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Comp 310 Final Notes

Some key concepts and bullet points

Acronyms
DAG directed acyclic graph
FAT file allocation table
FCFS first come first serve (also FIFO)
FIFO first in first out (also FCFS)
LIFO last in first out
LRU least recently used
MBR master boot record
MMU memory management unit
OPT optimal
OS operating systemt
PCB process control block
SSTF shortest service time first
TCB trusted computing base
VM virtual maching
VMM virtual machine monitor

OS

  • Major OS Functions
    • Control access and provide interfaces
    • Manage resources
    • Provide abstractions
  • Traps - allows switch from user mode to system mode
  • System Call Process
    • System call
    • Switch mode; verify arguments & service
    • Branch to service function via system call table
    • Return from service function; switch mode
    • Return from system call
  • Process Scheduling Objectives - fairness, differential responsiveness, efficienty
  • Memory Management - provides protection & relocation
  • Processes
    • Cannot access memory not allocated to oit
    • Can request more memory from OS
    • Can release already held memory to OS
    • May use small portion of allocated memory
  • Inter-process Communication - done through shared memory or message passing
  • Layered Kernel - more in kernel mode, programs have a greater chance of affecting other data and crashing the system
  • Microkernel - greater user mode - programs have independent data spaces, and likely won't affect other programs/crash the system if they fail

Processes & Threads

  • Process Creation
    • System initization
    • Execution of process creation system call
    • User requests to create new process
    • Initiation of batch job
  • Process Representation
    • Info: state & control
    • Process Control Block (PCB)
      • Identifier
      • State vector
      • Status
      • Creation tree
      • Priority
      • Other info
  • Lifecycle Creation
    • Build from scratch (windows)
    • Clone existing (UNIX) 
      if (fork()) {
    // parent execution; returned pid != 0
} else {
    // child execution; returned 0
}
  • Process State Diagram
    • States - new, ready, stopped, blocked, active, exiting
    • Internal transitions - create, events (x2), time-out, dispatch, exit, error
    • External transitions - resume, suspend, kill (x2)
  • Tiny Shell 
    while (1) {
    printf("Shell > ");
    getline(line);
    if (strlen(line) > 1) {
        if (fork() == 0) {
            exec(line);
        }
        wait(child);
    }
}
  • File Descriptors - 0 stdin, 1 stdout, 2 stderr
  • Remapping can be done with dup2(fd, 1), which will make stdout go to fd
  • Parellelism - performing multiple tasks simultaneously
  • Concurrency - making progress in multiple tasks
  • Amdahl's Law - speedup <= 1 / (S + (1 - S)/N)
    • N - # of cores
    • S - serial portion
    • (1 - S) - parallel portion
  • Threads (compared to processes):
    • Are lighter
    • Share memory, but have their own registers and stack
    • Are less fault tolerant
    • Can introduce many synchronization issues
    • Live within processes
  • Thread Levels
    • User - many user to one kernel
      • One block blocks all
    • Kernel - one to one
      • More concurrency, greater overhead
    • Hybrid - many to many
      • Allows enough kernel threads to be created
  • Pthreads are specifications, not implementations
    • pthread_create, pthread_exit, pthread_self, pthread_equal, pthread_join, pthread_detach

Deadlocks

  • Deadlock Conditions
    • Mutual exclusion - requires exclusive control of resources (without sharing)
    • Hold & wait - process may wait for resource while holding others
    • No preemption - process will not give up resource until it is finished with it
    • Circular wait - each process in chain holds a resource requested by another
  • Deadlock Occurrence
    • Cycle is necessary, but not sufficient (only indicated unsafe state)
    • For single resources, a knot is required (in resource allocation graph)
    • For multiple resource instances, use Banker's Algorithm
      • Max matrix, hold matrix, available vector
      • Need = max - hold
      • For each process, check if need <= available
        • If yes, add hold to available and mark process as complete
        • Continue until no further needs can be met, or if all processes are complete
      • Order of completion marks safe order for process
  • Deadlock Strategies
    • Ignorance
    • Prevention - ensure deadlocks can never happen; contains a lot of process limitations
      • Eg request all resources at once, preemption, resource ordering
    • Avoidance - dynamically avoid potential deadlocks - requires knowledge of future requests
      • Eg find safe path
    • Detection - allow deadlock to occur, detect occurrence, and recover accordingly
      • Eg periodic checks
  • Deadlock Recovery
    • Preemption - take resource away
    • Rollback - revert to a time without deadlock
    • Termination - kill process

Synchronization

  • Processes Can
    • Compete - deterministic without shared memory; can stop & restart without side effects
    • Cooperate - have shared data; nondeterministic; subject to race conditions
  • Race Condition Avoidance
    • Mutual exclusion - prohibit multiple processes from reading/writing shared data at same time
  • Critical Section
    • No two processes may simultaneously enter their critical sections
    • No assumptions can be made about speeds or # of CPUs
    • No process running outside critical section may block other processes
    • No process should have to wait forever
    • Should be atomic
    • Should not be interrupted in the middle
    • Should be short
  • Deadlock - when processes are blocked by eachother in a way where no process can continue
  • Livelock - when processes allot some time for other processes to run (before checking if they can run themselves), and repeatedly wait for each other
  • Dekker's Algorithm 
    /* Process 0 */
...
flag[0] = true;
while (flag[1]) {
    if (turn == 1) {
        flag[0] = false;
        while (turn == 1);
        flag[0] = true;
    }
}
/* critical section */
turn = 1;
flag[0] = false;
...
/* For process 1, switch 0s and 1s */
  • Peterson's Algorithm 
    /* Process 0 */
...
flag[0] = true;
turn = 1;
while (flag[1] && turn == 1);
/* critical section */
flag[0] = false;
...
/* For process 1, switch 0s and 1s */
  • Mutex - locking mechanism - can enforce synchronous access to a given resource
  • Semaphore - signaling mechanism - allows transmission of simple messages for signalling, sleeping, waking, etc
    • Can be used to represent a mutex (1 being an object in use, 0 being free)
    sem_wait(&mutex);
// act on data
sem_post(&mutex);

Secondary Storage

Non-volatile repository for data & programs, managed by the file system (part of OS)

  • User > File System > Disk System
  • Directory
    • Single-level - world accessible
    • Two-level - level per user; should have login
    • Tree - subtree per user; login required
  • File System Layout
    • Disk
      • Partition Table
        • MBR (master boot record)
      • Disk Partitions
        • Boot Block - code to boot system
        • Super Block - critical info on layout
        • I-nodes - file attributes, except name; first block points to root
        • Files & Directories
  • File Operations - create, write, read, delete, seek, truncate (rare)
  • File Access Methods - sequential (ordered), direct (random), indexed (by key)
  • File allocation
    • Contiguous
      (+) simple, few seeks
      (-) external fragmentations, don't know size
    • Chained
      (+) no external fragmentation, easy growth
      (-) lots of seeking, random access difficult
      Can be enhanced with FAT (file allocation table)
    • Index
      (+) small internal fragmentation, easy sequential & random access
      (-) lots of seeks for big files
  • Free Space Management
    • Bit vector - one bit per block, 1 = free, 0 = used
    • Chains - pointer within block to next free space, starting at block 0
    • Indexed - index of free regions (sorted by size) stored in block 0
  • UNIX File Access Through
    • File descriptor table - one per process; keeps track of open files
    • Open file system - one per system, keeps track of all open files
    • I-node table - one per system, tracks all files

Disks

  • Components
    • Spindle
    • Platter - holds data
      • Tracks - to read from
      • Recording area - radial line
      • Sector - sectino of platter
    • Arm - has r/w head
    • Actuator - holds arms
  • Access Time
    • Seek - 0-10ms - moves head to right track
    • Rotation - 0-10ms - moves right sector to head
    • Data transfer - <1ms - rotation until sector passes head
  • Disk Scheduling Strategies
    • Random
    • FIFO - no starvation, approaches random as competing process count increases
    • Priority - optimizes throughput, not disk usage
    • LIFO - useful for sequential files, danger of starvation

    • SSTF - better time seeker than FIFO, random tie breaker if needed
    • SCAN - move in one direction until last track is reached, then reverse
    • C-SCAN - one way SCAN and fast return
    • LOOK - move in one direction until no more requests in that direction, then reverse
    • C-LOOK - one way LOOK and fast return

Memory Management

  • Issues with Sharing Memory - transparency, safety, efficiency, relocation
  • Storage Allocation Classification
    • Program (code) & data (varaibles, constants)
    • Read-only (code, constants) & read-write (variables)
    • Address (pointers) or data (other), with static/dynamic binding
  • Creating Executable
    • Compiling - generate object code
    • Linking - combine to single executable
    • Loading - from disk + relocation
    • Executing - dynamic memory allocation
  • Address Binding
    • Static - locations determined before execution
      • Compile time - symbolic to absolute address by compiler/assembler
      • Load time - symbolic to relative address by compiler; relative to absolute address by loader
    • Dynamic - locations determined during execution
      • Run time - program retains relative addresses; absolute generated by hardware
  • Linker Deals With
    • Relocation - where to put pieces
    • Resolution - where to find pieces
    • Re-organization - how to arrange new memory layout
  • Dynamic Linking
    • Allows load/unload at runtime
    • Useful when handling lots of code that is infrequently used
  • Loader Deals With
    • Absolute loading - placing code into designated memory location
    • Relocatable loading - loading to different memory location
    • Dynamic loading - loading when first called, if ever
  • Simple Management Schemes
    • Direct placement - no relocation
    • Overlays - root always loaded; remaining loaded as needed
    • Partitioning - allows several programs at once
      • Static - memory divided into fixed sizes, with queues to run in partitions
      • Dynamic - programs loaded as long as their is room; given exactly what it needs
        • First Fit, Next Fit, Best Fit, Worst Fit
  • Fragmentation - unused memory that cannot be allocated to
    • Internal
      • Within partition
      • Difference between partition size & process size
      • Severe in static partitioning
    • External
      • Between partitions
      • Scattered noncontiguous free space
      • Severe in dynamic partitioning
  • Memory Protection
    • Hardware - address translation
    • Software - strong typing, fault isolation
  • Paging
    • Frames - blocks of physical memory
    • Pages - blocks of logical memory
    • Page table - map of page base addresses for each frame
    • Hardware support - dedicated registers, memory page table, PTBR (page table base register)
    • Inverted page table - mapping of frame to page; smaller size, but slower
  • TLB - translation look-aside buffer
    • Directly maps page number to frame number
    • Few exist to help speed up retrieval
  • Memory Organization
    • Stack - free reverse from allocation; predictable
    • Heap - random; 0.5N blocks lost per N allocated due to fragmentations (fifty percent rule)
  • Free Memory Management
    • Bit maps - bit per block
    • Linked lists - free list for unused memory
    • Buddy system - divide by half for best fit, merge doubles to restore
  • Reclaiming Memory
    • Reference counts - tricky for circular structures
    • Garbage collection - often expensive
  • Principle of Locality
    • Locality of reference - processes favour subsets of address space during execution
    • Locality - cluster of pages which most memory references are made during brief time period
    • Sptial locality - loading part of array is correlated with the rest of the array being used
      • Pre fetch data
    • Temporal locality - tendency to reference memory locations that have been used before (eg loops)
      • Have sufficient room in cache to hold relevant memory locations

Virtual Memory

Virtual memory allows us to make use of signicantly more space by storing and retrieving to the disk, on the basis that we tend to use only small portions of a program at a given time (principle of locality)

  • Page table entry - caching disabled, reference, modified, protection, present/absent, page frame number
  • Address Lookup
    • Look in TLB
    • If not found, look in memory, and add to TLB
    • If not found, do a page table walk
    • If truly invalid, seg fault
  • Allocation Policy
    • Fewer frames per program - higher page fault rate, but more programs in memory (less swapping)
    • After a certain size, more frames will only marginally improve performance
  • Resident Set Size - # of allocated pages
  • Fetch Policy
    • Demand paging - load when necessary (lots of faults in beginning)
    • Request paging - let user identy which pages are needed (faulty)
    • Pre-paging - start with few pages pre-loaded, then load when needed
  • Replacement Policy
    • FIFO - first in first out
    • LRU - least recently used
    • OPT - optimal
    • Random
  • Clock/2nd Chance Algorithm
    • Have last pointer to last changed frame
    • When new frame is needed, iterate from last to the next frame with a zero used bit using next pointer
      • As next pointer passes frame, clear used bits
      • Once victim is found, replace frame and mark as used
    • Hardware sets used bit each time address in page is referenced
  • Thrashing - high page fault frequency to the point where it is hardly doing anything useful
  • Denning's Working Set Principle
    • Program should run iff working set is in memory
    • Page may not be victimized if it is a member of the current working set of any runnable (not blocked) program
  • Page Fault Frequency = # of faults / specified time

Virtual Machines

  • Components
    • Host - underlying hardware
    • VMM - create interface identical to host
    • Guest - process provided with virtual copy of host (usually an OS)
  • Benefits
    • Protection - less likely for virus to spread
    • Freeze, suspend VMs
    • Clone, snapshot VMs
    • Run multiple VMs simultaneously
    • Live migration
    • Cloud computing
  • Hypervisor Types
    • Type 0 - hardware-based solution
    • Type 1 - OS like software
    • Type 2 - run on OS but provide VMM features to guest operating systems
    • Paravirtualization, programming-environment virtualization, emulators, application containment, etc
  • Not safe for guest to run in kernel mode, so there will be a user & privileged mode, both running in the actual user mode

Protection

  • Protection Domain
    • Specifies resources that can be accessed
    • Defines set of <object-name, rights-set>
  • Sandboxing - restricting access to limited resources
  • Access Matrix - specifies operations Di is allowed for each object Fj
    • Can be implemented by column (access control list) or by row (capability lists for domains)
  • Trusted System
    • Needs to be simple, easily understood, and verifiable
    • Contains minimal TCB, hardware & software to enforce rules
  • TCB - trusted computing base
    • Should be separate from OS
    • Contains reference monitor, through which all processes go through