνδρείους ἔοικε - ποιεῖν τοὺς σώφρονας διὰ τὸ αἰδεῖσθαι τὰ αἰσχρὰ καὶ τὰς ἡδονὰς - δυναμένους ὑπερβαίνειν καὶ τοὺς κινδύνους ὑφίστασθαι. ἀφʼ ὧν - καὶ Τιμόθεος ὁρμηθεὶς οὐ κακῶς ἐν τοῖς Πέρσαις - τοὺς Ἕλληνας παρεκάλει -σέβεσθʼ αἰδῶ συνεργὸν ἀρετᾶς δοριμάχου -Bergk. 3 p. 622 - Αἰσχύλος -Αἰσχύλος] Sept. 599 δὲ καὶ τὸ πρὸς δόξαν ἔχειν ἀτύφως καὶ μὴ - διασοβεῖσθαι μηδʼ ἐπαίρεσθαι τοῖς παρὰ τῶν - - πολλῶν ἐπαίνοις ἐν τῷ φρονεῖν τίθεται περὶ τοῦ Ἀμφιαράου γράφων - -οὐ γὰρ δοκεῖν ἄριστος ἀλλʼ εἶναι θέλει, - - -βαθεῖαν ἄλοκα διὰ φρενὸς καρπούμενος, -ἀφʼ ἧς τὰ κεδνὰ βλαστάνει βουλεύματα - τὸ γὰρ ἐφʼ ἑαυτῷ καὶ τῇ διαθέσει τῇ περὶ αὑτὸν - οὔσῃ κρατίστῃ μεγαλοφρονεῖν νοῦν ἔχοντος ἀνδρός - ἐστι. πάντων οὖν ἀναγομένων εἰς τὴν φρόνησιν ἀποδείκνυται πᾶν εἶδος - ἀρετῆς ἐπιγιγνόμενον ἐκ λόγου -ἐκ λόγου Krebsius: ἑκάστου - καὶ διδασκαλίας.

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ἡ μὲν οὖν μέλιττα φυσικῶς ἐν τοῖς δριμυτάτοις - ἄνθεσι καὶ ταῖς τραχυτάταις ἀκάνθαις ἐξανευρίσκει - τὸ λειότατον μέλι καὶ - χρηστικώτατον, οἱ δὲ παῖδες, ἂν ὀρθῶς ἐντρέφωνται τοῖς ποιήμασιν, καὶ - ἀπὸ τῶν φαύλους καὶ ἀτόπους ὑποψίας ἐχόντων ἕλκειν τι χρήσιμον - ἁμωσγέπως μαθήσονται καὶ ὠφέλιμον. - αὐτίκα - γοῦν ὕποπτός ἐστιν ὁ Ἀγαμέμνων ὡς διὰ δωροδοκίαν ἀφεὶς τῆς - στρατείας τὸν -τὸν add. H πλούσιον ἐκεῖνον τὸν τὴν Αἴθην χαρισάμενον αὐτῷ -δῶρʼ, ἵνα μὴ οἱ ἕποιθʼ ὑπὸ Ἴλιον ἠνεμόεσσαν -Homer. Ψ 297 -ἀλλʼ αὐτοῦ τέρποιτο μένων· μέγα γάρ οἱ ἔδωκεν - - -Ζεὺς ἄφενος - ῦὁ ὀρθῶς δὲ γʼ ἐποίησεν, ὡς Ἀριστοτέλης φησίν, ἵππον - ἀγαθὴν ἀνθρώπου τοιούτου προτιμήσας· οὐδὲ γὰρ κυνὸς ἀντάξιος οὐδʼ - ὄνου μὰ Δία δειλὸς ἀνὴρ καὶ ἄναλκις, ὑπὸ πλούτου καὶ μαλακίας - διερρυηκώς - - πάλιν αἴσχιστα δοκεῖ - τὸν υἱὸν ἡ Θέτις ἐφʼ ἡδονὰς παρακαλεῖν καὶ ἀναμιμνῄσκειν - ἀφροδισίων. ἀλλὰ κἀνταῦθα δεῖ παραθεωρεῖν τὴν τοῦ Ἀχιλλέως ἐγκράτειαν, ὅτι τῆς Βρισηίδος ἐρῶν ἡκούσης πρὸς - αὐτόν, εἰδὼς τὴν τοῦ βίου τελευτὴν ἐγγὺς οὖσαν οὐ σπεύδει τῶν - ἡδονῶν πρὸς ἀπόλαυσιν οὐδʼ ὥσπερ οἱ πολλοὶ πενθεῖ τὸν φίλον - ἀπραξίᾳ καὶ παραλείψει - τῶν καθηκόντων; - ἀλλὰ τῶν μὲν ἡδονῶν διὰ τὴν λύπην ἀπέχεται, ταῖς δὲ πράξεσι καὶ - ταῖς στρατηγίαις ἐνεργός ἐστι. πάλιν ὁ Ἀρχίλοχος οὐκ ἐπαινεῖται - λυπούμενος μὲν ἐπὶ τῷ ἀνδρὶ τῆς ἀδελφῆς - διεφθαρμένῳ κατὰ θάλασσαν, οἴνῳ δὲ καὶ - παιδιᾷ - πρὸς τὴν λύπην μάχεσθαι - διανοούμενος. αἰτίαν μέντοι λόγον ἔχουσαν εἴρηκεν -οὔτε τι γὰρ κλαίων ἰήσομαι οὔτε κάκιον -Bergk. 2 p. 387 -θήσω τερπωλὰς καὶ θαλίας ἐφέπων - εἰ γὰρ ἐκεῖνος οὐδὲν ἐνόμιζεν ποιήσειν κάκιον τερπωλὰς - καὶ θαλίας· ἐφέπων, πῶς ἡμῖν τὰ - παρόντα χεῖρον ἕξει φιλοσοφοῦσι καὶ πολιτευομένοις καὶ προιοῦσιν - εἰς ἀγορὰν καὶ - καταβαίνουσιν εἰς Ἀκαδήμειαν καὶ γεωργίαν ἐφέπουσιν; ὅθεν οὐδʼ αἱ - παραδιορθώσεις φαύλως ἔχουσιν αἷς καὶ Κλεάνθης ἐχρήσατο - καὶ Ἀντισθένης, ὁ μὲν εὖ μάλα τοὺς Ἀθηναίους - ἰδὼν θορυβήσαντας ἐν τῷ θεάτρῳ -τί δʼ αἰσχρὸν εἰ μὴ τοῖσι χρωμένοις δοκεῖ; -Bauck. p. 293 - παραβάλλων εὐθὺς -αἰσχρὸν τὸ γʼ αἰσχρόν, κἂν δοκῇ κἂν μὴ δοκῇ, - - ὁ δὲ Κλεάνθης περὶ τοῦ πλούτου -φίλοις τε δοῦναι σῶμὰ τʼ εἰς νόσους πεσὸν -Eur. 428 -δαπάναισι σῶσαι - - μεταγράφων οὕτω - - -πόρναις τε δοῦναι σῶμὰ τʼ εἰς νόσους πεσόν -δαπάναις ἐπιτρῖψαι. - καὶ ὁ Ζήνων ἐπανορθούμενος τὸ τοῦ Σοφοκλέους - - -ὅστις δὲ πρὸς τύραννον ἐμπορεύεται, -Nauck. p. 253 -κείνου στὶ δοῦλος·, κἂν ἐλεύθερος μόλῃ - μετέγραφεν -οὐκ ἔστι δοῦλος, ἢν ἐλεύθερος μόλῃ, - τῷ ἐλευθέρῳ νῦν συνεκφαίνων τὸν ἀδεᾶ καὶ μεγαλόφρονα - καὶ ἀταπείνωτον. τί δὴ κωλύει καὶ - ἡμᾶς ταῖς τοιαύταις ὑποφωνήσεσι τοὺς νέους παρακαλεῖν πρὸς τὸ βέλτιον, - οὕτω πως χρωμένους τοῖς λεγομένοις; - - -τόδʼ ἐστὶ τὸ ζηλωτὸν ἀνθρώποις, ὅτῳ -id. p. 695 -τόξον μερίμνης εἰς ὃ βούλεται πέσῃ. - - οὔκ. ἀλλʼ -ὅτῳ τόξον μερίμνης εἰς ὃ συμφέρει πέσῃ. - τὸ γὰρ· ἃ μὴ δεῖ βουλόμενον λαμβάνειν καὶ τυγχάνειν οἰκτρόν - ἐστι καὶ ἄζηλον. καὶ -ἄζηλον καὶ] ἄζηλον H - - -οὐκ ἐπὶ πᾶσὶν ς1ʼ ἐφύτευσʼ ἀγαθοῖς, -Eur. Iph. A. 29 -Ἀγάμεμνον, Ἀτρεύς -δεῖ δέ σε χαίρειν καὶ λυπεῖσθαι - μὰ Δία, φήσομεν, ἀλλὰ δεῖ σε χαίρειν, μὴ λυπεῖσθαι τυγχάνοντα - μετρίων -οὐ γὰρ ἐπὶ πᾶσὶν ς1ʼ ἐφύτευς1ʼ ἀγαθοῖς, -Ἀγάμεμνον, Ἀτρεύς. - - - -αἰαῖ τόδʼ ἤδη θεῖον ἀνθρώποις κακόν, Nauck. p. 449 - - -ὅταν τις εἰδῇ τἀγαθόν, χρῆται δὲ μή. - θηριῶδες μὲν οὖν καὶ ἄλογον καὶ οἰκτρὸν εἰδότα τὸ βέλτιον - ὑπὸ τοῦ χείρονος ἐξ ἀκρασίας καὶ μαλακίας - - ἄγεσθαι. -τρόπος ἔσθʼ ὁ πείθων τοῦ λέγοντος, οὐ λόγος.ʼ -Meinek. IV p. 209 - καὶ τρόπος -καὶ τρόπος] τρόπος H μὲν οὖν καὶ λόγος ἢ τρόπος διὰ λόγου, καθάπερ - ἱππεὺς -ἱππεὺς Grotius: ἱππος - διὰ χαλινοῦ καὶ διὰ -καὶ διὰ H: καὶ - πηδαλίου κυβερνήτης, οὐδὲν οὕτω - φιλάνθρωπον οὐδὲ συγγενὲς - ἐχούσης τῆς - ἀρετῆς ὄργανον ὡς τὸν λόγον. - - -πρὸς θῆλυ νεύει μᾶλλον ἢ πὶ τἄρρενα; -Nauck. p. 288 -ὅπου προσῇ τὸ κάλλος, ἀμφιδέξιος. - ἦν δὲ βέλτιον εἰπεῖν -ὅπου προσῇ τὸ σῶφρον, ἀμφιδέξιος - - ὡς ἀληθῶς καὶ ἰσόρροπος· δʼ δʼ ὑφʼ - ἡδονῆς καὶ ὥρας ὧδε κἀκεῖ μετοιακιζόμενος ἐπαρίστερος καὶ ἀβέβαιος. - - -φόβος τὰ θεῖα τοῖσι σώφροσιν βροτῶν. -id. p. 695 - καὶ μὴν οὐδαμῶς, ἀλλὰ -θάρσος τὰ θεῖα τοῖσι σώφροσιν βροτῶν. - φόβος δὲ τοῖς ἄφροσι καὶ ἀνοήτοις καὶ ἀχαρίστοις - ὅτι καὶ τὴν παντὸς αἰτίαν - ἀγαθοῦ δύναμιν καὶ ἀρχὴν ὡς βλάπτουσαν ὑφορῶνται καὶ δεδίασι τὸ μὲν - οὖν τῆς ἐπανορθώσεως γένος τοιοῦτόν ἐστι.

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τὴν δʼ ἐπὶ πλέον τῶν λεγομένων χρῆσιν ὑπέδειξεν ὀρθῶς ὁ Χρύσιππος, - ὅτι δεῖ μετάγειν διαβιβάζειν ἐπὶ τὰ ὁμοειδῆ τὸ - χρήσιμον. ὅ τε γὰρ Ἡσίοδος εἰπὼν -οὐδʼ ἂν βοῦς ἀπόλοιτʼ, εἰ μὴ γείτων κακὸς εἴη -OD 348 - καὶ περὶ κυνὸς ταὐτὸ καὶ περὶ ὄνου λέγει καὶ περὶ - πάντων ὁμοίως τῶν ἀπολέσθαι δυναμένων. καὶ πάλιν - τοῦ Εὐριπίδου λέγοντος -τίς δʼ ἐστὶ δοῦλος τοῦ θανεῖν ἄφροντις ὤν; -Nauck. p. 523 - - ὑπακουστέον ὅτι καὶ - περὶ πόνου καὶ νόσου ταὐτὰ -ταυτὰ] ταυτὸν H εἴρηκεν. ὡς γὰρ φαρμάκου πρὸς ἓν - ἁρμόσαντος - νόσημα τὴν δύναμιν καταμαθόντες - οἱ ἰατροὶ μετάγουσι καὶ χρῶνται πρὸς ἅπαν τὸ παραπλήσιον, οὕτω καὶ - λόγον κοινοῦν καὶ δημοσιεύειν τὴν χρείαν δυνάμενον οὐ χρὴ περιορᾶν ἑνὶ - πράγματι συνηρτημένον ἀλλὰ κινεῖν ἐπὶ πάντα τὰ ὅμοια, καὶ τοὺς νέους - ἐθίζειν τὴν κοινότητα συνορᾶν καὶ - μεταφέρειν ὀξέως τὸ οἰκεῖον, ἐν πολλοῖς παραδείγμασι ποιουμένους - μελέτην καὶ ἄσκησιν ὀξυηκοΐας, ἵνα τοῦ Μενάνδρου λέγοντος -μακάριος ὅστις οὐσίαν καὶ νοῦν ἔχει -Meinek. IV p. 103 - - τοῦτο καὶ περὶ δόξης καὶ περὶ ἡγεμονίας - καὶ περὶ - λόγου - δυνάμεως εἰρῆσθαι νομίζωσι, τὴν δὲ πρὸς τὸν Ἀχιλλέα τὸν ἐν Σκύρῳ - καθήμενον ἐν ταῖς παρθένοις γεγενημένην ἐπίπληξιν ὑπὸ τοῦ Ὀδυσσέως - -σὺ δʼ, ὦ τὸ λαμπρὸν φῶς ἀποσβεννὺς γένους, Nauck. p. 653 - - -ξαίνεις, ἀρίστου πατρὸς Ἑλλήνων γεγώς; - καὶ πρὸς τὸν ἄσωτον οἴωνται -οἴωνται H: οἴονται - λέγεσθαι καὶ πρὸς τὸν - αἰσχροκερδῆ καὶ πρὸς τὸν ἀμελῆ καὶ ἀπαίδευτον - -πίνεις, ἀρίστου πατρὸς Ἑλλήνων γεγώς, - ἢ κυβεύεις ἢ ὀρτυγοκοπεῖς ἢ καπηλεύεις ἢ τοκογλυφεῖς, μηδὲν - μέγα φρονῶν μηδʼ ἄξιον τῆς εὐγενείας; -μὴ πλοῦτον εἴπῃς. οὐχὶ θαυμάζω θεόν Nauck. p. 294 - - - -ὃν χὠ -χὠ nescio quis: καὶ ὁ - κάκιστος ῥᾳδίως ἐκτήσατο. - οὐκοῦν μηδὲ δόξαν εἴπῃς μηδὲ σώματος εὐμορφίαν μηδὲ - στρατηγικὴν χλαμύδα μηδʼ ἱερατικὸν στέφανον, ὧν καὶ τοὺς κακίστους - ὁρῶμεν τυγχάνοντας. - τῆς δειλίας γὰρ αἰσχρὰ γίγνεται τέκνα -Nauck. p. 695 - - καὶ ναὶ μὰ Δία τῆς ἀκολασίας καὶ τῆς - δεισιδαιμονίας καὶ τοῦ φθόνου καὶ τῶν ἄλλων νοσημάτων ἁπάντων. ἄριστα - δʼ εἰρηκότος Ὁμήρου τὸ -Δύσπαρι εἶδος ἄριστε -Homer. Γ 39 - καὶ τὸ - - - -Ἕκτορ εἶδος ἄριστε -id. P 142 - ψόγου γὰρ ἀποφαίνει καὶ λοιδορίας ἄξιον ᾧ μηδέν ἐστιν - ἀγαθὸν εὐμορφίας κάλλιον ἐφαρμοστέον τοῦτο καὶ τοῖς ὁμοίοις, - κολούοντα τοὺς μεγαλοφρονοῦντας ἐπὶ τοῖς μηδενὸς ἀξίοις, καὶ διδάσκοντα - τοὺς - νέους ὄνειδος ἡγεῖσθαι καὶ λοιδορίαν - τὸ “χρήμασιν ἄριστε” καὶ “δείπνοις ἄριστε” καὶ “παισὶν - ἢ ὑποζυγίοις ἄριστε” καὶ νὴ Δία τὸ λέγειν ἐφεξῆς “ἄριστε -” δεῖ γὰρ ἐκ τῶν καλῶν διώκειν τὴν ὑπεροχὴν καὶ περὶ τὰ πρῶτα - πρῶτον εἶναι καὶ μέγαν ἐν τοῖς - μεγίστοις· - ἡ δʼ ἀπὸ μικρῶν δόξα καὶ φαύλων ἄδοξός ἐστι καὶ ἀφιλότιμος. τοῦτο - δʼ ἡμᾶς εὐθὺς ὑπομιμνῄσκει τὸ παράδειγμα τὸ τοὺς -τοῦ τοὺς H ψόγους ἀποθεωρεῖν καὶ τοὺς ἐπαίνους ἐν τοῖς Ὁμήρου μάλιστα - ποιήμασιν· ἔμφασις γὰρ γίγνεται μεγάλη τοῦ τὰ σωματικὰ καὶ τυχηρὰ μὴ - μεγάλης ἄξια σπουδῆς· νομίζειν. πρῶτον μὲν γὰρ ἐν ταῖς δεξιώσεσι καὶ - ἀνακλήσεσιν - οὐ καλοὺς οὐδὲ πλουσίους οὐδʼ - ἰσχυροὺς προσαγορεύουσιν, ἀλλὰ τοιαύταις εὐφημίαις χρῶνται - - - διογενὲς Λαερτιάδη, πολυμήχανʼ Ὀδυσσεῦ -Homer. B 173 - - καὶ -Ἕκτορ υἱὲ Πριάμοιο, Διὶ μῆτιν ἀτάλαντε -id. H 47 - πο καὶ -ὦ Ἀχιλεῦ Πηλέος υἱέ, μέγα κῦδος Ἀχαιῶν -id. T 216 - καὶ - δῖε Μενοιτιάδη, τῷ ἐμῷ κεχαρισμένε θυμῷ -id. Λ 608 - ἔπειτα λοιδοροῦσιν οὐδὲν ἐφαπτόμενοι τῶν σωματικῶν, - ἀλλὰ τοῖς ἁμαρτήμασι τοὺς ψόγους ἐπιφέροντες - -οἰνοβαρές, κυνὸς ὄμματʼ ἔχων, κραδίην δʼ ἐλάφοιο -id. A 225 - καί - - -αἶαν νεῖκος ἄριστε, κακοφραδές -id. Ψ 483 - - καὶ -Ἰδομενεῦ, τί πάρος λαβρεύεαι; οὐδὲ τί σε χρὴ λαβραγόρην id. Ψ 474 - ἔμεναι - καὶ -αἶαν ἁμαρτοεπὲς βουγάιε -id. N 824 - - καὶ τέλος ὁ Θερσίτης ὑπὸ τοῦ Ὀδυσσέως - οὐ χωλὸς οὐ φαλακρὸς οὐ κυρτὸς ἀλλʼ ἀκριτόμυθος - λοιδορεῖται, τὸν δʼ Ἥφαιστον ἡ τεκοῦσα φιλοφρονουμένη προσηγόρευσεν ἀπὸ - τῆς χωλότητος -ὄρσεο κυλλοπόδιον, ἐμὸν τέκος -Homer Φ 331 - οὕτως Ὅμηρος καταγελᾷ τῶν αἰσχυνομένων ἐπὶ χωλότησιν - ἢ τυφλότησιν, οὔτε ψεκτὸν ἡγούμενος τὸ - μὴ αἰσχρὸν οὔτʼ αἰσχρὸν τὸ μὴ διʼ ἡμᾶς ἀλλʼ ἀπὸ - τύχης γιγνόμενον. δύο δὴ - περιγίγνεται μεγάλα τοῖς ποιημάτων ἐπιμελῶς ἐθιζομένοις ἀκούειν, τὸ - μὲν εἰς μετριότητα, μηδενὶ τύχην ἐπαχθῶς καὶ - ἀνοήτως ὀνειδίζειν, τὸ δʼ εἰς μεγαλοφροσύνην, αὐτοὺς - χρησαμένους τύχαις μὴ ταπεινοῦσθαι μηδὲ ταράττεσθαι, φέρειν δὲ πράως καὶ - σκώμματα καὶ λοιδορίας καὶ γέλωτας, μάλιστα μὲν τὸ τοῦ Φιλήμονος - ἔχοντας πρόχειρον - - -ἣδιον οὐδὲν οὐδὲ μουσικώτερον -Meinek. IV p. 9 -ἔστʼ ἢ δύνασθαι λοιδορούμενον φέρειν - ἂν δὲ φαίνηταί τις ἐπιλήψεως δεόμενος, τῶν ἁμαρτημάτων καὶ - τῶν παθῶν ἐπιλαμβάνεσθαι , ὥσπερ ὁ τραγικὸς Ἄδραστος, τοῦ Ἀλκμέωνος - εἰπόντος πρὸς - αὐτὸν - - -ἀνδροκτόνου γυναικὸς; ὁμογενὴς ἔφυς, -23 Nauck. p. 695 - ἀπεκρίνατο -σὺ δʼ αὐτόχειρ γε μητρὸς ἥ ς1ʼ ἐγείνατο - καθάπερ γὰρ οἱ τὰ ἱμάτια μαστιγοῦντες οὐχ ἅπτονται - τοῦ σώματος, οὕτως οἱ δυστυχίας τινὰς ἢ - δυσγενείας ὀνειδίζοντες εἰς τὰ ἐκτὸς ἐντείνονται κενῶς καὶ ἀνοήτως, - τῆς ψυχῆς δʼ οὐ θιγγάνουσιν οὐδὲ τῶν ἀληθῶς ἐπανορθώσεως δεομένων καὶ - δήξεως. -

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καὶ μὴν ὥσπερ ἐπάνω πρὸς τὰ φαῦλα καὶ - βλαβερὰ ποιήματα λόγους καὶ γνώμας· - ἀντιτάσσοντες - ἐνδόξων καὶ πολιτικῶν ἀνδρῶν - ἐδοκοῦμεν ἀφιστάναι καὶ ἀνακρούειν τὴν πίστιν, οὕτως ὅ τι ἂν - ἀστεῖον εὕρωμεν παρʼ αὐτοῖς καὶ χρηστόν, ἐκτρέφειν χρὴ καὶ αὔξειν - ἀποδείξεσι καὶ μαρτυρίαις φιλοσόφοις, ἀποδιδόντας τὴν εὕρεσιν - ἐκείνοις, καὶ γὰρ δίκαιον καὶ ὠφέλιμον, ἰσχὺν τῆς πίστεως καὶ - ἀξίωμα προσλαμβανούσης, ὅταν τοῖς ἀπὸ σκηνῆς λεγομένοις καὶ - πρὸς λύραν ᾀδομένοις καὶ μελετωμένοις ἐν - διδασκαλείῳ τὰ Πυθαγόρου δόγματα καὶ τὰ Πλάτωνος ὁμολογῇ, καὶ τὰ - Χίλωνος παραγγέλματα καὶ τὰ -Βίαντος ἐπὶ τὰς αὐτὰς ἄγῃ γνώμας ἐκείνοις τοῖς - παιδικοῖς ἀναγνώσμασιν. ὅθεν οὐ παρέργως ὑποδεικτέον - ὅτι τὸ μὲν -οὔ τοι, τέκνον ἐμόν, -οὔ τοι τέκνον ἐμὸν Homerus E 428: τέκνον ἐμὸν οὔ τοι - δέδοται πολεμήια ἔργα, -ἀλλὰ σὺ γʼ ἱμερόεντα μετέρχεο ἔργα γάμοιο - καὶ τὸ -Ζεὺς γάρ τοι νεμεσᾷ, ὅτʼ ἀμείνονι φωτὶ μάχοιο - - οὐδὲν διαφέρει τοῦ “γνῶθι σαυτόν,” ἀλλὰ τὴν αὐτὴν ἔχει διάνοιαν ἐκείνῳ· τὸ δὲ -νήπιοι, οὐδʼ ἴσασιν ὅσῳ πλέον ἥμισυ παντὸς -Hesiod. OD 40 - καὶ τὸ -ἡ δὲ κακὴ βουλὴ τῷ βουλεύσαντι κακίστη -id. 265 - - - ταὐτόν ἐστι τοῖς - Πλάτωνος ἐν Γοργίᾳ -Γοργίᾳ] p. 473 a καὶ Πολιτείᾳ δόγμασι περὶ τοῦ “τὸ ἀδικεῖν - κάκιον εἶναι τοῦ ἀδικεῖσθαιʼ ” καὶ τοῦ κακῶς πάσχειν τὸ ποιεῖν κακῶς βλαβερώτερον. ἐπιρρητέον δὲ - καὶ τῷ τοῦ Αἰσχύλου - θάρσει· πόνου γὰρ ἄκρον οὐκ ἔχει χρόνον -Nauck. p. 83 - ὅτι τοῦτʼ ἐστὶ τὸ παρʼ Ἐπικούρου θρυλούμενον ἀεὶ - καὶ θαυμαζόμενον, ὡς “οἱ μεγάλοι πόνοι συντόμως - ἐξάγουσιν, οἱ δὲ χρόνιοι μέγεθος οὐκ ἔχουσιν” ὧν τὸ μὲν - εἴρηκεν ὁ Αἰσχύλος ἐναργῶς, τὸ δὲ τῷ εἰρημένῳ παρακείμενόν - ἐστιν· εἰ γὰρ ὁ μέγας καὶ σύντονος οὐ παραμένει πόνος, οὐκ ἔστι - μέγας ὁ - παραμένων οὐδὲ δυσκαρτέρητος. τὰ - δὲ τοῦ Θέσπιδος ταυτὶ -ὁρᾷς ὅτι Ζεὺς τῷδε πρωτεύει θεῶν, id. p. 647 - - -οὐ ψεῦδος οὐδὲ κόμπον οὐ μῶρον γέλων -ἀσκῶν τὸ δʼ ἡδὺ μοῦνος οὐκ ἐπίσταται - - τί διαφέρει τοῦ “πόρρω γὰρ ἡδονῆς καὶ - λύπης ἵδρυται τὸ θεῖον,” ὡς Πλάτων -Πλάτων] Epist. III p. 315 c ἔλεγε. τὸ δὲ -ʽφ̔άσωμεν -Bergk. 3 p. 580 -πιστὸν κῦδος ἔχειν ἀρετάν· -πλοῦτος δὲ καὶ δειλοῖσιν ἀνθρώπων ὁμιλεῖ - - λεγόμενον ὑπὸ τοῦ Βακχυλίδου καὶ πάλιν - ὑπὸ τοῦ Εὐριπίδου παραπλησίως καὶ τό - ἐγὼ δʼ -Nauck. p. 523 -οὐδὲν πρεσβύτερον νομίζω - τᾶς σωφροσύνας, ἐπεὶ - - -τοῖς ἀγαθοῖς ἀεὶ ξύνεστι - - - -ʽτ̔ιμᾶν τὰν τέτασθε, πλούτῳ δʼ ἀρετὰν κατεργάσεσθαι -Nauck. p. 523 -δοκεῖτʼ , ἐν ἐσθλοῖς δὲ καθήσεσθʼ ἄνολβοι - - ἆρʼ οὐκ ἀπόδειξίς - ἐστιν ὧν οἱ φιλόσοφοι λέγουσι περὶ πλούτου καὶ τῶν ἐκτὸς ἀγαθῶν, ὡς - χωρὶς ἀρετῆς - ἀνωφελῶν ὄντων καὶ ἀνονήτων - τοῖς ἔχουσι; τὸ γὰρ οὕτω συνάπτειν καὶ συνοικειοῦν τοῖς δόγμασιν - ἐξάγει τὰ ποιήματα τοῦ μύθου καὶ τοῦ προσωπείου, καὶ σπουδὴν - περιτίθησιν αὐτοῖς χρησίμως λεγομένοις· ἔτι δὲ προανοίγει· καὶ προκινεῖ - τὴν τοῦ νέου ψυχὴν - τοῖς ἐν φιλοσοφίᾳ - λόγοις. ἔρχεται γὰρ οὐκ - ἄγευστος αὐτῶν παντάπασιν οὐδʼ ἀνήκοος, οὐδʼ ἀκρίτως - ἀνάπλεως ὧν ἤκουε τῆς μητρὸς ἀεὶ καὶ τίτθης καὶ νὴ Δία τοῦ - πατρὸς καὶ τοῦ παιδαγωγοῦ, τοὺς πλουσίους εὐδαιμονιζόντων καὶ σεβομένων, - φριττόντων - δὲ τὸν θάνατον καὶ τὸν πόνον, - ἄζηλον δὲ τὴν ἀρετὴν καὶ τὸ μηδὲν ἄνευ χρημάτων καὶ δόξης ἀγόντων. - οἷς ἀντίφωνα τὰ τῶν φιλοσόφων ἀκούοντας αὐτοὺς τὸ πρῶτον ἔκπληξις - ἴσχει καὶ ταραχὴ καὶ θάμβος, οὐ προσιεμένους οὐδʼ ὑπομένοντας, ἂν - μὴ καθάπερ ἐκ σκότους πολλοῦ μέλλοντες - ἥλιον ὁρᾶν ἐθισθῶσιν οἷον ἐν νόθῳ φωτὶ κεκραμένης μύθοις ἀληθείας - αὐγὴν ἔχοντι μαλακὴν ἀλύπως διαβλέπειν τὰ τοιαῦτα καὶ μὴ φεύγειν. - προακηκοότες γὰρ ἐν τοῖς ποιήμασι καὶ προανεγνωκότες - - - -τὸν φύντα θρηνεῖν εἰς ὅς1ʼ ἔρχεται κακά, id. p. 395 - -τὸν δʼ αὖ θανόντα καὶ πόνων πεπαυμένον -χαίροντας εὐφημοῦντας ἐκπέμπειν δόμων - καὶ - -ἐπεὶ τί δεῖ βροτοῖσι πλὴν δυεῖν μόνον -Nauck. p. 507 -Δήμητρος ἀκτῆς πώματὸς θʼ ὑδρηχόου; - καὶ -ἰὼ τυραννὶ βαρβάρων ἀνδρῶν φίλη -id. p. 696 - - - καὶ -ἡ βροτῶν τʼ εὐπραξία -τῶν τἀλάχιστα γίγνεται λυπουμένων - ἧττον ταράττονται καὶ δυσκολαίνουσι παρὰ τοῖς φιλοσόφοις - ἀκούοντες ὡς “ὁ θάνατος οὐδὲν πρὸς - - ἡμᾶσ” καὶ “ὁ τῆς φύσεως πλοῦτος ὥρισται” καὶ “τὸ - εὔδαιμον καὶ μακάριον οὐ χρημάτων πλῆθος οὐδὲ πραγμάτων ὄγκος οὐδʼ - ἀρχαί τινες ἔχουσιν οὐδὲ δυνάμεις, ἀλλʼ ἀλυπία καὶ πραότης παθῶν - καὶ διάθεσις - ψυχῆς; - τὸ κατὰ φύσιν ὁρίζουσα.” Διὸ καὶ τούτων - ἕνεκα καὶ τῶν προειρημένων ἁπάντων ἀγαθῆς δεῖ τῷ νέῳ - κυβερνήσεως περὶ τὴν ἀνάγνωσιν, ἵνα μὴ προδιαβληθεὶς ἀλλὰ μᾶλλον - προπαιδευθεὶς εὐμενὴς καὶ φίλος καὶ οἰκεῖος ὑπὸ ποιητικῆς ἐπὶ - φιλοσοφίαν προπέμπηται.

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+ εἰ μέν, ὡς Φιλόξενυς ὁ ποιητὴς ἔλεγεν, ὦ Μάρκε Σήδατε, Σήδατε Basileensis: σήδαπε τῶν κρεῶν τὰ μὴ κρέα ἥδιστά ἐστι + καὶ τῶν ἰχθύων οἱ μὴ ἰχθύες, ἐκείνοις ἀποφαίνεσθαι παρῶμεν οἷς ὁ Κάτων ἔφη τῆς καρδίας τὴν + ὑπερῴαν εὐαισθητοτέραν ὑπάρχειν. ὅτι δὲ τῶν ἐν φιλοσοφίᾳ λεγομένων οἱ σφόδρα νέοι τοῖς μὴ δοκοῦσι φιλοσόφως μηδʼ ἀπὸ σπουδῆς λέγεσθαι χαίρουσι μᾶλλον καὶ παρέχουσιν ὑπηκόους ἑαυτοὺς καὶ χειροήθεις, δῆλόν ἐστιν ἡμῖν. οὐ γὰρ μόνον τὰ +Αἰσώπεια μυθάρια καὶ τὰς ποιητικὰς ὑποθέσεις ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸν Ἄβαριν τὸν Ἡρακλείδου καὶ τὸν Λύκωνα τὸν Ἀρίστωνος διερχόμενοι καὶ τὰ καὶ τὰ W: τὰ περὶ τῶν ψυχῶν δόγματα μεμιγμένα μυθολογίᾳ μεθʼ ἡδονῆς ἐνθουσιῶσι. + διὸ δεῖ μὴ μόνον ἐν ταῖς περὶ ἐδωδὴν καὶ + πόσιν ἡδοναῖς διαφυλάττειν εὐσχήμονας αὐτούς, ἔτι δὲ μᾶλλον ἐν ταῖς ἀκροάσεσιν καὶ ἀναγνώσεσιν ἐθίζειν, ὥσπερ ὄψῳ χρωμένους μετρίως τῷ τέρποντι, τὸ χρήσιμον ἀπʼ αὐτοῦ καὶ τὸ σωτήριον διώκειν. οὔτε γὰρ πόλιν αἱ κεκλειμέναι πύλαι τηροῦσιν ἀνάλωτον, ἂν διὰ μιᾶς παραδέξηται τοὺς πολεμίους, οὔτε νέον αἱ περὶ τὰς ἄλλας ἡδονὰς ἐγκράτειαι σῴζουσιν, + + ἄν γε διʼ ἀκοῆς λάθῃ προέμενος αὑτόν, ἀλλʼ ὅσον μᾶλλον αὕτη τοῦ φρονεῖν καὶ λογίζεσθαι πεφυκότος ἅπτεται, τοσοῦτο μᾶλλον ἀμεληθεῖσα βλάπτει καὶ διαφθείρει τὸν παραδεξάμενον. ἐπεὶ τοίνυν οὔτʼ ἴσως δυνατόν ἐστιν οὔτʼ ὠφέλιμον ποιημάτων + ἀπείργειν τὸν τηλικοῦτον ἡλίκος οὑμός τε τὸ νῦν Σώκλαρός ἐστι καὶ ὁ σὸς Κλέανδρος, εὖ μάλα παραφυλάττωμεν αὐτούς, ὡς ἐν ταῖς ἀναγνώσεσι μᾶλλον ἢ ταῖς· ὁδοῖς παιδαγωγίας δεομένους. ἃ δʼ οὖν ἐμοὶ περὶ ποιημάτων εἰπεῖν πρῴην ἐπῆλθε, νῦν πρὸς σὲ + + γεγραμμένα πέμψαι διενοήθην. καὶ λαβὼν ταῦτα δίελθε, κὰν δοκῇ σοι μηδὲν εἶναι φαυλότερα τῶν ἀμεθύστων καλουμένων, ἅ τινες ἐν τοῖς πότοις περιάπτονται καὶ προλαμβάνουσι, προσλαμβάνουσι Stephanus μεταδίδου τῷ Κλεάνδρῳ καὶ προκαταλάμβανε τὴν φύσιν αὐτοῦ διὰ τὸ + μηδαμοῦ νωθρὸν ἀλλὰ πανταχοῦ σφοδρὸν καὶ δεδορκὸς εὐαγωγοτέραν ὑπὸ τῶν τοιούτων οὖσαν. πουλύποδος κεφαλῇ ἔνι μὲν κακὸν ἐν δὲ καὶ ἐσθλόν ὅτι βρωθῆναι μέν ἐστιν ἥδιστος, δυσόνειρον δʼ + ὕπνον ποιεῖ, φαντασίας ταραχώδεις καὶ ἀλλοκότους +δεχόμενον, ὡς λέγουσιν. οὕτω δὴ καὶ ποιητικῇ πολὺ μὲν τὸ ἡδὺ καὶ τρόφιμον νέου ψυχῆς ἔνεστιν, οὐκ ἔλαττον δὲ τὸ ταρακτικὸν καὶ παράφορον, ἂν μὴ τυγχάνῃ παιδαγωγίας ὀρθῆς ἡ ἀκρόασις. οὐ γὰρ μόνον ὡς ἔοικε περὶ τῆς Αἰγυπτίων χώρας ἀλλὰ καὶ περὶ τῆς ποιητικῆς ἔστιν εἰπεῖν ὅτι φάρμακα πολλὰ μὲν ἐσθλὰ μεμιγμένα πολλὰ δὲ + λυγρά Homer δ 230 τοῖς χρωμένοις ἀναδίδωσιν. ἔνθʼ ἔνι μὲν φιλότης, ἐν δʼ ἵμερος· ἐν δʼ ὀαριστύς πάρφασις, ἥ τʼ ἔκλεψε νόον πύκα περ φρονεόντων id. Ξ οὐ γὰρ ἅπτεται τὸ ἀπατηλὸν αὐτῆς ἀβελτέρων κομιδῇ + + καὶ ἀνοήτων. διὸ καὶ Σιμωνίδης μὲν ἀπεκρίνατο πρὸς τὸν εἰπόντα τί “δὴ μόνους οὐκ ἐξαπατᾷς Θετταλούς;ʼ” “ἀμαθέστεροι γάρ εἰσιν ἢ ὡς ὑπʼ ἐμοῦ ἐξαπατᾶσθαι.” Γοργίας δὲ τὴν τραγῳδίαν εἶπεν ἀπάτην, ἣν 3 τʼ ἀπατήσας δικαιότερος τοῦ μὴ ἀπατήσαντος + καὶ ὁ ἀπατηθεὶς σοφώτερος τοῦ μὴ ἀπατηθέντος. πότερον οὖν τῶν νέων ὥσπερ τῶν Ἰθακησίων σκληρῷ σκληρῷ Mehlerus: χηρῷ τινι τὰ ὦτα καὶ ἀτέγκτῳ κηρῷ καταπλάσσοντες ἀναγκάζωμεν αὐτοὺς τὸ Ἐπικούρειον ἀκάτιον ἀραμένους ποιητικὴν φεύγειν καὶ παρεξελαύνειν + , ἢ μᾶλλον ὀρθῷ τινι λογισμῷ παριστάντες καὶ καταδέοντες, τὴν κρίσιν, ὅπως μὴ παραφέρηται τῷ τέρποντι πρὸς τὸ βλάπτον, ἀπευθύνωμεν καὶ παραφυλάττωμεν ; + οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδὲ Δρύαντος υἱὸς κρατερὸς Λυκόοργος Homer. Z 130 ὑγιαίνοντα νοῦν εἶχεν, ὅτι πολλῶν μεθυσκομένων καὶ παροινούντων τὰς ἀμπέλους περιιὼν ἐξέκοπτεν ἀντὶ τοῦ τὰς κρήνας ἐγγυτέρω προσαγαγεῖν καὶ “μαινόμενον” θεόν, ὥς φησιν ὁ Πλάτων, Πλάτων] Legg. p. 773 d “ἑτέρῳ θεῷ νήφοντι κολαζόμενον” σωφρονίζειν. ἀφαιρεῖ γὰρ ἡ κρᾶσις τοῦ οἴνου τὸ βλάπτον, οὐ συναναιροῦσα τὸ χρήσιμον; μηδʼ ἡμεῖς οὖν τὴν ποιητικὴν ἡμερίδα + + τῶν Μουσῶν ἐκκόπτωμεν μηδʼ ἀφανίζωμεν, ἀλλʼ ὅπου μὲν ὑφʼ ἡδονῆς ἀκράτου πρὸς δόξαν αὐθάδως θρασυνόμενον ἐξυβρίζει καὶ ὑλομανεῖ τὸ μυθῶδες αὐτῆς καὶ θεατρικόν, ἐπιλαμβανόμενοι κολούωμεν καὶ πιέζωμεν· ὅπου δʼ ἅπτεταί τινος μούσης τῇ χάριτι + καὶ τὸ γλυκὺ τοῦ λόγου καὶ ἀγωγὸν οὐκ ἄκαρπόν ἐστιν οὐδὲ κενόν, ἐνταῦθα φιλοσοφίαν εἰσάγωμεν καὶ καταμιγνύωμεν. ὥσπερ γὰρ ὁ μανδραγόρας ταῖς ἀμπέλοις παραφυόμενος καὶ διαδιδοὺς τὴν δύναμιν εἰς τὸν οἶνον μαλακωτέραν ποιεῖ τὴν καταφορὰν + τοῖς πίνουσιν, οὕτω τοὺς λόγους ἡ ποίησις ἐκ φιλοσοφίας ἀναλαμβάνουσα μιγνυμένους πρὸς τὸ μυθῶδες ἐλαφρὰν καὶ προσφιλῆ παρέχει τοῖς νέοις τὴν μάθησιν. ὅθεν οὐ φευκτέον ἐστὶ τὰ ποιήματα τοῖς φιλοσοφεῖν μέλλουσιν, ἀλλὰ προφιλοσοφητέον + + τοῖς ποιήμασιν ἐθιζομένους ἐν τῷ τέρποντι τὸ χρήσιμον ζητεῖν καὶ ἀγαπᾶν· εἰ δὲ μή, διαμάχεσθαι καὶ δυσχεραίνειν. ἀρχὴ γὰρ αὕτη παιδεύσεως, ἔργου δὲ παντὸς ἤν τις ἄρχηται καλῶς, Nauck. p. 246 καὶ τὰς τελευτὰς εἰκὸς ἐσθʼ οὕτως ἔχειν + κατὰ τὸν Σοφοκλέα.

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πρῶτον μὲν οὖν εἰσάγειν εἰς τὰ ποιήματα δεῖ τὸν νέον μηδὲν οὕτω μεμελετημένον ἔχοντα καὶ πρόχειρον ὡς τὸ “πολλὰ ψεύδονται ἀοιδοὶ” Aristot. Metaph. I τὰ μὲν ἑκόντες τὰ δʼ ἄκοντες. ἑκόντες μέν, ὅτι πρὸς ἡδονὴν ἀκοῆς καὶ χάριν, ἣν οἱ πλεῖστοι διώκουσιν, + αὐστηροτέραν ἡγοῦνται τὴν ἀλήθειαν τοῦ ψεύδους. + ἡ μὲν γὰρ ἔργῳ γιγνομένη, κἂν ἀτερπὲς ἔχῃ τὸ τέλος, οὐκ ἐξίσταται· τὸ δὲ πλαττόμενον λόγῳ ῥᾷστα περιχωρεῖ καὶ τρέπεται πρὸς τὸ ἣδιον ἐκ τοῦ λυποῦντος. οὔτε γὰρ μέτρον οὔτε τρόπος οὔτε λέξεως ὄγκος οὔτʼ εὐκαιρία μεταφορᾶς οὔθʼ ἁρμονία καὶ + σύνθεσις ἔχει τοσοῦτον αἱμυλίας καὶ χάριτος ὅσον εὖ πεπλεγμένη διάθεσις μυθολογίας· ἀλλʼ ὥσπερ ἐν γραφαῖς κινητικώτερόν ἐστι χρῶμα γραμμῆς διὰ τὸ ἀνδρείκελον καὶ ἀπατηλόν, οὕτως ἐν ποιήμασι μεμιγμένον + πιθανότητι ψεῦδος ἐκπλήττει καὶ ἀγαπᾶται + μᾶλλον τῆς ἀμύθου καὶ ἀπλάστου περὶ μέτρον καὶ λέξιν κατασκευῆς. ὅθεν ὁ Σωκράτης ἔκ τινων ἐνυπνίων ποιητικῆς ἁψάμενος αὐτὸς μέν, ἅτε δὴ γεγονὼς ἀληθείας ἀγωνιστὴς τὸν ἅπαντα βίον, οὐ πιθανὸς ἦν οὐδʼ εὐφυὴς ψευδῶν δημιουργός, τοὺς δʼ +Αἰσώπου μύθους ἔπεσιν ἐνέτεινεν μύθους ἔπεσιν ἐνέτεινεν H: τοῖς ἔπεσι μύθους ἐνόμιζεν , ὡς ποίησιν οὐκ οὖσαν ψεῦδος μὴ πρόσεστι. · θυσίας μὲν γὰρ ἀχόρους καὶ ἀναύλους ἴσμεν, οὐκ ἴσμεν δʼ ἄμυθον οὐδʼ ἀψευδῆ ποίησιν. τὰ δʼ Ἐμπεδοκλέους ἔπη καὶ Παρμενίδου καὶ θηριακὰ Νικάνδρου καὶ γνωμολογίαι +Θεόγνιδος λόγοι εἰσὶ εἰσι λόγοι? κιχράμενοι κιχράμενοι Madvigius: κεχρημένοι παρὰ ποιητικῆς + ὥσπερ ὄχημα τὸ μέτρον καὶ τὸν ὄγκον, ἵνα τὸ πεζὸν διαφύγωσιν. ὅταν οὖν ἄτοπόν τι καὶ δυσχερὲς ἐν τοῖς· ποιήμασι λέγηται περὶ θεῶν ἢ δαιμόνων ἢ ἀρετῆς ὑπʼ ἀνδρὸς ἐλλογίμου καὶ δόξαν ἔχοντος, ὁ μὲν ὡς ἀληθῆ προσδεξάμενος λόγον οἴχεται φερόμενος καὶ διέφθαρται τὴν δόξαν, ὁ δὲ + μεμνημένος ἀεὶ καὶ κατέχων ἐναργῶς τῆς ποιητικῆς τὴν περὶ τὸ ψεῦδος γοητείαν καὶ δυνάμενος λέγειν ἑκάστοτε πρὸς αὐτὴν ὦ μηχάνημα λυγκὸς λυγκὸς idem: λυγγὸς αἰολώτερον Nauck. p. 694 τί παίζουσα τὰς ὀφρῦς συνάγεις, τί δʼ ἐξαπατῶσα + + προσποιῇ διδάσκειν; οὐδὲν πείσεται δεινὸν οὐδὲ πιστεύσει φαῦλον, ἀλλʼ ἐπιλήψεται μὲν τοῦ τοῦ Toupius: αὐτοῦ φοβουμένου τὸν Ποσειδῶνα καὶ ταρβοῦντος μὴ τὴν γῆν ἀναρρήξῃ καὶ ἀπογυμνώσῃ τὸν Ἅιδην, ἐπιλήψεται δὲ τοῦ δὲ τοῦ scripsi: δὲ τῷ Ἀπόλλωνι χαλεπαίνοντος ὑπὲρ τοῦ πρώτου + τῶν Ἀχαιῶν, ὃν αὐτὸς ὑμνῶν αὐτὸς ἐν δαίτῃ παρὼν Nauck p. 83 αὐτὸς τάδʼ εἰπὼν αὐτός ἐστιν ὁ κτανών παύσεται δὲ τὸν φθιτὸν Ἀχιλλέα καὶ τὸν Ἀγαμέμνονα τὸν καθʼ Ἅιδου δακρύων, ἀδυνάτους καὶ + ἀσθενεῖς χεῖρας ἐπιθυμίᾳ τοῦ ζῆν ὀρέγοντας. ἂν δέ που συνταράττηται τοῖς πάθεσι καὶ κρατῆται φαρμασσόμενος, οὐκ ὀκνήσει πρὸς ἑαυτὸν εἰπεῖν ἀλλὰ φόωσδε τάχιστα λιλαίεο· ταῦτα δὲ πάντα Homer. λ 222 + ἴσθʼ, ἵνα καὶ μετόπισθε τεῇ εἴπῃσθα γυναικὶ + καὶ γὰρ τοῦτο χαριέντως Ὅμηρος εἰς τὴν νέκυιαν εἶπεν, ὡς γυναικὸς ἀκρόασιν οὖσαν διὰ τὸ μυθῶδες Τοιαῦτα γάρ ἐστιν ἃ πλάττουσιν ἑκόντες οἱ ποιηταί· πλείονα δʼ ἃ μὴ πλάττοντες ἀλλʼ οἰόμενοι καὶ δοξάζοντες αὐτοὶ προσαναχρώννυνται τὸ ψεῦδος ἡμῖν οἷον ἐπὶ τοῦ Διὸς εἰρηκότος Ὁμήρου Ὁμήρου] X 63 + ἐν δʼ ἐτίθει δύο κῆρε τανηλεγέος θανάτοιο, + τὴν μὲν Ἀχιλλῆος τὴν δʼ Ἕκτορος ἱπποδάμοιο, ἕλκε δὲ μέσσα λαβών ῥέπε δʼ Ἕκτορος αἴσιμον ἦμαρ, ᾤχετο δʼ εἰς Ἀίδαο, λίπεν δʼ ἑ Φοῖβος Ἀπόλλων τραγῳδίαν ὁ Αἰσχύλος Αἰσχύλος] Nauck. p. 69 ὅλην τῷ μύθῳ περιέθηκεν, + ἐπιγράψας Ψυχοστασίαν καὶ παραστήσας ταῖς πλάστιγξι τοῦ Διὸς ἔνθεν μὲν τὴν Θέτιν ἔνθεν δὲ τὴν Ἠῶ, δεομένας ὑπὲρ τῶν υἱέων μαχομένων. τοῦτο δὲ παντὶ δῆλον, ὅτι μυθοποίημα καὶ πλάσμα πρὸς ἡδονὴν ἢ ἔκπληξιν ἀκροατοῦ γέγονε. τὸ δὲ + + Ζεύς, ὃς τʼ ἀνθρώπων ταμίης πολέμοιο τέτυκται Homer. Δ 84 καὶ τὸ θεὸς μὲν αἰτίαν φύει βροτοῖς, Nauck. p. 39 ὅταν κακῶσαι δῶμα παμπήδην θέλῃ, ταῦτα δʼ ἢδη κατὰ δόξαν εἴρηται καὶ πίστιν αὐτῶν, + ἣν ἔχουσιν ἀπάτην περὶ θεῶν καὶ ἄγνοιαν εἰς ἡμᾶς ἐκφερόντων καὶ μεταδιδόντων. πάλιν αἱ περὶ τὰς νεκυίας τερατουργίαι καὶ διαθέσεις ὀνόμασι φοβεροῖς ἐνδημιουργοῦσαι φάσματα καὶ εἴδωλα ποταμῶν φλεγομένων καὶ τόπων ἀγρίων καὶ κολασμάτων σκυθρωπῶν + οὐ πάνυ πολλοὺς διαλανθάνουσιν ὅτι τὸ + μυθῶδες αὐτοῖς πολὺ καὶ τὸ ψεῦδος ὥσπερ τροφαῖς τὸ φαρμακῶδες ἐγκέκραται. καὶ οὔθʼ Ὅμηρος οὔτε Πίνδαρος οὔτε Σοφοκλῆς πεπεισμένοι ταῦτʼ ἔχειν οὕτως ἔγραψαν ἔνθεν τὸν ἄπειρον ἐρεύγονται σκότον Bergk. vol. 1 p. 426 βληχροὶ δνοφερᾶς νυκτὸς ποταμοὶ καὶ + πὰρ δʼ ἴσαν Ὠκεανοῦ τε ῥοὰς καὶ Λευκάδα πέτρην Homer ω 11 καί στενωπὸς Ἅιδου καὶ παλιρροία βυθοῦ Nauck p. 246 ὅσοι μέντοι τὸν θάνατον ὡς οἰκτρὸν ἢ τὴν ἀταφίαν ·- πο + ὡς δεινὸν ὀλοφυρόμενοι καὶ δεδιότες φωνὰς ἐξενηνόχασι καὶ και μή μʼ ἄκλαυστον ἄθαπτον ἰὼν ὄπιθεν καταλείπειν 12 Homer. λ 72 + ψυχὴ δʼ ἐκ ῥεθέων πταμένη Ἀϊδόσδε βεβήκει, id. Π X 362 + ὃν πότμον γοόωσα, λιποῦς1ʼ ἁδρότητα καὶ ἥβην καί μή μʼ ἀπολέσῃς ἄωρον· ἡδὺ γὰρ τὸ φῶς Eurip. Iph. A. 1218 λεύσσειν· τὰ δʼ ὑπὸ γῆν μὴ μʼ ἰδεῖν ἀναγκάσῃς, + αὗται πεπονθότων εἰσὶ καὶ προεαλωκότων ὑπὸ δόξης καὶ ἀπάτης. διὸ μᾶλλον ἅπτονται καὶ διαταράττουσιν ἡμᾶς, ἀναπιμπλαμένους τοῦ πάθους καὶ τῆς ἀσθενείας ἀφʼ ἧς λέγονται. πρὸς ταῦτα δὴ πάλιν παρασκευάζωμεν εὐθὺς ἐξ ἀρχῆς ἔχειν ἔναυλον ὅτι + ποιητικῇ μὲν οὐ πάνυ μέλον ἐστὶ τῆς ἀληθείας, ἡ δὲ περὶ ταῦτʼ ἀλήθεια καὶ τοῖς μηδὲν ἄλλο πεποιημένοις + ἔργον ἢ γνῶσιν καὶ μάθησιν τοῦ ὄντος εὖ μάλα δυσθήρατός ἐστι καὶ δύσληπτος, ὡς ὁμολογοῦσιν αὐτοί. καὶ τὰ Ἐμπεδοκλέους Ἐμπεδοχλέους] Mullach. Fr. Phil. Graec. vol. 1 p. 2 ἔστω πρόχειρα ταυτί + οὕτως οὔτʼ οὕτως οὔτʼ] οὔτʼ H ἐπιδερκτὰ τάδʼ ἀνδράσιν οὔτʼ ἐπακουστά οὔτε νόῳ περιληπτά καὶ τὰ Ξενοφάνους Ξενοφαάνους] Mullach. vol. 1 p. 103 κουστοἱ καὶ τὸ μὲν οὖν σαφὲς οὔτις ἀυὴρ γένετʼ οὐδέ τις ἔσται + εἰδὼς ἀμφὶ θεῶν τε καὶ ἅσσα λέγω περὶ πάντων καὶ νὴ Δία τὰ Σωκράτους ἐξομνυμένου παρὰ Πλάτωνι Πλάτωνι] Phaedon. p. 69 d + τὴν περὶ τούτων γνῶσιν. ἧττον γὰρ ὡς εἰδόσι τι περὶ τούτων προσέξουσι τοῖς ποιηταῖς ἐν οἷς τοὺς φιλοσόφους ἰλιγγιῶντας ὁρῶσιν. +

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ἔτι δὲ μᾶλλον ἐπιστήσομεν αὐτὸν ἅμα τῷ προσάγειν τοῖς ποιήμασιν ὑπογράφοντες τὴν ποιητικὴν ὅτι μιμητικὴ τέχνη καὶ δύναμίς ἐστιν ἀντίστροφος τῇ ζῳγραφίᾳ. καὶ μὴ μόνον ἐκεῖνο τὸ θρυλούμενον ἀκηκοὼς ἔστω, ζῳγραφίαν μὲν εἶναι + + φθεγγομένην τὴν ποίησιν, ποίησιν δὲ σιγῶσαν τὴν ζῳγραφίαν, ἀλλὰ πρὸς τούτῳ διδάσκωμεν αὐτὸν ὅτι γεγραμμένην σαύραν ἢ πίθηκον ἢ Θερσίτου πρόσωπον ἰδόντες ἡδόμεθα καὶ θαυμάζομεν οὐχ ὡς καλὸν ἀλλʼ ὡς ὅμοιον. οὐσίᾳ μὲν γὰρ οὐ δύναται + καλὸν γενέσθαι τὸ αἰσχρόν· ἡ δὲ μίμησις·, ἄν τε περὶ φαῦλον ἄν τε περὶ χρηστὸν ἐφίκηται τῆς ὁμοιότητος, ἐπαινεῖται. καὶ τοὐναντίον ἂν αἰσχροῦ σώματος εἰκόνα καλὴν παράσχῃ, τὸ πρέπον καὶ τὸ εἰκὸς οὐκ ἀπέδωκεν. γράφουσι δὲ καὶ πράξεις ἀτόπους ἔνιοι, καθάπερ Τιμόμαχος τὴν Μηδείας τεκνοκτονίαν + καὶ Θέων τὴν Ὀρέστου μητροκτονίαν καὶ Παρράσιος τὴν Ὀδυσσέως προσποίητον μανίαν καὶ +Χαιρεφάνης ἀκολάστους ὁμιλίας γυναικῶν πρὸς ἄνδρας. ἐν οἷς μάλιστα δεῖ τὸν νέον ἐθίζεσθαι, διδασκόμενον ὅτι τὴν πρᾶξιν οὐκ ἐπαινοῦμεν ἧς γέγονεν ἡ μίμησις, ἀλλὰ τὴν τέχνην εἰ μεμίμηται + προσηκόντως τὸ ὑποκείμενον. ἐπεὶ τοίνυν καὶ ποιητικὴ πολλάκις ἔργα φαῦλα καὶ πάθη μοχθηρὰ καὶ ἤθη μιμητικῶς ἀπαγγέλλει, δεῖ τὸ θαυμαζόμενον ἐν τούτοις καὶ κατορθούμενον μήτʼ ἀποδέχεσθαι τὸν νέον ὡς ἀληθὲς μήτε δοκιμάζειν ὡς καλόν, ἀλλʼ + ἐπαινεῖν μόνον ὡς ἐναρμόττον τῷ ὑποκειμένῳ προσώπῳ καὶ οἰκεῖον. ὥσπερ γὰρ ὑὸς βοὴν καὶ ψόφον + τροχιλίας καὶ πνευμάτων ῥοῖζον καὶ θαλάττης κτύπον ἀκούοντες ἐνοχλούμεθα καὶ δυσχεραίνομεν, ἂν δέ τις πιθανῶς ταῦτα μιμῆται, καθάπερ Παρμένων τὴν ὗν καὶ Θεόδωρος τὰς τροχιλίας, ἡδόμεθα· καὶ νοσώδη μὲν ἄνθρωπον καὶ ὕπουλον ὡς ἀτερπὲς θέαμα φεύγομεν, τὸν δʼ Ἀριστοφῶντος Φιλοκτήτην + καὶ τὴν Σιλανίωνος Ἰοκάστην ὁμοίους φθίνουσι καὶ ἀποθνῄσκουσι πεποιημένους ὁρῶντες χαίρομεν οὕτως + ὁ νέος ἀναγιγνώσκων ἃ Θερσίτης ὁ γελωτοποιὸς ἢ Σίσυφος ὁ φθορεὺς· φθόρος H ἢ Βάτραχος ὁ πορνοβοσκὸς λέγων + ἢ πράττων πεποίηται, διδασκέσθω τὴν μιμουμένην ταῦτα δύναμιν καὶ τέχνην ἐπαινεῖν, ἃς δὲ 26 φθόρος Η διαθέσεις καὶ πράξεις μιμεῖται καὶ προβάλλεσθαι καὶ κακίζειν. οὐ γάρ ἐστι ταὐτὸ τὸ καλόν τι καλῶς τι H: καλῶς καὶ καλῶς τι μιμεῖσθαι, καλῶς γάρ ἐστι τὸ πρεπόντως καὶ οἰκείως, οἰκεῖα δὲ καὶ πρέποντα τοῖς αἰσχροῖς + τὰ αἰσχρά. καὶ γὰρ αἱ Δαμωνίδα τοῦ χωλοῦ κρηπῖδες, ἃς ἀπολέσας εὔχετο τοῖς τοῦ κλέψαντος ἐναρμόσαι ποσί, φαῦλαι μὲν ἦσαν ἐκείνῳ δʼ ἣρμοττον. καὶ τὸ εἴπερ γὰρ ἀδικεῖν χρή, τυραννίδος πέρι Eurip. Phoen. 524 + κάλλιστον ἀδικεῖν + καὶ τὸ + τοῦ μὲν δικαίου τὴν δόκησιν ἄρνυσο, Nauck. p. 652 τὰ δʼ ἔργα τοῦ πᾶν δρῶντος ἔνθα κερδανεῖς καὶ τάλαντον ἡ προίξ. μὴ λάβω; λάβω; ζῆν Grotius: λαβὼν καὶ ζῆν ζῆν δʼ ἔστι μοι Meinek. IV p. 668 τάλαντον ὑπεριδόντι; τεύξομαι δʼ ὕπνου προέμενος; οὐ δώσω δὲ κἀν Ἅιδου δίκην ὡς ἠσεβηκὼς εἰς τάλαντον ἀργυροῦν μοχθηροὶ μέν εἰσι λόγοι καὶ ψευδεῖς, Ἐτεοκλεῖ δὲ + καὶ Ἰξίονι καὶ τοκογλύφῳ πρεσβύτῃ πρέποντες. ἂν οὖν ὑπομιμνῄσκωμεν τοὺς παῖδας ὅτι ταῦτʼ οὐκ + ἐπαινοῦντες οὐδὲ δοκιμάζοντες ἀλλʼ ὡς ἄτοπα καὶ φαῦλα φαύλοις καὶ ἀτόποις ἤθεσι καὶ προσώποις περιτιθέντες γράφουσιν, οὐκ ἂν ὑπὸ τῆς δόξης βλάπτοιντο + τῶν ποιητῶν. ἀλλὰ τοὐναντίον ἡ πρὸς τὸ πρόσωπον ὑποψία διαβάλλει καὶ τὸ πρᾶγμα καὶ τὸν λόγον, ὡς φαῦλον ὑπὸ φαύλου καὶ λεγόμενον καὶ πραττόμενον. οἷόν ἐστι καὶ τὸ τῆς συγκοιμήσεως τοῦ Πάριδος ἐκ τῆς μάχης ἀποδράντος. οὐδένα γὰρ ἄλλον ἀνθρώπων ἄθρωπον W: ἀνθρωπων. Delendum mihi vid. ἡμέρας συγκοιμώμενον γυναικὶ ποιήσας ἢ τὸν ἀκόλαστον καὶ μοιχικὸν ἐν αἰσχύνῃ + δῆλός ἐστι καὶ ψόγῳ τιθέμενος τὴν τοιαύτην ἀκρασίαν. +

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ἐν δὲ τούτοις εὖ μάλα προσεκτέον εἴ τινας ὁ ποιητὴς αὐτὸς ἐμφάσεις δίδωσι κατὰ τῶν λεγομένων ὡς δυσχεραινομένων ὑπʼ αὐτοῦ. καθάπερ ὁ +Μένανδρος ἐν τῷ προλόγῳ τῆς Θαΐδος; πεποίηκεν ἐμοὶ μὲν οὖν ἄειδε τοιαύτην, θεά, Meinek. IV p. 131 θρασεῖαν ὡραίαν δὲ καὶ πιθανὴν ἅμα, ἀδικοῦσαν ἀποκλείουσαν αἰτοῦσαν πυκνά, μηδενὸς ἐρῶσαν, προσποιουμένην δʼ ἀεί + + ἄριστα δʼ Ὅμηρος τῷ γένει τούτῳ κέχρηται· καὶ γὰρ προδιαβάλλει τὰ φαῦλα καὶ προσυνίστησι τὰ χρηστὰ τῶν λεγομένων· προσυνίστησι μὲν οὕτως αὐτίκα μειλίχιον καὶ κερδαλέον φάτο μῦθον Homer. ζ 148 καὶ + τόνδʼ ἀγανοῖς ἐπέεσσιν ἐρητύσασκε παραστάς id. B 189 ἐν δὲ τῷ προδιαβάλλειν μονονοὺ μαρτύρεται καὶ διαγορεύει μήτε χρῆσθαι μήτε προσέχειν ὡς οὖσιν ἀτόποις καὶ φαύλοις. οἷον τὸν τʼ Ἀγαμέμνονα μέλλων διηγεῖσθαι τῷ ἱερεῖ χρώμενον ἀπηνῶς; προείρηκεν + ἀλλʼ οὐκ Ἀτρεΐδῃ Ἀγαμέμνονι ἥνδανε θυμῷ, ἀλλὰ κακῶς ἀφίει, + τουτέστιν ἀγρίως καὶ αὐθάδως καὶ παρὰ τὸ προσῆκον· τῷ, τ̓ Ἀχιλλεῖ τοὺς θρασεῖς λόγους περιτίθησιν οἰνοβαρές, κυνὸς ὄμματʼ ἔχων, κραδίην δʼ ἐλάφοιο Homer. A 225 τὴν αὑτοῦ κρίσιν ὑπειπὼν + Πηλεΐδης δʼ ἐξαῦτις ἀταρτηροῖς ἐπέεσσιν id. A 223 Ἀτρεΐδην προσέειπε, καὶ οὔ πω λῆγε χόλοιο καλὸν γὰρ εἰκὸς οὐδὲν εἶναι μετʼ ὀργῆς καὶ αὐστηρῶς λεγόμενον. ὁμοίως καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν πράξεων ἦ ῥα, καὶ Ἕκτορα δῖον ἀεικέα μήδετο ἔργα, id. Ψ 24 + + πρηνέα πὰρ λεχέεσσι Μενοιτιάδαο τανύσσας εὖ δὲ καὶ ταῖς ἐπιρρήσεσι χρῆται, καθάπερ τινὰ ψῆφον ἰδίαν ἐπιφέρων τοῖς· πραττομένοις ἢ λεγομένοις, ἐπὶ μὲν τῆς μοιχείας τοῦ Ἄρεος τοὺς θεοὺς ποιῶν λέγοντας + οὐκ ἀρετᾷ κακὰ ἔργα· κιχάνει τοι βραδὺς ὠκύν id. θ 329 , ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς τοῦ Ἕκτορος ὑπερφροσύνης καὶ μεγαλαυχίας ὣς ἔφατʼ εὐχόμενος, νεμέσησε δὲ πότνια Ἥρη id. Θ 198 , ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς Πανδάρου τοξείας + ὣς φάτʼ Ἀθηναίη, τῷ δὲ φρένας ἄφρονι πεῖθεν id. Δ 104 + αὗται μὲν οὖν αἱ τῶν λόγων ἀποφάσεις καὶ δόξαι παντός εἰσι κατιδεῖν τοῦ προσέχοντος· ἑτέρας· δʼ ἐκ τῶν πραγμάτων αὐτῶν παρέχουσι μαθήσεις, ὥσπερ ὁ Εὐριπίδης Εὐριπίδης] Nauck. p. 389 εἰπεῖν λέγεται πρὸς τοὺς τὸν Ἰξίονα λοιδοροῦντας ὡς ἀσεβῆ καὶ μιαρόν, “οὐ μέντοι πρότερον αὐτὸν ἐκ τῆς σκηνῆς ἐξήγαγον ἢ τῷ τροχῷ προσηλῶσαι” παρὰ δʼ Ὁμήρῳ σιωπώμενόν ἐστι τὸ τοιοῦτο γένος τῆς διδασκαλίας, ἔχον δʼ ἀναθεώρησιν ὠφέλιμον ἐπὶ τῶν διαβεβλημένων μάλιστα μύθων, οὓς ταῖς πάλαι μὲν ὑπονοίαις ἀλληγορίαις δὲ + + νῦν λεγομέναις παραβιαζόμενοι καὶ διαστρέφοντες ἔνιοι μοιχευομένην φασὶν Ἀφροδίτην ὑπʼ Ἄρεος μηνύειν Ἥλιον, ὅτι τῷ τῆς Ἀφροδίτης ἀστέρι συνελθὼν ὁ τοῦ Ἄρεος μοιχικὰς ἀποτελεῖ γενέσεις, Ἡλίου δʼ ἐπαναφερομένου καὶ καταλαμβάνοντος οὐ λανθάνουσιν. + τὸν δὲ τῆς Ἥρας καλλωπισμὸν ἐπὶ τὸν Δία καὶ τὰς περὶ τὸν κεστὸν γοητείας ἀέρος τινὰ τινὰ H: τινὸς κάθαρσιν εἶναι βούλονται τῷ πυρώδει πλησιάζοντος, ὥσπερ οὐκ αὐτοῦ τὰς λύσεις τοῦ ποιητοῦ διδόντος. ἐν μὲν γὰρ τοῖς περὶ τῆς Ἀφροδίτης διδάσκει τοὺς + προσέχοντας, ὅτι μουσικὴ φαύλη καὶ ᾄσματα πονηρὰ + καὶ λόγοι μοχθηρὰς ὑποθέσεις λαμβάνοντες ἀκόλαστα ποιοῦσιν ἤθη καὶ βίους ἀνάνδρους καὶ ἀνθρώπους τρυφὴν καὶ μαλακίαν καὶ γυναικοκρασίαν γυναικοκρατίαν Meziriacus ἀγαπῶντας + εἵματά τʼ ἐξημοιβὰ λοετρά τε θερμὰ καὶ εὐνάς Hom. θ 249 . διὸ καὶ τὸν Ὀδυσσέα τῷ κιθαρῳδῷ προστάττοντα πεποίηκεν ἀλλʼ ἄγε δὴ μετάβηθι καὶ ἵππου κόσμον ἄεισον, id. θ 492 καλῶς ὑφηγούμενος τὸ παρὰ τῶν φρονίμων καὶ νοῦν + ἐχόντων χρῆναι λαμβάνειν τοὺς μουσικοὺς καὶ ποιητικοὺς τὰς ὑποθέσεις. ἐν δὲ τοῖς; περὶ τῆς Ἥρας + ἄριστα τὴν ἀπὸ φαρμάκων καὶ γοητείας καὶ μετὰ δόλου πρὸς τοὺς ἄνδρας ὁμιλίαν καὶ χάριν ἔδειξεν οὐ μόνον ἐφήμερον καὶ ἁψίκορον καὶ ἀβέβαιον οὖσαν, ἀλλὰ καὶ μεταβάλλουσαν εἰς ἔχθραν καὶ ὀργήν, ὅταν τὰ τῆς ἡδονῆς ἀπομαρανθῇ. τοιαῦτα γὰρ + ὁ Ζεὺς ἀπειλεῖ καὶ λέγει πρὸς αὐτὴν ὄφρα ἴδῃς ἤν τοι χραίσμῃ φιλότης τε καὶ εὐνή, Hom. O 32 ἣν ἐμίγης ἐλθοῦσα θεῶν ἄπο καὶ μʼ ἀπάτησας ἡ γὰρ τῶν φαύλων διάθεσις ἔργων καὶ μίμησις ἂν προσαποδῷ τὴν συμβαίνουσαν αἰσχύνην καὶ βλάβην + τοῖς ἐργασαμένοις, ὠφέλησεν οὐκ ἔβλαψε τὸν ἀκροώμενον. οἱ γοῦν φιλόσοφοι παραδείγμασι χρῶνται, + νουθετοῦντες καὶ παιδεύοντες ἐξ ὑποκειμένων οἱ δὲ ποιηταὶ ταὐτὰ ποιοῦσι πλάττοντες αὐτοὶ πράγματα καὶ μυθολογοῦντες. ὁ μὲν οὖν Μελάνθιος + εἴτε παίζων εἴτε σπουδάζων ἔλεγε διασῴζεσθαι τὴν Ἀθηναίων πόλιν ὑπὸ τῆς τῶν ῥητόρων διχοστασίας καὶ ταραχῆς οὐ γὰρ ἀποκλίνειν ἅπαντας εἰς τὸν αὐτὸν τοῖχον, ἀλλὰ γίγνεσθαί τινα τοῦ βλάπτοντος ἀνθολκὴν; ἐν τῇ διαφορᾆ τῶν πολιτευομένων. αἱ δὲ + τῶν ποιητῶν ὑπεναντιώσεις πρὸς αὑτοὺς ἀνταναφέρουσαι τὴν πίστιν οὐκ ἐῶσιν ἰσχυρὰν ῥοπὴν γενέσθαι πρὸς τὸ βλάπτον. ὅπου μὲν οὖν αὐτοῖς τὸ τιθέναι σύνεγγυς ἐκφανεῖς ποιεῖ τὰς ἀντιλογίας, δεῖ τῷ βελτίονι συνηγορεῖν ὥσπερ ἐν τούτοις + + πόλλʼ, ὦ τέκνον, σφάλλουσιν ἀνθρώπους θεοἲ. Nauck. p. 345 τὸ ῥᾷστον εἶπας, αἰτιάσασθαι θεούς καὶ πάλιν χρυσοῦ σε πλήθει, τούσδε δʼ οὐ χαίρειν χρεών σκαιὸν τὸ τὸ Stobaeus Flor. 93, 7 (Nauck. p. 542): γε πλουτεῖν κἄλλο μηδὲν εἰδέναι καὶ τί δῆτα θύειν θύειν Cobetus: οὗσιν δεῖ σε κατθανούμενον Nauck p. 694 + ἄμεινον· οὐδεὶς κάματος εὐσεβεῖν θεούς. τὰ γὰρ τοιαῦτα τὰς λύσεις ἔχει προδήλους, ἄν, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, πρὸς τὰ βελτίονα τῇ κρίσει τοὺς νέους κατευθύνωμεν. ὅσα δʼ εἴρηται μὲν ἀτόπως + εὐθὺς δʼ οὐ λέλυται, ταῦτα δεῖ τοῖς ἀλλαχόθι πρὸς + τοὐναντίον εἰρημένοις ὑπʼ αὐτῶν ἀνταναιρεῖν, μὴ ἀχθομένους τῷ ποιητῇ μηδὲ χαλεπαίνοντας ἀλλʼ ἐν ἤθει καὶ μετὰ παιδιᾶς δεχομένους. δεχομένους (sc. ταῦτα) scripsi: λεγομένοις εὐθύς, εἰ βούλει, πρὸς τὰς Ὁμηρικὰς τῶν θεῶν ῥίψεις ὑπʼ ἀλλήλων καὶ τρώσεις ὑπʼ ἀνθρώπων καὶ διαφορὰς καὶ + χαλεπότητας οἶσθα καὶ ἄλλον μῦθον ἀμείνονα τοῦδε νοῆσαι Homer. H 358 καὶ νοεῖς νὴ Δία καὶ λέγεις κρεῖττον ἀλλαχόθι καὶ βέλτιον τὰ τοιαῦτα θεοὶ ῥεῖα ζώοντες id. Z 138 + καὶ τῷ ἔνι τέρπονται μάκαρες θεοὶ ἤματα πάντα id. ζ 46 καί + ὣς γὰρ ἐπεκλώσαντο θεοὶ δειλοῖσι βροτοῖσι; id. Ω 525 ζώειν ἀχνυμένοις· αὐτοὶ δὲ τʼ ἀκηδέες εἰσὶν + αὗται γάρ εἰσιν ὑγιαίνουσαι περὶ θεῶν δόξαι καὶ ἀληθεῖς, ἐκεῖνα δὲ πέπλασται πρὸς ἔκπληξιν ἀνθρώπων πων. πάλιν Εὐριπίδου λέγοντος πολλαῖσι μορφαῖς οἱ θεοὶ σοφισμάτων Nauck. p. 519 + σφάλλουσιν ἡμᾶς κρείττονες πεφυκότες + οὐ χεῖρόν ἐστιν ὑπενεγκεῖν τὸ εἰ θεοί τι δρῶσι φαῦλον, οὔκ εἰσιν θεοί id. p. 355 , βέλτιον εἰρημένον ὑπʼ αὐτοῦ. καὶ τοῦ Πινδάρου σφόδρα πικρῶς καὶ παροξυντικῶς εἰρηκότος χρὴ δὲ πᾶν ἔρδοντʼ ἀμαυρῶσαι τὸν ἐχθρόν Isthm. IV 48 , + ἀλλʼ αὐτός γε σὺ λέγεις ὅτι τὸ πὰρ δίκαν Isthm. VII. 47 γλυκὺ πικροτάτα μένει τελευτά γλυκὺ Pindarus: γλυκεὶ , καὶ τοῦ Σοφοκλέους τὸ κέρδος ἡδὺ , κἂν ἀπὸ ψευδῶν ἴῃ ἴῃBrunckius: εἴη Nauck p. 246 , + καὶ μὴν σοῦ γʼ ἀκηκόαμεν ὡς οὐκ ἐξάγουσι καρπὸν οἱ ψευδεῖς λόγοι Nauck. p. 246 + πρὸς δʼ ἐκεῖνα τὰ περὶ τοῦ πλούτου δεινὸς γὰρ ἕρπειν πλοῦτος ἔς ἔς Stobaeus Flor. 91, 27: πρός τε τἄβατα τἄβατα καὶ πρὸς τὰ βατὰ Stephanus: τὰ βατὰ καὶ πρὸς τʼ ἄβατα id. p. 118 καὶ πρὸς τὰ βατὰ κἄπωθεν κἄπωθεν ὤν scripsi: καὶ ὁπόθεν ὤν· πένης δʼ δʼ add. R ἀνὴρ + οὐδʼ ἐντυχὼν δύναιτʼ ἂν ὧν ἐρᾷ τυχεῖν. καὶ γὰρ δυσειδὲς σῶμα καὶ δυσώνυμον γλώσσῃ σοφὸν τίθησιν εὔμορφὸν τʼ ἰδεῖν ἀντιπαραθήσει πολλὰ τῶν Σοφοκλέους, ὧν καὶ ταῦτʼ ἐστὶ γένοιτο κἂν ἄπλουτος ἐν τιμαῖς ἀνήρ Nauck. p. 247 οὐδὲν κακίων πτωχός, εἰ καλῶς φρονεῖ id. p. 247 καί + + ἀλλὰ τῶν πολλῶν καλῶν χαι id. p. 207 τίς χάρις, εἰ κακόβουλος φροντὶς ἐκτρέφει τὸν εὐαίωνα πλοῦτον; ὁ δὲ Μένανδρος ἐπῆρε μὲν ἀμέλει τὴν φιληδονίαν καὶ ὑπεχαύνωσε τοῖς ἐρωτικοῖς καὶ διαπύροις ἐκείνοις + ἅπανθʼ ὅσα ζῇ καὶ τὸν ἣλιον βλέπει Meinek. IV p. 266 τὸν κοινὸν ἡμῖν, δοῦλα ταῦτʼ ἔσθʼ ἡδονῆς πάλιν δʼ ἐπέστρεψε καὶ περιέσπασε πρὸς τὸ καλὸν ἡμᾶς καὶ τὴν θρασύτητα τῆς ἀκολασίας ἐξέκοψεν εἰπὼν + ὄνειδος αἰσχρὸς βίος ὅμως κἂν ἡδὺς ᾖ id. IV p. 282 + ταῦτα γὰρ ἐκείνοις μέν ἐστιν ὑπεναντία, βελτίω δὲ καὶ χρησιμώτερα. δυεῖν οὖν θάτερον ἡ τοιαύτη τῶν ἐναντίων ποιήσει παράθεσις καὶ κατανόησις, ἢ παράξει πρὸς τὸ βέλτιον ἢ καὶ τοῦ χείρονος ἀποστήσει + τὴν πίστιν. ἂν δʼ αὐτοὶ μὴ διδῶσι τῶν ἀτόπως εἰρημένων λύσεις, οὐ χεῖρόν ἐστιν ἑτέρων ἐνδόξων ἀποφάσεις ἀντιτάττοντας ὥσπερ ἐπὶ ζυγοῦ ῥέπειν πρὸς τὸ βέλτιον. οἷον τοῦ Ἀλέξιδος κινοῦντος ἐνίους ὅταν λέγῃ + τὰς ἡδονὰς δεῖ συλλέγειν τὸν σώφρονα. id. III p. 518 τρεῖς δʼ εἰσὶν αἵ γε τὴν δύναμιν κεκτημέναι + τὴν ὡς ἀληθῶς συντελοῦσαν τῷ βίῳ, τὸ φαγεῖν τὸ πιεῖν τὸ τῆς Ἀφροδίτης τυγχάνειν τὸ φαγεῖν τὸ πιεῖν H ex p. 445 f.: τὸ πειε͂ν τὸ φαγεῖν τὰ δʼ ἄλλα προσθήκας ἅπαντα χρὴ καλεῖν , ὑπομνηστέον ὅτι Σωκράτης τοὐναντίον ἔλεγε, τοὺς μὲν φαύλους ζῆν τοῦ ἐσθίειν καὶ πίνειν ἕνεκα, τοὺς + δʼ ἀγαθοὺς ἐσθίειν καὶ πίνειν ἕνεκα τοῦ ζῆν. πρὸς; δὲ τὸν γράψαντα ποτὶ τὸν πονηρὸν οὐκ ἄχρηστον ὅπλον ἁ πονηρία, τρόπον τινὰ συνεξομοιοῦσθαι κελεύοντα τοῖς πονηροῖς, τὸ τοῦ Διογένους παραβαλεῖν + ἔστιν· ἐρωτηθεὶς γὰρ ὅπως ἄν τις ἀμύναιτο + τὸν ἐχθρόν, “αὐτόσ” ἔφη “καλὸς κἀγαθὸς γενόμενοσ” δεῖ δὲ τῷ Διογένει καὶ πρὸς τὸν Σοφοκλέα χρήσασθαι· πολλὰς γὰρ ἀνθρώπων μυριάδας ἐμπέπληκεν ἀθυμίας περὶ τῶν μυστηρίων ταῦτα γράψας ὡς τρισόλβιοι Nauck. p. 247 + κεῖνοι βροτῶν, οἳ ταῦτα δερχθέντες τέλη μόλως1ʼ ἐς Ἅιδου· · ζῆν ἔστι, τοῖς δʼ ᾅδοντι πάντʼ ἐκεῖ κακάʼ Διογένης δʼ ἀκούσας τι τοιοῦτο “τί λέγεις; ʼ” ἔφη. “κρείττονα μοῖραν ἕξει Παταικίων ὁ κλέπτης ἀποθανὼν + + ἢ Ἐπαμεινώνδας ὅτι γὰρ μόνοις ἐκεῖὄτι μεμύηται;ʼ” Τιμοθέῳ μὲν γὰρ ᾄδοντι τὴν Ἄρτεμιν ἐν τῷ θεάτρῳ μαινάδα μαινάδα] Bergk. 3 p. 620 θυιάδα θυιάδα idem: θυάδα φοιβάδα λυσσάδα Κινησίας εὐθὺς ἀντεφώνησε “τοιαύτη σοι θυγάτηρ γένοιτο.” χαρίεν δὲ καὶ τὸ τοῦ Βίωνος πρὸς τὸν Θέογνιν λέγοντα + πᾶς γὰρ ἀνὴρ πενίῃ δεδμημένος οὔτε τι εἰπεῖν Theogn. 177 οὔθʼ ἔρξαι δύναται, γλῶσσα δέ οἱ δέδεται “πῶς οὖν σὺ πένης ὢν φλυαρεῖς τοσαῦτα καὶ καταδολεσχεῖς ἡμῶν;” +

+

δεῖ δὲ μηδὲ τὰς ἐκ τῶν παρακειμένων ἢ συμφραζομένων παραλιπεῖν ἀφορμὰς πρὸς τὴν ἐπανόρθωσιν, + ἀλλʼ ὥσπερ οἱ ἰατροὶ τῆς κανθαρίδος οὔσης θανασίμου τοὺς πόδας; ὅμως· καὶ τὰ πτερὰ βοηθεῖν οἴονται καὶ ἀναλύειν τὴν δύναμιν, οὕτως ἐν τοῖς ποιήμασι, κἂν ὄνομα κἂν ῥῆμα παρακείμενον ἀμβλυτέραν ποιῇ τὴν πρὸς τὸ χεῖρον ἀπαγωγήν, ἐπιλαμβάνεσθαι + καὶ προσδιασαφεῖν, ὡς ἐπὶ τούτων ἔνιοι ποιοῦσι τοῦτὸ νύ που γέρας ἐστὶν ὀιζυροῖσι βροτοῖσι, Homer. δ 197 κείρασθαί τε κόμην βαλέειν τʼ ἀπὸ δάκρυ παρειῶν καὶ + ὣς γὰρ ἐπεκλώσαντο θεοὶ δειλοῖσι βροτοῖσι, id. Ω 525 ζώειν ἀχνυμένοις + οὐ γὰρ ἁπλῶς εἶπε καὶ πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις ὑπὸ θεῶν ἐπικεκλῶσθαι λυπηρὸν βίον, ἀλλὰ τοῖς ἄφροσι καὶ ἀνοήτοις, οὓς δειλαίους καὶ οἰκτροὺς διὰ μοχθηρίαν + ὄντας εἴωθε “δειλοὺσ” καὶ “ὀιζυροὺσ” προσαγορεύειν.

+

ἄλλος τοίνυν τρόπος ἐστὶ τὰς ἐν τοῖς ποιήμασιν ὑποψίας πρὸς τὸ βέλτιον ἐκ τοῦ χείρονος μεθιστὰς ὁ διὰ τῶν ὀνομάτων τῆς συνηθείας, περὶ ὃν δεῖ τὸν νέον γεγυμνάσθαι μᾶλλον ἢ περὶ τὰς + λεγομένας γλώττας. ἐκεῖνο μὲν γὰρ φιλόλογον, καὶ οὐκ ἀηδὲς ὅτι “ῥιγεδανὸσ” κακοθάνατός ἐστιν εἰδέναι· δάνον γὰρ Μακεδόνες τὸν θάνατον καλοῦσι, “καμμονίαν” δὲ νίκην Αἰολεῖς τὴν ἐξ ἐπιμονῆς + καὶ καρτερίας, Δρύοπες δὲ “πόπουσ” τοὺς δαίμονας. τουτὶ δʼ ἀναγκαῖον καὶ χρήσιμον, εἰ μέλλομεν μέλλομεν Madvigius: μέλλοιμεν ἐκ τῶν ποιημάτων ὠφεληθήσεσθαι καὶ μὴ βλαβήσεσθαι, τὸ γιγνώσκειν πῶς τοῖς τῶν θεῶν + ὀνόμασιν οἱ ποιηταὶ χρῶνται καὶ πάλιν τοῖς τῶν κακῶν καὶ ἀγαθῶν, καὶ τί τὴν Τύχην τί τὴν Μοῖραν νοοῦντες ὀνομάζουσι, καὶ πότερον ταῦτα τῶν ἁπλῶς ἢ τῶν πολλαχῶς λεγομένων ἐστὶ παρʼ αὐτοῖς, ὥσπερ ἄλλα πολλά. καὶ γὰρ “οἶκον” ποτὲ μὲν τὴν οἰκίαν + καλοῦσιν οἷκον ἐς ὑψόροφον Homer. ε 42 + ποτὲ δὲ τὴν οὐσίαν ἐσθίεταί μοι οἶκος id. δ 318 , καὶ καὶ H: καὶ τὸν “βίοτον” βίοτον̀ W: βίον ποτὲ μὲν τὸ ζῆν Homer. N 562 + ἀμενήνωσεν δέ οἱ αἰχμὴν κυανοχαῖτα Ποσειδάων, βιότοιο μεγήρας ποτὲ δὲ τὰ χρήματα βίοτον δέ μοι ἄλλοι ἔδουσι id. ν 419 , καὶ τῷ “ἀλύειν” ποτὲ μὲν ἀντὶ τοῦ δάκνεσθαι καὶ + ἀπορεῖσθαι κέχρηται ὣς ἔφαθʼ , ἡ δʼ ἀλύους1ʼ ἀπεβήσετο, τείρετο δʼ αἰνῶς id. E 352 ποτὲ δʼ ἀντὶ τοῦ γαυριᾶν καὶ χαίρειν ἦ ἀλύεις ὅτι Ἶρον ἐνίκησας τὸν ἀλήτην; id. ς 332. 392 + καὶ τῷ “θοάζειν” ἢ τὸ κινεῖσθαι σημαίνουσιν, ὡς Εὐριπίδης κῆτος θοάζον ἐξ Ἀτλαντικῆς ἁλός, Nauck. p. 523 ἢ τὸ καθέζεσθαι καὶ θαάσσειν, ὡς Σοφοκλῆς + τίνας πόθʼ ἕδρας τάσδε μοι θοάζετε OR 2 ἱκτηρίοις κλάδοισιν ἐξεστεμμένοι; + χάριεν δὲ καὶ τὸ τὴν χρείαν τῶν ὀνομάτων συνοικειοῦν τοῖς ὑποκειμένοις πράγμασιν, ὡς οἱ γραμματικοὶ διδάσκουσιν, ἄλλο πρὸς ἄλλην δύναμιν λαμβάνοντες,· οἷόν ἐστι νῆʼ ὀλίγην αἰνεῖν, μεγάλῃ δʼ ἐνὶ φορτία θέσθαι Hesiod. OD 643 + τῷ μὲν γὰρ “αἰνεῖν” σημαίνεται τὸ ἐπαινεῖν, αὐτῷ δὲ τῷ ἐπαινεῖν ἀντὶ τοῦ παραιτεῖσθαι νῦν κέχρηται, καθάπερ ἐν τῇ συνηθείᾳ “καλῶσ” φαμὲν “ἔχειν” καὶ + “χαίρειν” κελεύομεν, ὅταν μὴ δεώμεθα μηδὲ λαμβάνωμεν. οὕτω δὲ καὶ τὴν “ἐπαινὴν Περσεφόνειαν +” ἔνιοί φασιν ὡς παραιτητὴν εἰρῆσθαι. ταύτην δὴ τὴν διαίρεσιν καὶ διάκρισιν τῶν ὀνομάτων ἐν τοῖς μείζοσι καὶ σπουδαιοτέροις παραφυλάττοντες ἀπὸ τῶν θεῶν ἀρχώμεθα διδάσκειν τοὺς νέους ὅτι χρῶνται τοῖς τῶν θεῶν ὀνόμασιν οἱ ποιηταὶ ποτὲ μὲν αὐτῶν + ἐκείνων ἐφαπτόμενοι τῇ ἐννοίᾳ, ποτὲ δὲ δυνάμεις τινὰς ὧν οἱ θεοὶ δοτῆρές εἰσι καὶ καθηγεμόνες ὁμωνύμως προσαγορεύοντες οἷον εὐθὺς ὁ Ἀρχίλοχος , ὅταν μὲν εὐχόμενος λέγῃ + κλῦθʼ ἄναξ Ἥφαιστε καί μοι σύμμαχος γουνουμένῳ Bergk. 2 p. 404 + ἵλαος γενοῦ, χαρίζευ δʼ οἷάπερ χαρίζεαι , αὐτὸν τὸν θεὸν ἐπικαλούμενος δῆλός ἐστιν· ὅταν δὲ τὸν ἄνδρα τῆς ἀδελφῆς ἠφανισμένον ἐν θαλάττῃ καὶ μὴ τυχόντα νομίμου ταφῆς θρηνῶν λέγῃ μετριώτερον ἂν τὴν συμφορὰν ἐνεγκεῖν εἰ κείνου κεφαλὴν καὶ χαρίεντα μέλεα Bergk. 2 p. 387 + Ἥφαιστος καθαροῖσιν ἐν εἵμασιν ἀμφεπονήθη τὸ πῦρ οὕτως, οὐ τὸν θεὸν προσηγόρευσε. πάλιν δʼ ὁ μὲν Εὐριπίδης Εὐριπίδης] Phoen. 1013 εἰπὼν ἐν ὅρκῳ μὰ τὸν μετʼ ἄστρων Ζῆνʼ Ἄρη τε φοίνιον αὐτοὺς τοὺς θεοὺς ὠνόμασε· τοῦ δὲ Σοφοκλέους + λέγοντος + τυφλὸς γάρ, ὦ γυναῖκες, οὐδʼ ὁρῶν Ἄρης Nauck. p. 247 συὸς προσώπῳ πάντα τυρβάζει κακὰ τὸν πόλεμον ἔστιν ὑπακοῦσαι, καθάπερ αὖ τὸν χαλκὸν Ὁμήρου Ὁμήρου] H 329 λέγοντος + τῶν νῦν αἷμα κελαινὸν ἐύρροον ἀμφὶ Σκάμανδρον ἐσκέδας1ʼ ὀξὺζ; Ἄρης πολλῶν οὖν οὕτω λεγομένων εἰδέναι δεῖ καὶ μνημονεύειν ὅτι καὶ τῷ τοῦ Διὸς καὶ Ζηνὸς ὀνόματι + + ποτὲ μὲν τὸν θεὸν ποτὲ δὲ τὴν τύχην πολλάκις δὲ τὴν εἱμαρμένην προσαγορεύουσιν. ὅταν μὲν γὰρ λέγωσι Ζεῦ πάτερ, Ἴδηθεν μεδέων Homer, Γ 276. H 202. Ω 308 καὶ + ὦ Ζεῦ, τίς εἶναί φησι σοῦ σοφώτερος; Nauck. p. 694 τὸν θεὸν αὐτὸν λέγουσιν· ὅταν δὲ ταῖς αἰτίαις ὅταν δʼ ἐπὶ ταῖς αἰτίας Hirschigius πάντων τῶν γιγνομένων ἐπονομάζωσι τὸν Δία καὶ λέγωσι πολλὰς δʼ ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν - Homer. A 5 Διὸς δʼ ἐτελείετο βουλή , + τὴν εἱμαρμένην. οὐ γὰρ τὸν θεὸν ὁ ποιητὴς οἴεται κακὰ μηχανᾶσθαι τοῖς ἀνθρώποις, ἀλλὰ τὴν τῶν + πραγμάτων ἀνάγκην ὀρθῶς ὑποδείκνυσιν, ὅτι καὶ πόλεσι καὶ στρατοπέδοις καὶ ἡγεμόσιν, ἂν μὲν σωφρονῶσιν , εὖ πράττειν πέπρωται καὶ κρατεῖν τῶν + πολεμίων, ἂν δʼ εἰς πάθη καὶ ἁμαρτίας ἐμπεσόντες ὥσπερ οὗτοι διαφέρωνται πρὸς ἀλλήλους καὶ στασιάζωσιν , ἀσχημονεῖν καὶ ταράττεσθαι καὶ κακῶς ἀπαλλάττειν. εἱμαρμένον γὰρ τῶν κακῶν βουλευμάτων Nauck. p. 695 + κακὰς ἀμοιβάς ἐστι καρποῦσθαι βροτοῖς. καὶ μὴν ὁ Ἡσίοδος τὸν Προμηθέα ποιῶν τῷ Ἐπιμηθεῖ παρακελευόμενον μή ποτε δῶρα OD 86 δέξασθαι πὰρ Ζηνὸς Ὀλυμπίου ἀλλʼ ἀποπέμπειν + + ἐπὶ τῇ τῆς τύχης δυνάμει τῷ τοῦ Διὸς ὀνόματι κέχρηται· τὰ γὰρ τυχηρὰ τῶν ἀγαθῶν Διὸς δῶρα κέκληκε, πλούτους καὶ γάμους καὶ ἀρχὰς καὶ πάνθʼ ὅλως τὰ ἐκτός, ὧν ἡ κτῆσις ἀνόνητός ἐστι τοῖς χρῆσθαι καλῶς μὴ δυναμένοις. διὸ καὶ τὸν Ἐπιμηθέα + ὄντα καὶ ἀνόητον οἴεται δεῖν φυλάττεσθαι καὶ δεδιέναι τὰς εὐτυχίας, ὡς βλαβησόμενον καὶ διαφθαρησόμενον ὑπʼ αὐτῶν. καὶ πάλιν ὅταν λένῃ μηδὲ ποτʼ οὐλομένην πενίην θυμοφθόρον ἀνδρὶ OD 717 τέτλαθʼ ὀνειδίζειν, μακάρων δόσιν αἰὲν ἐόντων , θεόσδοτον νῦν τὸ τυχηρὸν εἴρηκεν, ὡς οὐκ ἄξιον ἐγκαλεῖν τοῖς διὰ τὴν τύχην πενομένοις, ἀλλὰ τὴν + + μετʼ ἀργίας καὶ μαλακίας καὶ πολυτελείας ἀπορίαν κακίζειν αἰσχρὰν καὶ ἐπονείδιστον οὖσαν. οὔπω γὰρ αὐτὸ τοὔνομα τῆς τύχης λέγοντες, εἰδότες δὲ τὴν τῆς ἀτάκτως καὶ ἀορίστως περιφερομένης αἰτίας δύναμιν ἰσχυρὰν καὶ ἀφύλακτον οὖσαν ἀνθρωπίνῳ + λογισμῷ τοῖς τῶν θεῶν ὀνόμασιν ἐξέφραζον, ὥσπερ ἡμεῖς καὶ πράγματα καὶ ἤθη καὶ νὴ Δία καὶ λόγους καὶ ἄνδρας εἰώθαμεν δαιμονίους καὶ θείους προσαγορεύειν. οὕτω δὴ τὰ πολλὰ τῶν ἀτόπως περὶ τοῦ Διὸς λέγεσθαι δοκούντων ἐπανορθωτέον, ὧν + ἐστι καὶ ταῦτα και δοιοὶ γάρ τε πίθοι κατακείαται ἐν Διὸς οὔδει Homer. Ω 527 + + κηρῶν ἔμπλειοι, ὁ μὲν ἐσθλῶν, αὐτὰρ ὁ δειλῶν Plat. Rep. p. 379 d καί ὅρκια μὲν Κρονίδης ὑψίζυγος οὐκ ἐτέλεσσεν, Homer. H 69 + + ἀλλὰ κακὰ φρονέων τεκμαίρεται ἀμφοτέροισι καί τότε γάρ ῥα κυλίνδετο πήματος ἀρχὴ id. θ 81 Τρωσί τε καὶ Δαναοῖσι Διὸς μεγάλου διὰ βουλάς , ὡς περὶ τῆς τύχης ἢ τῆς εἱμαρμένης λεγομένων, ἐν + + αἷς τὸ ἀσυλλόγιστον ἡμῖν τῆς αἰτίας σημαίνεται καὶ ὅλως τὸ ὅλως H οὐ καθʼ ἡμᾶς. ὅπου δὲ τὸ προσῆκον καὶ κατὰ λόγον καὶ εἰκός ἐστιν, ἐνταῦθα κυρίως ὀνομάζεσθαι τὸν παι θεὸν νομίζωμεν, νομίζωμεν W: νομίζομεν ὥσπερ ἐν τούτοις + + αὐτὰρ ὁ τῶν ἄλλων ἐπεπωλεῖτο στίχας ἀνδρῶν, Homer. Λ 540 Αἴαντος δʼ ἀλέεινε μάχην Τελαμωνιάδαο· + Ζεὺς γάρ οἱ νεμέσα ὅτʼ ἀμείνονι φωτὶ μάχοιτο καί Nauck. p. 695 Ζεὺς γὰρ τὰ μὲν μέγιστα φροντίζει βροτῶν, τὰ μικρὰ δʼ ἄλλοις δαίμοσιν παρεὶς ἐᾷ Σφόδρα δὲ δεῖ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ὀνόμασι προσέχειν, + κατὰ πολλὰ πράγματα πολλὰ πράγματα] πολλὰ R κινουμένοις καὶ μεθισταμένοις ὑπὸ τῶν ποιητῶν. οἷόν ἐστι καὶ τὸ τῆς ἀρε τῆς. ἐπεὶ γὰρ οὐ μόνον ἔμφρονας παρέχεται καὶ + δικαίους καὶ ἀγαθοὺς ἐν πράξεσι καὶ λόγοις, ἀλλὰ καὶ δόξας ἐπιεικῶς καὶ δυνάμεις περιποιεῖται, παρὰ + τοῦτο ποιοῦνται καὶ τὴν τὴν add. R εὐδοξίαν ἀρετὴν καὶ τὴν δύναμιν, ὀνομάζοντες ὥσπερ “ἐλαίαν” τὸν ἀπὸ τῆς ἐλαίας, καὶ “φηγὸν” τὸν ἀπὸ τῆς φηγοῦ καρπὸν ὁμωνύμως τοῖς φέρουσιν. οὐκοῦν ὁ νέος ἡμῖν, ὅταν μὲν λέγωσι + τῆς δʼ ἀρετῆς ἱδρῶτα θεοὶ προπάροιθεν ἔθηκαν Hesiod. OD 289 καὶ τῆμος σφῇ ἀρετῇ Δαναοὶ ῥήξαντο φάλαγγας Homer. Λ 90 καὶ εἰ δὲ θανεῖν θέμις, ὧδε θανεῖν καλόν, Nauck. p. 529 + εἰς ἀρετὴν καταδυσαμένους βίον , + εὐθὺς οἰέσθω λέγεσθαι ταῦτα περὶ τῆς ἀρίστης καὶ θειοτάτης ἕξεως ἐν ἡμῖν, ἣν ὀρθότητα λόγου καὶ ἀκρότητα λογικῆς φύσεως καὶ διάθεσιν ὁμολογουμένην ψυχῆς νοοῦμεν. ὅταν δʼ ἀναγιγνώσκῃ πάλιν τό τε + Ζεὺς δʼ ἀρετὴν ἄνδρεσσιν ὀφέλλει τε μινύθει τε Homer. Υ 242 καὶ τὸ πλούτῳ δʼ ἀρετὴ καὶ κῦδος ὀπηδεῖ Hesiod. OD 313 , μὴ “καθήσθω” τοὺς πλουσίους ἐκπεπληγμένος καὶ “τεθηπὼσ” καθάπερ ὤνιον εὐθὺς ἀργυρίου τὴν ἀρετὴν + ἔχοντας, μηδʼ ἐπὶ τῇ τύχῃ κεῖσθαι τὴν αὑτοῦ φρόνησιν αὔξειν ἢ κολούειν νομίζων, ἀλλʼ ἀντὶ δόξης ἢ δυνάμεως ἢ εὐτυχίας ἤ τινος ὁμοίου τῇ + ἀρετῇ κεχρῆσθαι τὸν ποιητὴν ἡγείσθω. καὶ γὰρ τῇ κακότητι ποτὲ μὲν ἰδίως σημαίνουσι κακίαν καὶ + μοχθηρίαν ψυχῆς, ὡς Ἡσίοδος τὴν μὲν γὰρ κακότητα καὶ ἰλαδὸν ἔστιν ἑλέσθαι id. 287 , ποτὲ δʼ ἄλλην τινὰ κάκωσιν ἢ δυστυχίαν, ὡς Ὅμηρος Ὅμηρος] τ 360 αἶψα γὰρ ἐν κακότητι βροτοὶ καταγηράσκουσιν ἐπεὶ καὶ τὴν εὐδαιμονίαν ἐξαπατηθείη τις ἂν οὕτω + τοὺς ποιητὰς οἰόμενος λέγειν, ὡς οἱ φιλόσοφοι λέγουσι τὴν παντελῆ τῶν ἀγαθῶν ἕξιν ἢ κτῆσιν ἢ καὶ + τελειότητα βίου κατὰ φύσιν εὐροοῦντος, ἀλλʼ οὐχὶ καταχρωμένους πολλάκις τὸν πλούσιον εὐδαίμονα καλεῖν ἢ μακάριον καὶ τὴν δύναμιν ἢ τὴν δόξαν + εὐδαιμονίαν. Ὅμηρος μὲν γὰρ ὀρθῶς κέχρηται τοῖς ὀνόμασιν ὣς οὔ τοι χαίρων τοῖσδε κτεάτεσσιν ἀνάσσω Homer. δ 93 καὶ Μένανδρος ἔχω δὲ πολλὴν οὐσίαν καὶ πλούσιος Meinek. IV p. 266 καλοῦμʼ ὑπὸ πάντων, μακάριος δʼ ὑπʼ οὐδενός , Εὐριπίδης δὲ πολλὴν ἐργάζεται ταραχὴν καὶ σύγχυσιν + ὅταν λέγῃ και + μή μοι γένοιτο λυπρὸς εὐδαίμων βίος Med. 603 καί τί τὴν τυραννίδʼ, ἀδικίαν εὐδαίμονα, τιμᾷς Phoen. 552 + ἂν μή τις, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, ταῖς μεταφοραῖς καὶ καταχρήσεσι τῶν ὀνομάτων ἕπηται. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ἱκανὰ περὶ τούτων.

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ἐκεῖνο δʼ οὐχ ἅπαξ ἀλλὰ πολλάκις ὑπομνηστέον ἐστὶ τοὺς νέους·, ἐνδεικνυμένους αὐτοῖς ὅτι + μιμητικὴν ἡ ποίησις ὑπόθεσιν ἔχουσα κόσμῳ μὲν καὶ λαμπρότητι χρῆται περὶ τὰς ὑποκειμένας πράξεις καὶ τὰ ἤθη, τὴν δʼ ὁμοιότητα τοῦ ἀληθοῦς οὐ προλείπει + , τῆς· μιμήσεως ἐν τῷ πιθανῷ τὸ ἀγωγὸν ἐχούσης. διὸ καὶ κακίας καὶ ἀρετῆς σημεῖα μεμιγμένα + ταῖς πράξεσιν ἡ μὴ παντάπασι τῆς ἀληθείας ὀλιγωροῦσα συνεκφέρει μίμησις, ὥσπερ ἡ Ὁμήρου πολλὰ πάνυ τοῖς Στωϊκοῖς χαίρειν φράζουσα, μήτε τι φαῦλον ἀρετῇ προσεῖναι μήτε κακίᾳ χρηστὸν ἀξιοῦσιν, ἀλλὰ πάντως μὲν ἐν πᾶσιν ἁμαρτωλὸν + εἶναι τὸν ἀμαθῆ , περὶ πάντα δʼ αὖ κατορθοῦν τὸν ἀστεῖον. ταῦτα γὰρ ἐν ταῖς σχολαῖς ἀκούομεν· ἐν δὲ τοῖς πράγμασι καὶ τῷ βίῳ τῶν πολλῶν κατὰ τὸν Εὐριπίδην οὐκ ἂν γένοιτο χωρὶς ἐσθλὰ καὶ κακά, Nauck. p. 294 + ἀλλʼ ἔστι τις σύγκρασις ἄνευ δὲ, τοῦ ἀληθοῦς μάλιστα μὲν ἡ ποιητικὴ τῷ ποικίλῳ χρῆται καὶ πολυτρόπῳ. τὸ γὰρ ἐμπαθὲς + καὶ παράλογον καὶ ἀπροσδόκητον, ᾧ πλείστη μὲν ἔκπληξις ἕπεται πλείστη δὲ χάρις, αἱ μεταβολαὶ παρέχουσι τοῖς μύθοις τὸ δʼ ἁπλοῦν ἀπαθὲς καὶ ἄμυθον. ὅθεν οὔτε νικῶντας ἀεὶ πάντα ποιοῦσι τοὺς αὐτοὺς οὔτʼ εὑημεροῦντας οὔτε κατορθοῦντας + ἀλλʼ οὐδὲ τοῖς θεοῖς, ὅταν εἰς ἀνθρωπίνας ἐμπέσωσι πράξεις, ἀπαθέσι χρῶνται καὶ ἀναμαρτήτοις, ἵνα μηδαμοῦ τό τε ταράττον καὶ τὸ ἐκπλῆττον ἀργῇ τῆς ποιήσεως ἀκίνδυνον καὶ ἀναγώνιστον γιγνόμενον. + +

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οὕτως οὖν τούτων ἐχόντων ἐπάγωμεν τοῖς ποιήμασι τὸν νέον μὴ τοιαύτας ἔχοντα δόξας περὶ τῶν καλῶν ἐκείνων καὶ μεγάλων ὀνομάτων, ὡς ἄρα σοφοὶ καὶ δίκαιοι οἱ ἄνδρες ἦσαν, ἄκροι τε βασιλεῖς καὶ κανόνες ἀρετῆς ἁπάσης καὶ ὀρθότητος. ἐπεὶ + βλαβήσεται μεγάλα δοκιμάζων πάντα καὶ τεθηπώς, μὴ δυσχεραίνων δὲ μηδὲν μηδʼ ἀκούων μηδʼ ἀποδεχόμενος τοῦ ψέγοντος αὐτοὺς τοιαῦτα πράττοντας καὶ λέγοντας αἲ γάρ, Ζεῦ τε πάτερ καὶ Ἀθηναίη καὶ Ἄπολλον, Homer. Π 97 + μήτε τις οὖν Τρώων θάνατον φύγοι, ὅσσοι ἔασι, + μήτε τις Ἀργείων, νῶιν δʼ ἐκδῦμεν ὄλεθρον, ὄφρʼ οἶοι Τροίης ἱερὰ κρήδεμνα λύοιμεν καὶ οἰκτροτάτην δʼ ἤκουσα ὄπα Πριάμοιο θυγατρὸς Homer. Λ 421 Κασσάνδρης, τὴν κτεῖνε Κλυταιμνήστρη δολόμητις ἀμφʼ ἐμοὶ καὶ + παλλακίδι προμιγῆναι, ἵνʼ ἐχθήρειε γέροντα. id. I 452 τῇ πιθόμην καὶ ἔρεξα καί Ζεῦ πάτερ, οὔ τις σεῖο θεῶν ὀλοώτερος ἄλλος id. Γ 365 + μηδὲν οὖν ἐπαινεῖν ἐθιζέσθω τοιοῦτον ὁ νέος, μηδὲ + προφάσεις λέγων μηδὲ παραγωγάς τινας εὐπρεπεῖς ἐπὶ πράγμασι φαύλοις μηχανώμενος πιθανὸς ἔστω καὶ πανοῦργος, ἀλλʼ ἐκεῖνο μᾶλλον οἰέσθω, μίμησιν εἶναι τὴν ποίησιν ἠθῶν καὶ βίων, καὶ ἀνθρώπων οὐ τελείων οὐδὲ καθαρῶν οὐδʼ ἀνεπιλήπτων παντάπασιν, + ἀλλὰ μεμιγμένων πάθεσι καὶ δόξαις ψευδέσι καὶ ἀγνοίαις, διὰ δʼ εὐφυΐαν αὑτοὺς πολλάκις μετατιθέντων πρὸς τὸ κρεῖττον. ἡ γὰρ τοιαύτη παρασκευὴ τοῦ νέου καὶ διάνοια, τοῖς μὲν εὖ λεγομένοις + καὶ πραττομένοις, ἐπαιρομένου καὶ συνενθουσιῶντος, + τὰ δὲ φαῦλα μὴ προσιεμένου καὶ δυσχεραίνοντος, ἀβλαβῆ παρέξει τὴν ἀκρόασιν. ὁ δὲ πάντα θαυμάζων καὶ πᾶσιν ἐξοικειούμενος καὶ καταδεδουλωμένος τῇ δόξῃ τὴν κρίσιν ὑπὸ τῶν ἡρωϊκῶν ὀνομάτων, ὥσπερ οἱ τὴν Πλάτωνος ἀπομιμούμενοι κυρτότητα + καὶ τὴν Ἀριστοτέλους τραυλότητα, λήσεται πρὸς πολλὰ τῶν φαύλων εὐχερὴς γενόμενος. δεῖ δὲ μὴ δειλῶς; μηδʼ ὥσπερ ὑπὸ δεισιδαιμονίας ἐν ἱερῷ φρίττειν ἅπαντα; καὶ προσκυνεῖν, ἀλλὰ θαρραλέως ἐθιζόμενον ἐπιφωνεῖν μηδὲν ἧττον τοῦ “ὀρθῶσ” καὶ “πρεπόντωσ” τὸ “οὐκ ὀρθῶσ” καὶ “ὁ προσηκόντως +” οἷον ὁ Ἀχιλλεὺς ἐκκλησίαν συνάγει τῶν στρατιωτῶν νοσούντων, ἀσχάλλων μὲν ἀργοῦντι τῷ πολέμῳ μάλιστα + πάντων διὰ τὴν ἐν ταῖς στρατείαις ἐπιφάνειαν αὐτοῦ καὶ δόξαν, ἰατρικὸς δʼ ὢν καὶ μεθʼ ἡμέραν ἐνάτην ταῦτα κρίνεσθαι πέφυκεν αἰσθόμενος οὐκ οὖσαν συνήθη τὴν νόσον οὐδὲ συνεστῶσαν ἀπὸ κοινῶν αἰτιῶν, ἀναστὰς οὐ δημαγωγεῖ πρὸς τὸν πρὸς τὸν] τὸν] Aldina ὄχλον, + ἀλλὰ τῷ βασιλεῖ γίγνεται σύμβουλος Ἀτρείδη, νῦν ἄμμε παλιμπλαγχθέντας ὀίω Homer. A 59 ἄψ ἀπονοστήσειν + ὀρθῶς ταῦτα καὶ μετρίως καὶ πρεπόντως τοῦ δὲ μάντεως δεδιέναι φήσαντος τὴν ὀργὴν τοῦ δυνατωτάτου + τῶν Ἑλλήνων, οὐκέτʼ ὀρθῶς οὐδὲ μετρίως, ἐπομόσας μηδένα προσοίσειν χεῖρας αὐτῷ ζῶντος αὐτοῦ, προστίθησιν οὐδʼ ἢν Ἀγαμέμνονα εἴπῃς id. A 90 , ἐνδεικνύμενος ὀλιγωρίαν καὶ περιφρόνησιν τοῦ ἄρχοντος. + ἐκ δὲ τούτου μᾶλλον παροξυνθεὶς ἐπὶ τὸ ξίφος φέρεται σφάττειν διανοούμενος, οὔτε πρὸς τὸ καλὸν ὀρθῶς οὔτε πρὸς τὸ συμφέρον. εἶτʼ αὖθις μετανοήσας ἄψ ἐς κουλεὸν ὦσε μέγα ξίφος, οὐδʼ ἀπίθησε id. A 220 + + μύθῳ Ἀθηναίης , ὀρθῶς πάλιν καὶ καλῶς, ὅτι τὸν θυμὸν ἐκκόψαι παντάπασι μὴ δυνηθεὶς , ὅμως πρὶν ἀνήκεστόν τι δρᾶσαι μετέστησε καὶ κατέσχεν εὐπειθῆ τῷ λογισμῷ γενόμενον. πάλιν ὁ Ἀγαμέμνων ἐν μὲν τοῖς περὶ τὴν ἐκκλησίαν γιγνομένοις καὶ λεγομένοις ὑπʼ αὐτοῦ καταγέλαστός ἐστιν, ἐν δὲ τοῖς περὶ Χρυσηίδα σεμνότερος + καὶ βασιλικώτερος. ὁ μὲν γὰρ Ἀχιλλεὺς ἀγομένης τῆς Βρισηίδος δακρύσας ἑτάρων ἄφαρ ἕζετο νόσφι λιασθείς Homer. A 349 , οὗτος δʼ αὐτὸς εἰς τὴν ναῦν ἐμβιβάζων καὶ παραδιδοὺς + καὶ ἀποπέμπων τὴν ἄνθρωπον ἣν ὀλίγῳ + πρόσθεν εἴρηκε τῆς γαμετῆς τῇ εὐνοίᾳ προκρίνειν, οὐδὲν ἐρωτικὸν οὐδʼ αἰσχρὸν ἐποίησε. καὶ μὴν ὁ Φοίνιξ διὰ τὴν παλλακίδα κατάρατος ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς γενόμενος τὸν μὲν ἐγὤ φησὶ ʽβούλευσα κατακτάμεν ὀξέι id. I 458 + χαλκῷ ἀλλά τις ἀθανάτων παῦσεν χόλον, ὃς ῥʼ ἐνὶ θυμῷ δήμου θῆκε φάτιν καὶ ὀνείδεα πόλλʼ ἀνθρώπων, ὡς μὴ πατροφόνος μετʼ Ἀχαιοῖσιν καλεοίμην ὁ μὲν οὖν Ἀρίσταρχος ἐξεῖλε ταῦτα τὰ ἔπη φοβηθείς· + ἔχει δὲ πρὸς τὸν καιρὸν ὀρθῶς, τοῦ Φοίνικος τὸν Ἀχιλλέα διδάσκοντος οἷόν ἐστιν ὀργὴ καὶ ὅσα + διὰ θυμὸν ἄνθρωποι τολμῶσι, μὴ χρώμενοι λογισμῷ μηδὲ πειθόμενοι τοῖς παρηγοροῦσι. καὶ γὰρ τὸν Μελέαγρον ἐπεισάγει τοῖς πολίταις ὀργιζόμενον, εἶτα + πραϋνόμενον, ὀρθῶς τὰ πάθη ψέγων, τὸ δὲ μὴ συνακολουθεῖν ἀλλʼ ἀντιτάττεσθαι καὶ κρατεῖν καὶ μετανοεῖν ἐπαινῶν ὡς καλὸν καὶ συμφέρον. ἐνταῦθα μὲν οὖν ἡ διαφορὰ πρόδηλος· ὅπου δʼ ἀσαφῆ τὰ τῆς γνώμης, διοριστέον οὕτω πως ἐφιστάντας τὸν νέον. εἰ μὲν ἡ Ναυσικάα ξένον ἄνδρα τὸν Ὀδυσσέα θεασαμένη καὶ παθοῦσα τὸ τῆς Καλυψοῦς πάθος πρὸς αὐτόν, ἅτε δὴ τρυφῶσα καὶ γάμων ὥραν ἔχουσα, + + τοιαῦτα μωραίνει πρὸς τὰς θεραπαινίδας αἲ γὰρ ἐμοὶ ἐμοὶ Homer. ζ 244: ἐμεῦ τοιόσδε πόσις κεκλημένος εἴη ἐνθάδε ναιετάων, καὶ οἱ ἅδοι αὐτόθι μίμνειν , ψεκτέον τὸ θράσος αὐτῆς καὶ τὴν ἀκολασίαν εἰ δὲ τοῖς λόγοις τοῦ ἀνδρὸς τὸ ἦθος ἐνιδοῦσα καὶ θαυμάσασα + τὴν ἔντευξιν αὐτοῦ πολὺν νοῦν ἔχουσαν εὔχεται τοιούτῳ συνοικεῖν μᾶλλον ἢ πλωτικῷ τινι καὶ ὀρχηστικῷ τῶν πολιτῶν, ἄξιον ἄγασθαι. πάλιν τῆς Πηνελόπης τοῖς μνηστῆρσι προσδιαλεγομένης οὐκ ἀπανθρώπως, ἐκείνων δʼ αὐτῇ χαριζομένων ἱμάτια + καὶ κόσμον ἄλλον, ἡδόμενος Ὀδυσσεὺς + οὕνεκα τῶν μὲν δῶρα παρέλκετο, θέλγε δὲ θυμόν id. ς 282 εἰ μὲν ἐπὶ τῇ δωροδοκίᾳ καὶ πλεονεξίᾳ χαίρει, τὸν κωμῳδούμενον ὑπερβάλλει μαστροπείᾳ Πολίαγρον + εὐδαίμων Πολίαγρος Meinek. IV p. 667 οὐράνιον αἶγα πλουτοφόρον τρέφων εἰ δὲ μᾶλλον οἰόμενος ὑποχειρίους ἕξειν διὰ τὴν ἐλπίδα θαρροῦντας θαρροῦντας scripsi: θαρροῦντες καὶ τὸ μέλλον οὐ προσδοκῶντας, + λόγον ἔχει τὸ ἡδόμενον αὐτῷ καὶ θαρροῦν. ὁμοίως ἐπὶ τῇ διαριθμήσει τῶν χρημάτων, ἃ συνεξέθηκαν οἱ Φαίακες αὐτῷ καὶ ἀπέπλευσαν, εἰ μὲν ἀληθῶς ἐν ἐρημίᾳ τοσαύτῃ καὶ τῶν καθʼ αὑτὸν + ἀσαφείᾳ καὶ ἀδηλότητι γεγονὼς περὶ τῶν χρημάτων φοβεῖται μὴ τί οἱ οἴχωνται κοίλης ἐπὶ νηὸς ἄγοντες ἀγοντες idem: ἔχοντες Homer. ν 216 , + οἰκτείρειν ἄξιον ἢ βδελύττεσθαι νὴ Δία τὴν φιλοπλουτίαν· εἰ δʼ, ὥσπερ ἔνιοι λέγουσι, περὶ τῆς Ἰθάκης ἀμφιδοξῶν οἴεται τὴν τῶν χρημάτων σωτηρίαν ἀπόδειξιν εἶναι τῆς τῶν Φαιάκων ὁσιότητος οὐ γὰρ ἂν ἀκερδῶς φέροντας αὐτὸν εἰς ἀλλοτρίαν ἐκβαλεῖν + χώραν καὶ καταλιπεῖν, ἀποσχομένους τῶν χρημάτων, οὔτε φαύλῳ τεκμηρίῳ χρῆται καὶ τὴν πρόνοιαν + ἄξιον ἐπαινεῖν. ἔνιοι δὲ καὶ τὴν ἔκθεσιν αὐτὴν εἰ μὲν ἀληθῶς ἐγένετο καθεύδοντος ψέγουσι, καὶ Τυρρηνοὺς ἱστορίαν τινά φασι διαφυλάττειν ὡς + ὑπνώδους φύσει τοῦ Ὀδυσσέως γενομένου καὶ δυσεντεύκτου διὰ τοῦτο τοῖς πολλοῖς ὄντος. εἰ δʼ οὐκ ἦν ἀληθὴς ὁ ὕπνος, ἀλλʼ αἰδούμενος μὲν ἀποπέμψαι τοὺς Φαίακας ἄνευ ξενίων καὶ φιλοφροσύνης, μὴ δυνάμενος δὲ τοὺς ἐχθροὺς λαθεῖν ἐκείνων συμπαρόντων + ἐχρήσατο τῆς ἀπορίας παρακαλύμματι, κοιμωμένῳ ποιήσας ὅμοιον ἑαυτόν, ἀποδέχονται. καὶ ταῦτα δὴ τοῖς νέοις ὑποδεικνύοντες οὐκ ἐάσομεν φορὰν πρὸς τὰ φαῦλα γίγνεσθαι τῶν ἠθῶν ἀλλὰ τῶν βελτιόνων ζῆλον καὶ προαίρεσιν, εὐθὺς τοῖς μὲν + + τὸ ψέγειν τοῖς δὲ τὸ ἐπαινεῖν ἀποδιδόντες;. μάλιστα δὲ τοῦτο δεῖ δεῖ ποιεῖν scripsi: ποιεῖν δεῖ ποιεῖν ἐν ταῖς τραγῳδίαις, ὅσαι λόγους ἔχουσι πιθανοὺς καὶ πανούργους ἐν πράξεσιν ἀδόξοις καὶ πονηραῖς. οὐ πάνυ γὰρ ἀληθὲς τὸ τοῦ Σοφοκλέους λέγοντος οὐκ ἔστʼ ἀπʼ ἔργων μὴ καλῶν ἔπη καλά Nauck. p. 247 καὶ γὰρ οὗτος οὗτος] αὐτὸς Emperius Nauck. Eurip. Fr. 430b p. 113 εἴωθεν ἤθεσι φαύλοις καὶ ἀτόποις + πράγμασι λόγους ἐπιγελῶντας καὶ φιλανθρώπους αἰτίας πορίζειν. καὶ ὁ σύσκηνος αὐτοῦ πάλιν ὁρᾷς + ὅτι τήν τε Φαίδραν καὶ προσεγκαλοῦσαν τῷ Θησεῖ πεποίηκεν ὡς διὰ τὰς ἐκείνου παρανομίας ἐρασθεῖσαν τοῦ Ἱππολύτου. τοιαύτην δὲ καὶ τῇ Ἑλένῃ παρρησίαν + κατὰ τῆς Ἑκάβης ἐν ταῖς Τρῳάσι Τρωάσι] v. 919 Hesiod. OD 739 δίδωσιν, οἰομένῃ δεῖν ἐκείνην κολάζεσθαι μᾶλλον ὅτι μοιχὸν αὐτῆς ἔτεκε. μηδὲν οὖν τούτων κομψὸν ἡγεῖσθαι καὶ πανοῦργον ὁ νέος ἐθιζέσθω, μηδὲ προσμειδιάτω ταῖς τοιαύταις εὑρησιλογίαις ἀλλὰ βδελυττέσθω τοὺς + λόγους μᾶλλον ἢ τὰ ἔργα τῆς ἀκολασίας.

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ἐπὶ πᾶσι τοίνυν καὶ τὸ τὴν αἰτίαν ἑκάστου + τῶν λεγομένων ἐπιζητεῖν χρήσιμόν ἐστιν. ὁ μὲν γὰρ Κάτων ἔτι παιδάριον ὢν ἔπραττε μὲν ὃ προστάξειεν ὁ παιδαγωγός, αἰτίαν δὲ καὶ λόγον ἀπῄτει τοῦ προστάγματος· + τοῖς δὲ ποιηταῖς οὐ πειστέον ὥσπερ παιδαγωγοῖς ἢ νομοθέταις, ἂν μὴ λόγον ἔχῃ τὸ ὑποκείμενον . ἕξει δέ, ἄνπερ χρηστὸν ἂν δὲ μοχθηρόν, ὀφθήσεται κενὸν καὶ μάταιον. ἀλλʼ οἱ πολλοὶ τῶν μὲν τοιούτων τὰς αἰτίας πικρῶς ἀπαιτοῦσι καὶ διαπυνθάνονται + πῶς λέλεκται μηδέ ποτʼ οἰνοχόην τιθέμεν κρητῆρος ὕπερθεν πινόντων καὶ ὃς δέ κʼ ἀνὴρ ἀπὸ ὧν ὀχέων ἕτερʼ ἅρμαθʼ ἵκηται, + ἔγχει ὀρεξάσθω Homer. Δ 306 τῶν δὲ μειζόνων ἀβασανίστως δέχονται τὴν πίστιν, + οἷα καὶ ταῦτʼ ἐστὶν δουλοῖ γὰρ ἄνδρα, κἂν θρασύσπλαγχνός τις ᾖ, Eur. Hipp. 424 ὅταν συνειδῇ μητρὸς ἢ πατρὸς κακά , καὶ σμικρὸν φρονεῖν χρὴ τὸν κακῶς πεπραγότα πεπραγότα Wagnerus: πεπραχότα Nauck. p. 695 + καίτοι ταῦτα τῶν ἠθῶν ἅπτεται καὶ τοὺς βίους διαταράττει, κρίσεις ἐμποιοῦντα φαύλας καὶ δόξας ἀγεννεῖς, ἂν μὴ πρὸς ἕκαστον αὐτῶν εἰθισμένοι + λέγωμεν “διὰ τί σμικρὸν φρονεῖν χρὴ τὸν κακῶς πεπραγότα πεπράγότα H: πεπραχότα καὶ μὴ μᾶλλον ἀνταίρειν τῇ τύχῃ καὶ ποιεῖν + ὑψηλὸν ἑαυτὸν καὶ ἀταπείνωτον; διὰ τί δέ, ἂν ἐκ πατρὸς φαύλου καὶ ἀνοήτου γεγονὼς αὐτὸς ὦ χρηστὸς καὶ φρόνιμος, οὐ προσήκει μοι διὰ τὴν ἐμὴν ἀρετὴν μέγα φρονεῖν ἀλλὰ καταπεπλῆχθαι καὶ ταπεινὸν εἶναι· διὰ τὴν τοῦ πατρὸς ἀμαθίαν;” ὁ γὰρ + οὕτως ἀπαντῶν καὶ ἀντερείδων καὶ μὴ παντὶ λόγῳ πλάγιον ὥσπερ πνεύματι παραδιδοὺς ἑαυτὸν ἀλλʼ ὀρθῶς ἔχειν νομίζων τὸ “βλὰξ βλάξ Mullach. 1 p. 326 ἄνθρωπος ἐπὶ παντὶ λόγῳ φιλεῖ ἐπτοῆσθαι” πολλὰ διακρούσεται τῶν οὐκ ἀληθῶς οὐδʼ ὠφελίμως λεγομένων. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν + ἀβλαβῆ παρέξει τὴν τῶν ποιημάτων ἀκρόασιν. +

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ἐπεὶ δʼ ὥσπερ ἐν ἀμπέλου φύλλοις καὶ κλήμασιν εὐθαλοῦσι πολλάκις ὁ καρπὸς ἀποκρύπτεται καὶ λανθάνει κατασκιαζόμενος, ,οὕτως ἐν, ποιητικῇ λέξει καὶ μυθεύμασι περικεχυμένοις πολλὰ διαφεύγει τὸν νέον ὠφέλιμα καὶ χρήσιμα δεῖ δὲ τοῦτο μὴ πάσχειν ἀποπλανᾶσθαι τῶν πραγμάτων, + ἐμφύεσθαι μάλιστα τοῖς πρὸς ἀρετὴν φέρουσι καὶ δυναμένοις πλάττειν τὸ ἦθος, οὐ χεῖρόν ἐστι καὶ περὶ τούτων διελθεῖν ἐν βραχέσιν, ἁψάμενον ὡς ἐν τύπῳ τῶν πραγμάτων, μήκη δὲ καὶ κατασκευὰς καὶ + παραδειγμάτων ὄχλον ἐῶντα τοῖς ἐπιδεικτικώτερον + γράφουσι πρῶτον μὲν οὖν τὰ χρηστὰ καὶ τὰ φαῦλα γιγνώσκων ὁ νέος καὶ πρόσωπα τοῖς λεγομένοις προσεχέτω καὶ ταῖς πράξεσιν ἃς ὁ ποιητὴς ἑκατέροις προσηκόντως ἀποδίδωσιν οἷον ὁ Ἀχιλλεὺς πρὸς τὸν Ἀγαμέμνονα λέγει, καίπερ λέγων μετʼ + οὐ γὰρ σοί ποτε ἶσον ἔχω γέρας, ὁππότʼ Ἀχαιοὶ Homer. A 163 Τρώων ἐκπέρσως1ʼ εὖ ναιόμενον πτολίεθρον ὁ δὲ Θερσίτης τῷ αὐτῷ λοιδορούμενος λέγει πλεῖαί τοι χαλκοῦ κλισίαι, πολλαὶ δὲ γυναῖκες id. B 226 εἰσὶν ἐνὶ κλισίῃς κλισίὴς idem: κλισίῃ ἐξαίρετοι, ἅς τοι Ἀχαιοὶ + + πρωτίστῳ δίδομεν, εὖτʼ ἂν πτολίεθρον ἕλωμεν , καὶ πάλιν ὁ Ἀχιλλεὺς αἴ κέ ποθι Ζεὺς id. A 128 δῷσι πόλιν Τροίην εὐτείχεον ἐξαλαπάξαι ὁ δὲ Θερσίτης + ὅν κεν ἐγὼ δήσας ἀγάγω ἢ ἄλλος Ἀχαιῶν id. B 231 πάλιν τοῦ Ἀγαμέμνονος ἐν τῇ ἐπιπωλήσει τὸν Διομήδην λοιδορήσαντος ὁ μὲν οὐδὲν ἀντεῖπεν αἰδεσθεὶς· βασιλῆος ἐνιπὴν αἰδοίοιο Homer. Δ 402 , ὁ δὲ Σθένελος, οὗ μηδεὶς λόγος, Ἀτρείδἠ φησί, μὴ ψεύδεʼ ἐπιστάμενος σάφα id. Δ 404 εἰπεῖν. + + ἡμεῖς τοι πατέρων μέγʼ ἀμείνονες εὐχόμεθʼ εἶναι ἡ γὰρ τοιαύτη διαφορὰ μὴ παρορωμένη διδάξει τὸν νέον ἀστεῖον ἡγεῖσθαι τὴν ἀτυφίαν καὶ μετριότητα, τὴν δὲ μεγαλαυχίαν καὶ περιαυτολογίαν ὡς φαῦλον + εὐλαβεῖσθαι. χρήσιμον δὲ καὶ τὸ τοῦ Ἀγαμέμνονος κατανοεῖν ἐνταῦθα· τὸν μὲν γὰρ Σθένελον ἀπροσαύδητον παρῆλθε, τοῦ δʼ Ὀδυσσέως οὐκ ἠμέλησεν ἀλλʼ ἠμείψατο καὶ προσηγόρευσεν, ὡς γνῶ χωομένοιο· πάλιν δʼ ὅ γε λάζετο μῦθον id. Δ 357 + τὸ μὲν γὰρ πᾶσιν ἀπολογεῖσθαι θεραπευτικὸν καὶ οὐκ +ἀξιωματικόν τὸ δὲ πάντων καταφρονεῖν ὑπερήφανον καὶ ἀνόητον. ἄριστα δʼ ὁ Διομήδης ἐν μὲν τῇ μάχῃ σιωπᾷ κακῶς ἀκούων ὑπὸ τοῦ βασιλέως, μετὰ δὲ τὴν μάχην παρρησίᾳ χρῆται πρὸς αὐτὸν + ἀλκὴν μέν μοι πρῶτον ὀνείδισας ἐν Δαναοῖσιν id. I 34 εὖ δʼ ἔχει καὶ φρονίμου διαφορὰν ἀνδρὸς καὶ μάντεως πανηγυρικοῦ μὴ παραλιπεῖν. ὁ μὲν γὰρ Κάλχας οὐ συνεῖδε τὸν καιρόν, ἀλλʼ ἐν πλήθει παρʼ οὐδὲν ἐποιήσατο κατηγορῆσαι τοῦ βασιλέως ὡς τὸν + λοιμὸν αὐτοῖς ἐπαγαγόντος· ἐπαγαγόνοτος H: ἐπαγόντος ὁ δὲ Νέστωρ βουλόμενος ἐμβάλλειν λόγον ὑπὲρ τῶν πρὸς τὸν Ἀχιλλέα + διαλλαγῶν, ἵνα μὴ διαβάλλειν δοκῇ τὸν Ἀγαμέμνονα πρὸς τὸ πλῆθος; ὡς ἁμαρτόντα καὶ χρησάμενον ὀργῇ, δαίνυ δαῖτα γέρουσιν· ἔοικέ τοι, οὔ τοι ἀεικὲς Homer. I 70 πολλῶν δʼ ἀγρομένων τῷ πείσεαι ὅς κεν ἀρίστην + βουλὴν βουλεύσῃ. καὶ μετὰ τὸ δεῖπνον ἐξαποστέλλει τοὺς πρέσβεις· τοῦτο γὰρ ἦν ἐπανόρθωσις ἁμαρτίας, ἐκεῖνο δὲ κατηγορία καὶ προπηλακισμός Ἔτι δὲ καὶ τὰς ἐν τοῖς γένεσι διαφορὰς σκεπτέον, + ὧν τοιοῦτός ἐστιν ὁ τρόπος. οἱ μὲν Τρῶες ἐπίασι μετὰ κραυγῆς καὶ θράσους, οἱ δʼ Ἀχαιοὶ σιγῇ δειδιότες σημάντορας id. Δ 431 + τὸ γὰρ ἐν χερσὶ τῶν πολεμίων ὄντων φοβεῖσθαι τοὺς ἄρχοντας ἀνδρείας ἅμα καὶ πειθαρχίας σημεῖον. + ὅθεν ὁ μὲν Πλάτων ἐθίζει τοὺς ψόγους φοβεῖσθαι καὶ τὰ αἰσχρὰ μᾶλλον τοὺς πόνους καὶ τοὺς κινδύνους, ὁ δὲ Κάτων ἔλεγε φιλεῖν τοὺς ἐρυθριῶντας μᾶλλον ἢ τοὺς· ὠχριῶντας. ἔστι δὲ καὶ τῶν + ἐπαγγελιῶν ἴδιος χαρακτήρ. ὁ μὲν γὰρ Δόλων πο ἐπαγγέλλεται τόφρα γὰρ ἐς στρατὸν εἶμι διαμπερές, ὄφρʼ ἂν id. K 325 νῆ Ἀγαμεμνονέην ιορωμαι ὁ δὲ Διομήδης ἐπαγγέλλεται μὲν οὐδέν, ἧττον δʼ ἄν + + φησι φοβηθῆναι μεθʼ ἑτέρου πεμπόμενος. Ἑλληνικὸν οὖν καὶ ἀστεῖον ἡ πρόνοια, βαρβαρικὸν δὲ καὶ φαῦλον ἡ θρασύτης· καὶ δεῖ τὸ μὲν ζηλοῦν τὸ δὲ δυσχεραίνειν. ἔχεται δέ τινος οὐκ ἀχρήστου θεωρίας καὶ τὸ περὶ τοὺς Τρῶας καὶ τὸν Ἕκτορα πάθος, τοῦ Αἴαντος αὐτῷ μονομαχεῖν μέλλοντος. ὁ μὲν γὰρ Αἰσχύλος Ἰσθμοῖ πύκτου πληγέντος εἰς τὸ πρόσωπον καὶ κραυγῆς γενομένης, “οἷον” εἶπεν “ἡ + ἄσκησίς ἐστιν. οἱ θεώμενοι βοῶσιν, ὁ δὲ πληγεὶς σιωπᾷ” τοῦ δὲ ποιητοῦ λέγοντος ὅτι τὸν Αἴαντα τῶν ὅπλων ποιούντων λαμπρὸν οἱ μὲν Ἕλληνες ἔχαιρον ὁρῶντες, + Τρῶας δὲ τρόμος αἰνὸς ἐπήλυθε γυῖα ἕκαστον, Homer. H 215 + Ἕκτορί τʼ αὐτῷ θυμὸς ἐνὶ στήθεσσι πάτασσε , τίς οὐκ ἂν ἀγάσαιτο τὴν διαφοράν; τοῦ μὲν κινδυνεύοντος ἡ καρδία πηδᾷ μόνον, ὥσπερ παλαίειν νὴ Δίʼ ἢ σταδιοδρομεῖν μέλλοντος, τῶν δὲ θεωμένων τρέμει καὶ πάλλεται τὸ σῶμα διʼ εὔνοιαν καὶ φόβον + ὑπὲρ τοῦ βασιλέως. ἐνταῦθα δὲ καὶ τὴν τοῦ κρατίστου πρὸς τὸν κάκιστον διαφορὰν ἀποθεωρητέον. ὁ μὲν γὰρ Θερσίτης ἔχθιστος δʼ Ἀχιλῆι μάλιστʼ ἦν ἠδʼ Ὀδυσῆι id. B 220 , + ὁ δʼ Αἴας ἀεί τε τῷ Ἀχιλλεῖ προσφιλὴς καὶ πρὸς + τὸν Ἕκτορα λέγει περὶ αὐτοῦ νῦν μὲν δὴ σάφα εἴσεαι οἰόθεν οἶος id. H 226 οἷοι καὶ Δαναοῖσιν ἀριστῆες μετέασι, καὶ μετʼ Ἀχιλλῆα ῥηξήνορα θυμολέοντα καὶ τοῦτο μὲν Ἀχιλλέως τὸ ἐγκώμιόν ἐστι, τὰ δʼ + ἑξῆς ὑπὲρ ἁπάντων εἴρηται χρησίμως ἡμεῖς δʼ εἰμὲν τοῖοι οἳ ἂν σέθεν ἀντιάσαιμεν id. H 231 καὶ πολέες , οὔτε μόνον οὔτε ἄριστον ἀποφαίνων ἑαυτὸν ἀλλὰ + μετὰ πολλῶν ὁμοίως δυνάμενον δυνάμενον W: δυναμένων ἀμύνασθαι. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ἱκανὰ περὶ διαφορᾶς, ἂν μὴ κἀκεῖνο βουλώμεθα προσλαβεῖν, ὅτι τῶν Τρώων ἑαλώκασι καὶ + πολλοὶ καὶ πολλοὶ] πολλοὶ W ζῶντες, οὐδεὶς δὲ τῶν Ἀχαιῶν, καὶ τῶν μὲν ὑποπεπτώκασιν ἔνιοι τοῖς πολεμίοις, ὥσπερ ὁ Ἄδραστος, οἱ Ἀντιμάχου παῖδες, ὁ Λυκάων, αὐτὸς ὁ Ἕκτωρ δεόμενος περὶ ταφῆς τοῦ Ἀχιλλέως, ἐκείνων δʼ οὐδείς, ὡς βαρβαρικοῦ τοῦ ἱκετεύειν καὶ ὑποπίπτειν + ἐν τοῖς ἀγῶσιν ὄντος, Ἑλληνικοῦ δὲ τοῦ νικᾶν μαχόμενον ἢ ἀποθνῄσκειν.

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+ ἐπεὶ δ̓ ὥσπερ ἐν ταῖς νομαῖς ἡ μὲν μέλιττα διώκει τὸ ἄνθος, ἡ δʼ αἲξ τὸν θαλλόν, ἡ δʼ δʼ ὗς τὴν ῥίζαν, ἄλλα δὲ ζῷα τὸ σπέρμα καὶ τὸν καρπόν, + οὕτως , ἐν ταῖς ἀναγνώσεσι τῶν ποιημάτων ὁ μὲν ἀπανθίζεται τὴν ἱστορίαν, ὁ δʼ ἐμφύεται τῷ κάλλει καὶ τῇ κατασκευῇ τῶν ὀνομάτων, καθάπερ ὁ Ἀριστοφάνης περὶ τοῦ Εὐριπίδου φησὶ χρῶμαι γὰρ αὐτοῦ τοῦ στόματος τῷ στρογγύλῳ Meinek. II p. 1142 + · οἱ δὲ τῶν πρὸς τὸ ἦθος εἰρημένων ὠφελίμως ἔχονται, πρὸς οὓς δὴ νῦν ἡμῖν ὁ λόγος ἐστίν, ὑπομιμνῄσκωμεν αὐτοὺς ὅτι δεινόν ἐστι τὸν μὲν φιλόμυθον μὴ λανθάνειν τὰ καινῶς ἱστορούμενα καὶ περιττῶς, + μηδὲ τὸν φιλόλογον ἐκφεύγειν τὰ καθαρῶς πεφρασμένα + καὶ ῥητορικῶς, τὸν δὲ φιλότιμον καὶ φιλόκαλον καὶ μὴ παιγνίας παιγνίας] παιδιᾶς R ἀλλὰ παιδείας ἕνεκα ποιημάτων ἁπτόμενον ἀργῶς καὶ ἀμελῶς ἀκούειν τῶν πρὸς ἀνδρείαν ἢ σωφροσύνην ἢ δικαιοσύνην ἀναπεφωνημένων, οἷα καὶ ταῦτʼ ἐστὶ Τυδείδη, τί παθόντε λελάσμεθα θούριδος ἀλκῆς; + ἀλλʼ ἄγε ἄʼ ἄγε Homer. Λ 313: ἀλλά γε δεῦρο, πέπον, παρʼ ἔμʼ ἵστασο· δὴ γὰρ ἔλεγχος ἔσσεται, εἴ κεν νῆας ἕλῃ κορυθαίολος Ἕκτωρ τὸ γὰρ ἐν κινδύνῳ τοῦ διαφθαρῆναι καὶ ἀπολέσθαι μετὰ πάντων ὄντα τὸν φρονιμώτατον ὁρᾶν τὸ αἰσχρὸν + δεδοικότα καὶ τὸ ἐπονείδιστον ἀλλὰ μὴ τὸν θάνατον, ἐμπαθῆ ποιήσει πρὸς ἀρετὴν τὸν νέον. καὶ τῷ τῷ W: τό χαῖρε δʼ Ἀθηναίη πεπνυμένῳ ἀνδρὶ δικαίῳ Homer. γ 52 + τοιοῦτον ἐπιλογισμὸν δίδωσι, μήτε πλουσίῳ τινὶ + μήτε καλῷ τὸ σῶμα μήτʼ ἰσχυρῷ τὴν θεὸν χαίρουσαν ἀλλὰ φρονίμῳ καὶ δικαίῳ ποιήσας, καὶ πάλιν τὸν Ὀδυσσέα φάσκουσα μὴ περιορᾶν μηδὲ προλείπειν οὕνεκʼ ἐπητής ἐστι καὶ ἀγχίνοος καὶ ἐχέφρων, id. ν 332 ἐνδείκνυται μόνον εἶναι τῶν ἡμετέρων θεοφιλὲς καὶ θεῖον ἀρετήν, εἴγε δὴ τὰ ὅμοια χαίρειν τοῖς ὁμοίοις + + πέφυκεν. ἐπεὶ δὲ μεγάλου δοκοῦντος εἶναι καὶ ὄντος τοῦ κρατεῖν ὀργῆς μεῖζόν ἐστιν ἡ φυλακὴ καὶ ἡ πρόνοια τοῦ μὴ περιπεσεῖν ὀργῇ μηδʼ ἁλῶναι, καὶ ταῦτα δεῖ τοῖς ἀναγιγνώσκουσιν ὑποδεικνύειν οὑκ + μὴ παρέργως, ὅτι τὸν Πρίαμον ὁ Ἀχιλλεὺς ἀνασχετικὸς ὢν οὐδὲ πρᾶος ἡσυχίαν ἄγειν κελεύει καὶ μὴ παροξύνειν αὐτόν, οὕτως αὐτὸν οὕτως] αὐτόν μηκέτι νῦν μʼ ἐρέθιζε, γέρον νοέω δὲ καὶ αὐτός Homer. Ω 560 Ἕκτορά τοι λῦσαι, Διόθεν δέ μοι ἄγγελος ἦλθε μή σε, γέρον, οὐδʼ αὐτὸν ἐνὶ κλισίῃσιν ἐάσω, + καὶ ἱκέτην περ ἐόντα, Διὸς δʼ ἀλίτωμαι ἐφετμάς, + καὶ τὸν Ἕκτορα λούσας καὶ περιστείλας αὐτὸς ἐπὶ τὴν ἀπήνην τίθησι, πρὶν ᾐκισμένον ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ὀφθῆναι, μὴ ὁ μὲν ἀχνυμένῃ κραδίῃ χόλον οὐκ ἐρύσαιτο, id. Ω 584 παῖδα ἰδών, Ἀχιλῆι δʼ ὀρινθείη φίλον ἦτορ + καὶ ἑ κατακτείνειε, Διὸς δʼ ἀλίτηται ἐφετμάς τὸ γὰρ ἐπισφαλῶς πρὸς ὀργὴν ἔχοντα καὶ φύσει τραχὺν ὄντα καὶ θυμοειδῆ μὴ λανθάνειν ἑαυτὸν ἀλλʼ ἐξευλαβεῖσθαι καὶ φυλάττεσθαι τὰς αἰτίας καὶ + προκαταλαμβάνειν τῷ λογισμῷ πόρρωθεν ὅπως οὐδʼ + ἄκων τῷ πάθει περιπεσεῖται, θαυμαστῆς ἐστι προνοίας. οὕτω δὲ δεῖ καὶ πρὸς μέθην τὸν φίλοινον ἔχειν καὶ πρὸς ἔρωτα τὸν ἐρωτικόν· ὥσπερ ὁ Ἀγησίλαος οὐχ ὑπέμεινεν ὑπὸ τοῦ καλοῦ φιληθῆναι προσιόντος, ὁ δὲ Κῦρος οὐδʼ ἰδεῖν τὴν Πάνθειαν + ἐτόλμησε, τῶν ἀπαιδεύτων τοὐναντίον ὑπεκκαύματα τοῖς πάθεσι συλλεγόντων καὶ πρὸς ἃ μάλιστα κακῶς καὶ ὀλισθηρῶς ἔχουσιν αὑτοὺς προϊεμένων. ὁ δʼ Ὀδυσσεὺς οὐ μόνον ἑαυτὸν ἀνέχει θυμούμενον, ἀλλὰ + καὶ τὸν Τηλέμαχον ἐκ τοῦ λόγου συνιδὼν χαλεπὸν + ὄντα καὶ μισοπόνηρον ἀμβλύνει καὶ παρασκευάζει πόρρωθεν ἡσυχίαν ἄγειν καὶ ἀνέχεσθαι, κελεύων εἰ δὲ μʼ ἀτιμήσουσι δόμον κάτα, σὸν δὲ φίλον κῆρ id. π 274 τετλάτω ἐν στήθεσσι κακῶς πάσχοντος ἐμεῖο , ἤν περ καὶ διὰ δῶμα ποδῶν ἕλκωσι θύραζε ἢ βέλεσιν βάλλωσι· σὺ δʼ εἰσορόων ἀνέχεσθαι ὥσπερ γὰρ τοὺς ἵππους οὐκ ἐν τοῖς δρόμοις χαλινοῦσιν + ἀλλὰ πρὸ τῶν δρόμων, οὕτω τοὺς δυσκαθέκτους πρὸς τὰ δεινὰ καὶ θυμοειδεῖς προκαταλαμβάνοντες τοῖς λογισμοῖς καὶ προκαταρτύοντες ἐπὶ τοὺς ἀγῶνας ἄγουσι. δεῖ δὲ μηδὲ τῶν ὀνομάτων + ἀμελῶς ἀκούειν, ἀλλὰ τὴν μὲν Κλεάνθους παιδιὰν + παραιτεῖσθαι· κατειρωνεύεται γὰρ ἔστιν ὅτε προσποιούμενος ἐξηγεῖσθαι τὸ Ζεῦ πάτερ Ἴδηθεν μεδέων Homer. Γ 320 καὶ τὸ Ζεῦ ἄνα Δωδωναῖε id. Π 233 + κελεύων ἀναγιγνώσκειν ὑφʼ ἕν, ὡς τὸν ἐκ τῆς γῆς ἀναθυμιώμενον ἀέρα διὰ τὴν ἀνάδοσιν ἀναδωδωναῖον ὄντα. καὶ Χρύσιππος δὲ πολλαχοῦ γλίσχρος ἐστίν, οὐ παίζων ἀλλʼ εὑρησιλογῶν ἀπιθάνως, καὶ παραβιαζόμενος εὐρύοπα Κρονίδην εἶναι τὸν δεινὸν + ἐν τῷ διαλέγεσθαι καὶ διαβεβηκότα τῇ δυνάμει τοῦ λόγου. βέλτιον δὲ ταῦτα τοῖς γραμματικοῖς παρέντας + ἐκεῖνα μᾶλλον πιέζειν οἷς ἅμα τὸ χρήσιμον καὶ πιθανὸν ἔνεστιν ἔνεστιν H: ἐστιν οὐδέ με θυμὸς ἄνωγεν, ἐπεὶ μάθον ἔμμεναι Homer. Z 444 + ἐσθλὸς καὶ πᾶσιν γὰρ ἐπίστατο μείλιχος εἶναι id. P 671 τήν τε γὰρ ἀνδρείαν ἀποφαίνων μάθημα καὶ τὸ προσφιλῶς ἅμα καὶ κεχαρισμένως ἀνθρώποις ὁμιλεῖν ἀπʼ ἐπιστήμης καὶ κατὰ λόγον γίγνεσθαι νομίζων προτρέπει μὴ ἀμελεῖν ἑαυτῶν, ἀλλὰ μανθάνειν τὰ + καλὰ καὶ προσέχειν τοῖς διδάσκουσιν, ὡς καὶ τὴν σκαιότητα καὶ τὴν δειλίαν ἀμαθίαν καὶ ἄγνοιαν οὖσαν. σφόδρα δὲ τούτοις κἀκεῖνα σύμφωνά ἐστιν ἃ λέγει περὶ τοῦ Διὸς καὶ τοῦ Ποσειδῶνος + ἦ μὰν ἀμφοτέροισιν ὁμὸν γένος ἠδʼ ἴα πάτρη, Homer. N 354 + ἀλλὰ Ζεὺς πρότερος; γεγόνει καὶ πλείονα ᾔδηʼ θειότατον γὰρ ἀποφαίνει τὴν φρόνησιν καὶ βασιλικώτατον, ἐν ᾗ τίθεται τὴν μεγίστην ὑπεροχὴν τοῦ Διός, ἅτε δὴ καὶ τὰς ἄλλας ἀρετὰς ἕπεσθαι ταύτῃ νομίζων. ἐθιστέον δʼ ἅμα καὶ τούτων ἐγρηγορότως + τὸν νέον ἀκούειν ψεῦδος δʼ οὐκ ἐρέει· μάλα γὰρ πεπνυμένος ἐστὶ id. γ 20. 328 καί Ἀντίλοχε, πρόσθεν πεπνυμένε, ποῖον ἔρεξας; id. Ψ 570 ᾔσχυνας μὲν ἐμὴν ἀρετήν, βλάψας δέ μοι ἵππους + καὶ + Γλαῦκε, τίη δὲ σὺ τοῖος ἐὼν ὑπέροπλον ἔειπας; id. P 170 ὦ πέπον, ἦ τʼ ἐφάμην σε περὶ φρένας ἔμμεναι ἄλλων , ὡς οὔτε ψευδομένων τῶν φρονίμων οὔτε κακομαχούντων + ἐν τοῖς· ἀγῶσιν οὔτε παρʼ ἀξίαν ἑτέροις ἐγκαλούντων. καὶ τὸν Πάνδαρον δὲ πεισθῆναι λέγων διὰ τὴν ἀφροσύνην τὰ ὅρκια συγχέαι δῆλὸς ἐστιν οὐκ ἂν ἀδικῆσαι τὸν φρόνιμον ἡγούμενος ὅμοια δʼ ἔστι καὶ περὶ σωφροσύνης ὑποδεικνύειν ἐφιστάντα τοῖς οὕτω λεγομένοις οιαὶ τῷ δὲ γονὴ Προίτου ἐπεμήνατο, δῖʼ Ἄντεια, Homer. Z 160 + κρυπταδίῃ φιλότητι μιγήμεναι· ἀλλὰ τὸν οὔ τι + πεῖθʼ ἀγαθὰ φρονέοντα, δαΐφρονα Βελλεροφόντην ἡ δʼ ἤτοι τὸ πρὶν μὲν ἀναίνετο ἔργον ἀεικές, id. γ 265 δῖα Κλυταιμνήστρη· φρεσὶ γὰρ κέχρητʼ ἀγαθῇσιν + ἐν μὲν οὖν τούτοις τῇ φρονήσει τὴν τοῦ σωφρονεῖν αἰτίαν ἀποδίδωσιν, ἐν δὲ ταῖς παρὰ τὰς μάχας κελεύσεσιν ἑκάστοτε λέγων αἰδώς, ὦ Λύκιοι. πόσε φεύγετε; νῦν θοοὶ ἔστε id. Π 422 καὶ id. N 121 + ἀλλʼ ἐν φρεσὶ θέσθε ἕκαστος αἰδῶ καὶ νέμεσιν· δὴ γὰρ μέγα νεῖκος ὄρωρεν + ἀνδρείους ἔοικε ποιεῖν τοὺς σώφρονας διὰ τὸ αἰδεῖσθαι τὰ αἰσχρὰ καὶ τὰς ἡδονὰς δυναμένους ὑπερβαίνειν καὶ τοὺς κινδύνους ὑφίστασθαι. ἀφʼ ὧν + καὶ Τιμόθεος ὁρμηθεὶς οὐ κακῶς ἐν τοῖς Πέρσαις τοὺς Ἕλληνας παρεκάλει σέβεσθʼ αἰδῶ συνεργὸν ἀρετᾶς δοριμάχου Bergk. 3 p. 622 Αἰσχύλος Αἰσχύλος] Sept. 599 δὲ καὶ τὸ πρὸς δόξαν ἔχειν ἀτύφως καὶ μὴ διασοβεῖσθαι μηδʼ ἐπαίρεσθαι τοῖς παρὰ τῶν + πολλῶν ἐπαίνοις ἐν τῷ φρονεῖν τίθεται περὶ τοῦ Ἀμφιαράου γράφων οὐ γὰρ δοκεῖν ἄριστος ἀλλʼ εἶναι θέλει, + βαθεῖαν ἄλοκα διὰ φρενὸς καρπούμενος, ἀφʼ ἧς τὰ κεδνὰ βλαστάνει βουλεύματα τὸ γὰρ ἐφʼ ἑαυτῷ καὶ τῇ διαθέσει τῇ περὶ αὑτὸν + οὔσῃ κρατίστῃ μεγαλοφρονεῖν νοῦν ἔχοντος ἀνδρός ἐστι. πάντων οὖν ἀναγομένων εἰς τὴν φρόνησιν ἀποδείκνυται πᾶν εἶδος ἀρετῆς ἐπιγιγνόμενον ἐκ λόγου ἐκ λόγου Krebsius: ἑκάστου καὶ διδασκαλίας.

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ἡ μὲν οὖν μέλιττα φυσικῶς ἐν τοῖς δριμυτάτοις + ἄνθεσι καὶ ταῖς τραχυτάταις ἀκάνθαις ἐξανευρίσκει + τὸ λειότατον μέλι καὶ χρηστικώτατον, οἱ δὲ παῖδες, ἂν ὀρθῶς ἐντρέφωνται τοῖς ποιήμασιν, καὶ ἀπὸ τῶν φαύλους καὶ ἀτόπους ὑποψίας ἐχόντων ἕλκειν τι χρήσιμον ἁμωσγέπως μαθήσονται καὶ ὠφέλιμον. + αὐτίκα γοῦν ὕποπτός ἐστιν ὁ Ἀγαμέμνων ὡς διὰ δωροδοκίαν ἀφεὶς τῆς στρατείας τὸν τὸν add. H πλούσιον ἐκεῖνον τὸν τὴν Αἴθην χαρισάμενον αὐτῷ δῶρʼ, ἵνα μὴ οἱ ἕποιθʼ ὑπὸ Ἴλιον ἠνεμόεσσαν Homer. Ψ 297 ἀλλʼ αὐτοῦ τέρποιτο μένων· μέγα γάρ οἱ ἔδωκεν + Ζεὺς ἄφενος ῦὁ ὀρθῶς δὲ γʼ ἐποίησεν, ὡς Ἀριστοτέλης φησίν, ἵππον ἀγαθὴν ἀνθρώπου τοιούτου προτιμήσας· οὐδὲ γὰρ κυνὸς ἀντάξιος οὐδʼ ὄνου μὰ Δία δειλὸς ἀνὴρ καὶ ἄναλκις, ὑπὸ πλούτου καὶ μαλακίας διερρυηκώς + + πάλιν αἴσχιστα δοκεῖ τὸν υἱὸν ἡ Θέτις ἐφʼ ἡδονὰς παρακαλεῖν καὶ ἀναμιμνῄσκειν ἀφροδισίων. ἀλλὰ κἀνταῦθα δεῖ παραθεωρεῖν τὴν τοῦ Ἀχιλλέως ἐγκράτειαν, ὅτι τῆς Βρισηίδος ἐρῶν ἡκούσης πρὸς αὐτόν, εἰδὼς τὴν τοῦ βίου τελευτὴν ἐγγὺς οὖσαν οὐ σπεύδει τῶν ἡδονῶν πρὸς ἀπόλαυσιν οὐδʼ ὥσπερ οἱ πολλοὶ πενθεῖ τὸν φίλον ἀπραξίᾳ καὶ παραλείψει + τῶν καθηκόντων; ἀλλὰ τῶν μὲν ἡδονῶν διὰ τὴν λύπην ἀπέχεται, ταῖς δὲ πράξεσι καὶ ταῖς στρατηγίαις ἐνεργός ἐστι. πάλιν ὁ Ἀρχίλοχος οὐκ ἐπαινεῖται λυπούμενος μὲν ἐπὶ τῷ ἀνδρὶ τῆς ἀδελφῆς + διεφθαρμένῳ κατὰ θάλασσαν, οἴνῳ δὲ καὶ παιδιᾷ + πρὸς τὴν λύπην μάχεσθαι διανοούμενος. αἰτίαν μέντοι λόγον ἔχουσαν εἴρηκεν οὔτε τι γὰρ κλαίων ἰήσομαι οὔτε κάκιον Bergk. 2 p. 387 θήσω τερπωλὰς καὶ θαλίας ἐφέπων εἰ γὰρ ἐκεῖνος οὐδὲν ἐνόμιζεν ποιήσειν κάκιον τερπωλὰς + καὶ θαλίας· ἐφέπων, πῶς ἡμῖν τὰ παρόντα χεῖρον ἕξει φιλοσοφοῦσι καὶ πολιτευομένοις καὶ προιοῦσιν + εἰς ἀγορὰν καὶ καταβαίνουσιν εἰς Ἀκαδήμειαν καὶ γεωργίαν ἐφέπουσιν; ὅθεν οὐδʼ αἱ παραδιορθώσεις φαύλως ἔχουσιν αἷς καὶ Κλεάνθης ἐχρήσατο + καὶ Ἀντισθένης, ὁ μὲν εὖ μάλα τοὺς Ἀθηναίους ἰδὼν θορυβήσαντας ἐν τῷ θεάτρῳ τί δʼ αἰσχρὸν εἰ μὴ τοῖσι χρωμένοις δοκεῖ; Bauck. p. 293 παραβάλλων εὐθὺς αἰσχρὸν τὸ γʼ αἰσχρόν, κἂν δοκῇ κἂν μὴ δοκῇ, + ὁ δὲ Κλεάνθης περὶ τοῦ πλούτου φίλοις τε δοῦναι σῶμὰ τʼ εἰς νόσους πεσὸν Eur. 428 δαπάναισι σῶσαι μεταγράφων οὕτω + πόρναις τε δοῦναι σῶμὰ τʼ εἰς νόσους πεσόν δαπάναις ἐπιτρῖψαι. καὶ ὁ Ζήνων ἐπανορθούμενος τὸ τοῦ Σοφοκλέους + ὅστις δὲ πρὸς τύραννον ἐμπορεύεται, Nauck. p. 253 κείνου στὶ δοῦλος·, κἂν ἐλεύθερος μόλῃ μετέγραφεν οὐκ ἔστι δοῦλος, ἢν ἐλεύθερος μόλῃ, τῷ ἐλευθέρῳ νῦν συνεκφαίνων τὸν ἀδεᾶ καὶ μεγαλόφρονα + καὶ ἀταπείνωτον. τί δὴ κωλύει καὶ ἡμᾶς ταῖς τοιαύταις ὑποφωνήσεσι τοὺς νέους παρακαλεῖν πρὸς τὸ βέλτιον, οὕτω πως χρωμένους τοῖς λεγομένοις; + τόδʼ ἐστὶ τὸ ζηλωτὸν ἀνθρώποις, ὅτῳ id. p. 695 τόξον μερίμνης εἰς ὃ βούλεται πέσῃ. + οὔκ. ἀλλʼ ὅτῳ τόξον μερίμνης εἰς ὃ συμφέρει πέσῃ. τὸ γὰρ· ἃ μὴ δεῖ βουλόμενον λαμβάνειν καὶ τυγχάνειν οἰκτρόν ἐστι καὶ ἄζηλον. καὶ ἄζηλον καὶ] ἄζηλον H + οὐκ ἐπὶ πᾶσὶν ς1ʼ ἐφύτευσʼ ἀγαθοῖς, Eur. Iph. A. 29 Ἀγάμεμνον, Ἀτρεύς δεῖ δέ σε χαίρειν καὶ λυπεῖσθαι μὰ Δία, φήσομεν, ἀλλὰ δεῖ σε χαίρειν, μὴ λυπεῖσθαι τυγχάνοντα μετρίων οὐ γὰρ ἐπὶ πᾶσὶν ς1ʼ ἐφύτευς1ʼ ἀγαθοῖς, Ἀγάμεμνον, Ἀτρεύς. αἰαῖ τόδʼ ἤδη θεῖον ἀνθρώποις κακόν, Nauck. p. 449 + ὅταν τις εἰδῇ τἀγαθόν, χρῆται δὲ μή. θηριῶδες μὲν οὖν καὶ ἄλογον καὶ οἰκτρὸν εἰδότα τὸ βέλτιον ὑπὸ τοῦ χείρονος ἐξ ἀκρασίας καὶ μαλακίας + ἄγεσθαι. τρόπος ἔσθʼ ὁ πείθων τοῦ λέγοντος, οὐ λόγος.ʼ Meinek. IV p. 209 καὶ τρόπος καὶ τρόπος] τρόπος H μὲν οὖν καὶ λόγος ἢ τρόπος διὰ λόγου, καθάπερ ἱππεὺς ἱππεὺς Grotius: ἱππος διὰ χαλινοῦ καὶ διὰ καὶ διὰ H: καὶ πηδαλίου κυβερνήτης, οὐδὲν οὕτω φιλάνθρωπον οὐδὲ συγγενὲς + ἐχούσης τῆς ἀρετῆς ὄργανον ὡς τὸν λόγον. + πρὸς θῆλυ νεύει μᾶλλον ἢ πὶ τἄρρενα; Nauck. p. 288 ὅπου προσῇ τὸ κάλλος, ἀμφιδέξιος. ἦν δὲ βέλτιον εἰπεῖν ὅπου προσῇ τὸ σῶφρον, ἀμφιδέξιος + ὡς ἀληθῶς καὶ ἰσόρροπος· δʼ δʼ ὑφʼ ἡδονῆς καὶ ὥρας ὧδε κἀκεῖ μετοιακιζόμενος ἐπαρίστερος καὶ ἀβέβαιος. + φόβος τὰ θεῖα τοῖσι σώφροσιν βροτῶν. id. p. 695 καὶ μὴν οὐδαμῶς, ἀλλὰ θάρσος τὰ θεῖα τοῖσι σώφροσιν βροτῶν. φόβος δὲ τοῖς ἄφροσι καὶ ἀνοήτοις καὶ ἀχαρίστοις + ὅτι καὶ τὴν παντὸς αἰτίαν ἀγαθοῦ δύναμιν καὶ ἀρχὴν ὡς βλάπτουσαν ὑφορῶνται καὶ δεδίασι τὸ μὲν οὖν τῆς ἐπανορθώσεως γένος τοιοῦτόν ἐστι.

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τὴν δʼ ἐπὶ πλέον τῶν λεγομένων χρῆσιν ὑπέδειξεν ὀρθῶς ὁ Χρύσιππος, ὅτι δεῖ μετάγειν διαβιβάζειν ἐπὶ τὰ ὁμοειδῆ τὸ χρήσιμον. ὅ τε γὰρ Ἡσίοδος εἰπὼν οὐδʼ ἂν βοῦς ἀπόλοιτʼ, εἰ μὴ γείτων κακὸς εἴη OD 348 καὶ περὶ κυνὸς ταὐτὸ καὶ περὶ ὄνου λέγει καὶ περὶ + πάντων ὁμοίως τῶν ἀπολέσθαι δυναμένων. καὶ πάλιν τοῦ Εὐριπίδου λέγοντος τίς δʼ ἐστὶ δοῦλος τοῦ θανεῖν ἄφροντις ὤν; Nauck. p. 523 + ὑπακουστέον ὅτι καὶ περὶ πόνου καὶ νόσου ταὐτὰ ταυτὰ] ταυτὸν H εἴρηκεν. ὡς γὰρ φαρμάκου πρὸς ἓν ἁρμόσαντος + νόσημα τὴν δύναμιν καταμαθόντες οἱ ἰατροὶ μετάγουσι καὶ χρῶνται πρὸς ἅπαν τὸ παραπλήσιον, οὕτω καὶ λόγον κοινοῦν καὶ δημοσιεύειν τὴν χρείαν δυνάμενον οὐ χρὴ περιορᾶν ἑνὶ πράγματι συνηρτημένον ἀλλὰ κινεῖν ἐπὶ πάντα τὰ ὅμοια, καὶ τοὺς νέους + ἐθίζειν τὴν κοινότητα συνορᾶν καὶ μεταφέρειν ὀξέως τὸ οἰκεῖον, ἐν πολλοῖς παραδείγμασι ποιουμένους μελέτην καὶ ἄσκησιν ὀξυηκοΐας, ἵνα τοῦ Μενάνδρου λέγοντος μακάριος ὅστις οὐσίαν καὶ νοῦν ἔχει Meinek. IV p. 103 + τοῦτο καὶ περὶ δόξης καὶ περὶ ἡγεμονίας καὶ περὶ + λόγου δυνάμεως εἰρῆσθαι νομίζωσι, τὴν δὲ πρὸς τὸν Ἀχιλλέα τὸν ἐν Σκύρῳ καθήμενον ἐν ταῖς παρθένοις γεγενημένην ἐπίπληξιν ὑπὸ τοῦ Ὀδυσσέως σὺ δʼ, ὦ τὸ λαμπρὸν φῶς ἀποσβεννὺς γένους, Nauck. p. 653 + ξαίνεις, ἀρίστου πατρὸς Ἑλλήνων γεγώς; καὶ πρὸς τὸν ἄσωτον οἴωνται οἴωνται H: οἴονται λέγεσθαι καὶ πρὸς τὸν αἰσχροκερδῆ καὶ πρὸς τὸν ἀμελῆ καὶ ἀπαίδευτον πίνεις, ἀρίστου πατρὸς Ἑλλήνων γεγώς, ἢ κυβεύεις ἢ ὀρτυγοκοπεῖς ἢ καπηλεύεις ἢ τοκογλυφεῖς, μηδὲν μέγα φρονῶν μηδʼ ἄξιον τῆς εὐγενείας; μὴ πλοῦτον εἴπῃς. οὐχὶ θαυμάζω θεόν Nauck. p. 294 + + ὃν χὠ χὠ nescio quis: καὶ ὁ κάκιστος ῥᾳδίως ἐκτήσατο. οὐκοῦν μηδὲ δόξαν εἴπῃς μηδὲ σώματος εὐμορφίαν μηδὲ στρατηγικὴν χλαμύδα μηδʼ ἱερατικὸν στέφανον, ὧν καὶ τοὺς κακίστους ὁρῶμεν τυγχάνοντας. τῆς δειλίας γὰρ αἰσχρὰ γίγνεται τέκνα Nauck. p. 695 + καὶ ναὶ μὰ Δία τῆς ἀκολασίας καὶ τῆς δεισιδαιμονίας καὶ τοῦ φθόνου καὶ τῶν ἄλλων νοσημάτων ἁπάντων. ἄριστα δʼ εἰρηκότος Ὁμήρου τὸ Δύσπαρι εἶδος ἄριστε Homer. Γ 39 καὶ τὸ + + Ἕκτορ εἶδος ἄριστε id. P 142 ψόγου γὰρ ἀποφαίνει καὶ λοιδορίας ἄξιον ᾧ μηδέν ἐστιν ἀγαθὸν εὐμορφίας κάλλιον ἐφαρμοστέον τοῦτο καὶ τοῖς ὁμοίοις, κολούοντα τοὺς μεγαλοφρονοῦντας ἐπὶ τοῖς μηδενὸς ἀξίοις, καὶ διδάσκοντα τοὺς + νέους ὄνειδος ἡγεῖσθαι καὶ λοιδορίαν τὸ “χρήμασιν ἄριστε” καὶ “δείπνοις ἄριστε” καὶ “παισὶν ἢ ὑποζυγίοις ἄριστε” καὶ νὴ Δία τὸ λέγειν ἐφεξῆς “ἄριστε +” δεῖ γὰρ ἐκ τῶν καλῶν διώκειν τὴν ὑπεροχὴν καὶ περὶ τὰ πρῶτα πρῶτον εἶναι καὶ μέγαν ἐν τοῖς + μεγίστοις· ἡ δʼ ἀπὸ μικρῶν δόξα καὶ φαύλων ἄδοξός ἐστι καὶ ἀφιλότιμος. τοῦτο δʼ ἡμᾶς εὐθὺς ὑπομιμνῄσκει τὸ παράδειγμα τὸ τοὺς τοῦ τοὺς H ψόγους ἀποθεωρεῖν καὶ τοὺς ἐπαίνους ἐν τοῖς Ὁμήρου μάλιστα ποιήμασιν· ἔμφασις γὰρ γίγνεται μεγάλη τοῦ τὰ σωματικὰ καὶ τυχηρὰ μὴ μεγάλης ἄξια σπουδῆς· νομίζειν. πρῶτον μὲν γὰρ ἐν ταῖς δεξιώσεσι καὶ ἀνακλήσεσιν + οὐ καλοὺς οὐδὲ πλουσίους οὐδʼ ἰσχυροὺς προσαγορεύουσιν, ἀλλὰ τοιαύταις εὐφημίαις χρῶνται + διογενὲς Λαερτιάδη, πολυμήχανʼ Ὀδυσσεῦ Homer. B 173 + καὶ Ἕκτορ υἱὲ Πριάμοιο, Διὶ μῆτιν ἀτάλαντε id. H 47 πο καὶ ὦ Ἀχιλεῦ Πηλέος υἱέ, μέγα κῦδος Ἀχαιῶν id. T 216 καὶ δῖε Μενοιτιάδη, τῷ ἐμῷ κεχαρισμένε θυμῷ id. Λ 608 ἔπειτα λοιδοροῦσιν οὐδὲν ἐφαπτόμενοι τῶν σωματικῶν, + ἀλλὰ τοῖς ἁμαρτήμασι τοὺς ψόγους ἐπιφέροντες οἰνοβαρές, κυνὸς ὄμματʼ ἔχων, κραδίην δʼ ἐλάφοιο id. A 225 καί + αἶαν νεῖκος ἄριστε, κακοφραδές id. Ψ 483 + καὶ Ἰδομενεῦ, τί πάρος λαβρεύεαι; οὐδὲ τί σε χρὴ λαβραγόρην id. Ψ 474 ἔμεναι καὶ αἶαν ἁμαρτοεπὲς βουγάιε id. N 824 + καὶ τέλος ὁ Θερσίτης ὑπὸ τοῦ Ὀδυσσέως οὐ χωλὸς οὐ φαλακρὸς οὐ κυρτὸς ἀλλʼ ἀκριτόμυθος λοιδορεῖται, τὸν δʼ Ἥφαιστον ἡ τεκοῦσα φιλοφρονουμένη προσηγόρευσεν ἀπὸ τῆς χωλότητος ὄρσεο κυλλοπόδιον, ἐμὸν τέκος Homer Φ 331 οὕτως Ὅμηρος καταγελᾷ τῶν αἰσχυνομένων ἐπὶ χωλότησιν + ἢ τυφλότησιν, οὔτε ψεκτὸν ἡγούμενος τὸ μὴ αἰσχρὸν οὔτʼ αἰσχρὸν τὸ μὴ διʼ ἡμᾶς ἀλλʼ ἀπὸ + τύχης γιγνόμενον. δύο δὴ περιγίγνεται μεγάλα τοῖς ποιημάτων ἐπιμελῶς ἐθιζομένοις ἀκούειν, τὸ μὲν εἰς μετριότητα, μηδενὶ τύχην ἐπαχθῶς καὶ + ἀνοήτως ὀνειδίζειν, τὸ δʼ εἰς μεγαλοφροσύνην, αὐτοὺς χρησαμένους τύχαις μὴ ταπεινοῦσθαι μηδὲ ταράττεσθαι, φέρειν δὲ πράως καὶ σκώμματα καὶ λοιδορίας καὶ γέλωτας, μάλιστα μὲν τὸ τοῦ Φιλήμονος ἔχοντας πρόχειρον + ἣδιον οὐδὲν οὐδὲ μουσικώτερον Meinek. IV p. 9 ἔστʼ ἢ δύνασθαι λοιδορούμενον φέρειν ἂν δὲ φαίνηταί τις ἐπιλήψεως δεόμενος, τῶν ἁμαρτημάτων καὶ τῶν παθῶν ἐπιλαμβάνεσθαι , ὥσπερ ὁ τραγικὸς Ἄδραστος, τοῦ Ἀλκμέωνος εἰπόντος πρὸς + αὐτὸν + ἀνδροκτόνου γυναικὸς; ὁμογενὴς ἔφυς, 23 Nauck. p. 695 ἀπεκρίνατο σὺ δʼ αὐτόχειρ γε μητρὸς ἥ ς1ʼ ἐγείνατο καθάπερ γὰρ οἱ τὰ ἱμάτια μαστιγοῦντες οὐχ ἅπτονται + τοῦ σώματος, οὕτως οἱ δυστυχίας τινὰς ἢ δυσγενείας ὀνειδίζοντες εἰς τὰ ἐκτὸς ἐντείνονται κενῶς καὶ ἀνοήτως, τῆς ψυχῆς δʼ οὐ θιγγάνουσιν οὐδὲ τῶν ἀληθῶς ἐπανορθώσεως δεομένων καὶ δήξεως.

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καὶ μὴν ὥσπερ ἐπάνω πρὸς τὰ φαῦλα καὶ + βλαβερὰ ποιήματα λόγους καὶ γνώμας· ἀντιτάσσοντες + ἐνδόξων καὶ πολιτικῶν ἀνδρῶν ἐδοκοῦμεν ἀφιστάναι καὶ ἀνακρούειν τὴν πίστιν, οὕτως ὅ τι ἂν ἀστεῖον εὕρωμεν παρʼ αὐτοῖς καὶ χρηστόν, ἐκτρέφειν χρὴ καὶ αὔξειν ἀποδείξεσι καὶ μαρτυρίαις φιλοσόφοις, ἀποδιδόντας τὴν εὕρεσιν ἐκείνοις, καὶ γὰρ δίκαιον καὶ ὠφέλιμον, ἰσχὺν τῆς πίστεως καὶ ἀξίωμα προσλαμβανούσης, ὅταν τοῖς ἀπὸ σκηνῆς λεγομένοις καὶ + πρὸς λύραν ᾀδομένοις καὶ μελετωμένοις ἐν διδασκαλείῳ τὰ Πυθαγόρου δόγματα καὶ τὰ Πλάτωνος ὁμολογῇ, καὶ τὰ Χίλωνος παραγγέλματα καὶ τὰ +Βίαντος ἐπὶ τὰς αὐτὰς ἄγῃ γνώμας ἐκείνοις τοῖς παιδικοῖς ἀναγνώσμασιν. ὅθεν οὐ παρέργως ὑποδεικτέον + ὅτι τὸ μὲν οὔ τοι, τέκνον ἐμόν, οὔ τοι τέκνον ἐμὸν Homerus E 428: τέκνον ἐμὸν οὔ τοι δέδοται πολεμήια ἔργα, ἀλλὰ σὺ γʼ ἱμερόεντα μετέρχεο ἔργα γάμοιο καὶ τὸ Ζεὺς γάρ τοι νεμεσᾷ, ὅτʼ ἀμείνονι φωτὶ μάχοιο + οὐδὲν διαφέρει τοῦ “γνῶθι σαυτόν,” ἀλλὰ τὴν αὐτὴν ἔχει διάνοιαν ἐκείνῳ· τὸ δὲ νήπιοι, οὐδʼ ἴσασιν ὅσῳ πλέον ἥμισυ παντὸς Hesiod. OD 40 καὶ τὸ ἡ δὲ κακὴ βουλὴ τῷ βουλεύσαντι κακίστη id. 265 + + ταὐτόν ἐστι τοῖς Πλάτωνος ἐν Γοργίᾳ Γοργίᾳ] p. 473 a καὶ Πολιτείᾳ δόγμασι περὶ τοῦ “τὸ ἀδικεῖν κάκιον εἶναι τοῦ ἀδικεῖσθαιʼ ” καὶ τοῦ κακῶς πάσχειν τὸ ποιεῖν κακῶς βλαβερώτερον. ἐπιρρητέον δὲ καὶ τῷ τοῦ Αἰσχύλου θάρσει· πόνου γὰρ ἄκρον οὐκ ἔχει χρόνον Nauck. p. 83 ὅτι τοῦτʼ ἐστὶ τὸ παρʼ Ἐπικούρου θρυλούμενον ἀεὶ + καὶ θαυμαζόμενον, ὡς “οἱ μεγάλοι πόνοι συντόμως ἐξάγουσιν, οἱ δὲ χρόνιοι μέγεθος οὐκ ἔχουσιν” ὧν τὸ μὲν εἴρηκεν ὁ Αἰσχύλος ἐναργῶς, τὸ δὲ τῷ εἰρημένῳ παρακείμενόν ἐστιν· εἰ γὰρ ὁ μέγας καὶ σύντονος οὐ παραμένει πόνος, οὐκ ἔστι μέγας ὁ + παραμένων οὐδὲ δυσκαρτέρητος. τὰ δὲ τοῦ Θέσπιδος ταυτὶ ὁρᾷς ὅτι Ζεὺς τῷδε πρωτεύει θεῶν, id. p. 647 + οὐ ψεῦδος οὐδὲ κόμπον οὐ μῶρον γέλων ἀσκῶν τὸ δʼ ἡδὺ μοῦνος οὐκ ἐπίσταται + τί διαφέρει τοῦ “πόρρω γὰρ ἡδονῆς καὶ λύπης ἵδρυται τὸ θεῖον,” ὡς Πλάτων Πλάτων] Epist. III p. 315 c ἔλεγε. τὸ δὲ ʽφ̔άσωμεν Bergk. 3 p. 580 πιστὸν κῦδος ἔχειν ἀρετάν· πλοῦτος δὲ καὶ δειλοῖσιν ἀνθρώπων ὁμιλεῖ + λεγόμενον ὑπὸ τοῦ Βακχυλίδου καὶ πάλιν ὑπὸ τοῦ Εὐριπίδου παραπλησίως καὶ τό ἐγὼ δʼ Nauck. p. 523 οὐδὲν πρεσβύτερον νομίζω τᾶς σωφροσύνας, ἐπεὶ + τοῖς ἀγαθοῖς ἀεὶ ξύνεστι ʽτ̔ιμᾶν τὰν τέτασθε, πλούτῳ δʼ ἀρετὰν κατεργάσεσθαι Nauck. p. 523 δοκεῖτʼ , ἐν ἐσθλοῖς δὲ καθήσεσθʼ ἄνολβοι + ἆρʼ οὐκ ἀπόδειξίς ἐστιν ὧν οἱ φιλόσοφοι λέγουσι περὶ πλούτου καὶ τῶν ἐκτὸς ἀγαθῶν, ὡς χωρὶς ἀρετῆς + ἀνωφελῶν ὄντων καὶ ἀνονήτων τοῖς ἔχουσι; τὸ γὰρ οὕτω συνάπτειν καὶ συνοικειοῦν τοῖς δόγμασιν ἐξάγει τὰ ποιήματα τοῦ μύθου καὶ τοῦ προσωπείου, καὶ σπουδὴν περιτίθησιν αὐτοῖς χρησίμως λεγομένοις· ἔτι δὲ προανοίγει· καὶ προκινεῖ τὴν τοῦ νέου ψυχὴν + τοῖς ἐν φιλοσοφίᾳ λόγοις. ἔρχεται γὰρ οὐκ + ἄγευστος αὐτῶν παντάπασιν οὐδʼ ἀνήκοος, οὐδʼ ἀκρίτως ἀνάπλεως ὧν ἤκουε τῆς μητρὸς ἀεὶ καὶ τίτθης καὶ νὴ Δία τοῦ πατρὸς καὶ τοῦ παιδαγωγοῦ, τοὺς πλουσίους εὐδαιμονιζόντων καὶ σεβομένων, φριττόντων + δὲ τὸν θάνατον καὶ τὸν πόνον, ἄζηλον δὲ τὴν ἀρετὴν καὶ τὸ μηδὲν ἄνευ χρημάτων καὶ δόξης ἀγόντων. οἷς ἀντίφωνα τὰ τῶν φιλοσόφων ἀκούοντας αὐτοὺς τὸ πρῶτον ἔκπληξις ἴσχει καὶ ταραχὴ καὶ θάμβος, οὐ προσιεμένους οὐδʼ ὑπομένοντας, ἂν + μὴ καθάπερ ἐκ σκότους πολλοῦ μέλλοντες ἥλιον ὁρᾶν ἐθισθῶσιν οἷον ἐν νόθῳ φωτὶ κεκραμένης μύθοις ἀληθείας αὐγὴν ἔχοντι μαλακὴν ἀλύπως διαβλέπειν τὰ τοιαῦτα καὶ μὴ φεύγειν. προακηκοότες γὰρ ἐν τοῖς ποιήμασι καὶ προανεγνωκότες + + τὸν φύντα θρηνεῖν εἰς ὅς1ʼ ἔρχεται κακά, id. p. 395 τὸν δʼ αὖ θανόντα καὶ πόνων πεπαυμένον χαίροντας εὐφημοῦντας ἐκπέμπειν δόμων καὶ ἐπεὶ τί δεῖ βροτοῖσι πλὴν δυεῖν μόνον Nauck. p. 507 Δήμητρος ἀκτῆς πώματὸς θʼ ὑδρηχόου; καὶ ἰὼ τυραννὶ βαρβάρων ἀνδρῶν φίλη id. p. 696 + + καὶ ἡ βροτῶν τʼ εὐπραξία τῶν τἀλάχιστα γίγνεται λυπουμένων ἧττον ταράττονται καὶ δυσκολαίνουσι παρὰ τοῖς φιλοσόφοις ἀκούοντες ὡς “ὁ θάνατος οὐδὲν πρὸς + ἡμᾶσ” καὶ “ὁ τῆς φύσεως πλοῦτος ὥρισται” καὶ “τὸ εὔδαιμον καὶ μακάριον οὐ χρημάτων πλῆθος οὐδὲ πραγμάτων ὄγκος οὐδʼ ἀρχαί τινες ἔχουσιν οὐδὲ δυνάμεις, ἀλλʼ ἀλυπία καὶ πραότης παθῶν καὶ διάθεσις + ψυχῆς; τὸ κατὰ φύσιν ὁρίζουσα.” Διὸ καὶ τούτων + ἕνεκα καὶ τῶν προειρημένων ἁπάντων ἀγαθῆς δεῖ τῷ νέῳ κυβερνήσεως περὶ τὴν ἀνάγνωσιν, ἵνα μὴ προδιαβληθεὶς ἀλλὰ μᾶλλον προπαιδευθεὶς εὐμενὴς καὶ φίλος καὶ οἰκεῖος ὑπὸ ποιητικῆς ἐπὶ φιλοσοφίαν προπέμπηται.