diff --git a/src/base/geometry.cpp b/src/base/geometry.cpp
index b215b4ec..2ef0cd85 100644
--- a/src/base/geometry.cpp
+++ b/src/base/geometry.cpp
@@ -108,7 +108,6 @@ void Geometry::_process_shape(
         InstancedTransform inst_xform{t_node, instance_id};
         if (!is_static) { _dynamic_transforms.emplace_back(inst_xform); }
         auto object_to_world = inst_xform.matrix(init_time);
-        _accel.emplace_back(*mesh.resource, object_to_world, visible);
         auto vertices = shape->mesh().vertices;
         for (auto &v : vertices) {
             _world_max = max(_world_max, make_float3(object_to_world * make_float4(v.position(), 1.f)));
@@ -117,13 +116,22 @@ void Geometry::_process_shape(
 
         // create instance
         auto surface_tag = 0u;
-        auto light_tag = 0u;
-        auto medium_tag = 0u;
         auto properties = mesh.vertex_properties;
         if (surface != nullptr && !surface->is_null()) {
             surface_tag = _pipeline.register_surface(command_buffer, surface);
             properties |= Shape::property_flag_has_surface;
+            if (_pipeline.surfaces().impl(surface_tag)->maybe_non_opaque()) {
+                properties |= Shape::property_flag_maybe_non_opaque;
+                _any_non_opaque = true;
+            }
         }
+
+        // emplace instance here since we need to know the opaque property
+        _accel.emplace_back(*mesh.resource, object_to_world, visible, false);
+                            //(properties & Shape::property_flag_maybe_non_opaque) == 0u);
+
+        auto light_tag = 0u;
+        auto medium_tag = 0u;
         if (light != nullptr && !light->is_null()) {
             light_tag = _pipeline.register_light(command_buffer, light);
             properties |= Shape::property_flag_has_light;
@@ -179,12 +187,88 @@ bool Geometry::update(CommandBuffer &command_buffer, float time) noexcept {
 }
 
 Var<Hit> Geometry::trace_closest(const Var<Ray> &ray) const noexcept {
-    auto hit = _accel->trace_closest(ray);
-    return Var<Hit>{hit.inst, hit.prim, hit.bary};
+    if (!_any_non_opaque) {
+        // happy path
+        auto hit = _accel->intersect(ray, {});
+        return Var<Hit>{hit.inst, hit.prim, hit.bary};
+    }
+    auto rq_hit =
+        _accel->traverse(ray, {})
+            .on_surface_candidate([&](compute::SurfaceCandidate &c) noexcept {
+                auto hit = c.hit();
+                auto bary = make_float3(1.f - hit.bary.x - hit.bary.y, hit.bary);
+                auto it = interaction(hit.inst, hit.prim, bary, -ray->direction());
+                $if(it->shape().maybe_non_opaque() & it->shape().has_surface()) {
+                    PolymorphicCall<Surface::Closure> call;
+                    _pipeline.surfaces().dispatch(it->shape().surface_tag(), [&](auto surface) noexcept {
+                        $if(surface->maybe_non_opaque()) {
+                            // TODO: pass the correct time
+                            surface->closure(call, *it, _pipeline.spectrum()->sample(.5f), -ray->direction(), 1.f, 0.f);
+                        };
+                    });
+                    auto u1 = xxhash32(as<uint3>(ray->origin()));
+                    auto u2 = xxhash32(as<uint3>(ray->direction()));
+                    auto u = xxhash32(make_uint2(u1, u2)) * 0x1p-32f;
+                    call.execute([&](const Surface::Closure *closure) noexcept {
+                        // apply opacity map
+                        auto alpha_skip = def(false);
+                        if (auto o = closure->opacity()) {
+                            auto opacity = saturate(*o);
+                            alpha_skip = u >= opacity;
+                        }
+                        $if(!alpha_skip) {
+                            c.commit();
+                        };
+                    });
+                }
+                $else {
+                    c.commit();
+                };
+            })
+            .trace();
+    return Var<Hit>{rq_hit.inst, rq_hit.prim, rq_hit.bary};
 }
 
 Var<bool> Geometry::trace_any(const Var<Ray> &ray) const noexcept {
-    return _accel->trace_any(ray);
+    if (!_any_non_opaque) {
+        // happy path
+        return _accel->intersect_any(ray, {});
+    }
+    auto rq_hit =
+        _accel->traverse_any(ray, {})
+            .on_surface_candidate([&](compute::SurfaceCandidate &c) noexcept {
+                auto hit = c.hit();
+                auto bary = make_float3(1.f - hit.bary.x - hit.bary.y, hit.bary);
+                auto it = interaction(hit.inst, hit.prim, bary, -ray->direction());
+                $if(it->shape().maybe_non_opaque() & it->shape().has_surface()) {
+                    PolymorphicCall<Surface::Closure> call;
+                    _pipeline.surfaces().dispatch(it->shape().surface_tag(), [&](auto surface) noexcept {
+                        $if(surface->maybe_non_opaque()) {
+                            // TODO: pass the correct time
+                            surface->closure(call, *it, _pipeline.spectrum()->sample(.5f), -ray->direction(), 1.f, 0.f);
+                        };
+                    });
+                    auto u1 = xxhash32(as<uint3>(ray->origin()));
+                    auto u2 = xxhash32(as<uint3>(ray->direction()));
+                    auto u = xxhash32(make_uint2(u1, u2)) * 0x1p-32f;
+                    call.execute([&](const Surface::Closure *closure) noexcept {
+                        // apply opacity map
+                        auto alpha_skip = def(false);
+                        if (auto o = closure->opacity()) {
+                            auto opacity = saturate(*o);
+                            alpha_skip = u >= opacity;
+                        }
+                        $if(!alpha_skip) {
+                            c.commit();
+                        };
+                    });
+                }
+                $else {
+                    c.commit();
+                };
+            })
+            .trace();
+    return !rq_hit->miss();
 }
 
 luisa::shared_ptr<Interaction> Geometry::interaction(Expr<uint> inst_id, Expr<uint> prim_id,
diff --git a/src/base/geometry.h b/src/base/geometry.h
index 352925e6..ea434928 100644
--- a/src/base/geometry.h
+++ b/src/base/geometry.h
@@ -69,8 +69,8 @@ class Geometry {
     Buffer<uint4> _instance_buffer;
     float3 _world_min;
     float3 _world_max;
-
-    uint _triangle_count;   // for debug
+    uint _triangle_count;// for debug
+    bool _any_non_opaque{false};
 
 private:
     void _process_shape(
diff --git a/src/base/pipeline.cpp b/src/base/pipeline.cpp
index 2a32bdaf..e39c764c 100644
--- a/src/base/pipeline.cpp
+++ b/src/base/pipeline.cpp
@@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ luisa::unique_ptr<Pipeline> Pipeline::create(Device &device, Stream &stream, con
 bool Pipeline::update(CommandBuffer &command_buffer, float time) noexcept {
     // TODO: support deformable meshes
     auto updated = _geometry->update(command_buffer, time);
-    if (_any_dynamic_transforms) {
+    if (_any_dynamic_transform) {
         updated = true;
         for (auto i = 0u; i < _transforms.size(); ++i) {
             _transform_matrices[i] = _transforms[i]->matrix(time);
@@ -151,7 +151,7 @@ void Pipeline::register_transform(const Transform *transform) noexcept {
                      "Transform matrix buffer overflows.");
         _transform_to_id.emplace(transform, transform_id);
         _transforms.emplace_back(transform);
-        _any_dynamic_transforms |= !transform->is_static();
+        _any_dynamic_transform |= !transform->is_static();
         _transform_matrices[transform_id] = transform->matrix(_initial_time);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/base/pipeline.h b/src/base/pipeline.h
index fd8d4bdc..c1459b3c 100644
--- a/src/base/pipeline.h
+++ b/src/base/pipeline.h
@@ -96,7 +96,8 @@ class Pipeline {
     // other things
     luisa::unique_ptr<Printer> _printer;
     float _initial_time{};
-    bool _any_dynamic_transforms{false};
+    bool _any_dynamic_transform{false};
+    bool _any_non_opaque_surface{false};
 
 public:
     // for internal use only; use Pipeline::create() instead
@@ -207,6 +208,7 @@ class Pipeline {
     [[nodiscard]] auto spectrum() const noexcept { return _spectrum.get(); }
     [[nodiscard]] auto geometry() const noexcept { return _geometry.get(); }
     [[nodiscard]] auto has_lighting() const noexcept { return !_lights.empty() || _environment != nullptr; }
+    [[nodiscard]] auto has_non_opaque_surfaces() const noexcept { return _any_non_opaque_surface; }
     [[nodiscard]] const Texture::Instance *build_texture(CommandBuffer &command_buffer, const Texture *texture) noexcept;
     [[nodiscard]] const Filter::Instance *build_filter(CommandBuffer &command_buffer, const Filter *filter) noexcept;
     [[nodiscard]] const PhaseFunction::Instance *build_phasefunction(CommandBuffer &command_buffer, const PhaseFunction *phasefunction) noexcept;
diff --git a/src/base/shape.h b/src/base/shape.h
index 9454c954..80ec473a 100644
--- a/src/base/shape.h
+++ b/src/base/shape.h
@@ -36,6 +36,7 @@ class Shape : public SceneNode {
     static constexpr auto property_flag_has_surface = 1u << 2u;
     static constexpr auto property_flag_has_light = 1u << 3u;
     static constexpr auto property_flag_has_medium = 1u << 4u;
+    static constexpr auto property_flag_maybe_non_opaque = 1u << 5u;
 
 private:
     const Surface *_surface;
@@ -153,7 +154,8 @@ class Shape::Handle {
 private:
     Handle(Expr<uint> buffer_base, Expr<uint> flags,
            Expr<uint> surface_tag, Expr<uint> light_tag, Expr<uint> medium_tag,
-           Expr<uint> triangle_count, Expr<float> shadow_terminator, Expr<float> intersection_offset) noexcept
+           Expr<uint> triangle_count,
+           Expr<float> shadow_terminator, Expr<float> intersection_offset) noexcept
         : _buffer_base{buffer_base}, _properties{flags},
           _surface_tag{surface_tag}, _light_tag{light_tag}, _medium_tag{medium_tag},
           _triangle_count{triangle_count},
@@ -184,6 +186,7 @@ class Shape::Handle {
     [[nodiscard]] auto has_light() const noexcept { return test_property_flag(luisa::render::Shape::property_flag_has_light); }
     [[nodiscard]] auto has_surface() const noexcept { return test_property_flag(luisa::render::Shape::property_flag_has_surface); }
     [[nodiscard]] auto has_medium() const noexcept { return test_property_flag(luisa::render::Shape::property_flag_has_medium); }
+    [[nodiscard]] auto maybe_non_opaque() const noexcept { return test_property_flag(luisa::render::Shape::property_flag_maybe_non_opaque); }
     [[nodiscard]] auto shadow_terminator_factor() const noexcept { return _shadow_terminator; }
     [[nodiscard]] auto intersection_offset_factor() const noexcept { return _intersection_offset; }
 };
diff --git a/src/base/surface.h b/src/base/surface.h
index df49f913..7922fa71 100644
--- a/src/base/surface.h
+++ b/src/base/surface.h
@@ -128,6 +128,8 @@ class Surface : public SceneNode {
         [[nodiscard]] auto node() const noexcept { return static_cast<const T *>(_surface); }
         [[nodiscard]] auto &pipeline() const noexcept { return _pipeline; }
 
+        [[nodiscard]] virtual bool maybe_non_opaque() const noexcept { return false; }
+
         void closure(PolymorphicCall<Closure> &call,
                      const Interaction &it, const SampledWavelengths &swl,
                      Expr<float3> wo, Expr<float> eta_i, Expr<float> time) const noexcept;
@@ -252,6 +254,12 @@ class OpacitySurfaceWrapper : public BaseSurface {
             typename Closure::Context ctx{.opacity = o};
             closure->bind(std::move(ctx));
         }
+
+        [[nodiscard]] bool maybe_non_opaque() const noexcept override {
+            if (BaseInstance::maybe_non_opaque()) { return true; }
+            return _opacity != nullptr &&
+                   _opacity->node()->evaluate_static().value_or(make_float4(0.f)).x < 1.f;
+        }
     };
 
 private:
diff --git a/src/integrators/mega_path.cpp b/src/integrators/mega_path.cpp
index 5af11355..18b4d98d 100644
--- a/src/integrators/mega_path.cpp
+++ b/src/integrators/mega_path.cpp
@@ -117,42 +117,28 @@ class MegakernelPathTracingInstance final : public ProgressiveIntegrator::Instan
                     surface->closure(call, *it, swl, wo, 1.f, time);
                 });
                 call.execute([&](const Surface::Closure *closure) noexcept {
-                    // apply opacity map
-                    auto alpha_skip = def(false);
-                    if (auto o = closure->opacity()) {
-                        auto opacity = saturate(*o);
-                        alpha_skip = u_lobe >= opacity;
-                        u_lobe = ite(alpha_skip, (u_lobe - opacity) / (1.f - opacity), u_lobe / opacity);
+                    if (auto dispersive = closure->is_dispersive()) {
+                        $if(*dispersive) { swl.terminate_secondary(); };
                     }
-
-                    $if(alpha_skip) {
-                        ray = it->spawn_ray(ray->direction());
-                        pdf_bsdf = 1e16f;
-                    }
-                    $else {
-                        if (auto dispersive = closure->is_dispersive()) {
-                            $if(*dispersive) { swl.terminate_secondary(); };
-                        }
-                        // direct lighting
-                        $if(light_sample.eval.pdf > 0.0f & !occluded) {
-                            auto wi = light_sample.shadow_ray->direction();
-                            auto eval = closure->evaluate(wo, wi);
-                            auto w = balance_heuristic(light_sample.eval.pdf, eval.pdf) /
-                                     light_sample.eval.pdf;
-                            Li += w * beta * eval.f * light_sample.eval.L;
-                        };
-                        // sample material
-                        auto surface_sample = closure->sample(wo, u_lobe, u_bsdf);
-                        ray = it->spawn_ray(surface_sample.wi);
-                        pdf_bsdf = surface_sample.eval.pdf;
-                        auto w = ite(surface_sample.eval.pdf > 0.f, 1.f / surface_sample.eval.pdf, 0.f);
-                        beta *= w * surface_sample.eval.f;
-                        // apply eta scale
-                        auto eta = closure->eta().value_or(1.f);
-                        $switch(surface_sample.event) {
-                            $case(Surface::event_enter) { eta_scale = sqr(eta); };
-                            $case(Surface::event_exit) { eta_scale = sqr(1.f / eta); };
-                        };
+                    // direct lighting
+                    $if(light_sample.eval.pdf > 0.0f & !occluded) {
+                        auto wi = light_sample.shadow_ray->direction();
+                        auto eval = closure->evaluate(wo, wi);
+                        auto w = balance_heuristic(light_sample.eval.pdf, eval.pdf) /
+                                 light_sample.eval.pdf;
+                        Li += w * beta * eval.f * light_sample.eval.L;
+                    };
+                    // sample material
+                    auto surface_sample = closure->sample(wo, u_lobe, u_bsdf);
+                    ray = it->spawn_ray(surface_sample.wi);
+                    pdf_bsdf = surface_sample.eval.pdf;
+                    auto w = ite(surface_sample.eval.pdf > 0.f, 1.f / surface_sample.eval.pdf, 0.f);
+                    beta *= w * surface_sample.eval.f;
+                    // apply eta scale
+                    auto eta = closure->eta().value_or(1.f);
+                    $switch(surface_sample.event) {
+                        $case(Surface::event_enter) { eta_scale = sqr(eta); };
+                        $case(Surface::event_exit) { eta_scale = sqr(1.f / eta); };
                     };
                 });
             };
diff --git a/src/integrators/wave_path.cpp b/src/integrators/wave_path.cpp
index a363b202..1627177a 100644
--- a/src/integrators/wave_path.cpp
+++ b/src/integrators/wave_path.cpp
@@ -402,49 +402,35 @@ void WavefrontPathTracingInstance::_render_one_camera(
             });
 
             call.execute([&](const Surface::Closure *closure) noexcept {
-                // apply opacity map
-                auto alpha_skip = def(false);
-                if (auto o = closure->opacity()) {
-                    auto opacity = saturate(*o);
-                    alpha_skip = u_lobe >= opacity;
-                    u_lobe = ite(alpha_skip, (u_lobe - opacity) / (1.f - opacity), u_lobe / opacity);
-                }
-
-                $if(alpha_skip) {
-                    ray = it->spawn_ray(ray->direction());
-                    path_states.write_pdf_bsdf(path_id, 1e16f);
-                }
-                $else {
-                    if (auto dispersive = closure->is_dispersive()) {
-                        $if(*dispersive) {
-                            swl.terminate_secondary();
-                            path_states.terminate_secondary_wavelengths(path_id, u_wl);
-                        };
-                    }
-                    // direct lighting
-                    auto light_wi_and_pdf = light_samples.read_wi_and_pdf(queue_id);
-                    auto pdf_light = light_wi_and_pdf.w;
-                    $if(light_wi_and_pdf.w > 0.f) {
-                        auto eval = closure->evaluate(wo, light_wi_and_pdf.xyz());
-                        auto mis_weight = balance_heuristic(pdf_light, eval.pdf);
-                        // update Li
-                        auto Ld = light_samples.read_emission(queue_id);
-                        auto Li = path_states.read_radiance(path_id);
-                        Li += mis_weight / pdf_light * beta * eval.f * Ld;
-                        path_states.write_radiance(path_id, Li);
-                    };
-                    // sample material
-                    auto surface_sample = closure->sample(wo, u_lobe, u_bsdf);
-                    path_states.write_pdf_bsdf(path_id, surface_sample.eval.pdf);
-                    ray = it->spawn_ray(surface_sample.wi);
-                    auto w = ite(surface_sample.eval.pdf > 0.0f, 1.f / surface_sample.eval.pdf, 0.f);
-                    beta *= w * surface_sample.eval.f;
-                    // eta scale
-                    auto eta = closure->eta().value_or(1.f);
-                    $switch(surface_sample.event) {
-                        $case(Surface::event_enter) { eta_scale = sqr(eta); };
-                        $case(Surface::event_exit) { eta_scale = 1.f / sqr(eta); };
+                if (auto dispersive = closure->is_dispersive()) {
+                    $if(*dispersive) {
+                        swl.terminate_secondary();
+                        path_states.terminate_secondary_wavelengths(path_id, u_wl);
                     };
+                }
+                // direct lighting
+                auto light_wi_and_pdf = light_samples.read_wi_and_pdf(queue_id);
+                auto pdf_light = light_wi_and_pdf.w;
+                $if(light_wi_and_pdf.w > 0.f) {
+                    auto eval = closure->evaluate(wo, light_wi_and_pdf.xyz());
+                    auto mis_weight = balance_heuristic(pdf_light, eval.pdf);
+                    // update Li
+                    auto Ld = light_samples.read_emission(queue_id);
+                    auto Li = path_states.read_radiance(path_id);
+                    Li += mis_weight / pdf_light * beta * eval.f * Ld;
+                    path_states.write_radiance(path_id, Li);
+                };
+                // sample material
+                auto surface_sample = closure->sample(wo, u_lobe, u_bsdf);
+                path_states.write_pdf_bsdf(path_id, surface_sample.eval.pdf);
+                ray = it->spawn_ray(surface_sample.wi);
+                auto w = ite(surface_sample.eval.pdf > 0.0f, 1.f / surface_sample.eval.pdf, 0.f);
+                beta *= w * surface_sample.eval.f;
+                // eta scale
+                auto eta = closure->eta().value_or(1.f);
+                $switch(surface_sample.event) {
+                    $case(Surface::event_enter) { eta_scale = sqr(eta); };
+                    $case(Surface::event_exit) { eta_scale = 1.f / sqr(eta); };
                 };
             });
 
diff --git a/src/surfaces/layered.cpp b/src/surfaces/layered.cpp
index 21e64650..177b2212 100644
--- a/src/surfaces/layered.cpp
+++ b/src/surfaces/layered.cpp
@@ -176,6 +176,10 @@ class LayeredSurfaceInstance : public Surface::Instance {
     }
     [[nodiscard]] luisa::unique_ptr<Surface::Closure> create_closure(const SampledWavelengths &swl, Expr<float> time) const noexcept override;
     void populate_closure(Surface::Closure *closure, const Interaction &it, Expr<float3> wo, Expr<float> eta_i) const noexcept override;
+
+    [[nodiscard]] bool maybe_non_opaque() const noexcept override {
+        return _top->maybe_non_opaque() || _bottom->maybe_non_opaque();
+    }
 };
 
 luisa::unique_ptr<Surface::Instance> LayeredSurface::_build(Pipeline &pipeline, CommandBuffer &command_buffer) const noexcept {
diff --git a/src/surfaces/mix.cpp b/src/surfaces/mix.cpp
index 3684d7ba..88566e9e 100644
--- a/src/surfaces/mix.cpp
+++ b/src/surfaces/mix.cpp
@@ -55,6 +55,10 @@ class MixSurfaceInstance : public Surface::Instance {
     }
     [[nodiscard]] luisa::unique_ptr<Surface::Closure> create_closure(const SampledWavelengths &swl, Expr<float> time) const noexcept override;
     void populate_closure(Surface::Closure *closure, const Interaction &it, Expr<float3> wo, Expr<float> eta_i) const noexcept override;
+
+    [[nodiscard]] bool maybe_non_opaque() const noexcept override {
+        return _a->maybe_non_opaque() || _b->maybe_non_opaque();
+    }
 };
 
 luisa::unique_ptr<Surface::Instance> MixSurface::_build(