the-super-tiny-compiler.js

'use strict';

/**
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 * =======================================================================================================================================================================
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 */

/**
 * Today we're going to write a compiler together. But not just any compiler... A
 * super duper teeny tiny compiler! A compiler that is so small that if you
 * remove all the comments this file would only be ~200 lines of actual code.
 *
 * We're going to compile some lisp-like function calls into some C-like
 * function calls.
 *
 * If you are not familiar with one or the other. I'll just give you a quick intro.
 *
 * If we had two functions `add` and `subtract` they would be written like this:
 *
 *                  LISP                      C
 *
 *   2 + 2          (add 2 2)                 add(2, 2)
 *   4 - 2          (subtract 4 2)            subtract(4, 2)
 *   2 + (4 - 2)    (add 2 (subtract 4 2))    add(2, subtract(4, 2))
 *
 * Easy peezy right?
 *
 * Well good, because this is exactly what we are going to compile. While this
 * is neither a complete LISP or C syntax, it will be enough of the syntax to
 * demonstrate many of the major pieces of a modern compiler.
 */

/**
 * Most compilers break down into three primary stages: Parsing, Transformation,
 * and Code Generation
 *
 * 1. *Parsing* is taking raw code and turning it into a more abstract
 *    representation of the code.
 *
 * 2. *Transformation* takes this abstract representation and manipulates to do
 *    whatever the compiler wants it to.
 *
 * 3. *Code Generation* takes the transformed representation of the code and
 *    turns it into new code.
 */

/**
 * Parsing
 * -------
 *
 * Parsing typically gets broken down into two phases: Lexical Analysis and
 * Syntactic Analysis.
 *
 * 1. *Lexical Analysis* takes the raw code and splits it apart into these things
 *    called tokens by a thing called a tokenizer (or lexer).
 *
 *    Tokens are an array of tiny little objects that describe an isolated piece
 *    of the syntax. They could be numbers, labels, punctuation, operators,
 *    whatever.
 *
 * 2. *Syntactic Analysis* takes the tokens and reformats them into a
 *    representation that describes each part of the syntax and their relation
 *    to one another. This is known as an intermediate representation or
 *    Abstract Syntax Tree.
 *
 *    An Abstract Syntax Tree, or AST for short, is a deeply nested object that
 *    represents code in a way that is both easy to work with and tells us a lot
 *    of information.
 *
 * For the following syntax:
 *
 *   (add 2 (subtract 4 2))
 *
 * Tokens might look something like this:
 *
 *   [
 *     { type: 'paren',  value: '('        },
 *     { type: 'name',   value: 'add'      },
 *     { type: 'number', value: '2'        },
 *     { type: 'paren',  value: '('        },
 *     { type: 'name',   value: 'subtract' },
 *     { type: 'number', value: '4'        },
 *     { type: 'number', value: '2'        },
 *     { type: 'paren',  value: ')'        },
 *     { type: 'paren',  value: ')'        },
 *   ]
 *
 * And an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) might look like this:
 *
 *   {
 *     type: 'Program',
 *     body: [{
 *       type: 'CallExpression',
 *       name: 'add',
 *       params: [{
 *         type: 'NumberLiteral',
 *         value: '2',
 *       }, {
 *         type: 'CallExpression',
 *         name: 'subtract',
 *         params: [{
 *           type: 'NumberLiteral',
 *           value: '4',
 *         }, {
 *           type: 'NumberLiteral',
 *           value: '2',
 *         }]
 *       }]
 *     }]
 *   }
 */

/**
 * Transformation
 * --------------
 *
 * The next type of stage for a compiler is transformation. Again, this just
 * takes the AST from the last step and makes changes to it. It can manipulate
 * the AST in the same language or it can translate it into an entirely new
 * language.
 *
 * Let’s look at how we would transform an AST.
 *
 * You might notice that our AST has elements within it that look very similar.
 * There are these objects with a type property. Each of these are known as an
 * AST Node. These nodes have defined properties on them that describe one
 * isolated part of the tree.
 *
 * We can have a node for a "NumberLiteral":
 *
 *   {
 *     type: 'NumberLiteral',
 *     value: '2',
 *   }
 *
 * Or maybe a node for a "CallExpression":
 *
 *   {
 *     type: 'CallExpression',
 *     name: 'subtract',
 *     params: [...nested nodes go here...],
 *   }
 *
 * When transforming the AST we can manipulate nodes by
 * adding/removing/replacing properties, we can add new nodes, remove nodes, or
 * we could leave the existing AST alone and create an entirely new one based
 * on it.
 *
 * Since we’re targeting a new language, we’re going to focus on creating an
 * entirely new AST that is specific to the target language.
 *
 * Traversal
 * ---------
 *
 * In order to navigate through all of these nodes, we need to be able to
 * traverse through them. This traversal process goes to each node in the AST
 * depth-first.
 *
 *   {
 *     type: 'Program',
 *     body: [{
 *       type: 'CallExpression',
 *       name: 'add',
 *       params: [{
 *         type: 'NumberLiteral',
 *         value: '2'
 *       }, {
 *         type: 'CallExpression',
 *         name: 'subtract',
 *         params: [{
 *           type: 'NumberLiteral',
 *           value: '4'
 *         }, {
 *           type: 'NumberLiteral',
 *           value: '2'
 *         }]
 *       }]
 *     }]
 *   }
 *
 * So for the above AST we would go:
 *
 *   1. Program - Starting at the top level of the AST
 *   2. CallExpression (add) - Moving to the first element of the Program's body
 *   3. NumberLiteral (2) - Moving to the first element of CallExpression's params
 *   4. CallExpression (subtract) - Moving to the second element of CallExpression's params
 *   5. NumberLiteral (4) - Moving to the first element of CallExpression's params
 *   6. NumberLiteral (2) - Moving to the second element of CallExpression's params
 *
 * If we were manipulating this AST directly, instead of creating a separate AST,
 * we would likely introduce all sorts of abstractions here. But just visiting
 * each node in the tree is enough for what we're trying to do.
 *
 * The reason I use the word "visiting" is because there is this pattern of how
 * to represent operations on elements of an object structure.
 *
 * Visitors
 * --------
 *
 * The basic idea here is that we are going to create a “visitor” object that
 * has methods that will accept different node types.
 *
 *   var visitor = {
 *     NumberLiteral() {},
 *     CallExpression() {},
 *   };
 *
 * When we traverse our AST, we will call the methods on this visitor whenever we
 * "enter" a node of a matching type.
 *
 * In order to make this useful we will also pass the node and a reference to
 * the parent node.
 *
 *   var visitor = {
 *     NumberLiteral(node, parent) {},
 *     CallExpression(node, parent) {},
 *   };
 *
 * However, there also exists the possibility of calling things on "exit". Imagine
 * our tree structure from before in list form:
 *
 *   - Program
 *     - CallExpression
 *       - NumberLiteral
 *       - CallExpression
 *         - NumberLiteral
 *         - NumberLiteral
 *
 * As we traverse down, we're going to reach branches with dead ends. As we
 * finish each branch of the tree we "exit" it. So going down the tree we
 * "enter" each node, and going back up we "exit".
 *
 *   -> Program (enter)
 *     -> CallExpression (enter)
 *       -> Number Literal (enter)
 *       <- Number Literal (exit)
 *       -> Call Expression (enter)
 *          -> Number Literal (enter)
 *          <- Number Literal (exit)
 *          -> Number Literal (enter)
 *          <- Number Literal (exit)
 *       <- CallExpression (exit)
 *     <- CallExpression (exit)
 *   <- Program (exit)
 *
 * In order to support that, the final form of our visitor will look like this:
 *
 *   var visitor = {
 *     NumberLiteral: {
 *       enter(node, parent) {},
 *       exit(node, parent) {},
 *     }
 *   };
 */

/**
 * Code Generation
 * ---------------
 *
 * The final phase of a compiler is code generation. Sometimes compilers will do
 * things that overlap with transformation, but for the most part code
 * generation just means take our AST and string-ify code back out.
 *
 * Code generators work several different ways, some compilers will reuse the
 * tokens from earlier, others will have created a separate representation of
 * the code so that they can print node linearly, but from what I can tell most
 * will use the same AST we just created, which is what we’re going to focus on.
 *
 * Effectively our code generator will know how to “print” all of the different
 * node types of the AST, and it will recursively call itself to print nested
 * nodes until everything is printed into one long string of code.
 */

/**
 * And that's it! That's all the different pieces of a compiler.
 *
 * Now that isn’t to say every compiler looks exactly like I described here.
 * Compilers serve many different purposes, and they might need more steps than
 * I have detailed.
 *
 * But now you should have a general high-level idea of what most compilers look
 * like.
 *
 * Now that I’ve explained all of this, you’re all good to go write your own
 * compilers right?
 *
 * Just kidding, that's what I'm here to help with :P
 *
 * So let's begin...
 */

/**
 * ============================================================================
 *                                   (/^▽^)/
 *                                THE TOKENIZER!
 * ============================================================================
 */

/**
 * We're gonna start off with our first phase of parsing, lexical analysis, with
 * the tokenizer.
 *
 * We're just going to take our string of code and break it down into an array
 * of tokens.
 *
 *   (add 2 (subtract 4 2))   =>   [{ type: 'paren', value: '(' }, ...]
 */

// We start by accepting an input string of code, and we're gonna set up two
// things...
function tokenizer(input) {

  // A `current` variable for tracking our position in the code like a cursor.
  let current = 0;

  // And a `tokens` array for pushing our tokens to.
  let tokens = [];

  // We start by creating a `while` loop where we are setting up our `current`
  // variable to be incremented as much as we want `inside` the loop.
  //
  // We do this because we may want to increment `current` many times within a
  // single loop because our tokens can be any length.
  while (current < input.length) {

    // We're also going to store the `current` character in the `input`.
    let char = input[current];

    // The first thing we want to check for is an open parenthesis. This will
    // later be used for `CallExpression` but for now we only care about the
    // character.
    //
    // We check to see if we have an open parenthesis:
    if (char === '(') {

      // If we do, we push a new token with the type `paren` and set the value
      // to an open parenthesis.
      tokens.push({
        type: 'paren',
        value: '(',
      });

      // Then we increment `current`
      current++;

      // And we `continue` onto the next cycle of the loop.
      continue;
    }

    // Next we're going to check for a closing parenthesis. We do the same exact
    // thing as before: Check for a closing parenthesis, add a new token,
    // increment `current`, and `continue`.
    if (char === ')') {
      tokens.push({
        type: 'paren',
        value: ')',
      });
      current++;
      continue;
    }

    // Moving on, we're now going to check for whitespace. This is interesting
    // because we care that whitespace exists to separate characters, but it
    // isn't actually important for us to store as a token. We would only throw
    // it out later.
    //
    // So here we're just going to test for existence and if it does exist we're
    // going to just `continue` on.
    let WHITESPACE = /\s/;
    if (WHITESPACE.test(char)) {
      current++;
      continue;
    }

    // The next type of token is a number. This is different than what we have
    // seen before because a number could be any number of characters and we
    // want to capture the entire sequence of characters as one token.
    //
    //   (add 123 456)
    //        ^^^ ^^^
    //        Only two separate tokens
    //
    // So we start this off when we encounter the first number in a sequence.
    let NUMBERS = /[0-9]/;
    if (NUMBERS.test(char)) {

      // We're going to create a `value` string that we are going to push
      // characters to.
      let value = '';

      // Then we're going to loop through each character in the sequence until
      // we encounter a character that is not a number, pushing each character
      // that is a number to our `value` and incrementing `current` as we go.
      while (NUMBERS.test(char)) {
        value += char;
        char = input[++current];
      }

      // After that we push our `number` token to the `tokens` array.
      tokens.push({ type: 'number', value });

      // And we continue on.
      continue;
    }

    // We'll also add support for strings in our language which will be any
    // text surrounded by double quotes (").
    //
    //   (concat "foo" "bar")
    //            ^^^   ^^^ string tokens
    //
    // We'll start by checking for the opening quote:
    if (char === '"') {
      // Keep a `value` variable for building up our string token.
      let value = '';

      // We'll skip the opening double quote in our token.
      char = input[++current];

      // Then we'll iterate through each character until we reach another
      // double quote.
      while (char !== '"') {
        value += char;
        char = input[++current];
      }

      // Skip the closing double quote.
      char = input[++current];

      // And add our `string` token to the `tokens` array.
      tokens.push({ type: 'string', value });

      continue;
    }

    // The last type of token will be a `name` token. This is a sequence of
    // letters instead of numbers, that are the names of functions in our lisp
    // syntax.
    //
    //   (add 2 4)
    //    ^^^
    //    Name token
    //
    let LETTERS = /[a-z]/i;
    if (LETTERS.test(char)) {
      let value = '';

      // Again we're just going to loop through all the letters pushing them to
      // a value.
      while (LETTERS.test(char)) {
        value += char;
        char = input[++current];
      }

      // And pushing that value as a token with the type `name` and continuing.
      tokens.push({ type: 'name', value });

      continue;
    }

    // Finally if we have not matched a character by now, we're going to throw
    // an error and completely exit.
    throw new TypeError('I dont know what this character is: ' + char);
  }

  // Then at the end of our `tokenizer` we simply return the tokens array.
  return tokens;
}

/**
 * ============================================================================
 *                                 ヽ/❀o ل͜ o\ﾉ
 *                                THE PARSER!!!
 * ============================================================================
 */

/**
 * For our parser we're going to take our array of tokens and turn it into an
 * AST.
 *
 *   [{ type: 'paren', value: '(' }, ...]   =>   { type: 'Program', body: [...] }
 */

// Okay, so we define a `parser` function that accepts our array of `tokens`.
function parser(tokens) {

  // Again we keep a `current` variable that we will use as a cursor.
  let current = 0;

  // But this time we're going to use recursion instead of a `while` loop. So we
  // define a `walk` function.
  function walk() {

    // Inside the walk function we start by grabbing the `current` token.
    let token = tokens[current];

    // We're going to split each type of token off into a different code path,
    // starting off with `number` tokens.
    //
    // We test to see if we have a `number` token.
    if (token.type === 'number') {

      // If we have one, we'll increment `current`.
      current++;

      // And we'll return a new AST node called `NumberLiteral` and setting its
      // value to the value of our token.
      return {
        type: 'NumberLiteral',
        value: token.value,
      };
    }

    // If we have a string we will do the same as number and create a
    // `StringLiteral` node.
    if (token.type === 'string') {
      current++;

      return {
        type: 'StringLiteral',
        value: token.value,
      };
    }

    // Next we're going to look for CallExpressions. We start this off when we
    // encounter an open parenthesis.
    if (
      token.type === 'paren' &&
      token.value === '('
    ) {

      // We'll increment `current` to skip the parenthesis since we don't care
      // about it in our AST.
      token = tokens[++current];

      // We create a base node with the type `CallExpression`, and we're going
      // to set the name as the current token's value since the next token after
      // the open parenthesis is the name of the function.
      let node = {
        type: 'CallExpression',
        name: token.value,
        params: [],
      };

      // We increment `current` *again* to skip the name token.
      token = tokens[++current];

      // And now we want to loop through each token that will be the `params` of
      // our `CallExpression` until we encounter a closing parenthesis.
      //
      // Now this is where recursion comes in. Instead of trying to parse a
      // potentially infinitely nested set of nodes we're going to rely on
      // recursion to resolve things.
      //
      // To explain this, let's take our Lisp code. You can see that the
      // parameters of the `add` are a number and a nested `CallExpression` that
      // includes its own numbers.
      //
      //   (add 2 (subtract 4 2))
      //
      // You'll also notice that in our tokens array we have multiple closing
      // parenthesis.
      //
      //   [
      //     { type: 'paren',  value: '('        },
      //     { type: 'name',   value: 'add'      },
      //     { type: 'number', value: '2'        },
      //     { type: 'paren',  value: '('        },
      //     { type: 'name',   value: 'subtract' },
      //     { type: 'number', value: '4'        },
      //     { type: 'number', value: '2'        },
      //     { type: 'paren',  value: ')'        }, <<< Closing parenthesis
      //     { type: 'paren',  value: ')'        }, <<< Closing parenthesis
      //   ]
      //
      // We're going to rely on the nested `walk` function to increment our
      // `current` variable past any nested `CallExpression`.

      // So we create a `while` loop that will continue until it encounters a
      // token with a `type` of `'paren'` and a `value` of a closing
      // parenthesis.
      while (
        (token.type !== 'paren') ||
        (token.type === 'paren' && token.value !== ')')
      ) {
        // we'll call the `walk` function which will return a `node` and we'll
        // push it into our `node.params`.
        node.params.push(walk());
        token = tokens[current];
      }

      // Finally we will increment `current` one last time to skip the closing
      // parenthesis.
      current++;

      // And return the node.
      return node;
    }

    // Again, if we haven't recognized the token type by now we're going to
    // throw an error.
    throw new TypeError(token.type);
  }

  // Now, we're going to create our AST which will have a root which is a
  // `Program` node.
  let ast = {
    type: 'Program',
    body: [],
  };

  // And we're going to kickstart our `walk` function, pushing nodes to our
  // `ast.body` array.
  //
  // The reason we are doing this inside a loop is because our program can have
  // `CallExpression` after one another instead of being nested.
  //
  //   (add 2 2)
  //   (subtract 4 2)
  //
  while (current < tokens.length) {
    ast.body.push(walk());
  }

  // At the end of our parser we'll return the AST.
  return ast;
}

/**
 * ============================================================================
 *                                 ⌒(❀>◞౪◟<❀)⌒
 *                               THE TRAVERSER!!!
 * ============================================================================
 */

/**
 * So now we have our AST, and we want to be able to visit different nodes with
 * a visitor. We need to be able to call the methods on the visitor whenever we
 * encounter a node with a matching type.
 *
 *   traverse(ast, {
 *     Program: {
 *       enter(node, parent) {
 *         // ...
 *       },
 *       exit(node, parent) {
 *         // ...
 *       },
 *     },
 *
 *     CallExpression: {
 *       enter(node, parent) {
 *         // ...
 *       },
 *       exit(node, parent) {
 *         // ...
 *       },
 *     },
 *
 *     NumberLiteral: {
 *       enter(node, parent) {
 *         // ...
 *       },
 *       exit(node, parent) {
 *         // ...
 *       },
 *     },
 *   });
 */

// So we define a traverser function which accepts an AST and a
// visitor. Inside we're going to define two functions...
function traverser(ast, visitor) {

  // A `traverseArray` function that will allow us to iterate over an array and
  // call the next function that we will define: `traverseNode`.
  function traverseArray(array, parent) {
    array.forEach(child => {
      traverseNode(child, parent);
    });
  }

  // `traverseNode` will accept a `node` and its `parent` node. So that it can
  // pass both to our visitor methods.
  function traverseNode(node, parent) {

    // We start by testing for the existence of a method on the visitor with a
    // matching `type`.
    let methods = visitor[node.type];

    // If there is an `enter` method for this node type we'll call it with the
    // `node` and its `parent`.
    if (methods && methods.enter) {
      methods.enter(node, parent);
    }

    // Next we are going to split things up by the current node type.
    switch (node.type) {

      // We'll start with our top level `Program`. Since Program nodes have a
      // property named body that has an array of nodes, we will call
      // `traverseArray` to traverse down into them.
      //
      // (Remember that `traverseArray` will in turn call `traverseNode` so  we
      // are causing the tree to be traversed recursively)
      case 'Program':
        traverseArray(node.body, node);
        break;

      // Next we do the same with `CallExpression` and traverse their `params`.
      case 'CallExpression':
        traverseArray(node.params, node);
        break;

      // In the cases of `NumberLiteral` and `StringLiteral` we don't have any
      // child nodes to visit, so we'll just break.
      case 'NumberLiteral':
      case 'StringLiteral':
        break;

      // And again, if we haven't recognized the node type then we'll throw an
      // error.
      default:
        throw new TypeError(node.type);
    }

    // If there is an `exit` method for this node type we'll call it with the
    // `node` and its `parent`.
    if (methods && methods.exit) {
      methods.exit(node, parent);
    }
  }

  // Finally we kickstart the traverser by calling `traverseNode` with our ast
  // with no `parent` because the top level of the AST doesn't have a parent.
  traverseNode(ast, null);
}

/**
 * ============================================================================
 *                                   ⁽(◍˃̵͈̑ᴗ˂̵͈̑)⁽
 *                              THE TRANSFORMER!!!
 * ============================================================================
 */

/**
 * Next up, the transformer. Our transformer is going to take the AST that we
 * have built and pass it to our traverser function with a visitor and will
 * create a new ast.
 *
 * ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
 *   Original AST                     |   Transformed AST
 * ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
 *   {                                |   {
 *     type: 'Program',               |     type: 'Program',
 *     body: [{                       |     body: [{
 *       type: 'CallExpression',      |       type: 'ExpressionStatement',
 *       name: 'add',                 |       expression: {
 *       params: [{                   |         type: 'CallExpression',
 *         type: 'NumberLiteral',     |         callee: {
 *         value: '2'                 |           type: 'Identifier',
 *       }, {                         |           name: 'add'
 *         type: 'CallExpression',    |         },
 *         name: 'subtract',          |         arguments: [{
 *         params: [{                 |           type: 'NumberLiteral',
 *           type: 'NumberLiteral',   |           value: '2'
 *           value: '4'               |         }, {
 *         }, {                       |           type: 'CallExpression',
 *           type: 'NumberLiteral',   |           callee: {
 *           value: '2'               |             type: 'Identifier',
 *         }]                         |             name: 'subtract'
 *       }]                           |           },
 *     }]                             |           arguments: [{
 *   }                                |             type: 'NumberLiteral',
 *                                    |             value: '4'
 * ---------------------------------- |           }, {
 *                                    |             type: 'NumberLiteral',
 *                                    |             value: '2'
 *                                    |           }]
 *  (sorry the other one is longer.)  |         }
 *                                    |       }
 *                                    |     }]
 *                                    |   }
 * ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
 */

// So we have our transformer function which will accept the lisp ast.
function transformer(ast) {

  // We'll create a `newAst` which like our previous AST will have a program
  // node.
  let newAst = {
    type: 'Program',
    body: [],
  };

  // Next I'm going to cheat a little and create a bit of a hack. We're going to
  // use a property named `context` on our parent nodes that we're going to push
  // nodes to their parent's `context`. Normally you would have a better
  // abstraction than this, but for our purposes this keeps things simple.
  //
  // Just take note that the context is a reference *from* the old ast *to* the
  // new ast.
  ast._context = newAst.body;

  // We'll start by calling the traverser function with our ast and a visitor.
  traverser(ast, {

    // The first visitor method accepts any `NumberLiteral`
    NumberLiteral: {
      // We'll visit them on enter.
      enter(node, parent) {
        // We'll create a new node also named `NumberLiteral` that we will push to
        // the parent context.
        parent._context.push({
          type: 'NumberLiteral',
          value: node.value,
        });
      },
    },

    // Next we have `StringLiteral`
    StringLiteral: {
      enter(node, parent) {
        parent._context.push({
          type: 'StringLiteral',
          value: node.value,
        });
      },
    },

    // Next up, `CallExpression`.
    CallExpression: {
      enter(node, parent) {

        // We start creating a new node `CallExpression` with a nested
        // `Identifier`.
        let expression = {
          type: 'CallExpression',
          callee: {
            type: 'Identifier',
            name: node.name,
          },
          arguments: [],
        };

        // Next we're going to define a new context on the original
        // `CallExpression` node that will reference the `expression`'s arguments
        // so that we can push arguments.
        node._context = expression.arguments;

        // Then we're going to check if the parent node is a `CallExpression`.
        // If it is not...
        if (parent.type !== 'CallExpression') {

          // We're going to wrap our `CallExpression` node with an
          // `ExpressionStatement`. We do this because the top level
          // `CallExpression` in JavaScript are actually statements.
          expression = {
            type: 'ExpressionStatement',
            expression: expression,
          };
        }

        // Last, we push our (possibly wrapped) `CallExpression` to the `parent`'s
        // `context`.
        parent._context.push(expression);
      },
    }
  });

  // At the end of our transformer function we'll return the new ast that we
  // just created.
  return newAst;
}

/**
 * ============================================================================
 *                               ヾ（〃＾∇＾）ﾉ♪
 *                            THE CODE GENERATOR!!!!
 * ============================================================================
 */

/**
 * Now let's move onto our last phase: The Code Generator.
 *
 * Our code generator is going to recursively call itself to print each node in
 * the tree into one giant string.
 */

function codeGenerator(node) {

  // We'll break things down by the `type` of the `node`.
  switch (node.type) {

    // If we have a `Program` node. We will map through each node in the `body`
    // and run them through the code generator and join them with a newline.
    case 'Program':
      return node.body.map(codeGenerator)
        .join('\n');

    // For `ExpressionStatement` we'll call the code generator on the nested
    // expression and we'll add a semicolon...
    case 'ExpressionStatement':
      return (
        codeGenerator(node.expression) +
        ';' // << (...because we like to code the *correct* way)
      );

    // For `CallExpression` we will print the `callee`, add an open
    // parenthesis, we'll map through each node in the `arguments` array and run
    // them through the code generator, joining them with a comma, and then
    // we'll add a closing parenthesis.
    case 'CallExpression':
      return (
        codeGenerator(node.callee) +
        '(' +
        node.arguments.map(codeGenerator)
          .join(', ') +
        ')'
      );

    // For `Identifier` we'll just return the `node`'s name.
    case 'Identifier':
      return node.name;

    // For `NumberLiteral` we'll just return the `node`'s value.
    case 'NumberLiteral':
      return node.value;

    // For `StringLiteral` we'll add quotations around the `node`'s value.
    case 'StringLiteral':
      return '"' + node.value + '"';

    // And if we haven't recognized the node, we'll throw an error.
    default:
      throw new TypeError(node.type);
  }
}

/**
 * ============================================================================
 *                                  (۶* ‘ヮ’)۶”
 *                         !!!!!!!!THE COMPILER!!!!!!!!
 * ============================================================================
 */

/**
 * FINALLY! We'll create our `compiler` function. Here we will link together
 * every part of the pipeline.
 *
 *   1. input  => tokenizer   => tokens
 *   2. tokens => parser      => ast
 *   3. ast    => transformer => newAst
 *   4. newAst => generator   => output
 */

function compiler(input) {
  let tokens = tokenizer(input);
  let ast    = parser(tokens);
  let newAst = transformer(ast);
  let output = codeGenerator(newAst);

  // and simply return the output!
  return output;
}

/**
 * ============================================================================
 *                                   (๑˃̵ᴗ˂̵)و
 * !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!YOU MADE IT!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
 * ============================================================================
 */

// Now I'm just exporting everything...
module.exports = {
  tokenizer,
  parser,
  traverser,
  transformer,
  codeGenerator,
  compiler,
};